ALUMINUM

Atomic No : 13Density, 20 0 C : 2.70 gm/cm3 Atomic Wt : 26.98 Melting Point : 6600 C Boiling Point : 24670 C

General
Aluminum finds use as a deoxidizer, grain refiner, nitride former and alloying agent in steels. Its ability to scavenge nitrogen led to its widespread use in drawing quality steels, especially for automotive applications. Since aluminum is so often added to high quality steels, it is interesting to note that prior to the 1930's, aluminium deoxidization was regarded as a way of compensating for sloppy steelmakingpractice. Melters were even careful to add aluminum when no one was looking. Aluminum extraction is extremely energy intensive, and prices for the metal are dependent to some extent on the cost of fuels and electric power. In addition, foreign producers of bauxite, long the principal ore, have controlled production and prices to some extent. All this has led to intensive evaluations of alternative ores, new extraction processes and stepped up reclamation programs. Most aluminum used in steelmaking is reprocessed from scrap, and secondary metal prices have stabilized in recent years. Steelmakers remain concerned with the efficiency of aluminum additions for both cost and quality reasons.

Available Forms
Metallic aluminum is the most common addition agent. It is sold in the form of notch bars, or stick, and as shot, cones, small ingots, wire, hockey pucks, briquettes and other convenient forms such as coiled machine fed wire. These standard products are supplied in bulk or packaged in bags or drums. Purity for deoxidation grades is usually over 95%, the major tramp elements being zinc, tin, copper, magnesium, lead and manganese. Coiled aluminum wire is normally made to 99% minimum specification. Ferroaluminum, a dense and highly efficient aluminum addition, contains 30-40% Al. It is supplied in lump form, 8 in. x 4 in., 5 in. x 2 in., 5 in. x D, and 2 in. x D. Finally, so-called synthetic slags containing c alcium aluminate are available. These aluminum addition agents are valued for their desulfurization properties.

Addition Practice
Aluminum may be added to the furnace, ladle, LRFs, caster tundish or ingot mold. Each type of addition has its specific purpose, and each will produce characteristic results. Aluminum is a very powerful deoxidizer, but while fast, is at somewhat of a disadvantage because of its low density. It has been estimated that the density of liquid aluminum at steelmaking temperatures (1600 C, 2910 F) is only about 2 g/cm3. Steel's density at this temperature is greater than 7 g/cm3, depending on composition. Therefore, when aluminum is added to the bath, it will float at the steel/slag interface, where it quickly oxidizes. Relatively small amounts actually make contact with the steel. Wire feeding has overcome this disadvantage by force feeding the aluminum deep into the bath. Major additions of aluminum for deoxidation and grain refinement are made in the ladle or ladle furnace. Addition is made early in the tap, after ferrosilicon, if used, and before major alloying elements are introduced. Additions are made in the form of shot, pigs, stick, or ferroaluminum. The latter is preferred for its higher efficiency and better consistency. The amount added depends on composition, temperature, and tap carbon. The amount of aluminum added to fully killed steels depends on carbon, manganese and silicon content. As these elements increase, less aluminum is needed. In AKDQ low carbon steels, aluminum additions will range from about 3-5 lbs./ton. Fine grained structural medium-to-high carbon killed steels need a little less, and the corresponding range is 1-3 lbs./ton. Aluminum contents over 0.01% can cause nozzle blockage in open stream continuous billet casting machines. Slab casters are less affected than billet casters by this problem but most of them use submerged casting where the aluminum content is not as critical. Feeding aluminum wire into the open pouring stream below the tundish nozzle eliminates nozzle blockage, but may produce poor surface quality if not carefully controlled. Steel foundries typically add 0.03-0.07% Al to the furnace ladle (plus a few ounces per ton to the bull or shank ladles, in the event of fade) to ensure soundness. Deoxidation aluminum can be troublesome due to its erratic recovery behavior: too much produces poor surface quality, machining problems and embrittlement; not enough results in porosity. Ferroaluminum is the preferred ladle addition because of its consistent recovery. This guarantees better control over casting quality.

Rolling/Forging
The amounts of aluminum needed for deoxidation and/or grain size control present no problems in hot working, aside from the surface quality considerations noted above. Larger amounts, such as those used in magnetic materials and high temperature alloys, will cause embrittlement through the formation of intermetallic compounds. Ferrous alloys containing up to 5% aluminum can be readily hot or cold worked; those with 5-10% aluminum can only be hot worked, and alloys with 10% aluminum cannot be worked at all. Aluminum tends to produce a more refractory scale that is difficult to remove during pickling. Aluminum deoxidation promotes the formation to pancake ferrite grains. This structure i s particularly beneficial

for deep drawing applications such as automotive body panels. Aluminum improves strength in low-carbon steels by fixing the interstitial nitrogen.

Heat Treatment
Aluminum has a weak effect on hardenability (it is never added for this purpose) and, because of its grain refining properties, actually detracts from deep hardening. Heat treatable steels made to fine grain practice require slightly extra alloying to counteract this phenomenon. Aluminum is, however, a ferrite former and promotes graphitization during longterm holding at elevated temperatures. It also enhances creep, probably because of its grain refining property. Aluminum, therefore, should not be used in Cr-Mo or Cr-Mo-V steels specified for boiler or high temperature pressure vessel applications. Perversely, aluminum is otherwise beneficial to such materials since it reduces scaling through the formation of a more tightly adhering oxide film, particularly if chromium is present as well.

Applications
Beyond its important functions in deoxidation and grain size control, aluminum has several applications as an alloying agent. Nitriding steels, such as the Nitralloy family, contain up to 1.5% Al to produce a case with hardness as high as 1100 VHN (70 RC). The outer layer of this case must, however, be removed by grinding to prevent spalling in service. The oxidation (scaling) resistance imparted by aluminum is exploited in some stainless steels and various high temperature alloys. Precipitation hardening stainless steels (17/7 PH, 15/7 PH, etc.) make use of aluminums ability to form strength -inducing particles of intermetallic compounds. Aluminum is found in many superalloys for the same reason. Aluminum combines very readily with nitrogen, and this effect has important commercial uses. Aluminum killed deep drawing steels will be nonaging since AlN is extremely stable. Such steels will not exhibit stretcher strains (Lders lines) or a yield point, even after prolonged holding after cold rolling. Aluminum is also added to nitriding steels for its ability to form an extremely hard case. Aluminum is an important addition to some HSLA steels, and AlN was the first nitride used to control grain size in normalised and heat treated steels. Again, Al removes nitrogen from solution and provides grain refinement. Both of these effects promote high toughness, especially at low temperatures. Mention should be made of the effect of aluminum on nonmetallic inclusions, since these will always be present in AK steel. Because aluminum is among the strongest deoxidizers known, it can combine with, and partially or totally reduce, any other oxides present in steel. The subject is quite complex and depends not only on aluminum, but also on oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, manganese, silicon, and calcium contents. For ordinary steels, however, the pattern is generally as follows: unkilled steels will contain oxides of iron, manganese and silicon, to the extent they are present. Steels deoxidized with silicon and aluminum will contain complex inclusions containing silica, alumina and manganese and iron oxides. As aluminum is increased, it gradually replaces silicon in the inclusions, and the principal inclusions in aluminum killed steels will be alumina and iron-manganese aluminates. Calciumaluminum deoxidized steels will contain calcium aluminates, the composition and properties of which will depend on oxygen content (see Calcium). The residual Al2O3 in a ladle aluminum deoxidized steel will usually be in the range of 0.015-0.020%. This alumina range will be present regardless of the amount of aluminum used for deoxidation. It is assumed that the remaining alumina of iron aluminate is slagged off. Aluminum also has a profound effect on the structure of sulfide inclusions. The three basic types of sulphides present in steels have been designated as Type I (fine, randomly distributed spheroids, usually oxysulfides), Type II (intergranular chains which are most harmful to mechanical properties) and Type III (large, globular particles with complex, multiphase structures). Incomplete deoxidation with aluminum results in Type I inclusions; complete, but not excessive deoxidation produces Type II inclusions, while excessive aluminum addition leads to the formation of the Type III particles. High aluminum contents also promote the generation of interdendritic alumina galaxies, which can impair machinability. Aluminum is added in some stainless grades to improve machinability. Aluminum as alumina in calcium aluminate slags has found extensive use as slag conditioners at LRF stations. These are used to remove sulfur and inclusions, to lower costs of dolomitic lime, fluorspar, aluminum and calcium carbide additions, to protect the refractory lining, and to improve castability. Applications include both aluminum- and silicon-killed steels.

SILICON
Atomic number : 14 Density, 20 C : 2.34 g/cm3 Atomic weight : 28.09 Melting point : 1412 C Boiling point : 2355 C

General
Silicon, the second most abundant element in the Earth's crust (25.7%), is present in virtually all steels, either as a residual from ore, scrap or deoxidants, or as an intentional addition. Silicon products used in steelmaking are produced from quartzite, silica sand or by a variety of processes, almost all of which currently use submerged arc electric furnaces as reaction vessels. Low grade ferrosilicon was once made in blast furnaces, but the practice has now been completely discontinued in the U.S. Ultrahigh purity silicon, not intended for steelmaking, may be produced by reducing intermediate silicon compounds with hydrogen.

Available Forms
Because of its many uses, silicon is contained in a wide variety of addition agents. Some of these are simply used to add silicon and have general application; in others, the silicon serves as a carrier for other elements. Ferrosilicon is by far the most common addition agent. It is available in several standard grades containing from 15 to 95% Si. Of these, the 75% grade is the most widely used. The 75% FeSi grade is exothermic while 50% FeSi is endothermic. Significant impurities in ferrosilicon include carbon (up to 0.25%, but generally less than 0.10%) and aluminum (generally 1-1.5%, but lower, 0.10%, or higher, to 2%, in certain grades). Manganese will usually be present as well, but not over 0.40% unless specified. In all cases, phosphorus and sulfur contents are restricted to low residual levels: in general they will not exceed 0.025 and 0.040%, respectively. Standard foundry grades of ferrosilicon specify aluminum and calcium (0.50-1.50%). Silicon contents parallel those for steelmaking ferrosilicon. Ductile iron foundries also use magnesium ferrosilicon in both 5 and 9% magnesium grade with or without cerium, calcium and/or aluminum. Silicon-bearing deoxidizers on the market include: calcium silicon, calcium barium silicon, calcium barium silicon aluminum (Hypercal), calcium manganese silicon, silicon carbide and ferrosilicon zirconium. Silicon metal (97.5%) is used for superalloys, silicones, and nonferrous applications. Ferrosilicon and related alloys are generally sold in lump or granular form. Standard sizes range from 8 in. x D to as fine as 8 mesh x D. Coarser lumps are used for better slag penetration during deoxidation; finer sizes insure rapid dissolution when used as an alloying addition. Ferrosilicon is fairly friable and excessive handling will generate unwanted fines. Calcium silicon is exceedingly friable and must be handled carefully. Silicon carbide (SiC) is usually in a granular form. Sizing is 3/8 in. x D, 3/8 in. x 100 mesh, or 3/8 in. x 65 mesh depending on the need to control fines. Larger sizes are available up to 3 in. x 1 in., but only from producers using "big furnace" technology. Inerts are primarily silica and alumina. Petroleum coke and charcoal based silicon carbide usually runs 4-6% SiO2 and less than 1% Al2O3. Coal based SiC has 2-4% SiO2 and 2-5% Al2O3. The higher alumina in coal based SiC has proven to be a problem in continuous cast silicon killed steels.

Addition Practice
The way in which silicon is used in steelmaking depends on the intended purpose of the addition, the practice involved, the condition of the steel, the aim residual silicon level, and the experience and preference of the individual operator. All these factors are implicitly related to the strong deoxidizing power of silicon which, at 1600 C (2910 F), ranks between manganese and titanium, but well below calcium. The deoxidizing power of silicon relative to that of carbon depends on pressure, i.e., on the partial pressure of CO above the melt. At one atmosphere, as in the furnace or an open ladle, silicon is slightly stronger than carbon; at low pressures (0.10 atm or less), as in a vacuum degasser, the deoxidizing power of carbon is greater than silicon, especially at higher carbon concentrations. Silicon is the first major element removed from hot metal during melt down and is a major source of heat. If the silicon from the blast furnace iron is too low, the steelmaker may add ferrosilicon or silicon carbide for additional heat. Residual silicon levels will not exceed about 0.02% after melt down. In stainless steel melting, silicon additions may be made to the furnace to maintain silicon levels above 0.3% to maximize chromium recovery. Two points should be emphasized here: (1) Although silicon is a stronger deoxidizer than manganese, when the two elements are used together (either separately or as silicomanganese) they leave a much lower oxygen level in the steel. This is because their joint deoxidation product will be a manganese silicate, in which the activity of silicon is considerably less than it would be if silica were the only product formed. It should be noted that the effectiveness of manganese in increasing silicon's deoxidizing power decreases with increasing silicon content: the increase caused by 0.8% Mn is about ten times greater at 0.05% Si than at 0.2% Si. (2) Preliminary furnace deoxidation with ferrosilicon should be done with care since silicon has the power to reduce P2O5 in the slag. Thus, if slag phosphorus content is high and the slag is not flushed, it may remain insufficiently basic after the ferrosilicon addition. These conditions can lead to phosphorus reversion in the heat, especially if the slag is hot, and the bath analysis after block exceeds about 0.10% Si and 0.40% Mn at carbon levels over 0.15%. Modern practice aims to keep expensive furnace time as short as possible, tapping the heat "open" and relying mostly on ladle deoxidation. Ferrosilicon and silicomanganese become the primary deoxidizers. The amount of silicon added will depend on tap temperature and oxygen content and the residual silicon level needed after solidification. Fully killed steels usually contain silicon in the range 0.15-0.30% Si. Exceptions are steels in which silicon is also an alloying agent, in which case silicon content will be somewhat higher, or aluminum killed steels such as AKDQ, where it is not needed at all. As a general rule, alloy steels and most medium carbon steels will be fully killed with ferrosilicon, even if only as a protection against reoxidation. Steels to which the elements titanium, zirconium, and rare earth metals are added (for inclusion shape control, or as nitrogen scavengers to protect subsequent or concurrent boron additions) will be deoxidized first with ferrosilicon for reasons of economy. These elements combine readily with oxygen and will be lost to the slag or remain trapped as oxide inclusions if the steel has been inadequately deoxidized. An inexpensive prior deoxidation therefore raises their ultimate recovery or improves their efficiency as nitrogen scavengers, as the case may be. Silicon carbide is added in three areas. As a ladle addition for silicon killed steel, granular SiC is added to the stream or directly into the ladle after at least 10% filled. Silicon recovery will be similar to that of 75% FeSi, while carbon recovery will be near 100%. In furnace applications (slag reduction), SiC is injected into the slag at the end of the oxygen blow. Moderate foaming occurs, which aids arc energy transfer to final temperature. One pound SiC will reduce 5.8 lbs. of FeO, 5.6 lbs. MnO, or 3.8 lbs. Cr2O3. It will react first with whichever of these oxides is present in the highest concentration. As a BOF

fuel, SiC is added as briquettes or 96% Lump product into the BOF after scrap melt down and preliminary oxygen blow. SiC fuel component may be added into the stream during the blow as the need for additional temperature becomes apparent or is predetermined for the computer program. Additional lime is not required when using cement based SiC briquettes, but may be needed to offset the SiO2 produced when using the 96% Lump material. SiC can be used for chemical heating in the BOF, where hot metal is short or where there is an economic advantage to using a higher percentage of scrap. SiC is added to the foundry cupola charge as cement bonded bricks typically containing 36% SiC with 20 - 30% free carbon, to 75% SiC with almost no free carbon. Si recovery is usually 70 - 85%. In induction melting, 90% metallurgical grain is added for Si and C pickup and to deoxidize the bath. In heel melt applications, SiC is added before the charge metal. In batch melt furnaces, SiC is added after, between 1/4 and 1/2 the charge is in. Sprue is added first when batch melting and steel added first in heel melt operations.

Rolling/Forging
Silicon strengthens ferrite and, to a lesser degree, austenite by solid solution hardening. Mill loads will therefore increase nominally with increasing silicon content. Strengthening is accompanied by a reduction in ductility, although this has little effect on workability at the silicon levels found in ordinary alloy steels. High silicon steels such as the electrical grades (see below) are quite brittle and require special care during cold rolling to the extent that hand mills are still sometimes used on special high-quality grades. Silicon steels have a reduced tendency to scale at elevated temperatures, but such scale as does form will be more difficult to remove during pickling. Silicon has a mild hardenability effect. Its multiplying factor is between that of chromium (higher) and nickel (lower). Silicon is therefore not added to steels for deep hardening, its function in heat treated steels being primarily to strengthen the ferrite in which carbides appear. Silicon is a graphitizer and, like nickel, has limited application in tool steels. It is used, however, in a class of oil hardening graphitic tool steels, AISI 06, as well as an air hardening graphitic tool steel, AISI A10, and two shock resisting tool steels, AISI S2 and S5. Silicon lowers the eutectoid carbon content but raises the eutectoid temperature. It is a ferrite former and when present in sufficient concentration, closes the g-loop completely. The effect is strongly dependent on carbon content: 2.25% Si will close the g-loop at <0.02% C, but some austenite will remain when carbon increases beyond 0.05%. Silicon may increase the tendency to 260 C (500 F) embrittlement and will have a slight, though detrimental, effect on temper embrittlement. It raises the impact transition temperature (ITT) but does contribute to solid solution strengthening.

Applications
The solid solution strengthening properties of silicon are exploited in several classes of steels including HSLA grades and such ultrahigh strength steels as 300-M (1.6% Si). Silicon is present in AISI/SAE heat treatable alloy steels because these products are always produced in the fully killed condition. Additionally, however, silicon confers a modest resistance to tempering (it does not produce secondary hardening). Silicon improves high temperature oxidation resistance and is therefore intentionally added to heat resisting CrMo and Cr-Mo-V steels. It is also present in high temperature valve and spring steels for automotive engine applications. Both ferritic and austenitic stainless steels will contain about 1% silicon for oxidation resistance: Type 314 contains 2% silicon for this purpose. Silicon is the principal alloying element in a unique class of electrical steels used in transformers, electric motor laminations, generators and relays. Silicon confers a relatively high permeability, raises electrical resistivity and lowers hysteresis (core) loss, all beneficial trends in these materials. Generally, core losses decrease (quality is raised) as silicon level increases. Electrical steels will contain between 0.5 and 5.0% silicon, but there are two overlapping classifications: oriented sheet is heat treated to produce a particularly favorable crystallographic texture for ease of magnetization: non-oriented sheet has a random texture but may contain as much or more silicon. Electrical steels must be very clean (free from inclusions) and often require such special processing as pack rolling, frequent intermediate anneals plus, in the case of oriented grades, a final recrystallization anneal in dry hydrogen.

MANGANESE
Atomic number : 25 Density, 20 C : 7.44 g/cm3 Atomic weight : 54.93 Melting point : 1244 C Boiling point : 2095 C

General
Manganese is intentionally present in most grades of steel and is a residual constituent of virtually all others. Aside from its historic importance as a desulfurizer and deoxidizer, manganese is undoubtedly the most prevalent alloying agent in steels, after carbon. Understandably, therefore, ferromanganese is the most widely used ferroalloy: average U.S. annual consumption should exceed 14 lbs. of manganese per ton of steel. Standard ferromanganese is produced in blast furnaces and, more often, in submerged-arc electric furnaces. In addition, the high-manganese slags resulting from the EF process can be used to make silicomanganese.

The U.S. has considerable manganese ore reserves, but since these are far leaner than those available around the world, they have not been commercially exploited. As a result, all steelmaking manganese products are imported - normally as ferro- and silicomanganese. The leading producers, sharing over 85% of world capacity, are the CIS, the Republic of South Africa, Brazil and China.

Available Forms
Manganese is sold in an extensive variety of product forms. These can be classified into three major groups: ferromanganese, silicomanganese and manganese metal, with several standard or proprietary grades within each group. Of the 15 steelmaking manganese products recognized in ASTM standards, the most important is high carbon (standard) ferromanganese. It is generally sold in two manganese concentrations: 74-76% and 78-82%, with the latter predominating. Carbon content will not exceed 7.5%, silicon will be less than 1.2% and sulfur andphosphorus, 0.050 and 0.35%, respectively. A low phosphorus variety is available as well. Medium carbon ferromanganese (80-85% Mn) is sold in several grades, varying broadly in silicon content. As usual, the product commands a higher price than the standard high carbon variety. More expensive still is low carbon ferromanganese containing 80-85% Mn or 85-90% Mn, depending on grade. Maximum silicon content here is usually less than 2%, but a product containing 5-7% Si has also been standardized. Low carbon ferromanganese is available with guaranteed maximum carbon contents of 0.070, 0.10, 0.15, 0.30, 0.50 or 0.75%. Silicomanganese contains 65-68% Mn, <20% Si and 1.5, 2.0 or 3.0% C. Silicon and carbon contents are always inversely proportional. Silicomanganese has a higher deoxidizing power than ferromanganese. Ferromanganese-silicon (63-66% Mn, 0.08% C, 28-32% Si) can be used as an alternative to low carbon ferromanganese, electrolytic manganese or ferrochrome-silicon (in stainless steel production) as part of the reducing mix. With the importance of ladle steelmaking nowadays, ferromanganese-silicon is used as a low carbon ladle addition, replacing more expensive low carbon ferromanganese and manganese metal. This is particularly the case in HSLA steel production provided, of course, that its relatively high silicon content can be tolerated. Manganese metal addition agents can be subdivided into purity ranges: Electrolytic manganese (99.90% Mn, min.) is the purest commercial form and is usually reserved for stainless steels and nonferrous alloys. It is available in regular, intermediate and low H2 grades, as well as 4.5 and 6% N2 products. A product often referred to as high density manganese contains 96 or 97% Mn, depending on grade. Iron, the principal impurity, varies accordingly. High density manganese is also sold in a nitrided form (5-8% N). Its composition and solubility make it a desirable addition agent for superalloys, stainless steel, non-ferrous alloys and low carbon, nitrogen strengthened HSLA steels. Most manganese addition agents are sold in lump or crushed form in a series of size ranges from 8 in. x 4 in. to 20 mesh x D. Fines are sometimes briquetted or pelletized. The full series of available addition agents are tabulated in the appendix. Standard ferromanganese bears an ASTM friability rating of 4 (scale 1-6): there will be an "appreciable reduction in size of large pieces upon repeated handling", to quote the ASTM definition. Manganese addition agents (except high-silicon products) also have a tendency to oxidize in air, forming a dark surface film. This MnO film is actually beneficial, however, since it provides a wetting action in liquid steel that enhances solubility. It also improves slag fluidity in the furnace and can therefore reduce fluorspar consumption. For this reason, manganese ores can be used as substitutes for fluorspar.

Addition Practice
Manganese addition agents can often be used interchangeably, depending on conditions. Because the situation will vary from practice to practice and even heat to heat, it is best to outline a few fundamentals: Manganese is a mild deoxidizer and desulfurizer. Its major uses in steelmaking over the past century relied heavily on these properties, and still do to a large extent. With the advent of hot-metal desulfurization (where called for in the product) and ladle deoxidation (to reduce expensive furnace time, among other reasons) these traditional uses for manganese have declined. They have, incidentally, been supplanted by increased manganese consumption as a true alloying constituent, mainly in HSLA steels. Nonetheless, the efficiency of any manganese addition - no matter when or why added - will depend on the steel's oxygen and sulfur contents. Bath temperature is important not only as it affects the carbon/oxygen balance, but also in relation to chill factors, especially when large manganese additions must be made. Processing factors are also important: long tap times or extended holding in the furnace or ladle may provide opportunity for reoxidation, for example. Slag composition and the type and condition of refractories must also be considered. The addition of stronger deoxidizers than manganese (e.g. aluminum or silicon) can cause reversion of Mn from slag to metal, just as they do for phosphorus. Finally, cost and availability of addition agents must be weighed against all of the above factors as they apply to the heat process. A fast response chemical analysis system coupled to a computer is obviously helpful, especially given increasingly more stringent quality and productivity requirements, but it must be noted that the skill and experience of individual operators enabled them to solve these complex problems intuitively for many decades. All other factors considered, however, manganese addition agents are generally chosen on the basis of carbon content. Inexpensive standard ferromanganese is used when the steel is well oxidized (low in carbon) or when higher residual carbon contents are allowable. As maximum steel carbons become more restricted it is necessary to switch to the more costly low-or medium carbon ferroalloys. The final aim chemistry will determine which addition agents can or cannot be used. Silicon content is often a second deciding factor.

In basic electric furnace practice, furnace addition of ferromanganese is usually not needed, assuming sulfur has been adequately controlled by proper charge selection or other means. Silicomanganese can be a cheap and useful reducing agent, but some steels require that aluminum or ferroaluminum be used instead. Ladle additions will consist of one or more of the standard products depending on the factors listed above. Sizes on the order of 5 in. x 2 in. or 4 in. x 1/2 in. are preferred for their higher solution rates and relative absence of fines. Timing of the additions depends on their function. Deoxidation additions are made early, sometimes along with ferrosilicon. Trim or alloying additions must come later, and standard, medium- or low carbon products may be used. Metallic manganese addition agents are used for premium grades such as stainless steels, specialty alloy and interstitial-free (IF) steels. They are used exclusively as alloying additions since they are too expensive to use as deoxidizers. High density manganese is added to the ladle, the AOD or the degasser. Electrolytic manganese has a tendency to ball up and form floaters when added to the ladle and is therefore better applied as an induction furnace addition during the production of specialty alloys. It can also be added to the AOD or the degasser and, if done in such a way that dissolution proceeds uniformly, floaters will be avoided.

Rolling/Forging
Manganese improves hot workability by preventing the formation of low-melting iron sulfide, FeS. Steels with a Mn/S ratio of at least 8/1 will not exhibit hot shortness. Mn/S, which forms preferentially to FeS, has a high melting point and appears in ingots as discrete and randomly distributed globules. (However, see Sulfur for a discussion of segregation.) Although solid at hot working temperatures, the MnS inclusions are soft enough to deform into elongated stringers during rolling or forging. Their presence may be harmful, beneficial or benign, depending on the product form and its application. Manganese sulfides are necessary in any steel that must be machined since they are effective chip breakers. On the other hand, long manganese sulfide stringers are detrimental to the transverse and through-thickness ductility and impact properties of flatrolled products. Where these properties are not critical, MnS is essentially harmless. Manganese may be present in other inclusions, as well. It forms complex and sometimes mutually soluble oxides,M sulfides, oxysulfides and silicates with a number of elements. The more important of these are the ones used for inclusion shape control, i.e., calcium, titanium, zirconium and the rare earth metals. Manganese has a negligible solid solution strengthening effect in austenite and only a moderate effect in ferrite. Mn increases strength and toughness after rolling by lowering the austenite decomposition temperature during cooling to give ferritic grain refinement and a reduction in grain size. Manganese increases the work hardening rate in austenite and actually reduces work hardening (through enhancement of dislocation cross slip) in ferrite, at least at ordinary concentrations. Since manganese increases a steel's resistance to deformation, manganese steels will be stiffer during rolling or forging.

Heat Treatment
Manganese very strongly retards the transformation of austenite and therefore promotes deep hardening in heat treatable steels. Manganese also lowers the transformation temperature and the eutectoid carbon content. These properties especially the first two - account for the wide use of manganese in steels in which transformation must be controlled. Because it is the most cost-effective hardenability intensifier (hardenability factor divided by cost), manganese is present in all standard AISI/SAE heat treatable steels. Up to about 1% Mn is specified in these steels. However, manganese is also important in flat-rolled steels. The lower transformation temperature produced by manganese addition promotes finer grain sizes, either as-rolled or normalized. As grain size is reduced (either ferrite, bainite or pearlite) yield strength increases and impact properties improve. As an added benefit, pearlite content increases with increasing manganese concentration for a given carbon content. This raises strength, without sacrificing weldability. Depending on which carbon equivalent formula is applicable for the steel in question, manganese is only 1/6 to 1/20 as detrimental to weldability as carbon itself. Very high manganese contents suppress the g - a transformation entirely, and such steels (see below) will be fully austenitic at room temperature. In all cases, manganese lowers the Ms temperature, and high manganese steels will tend to contain residual austenite. Although it forms a carbide that is similar to cementite, manganese produces no secondary hardening during tempering. Manganese does enhance susceptibility to temper embrittlement when present in excess of 0.30% and care should be taken to avoid the critical temperature range (375-575 C, 700-1070 F) during tempering. Heavy sections should be quenched from the tempering temperature, if it is above this range.

Applications
Besides the heat treatable steels already mentioned, manganese is present in a wide variety of steels, for an equally wide variety of reasons. Flat rolled carbon and HSLA steels contain up to 2% Mn for microstructural refinement and resulting improved mechanical properties. Solid solution strengthening is also important here. These steels may contain Mn-V-C, Mn-V-N, Mn-Mo-Cb or other combinations of elements, depending on grade, product form and application. Manganese may be substituted for part of the nickel content in austenitic stainless steels (200 series). Such steels gained importance during times of critical nickel shortage, such as World War II. They will contain between 5.5 and 10% Mn. One of the earliest, and most interesting, types of alloy steels contains 10 to 14% Mn and 1.0 to 1.4%C. These are the so-called

Hadfield steels, which were originally developed before the 1900's. When quenched from above 1000 C (1832 F), they remain fully austenitic at room temperature. Their utility is based on their extremely high work hardening rate, which makes them useful as, for example, railroad frogs and earthmoving and mining equipment components. When the surface of a Hadfield's steel is deformed it becomes very hard, resisting further deformation. The underlying metal, however, remains soft and ductile. Carburizing steels of the AISI/SAE family contain up to about 1.0% Mn, but considerably less may be present in certain grades. Nitriding steels contain typically 0.55% Mn, but the range within the several commercial grades extends from residual traces to almost 1.0% Mn. Manganese does form a nitride, but its use in these steels is mainly based on heat treatment (hardenability) effects. Similarly, tool and die steels rely on manganese for deep hardening. This is important when high concentrations of strong carbide formers are present, as these can withdraw carbon from solid solution, thereby reducing hardenability.

CHROMIUM
Atomic number : 24 Density, 20 C : 7.1 g/cm3 Atomic weight :52.01 Melting point :1850 C Boiling point :2680 C

General
Chromium is one of the most versatile and widely used alloying elements in steel. It imparts corrosion and oxidation resistance, is a mild hardenability agent, improves wear resistance and promotes the retention of useful strength levels at elevated temperatures. Chromium is an irreplaceable constituent in all stainless steels; in fact, over 70% of all chromium used in steelmaking is found in the many stainless grades. Next in tonnage consumption of chromium are the constructional alloy steels, most of which contain well less than 3% Cr. Tool steels, superalloys and other specialty metals, though often high in chromium content, are produced in smaller quantities and therefore rank lower in over-all chromium application. Having almost no chromium ore deposits of its own, the U.S. is completely dependent on foreign sources for chromium materials. The Republic of South Africa holds more than 70% of the world's known deposits and is one of the leading suppliers. Zimbabwe, with 25% of the known reserves, is also a major source. Kazhakstan has moderate reserves but a high chromium production rate. Turkey, Finland and Brazil supply significant tonnages as well. Chromium is relatively abundant in the Earth's crust but, on occasion, political and economic factors have created an artificial shortage. As a result, chromium conservation has been the subject of intensive study. While such programs may have limited effectiveness, the unique properties of chromium as an alloying element, such as in the stainless steels, will doubtless keep demand high.

Available Forms & Addition Practice

About half of the chromium used in steelmaking is derived from scrap. The remaining chromium is most commonly supplied as ferrochrome, of which several grades are commercially available. The principal impurities in ferrochrome are carbon and silicon. As is often the case, carbon level is most important in determining the price differential between the various ferrochrome grades. The widespread shift toward duplex refining practices such as the AOD, CLU, etc., has led to greatly increased use of high-carbon ferrochrome. Low carbon ferrochrome, once quite common, is now added mostly for final chemistry adjustments in the production of stainless steel. Another low carbon ferrochrome alloy once widely used is ferrochrome silicon. It is used in the EAF to maintain silicon levels in the bath to prevent chromium oxidation and for final chromium adjustments. High carbon ferrochrome, or at least the grades commonly designated charge chrome, remains the most widely used chromium addition for the production of stainless and alloy steels. High carbon ferrochrome, 6-8% C grade, 65-70% chromium, for many years remained the standard of the industry. The reduced availability of the high Cr:Fe ores made the lower cost, low Cr:Fe ratio ores from South Africa more attractive and forced the steelindustry to make the change to the widespread use of charge chrome. Charge grade ferrochrome is generally available in two chromium ranges: 63-67% and 50-55%. Carbon content is typically about 5-1/2% for the 63% chromium grade and a maximum of 8% in the 56% chromium grade. Silicon will normally run between 2 and 4% in charge chrome, depending upon carbon content. Carbon and silicon have an inverse relationship in smelting ferrochrome, i.e., high carbon with lower silicon, and the reverse. The industry has developed a large number of specialty compositions to serve the needs of a variety of applications. As an example, low carbon ferrochrome can be supplied in a range of carbon grades from 0.010% maximum to 0.25% maximum. Induction furnace production of ELC stainless would be a typical application, whereas the intermediate grades of 0.015% and 0.05% carbon types of low carbon ferrochrome might be applied to the production of vacuum melted superalloys, regular low carbon stainless, high chrome stainless, heat resistant alloys, as well as in the production of both low and high alloy steel, including heat resistant and corrosion resistant stainless grades. Other applications for special composition low carbon ferrochromes are the low carbon, low nitrogen ferrochrome and the low carbon, low nitrogen, low silicon ferrochrome. These latter two low carbon ferrochromes have frequently been used as a substitute for chromium metal in the production of certain high temperature or nickel-base specialty alloys. Reactor grade ferrochrome is a low carbon ferrochrome with a very low cobalt content. It can be used as a substitute for chromium metal in the production of nuclear equipment components. Refined high carbon ferrochrome provides a ferrochrome with both low silicon and titanium

contents. High carbon ferrochrome, 8-10% carbon grade, is used in the production of abrasion-and heatresistant alloys since it alloys simultaneous addition of both chromium and carbon. A low phosphorus grade of charge chrome is available to control phosphorus levels in stainless and high alloy steels, when needed. Ferrochrome silicon was originally developed as a process ferrochrome to be used in the production of low carbon ferrochrome. It was subsequently introduced to wrought stainless steel producers in the 1950s as a lower cost form of low carbon ferrochrome. Two grades are available: 40/43 and 36/40. The use of these alloys has also declined in direct relationship to the growth of AOD refining. Nitrogen-bearing low carbon ferrochrome provides a simple means of making a nitrogen addition to chromium bearing steels, particularly conventionally melted stainless grades. These grades of stainless can also be produced economically with elemental N2 in the AOD. Pure metallic chromium metal is produced both aluminothermically and electrolytically. The vacuum grade of electrolytic chromium requires a second stage of carbon reduction refining which is not required for the vacuum grade of aluminothermic chromium. Chromium metal is used primarily in superalloy, high temperature and other alloys in which tight restrictions on residual elements found in ferrochrome prevent its use, i.e., C, Si, Co, Fe, O, N, P, S, etc. Other binary aluminothermic chromium alloys available for special alloying requirements are high carbon chromium and chromium molybdenum. Iron foundries occasionally use chromium briquettes in cupola melting; however, lower cost crushed charge chrome as a ladle addition has largely replaced this practice. Standard sizes of ferrochrome range from 8 in. x 4 in. lump to 20 mesh X D. Bulk delivery is most common although smaller packaging in super sacks or drums is available, especially for higher unit cost grades. Chromium-containing HSLA steels, ferritic stainless grades and even some tool steels may be produced in the BOF using a charge of hot metal, scrap and alloy addition agents, including charge chrome. Chromium recoveries should be 90% or greater. In all practices, however, proper selection of charge materials, careful process control - particularly with regard to slag chemistry - and precise analytical techniques will result in maximum chromium recovery.

Rolling/Forging
Special care must be taken in rolling or hot forging high chromium and/or chromium-nickel stainless steels as their behavior is quite different from plain carbon or low chromium alloy steels. Thorough surface conditioning is important. Heating for hot working must be performed slowly since stainless steels have considerably lower thermal conductivity than plain carbon steels. Rapid heating can lead to surface burning. Soaking should generally be performed above 1150 C (2100 F) but specific ranges vary with the grade in question. Overheating should be avoided at all costs since excessive grain coarsening (to which the stainless steels are particularly sensitive) can lead to difficulties in rolling or forging. Ferritic and martensitic stainless grades (400 series) hot roll and forge quite easily. Austenitic grades (300 series), on the other hand, are stiffer at high temperatures than carbon or alloy steels and will exert greater roll stresses for equivalent reductions. Austenitic stainless steels may be rolled at normal rates after hot working: the air hardening martensitic grades should be cooled slowly to avoid the likelihood of thermal cracking during subsequent conditioning, where applicable. All stainless steels are annealed prior to cold working.

Heat Treatment
Chromium itself is not as strong a hardenability agent as, for example, manganese or molybdenum. However, it is highly cost effective (degree of hardenability increase/relative alloy cost) and is a constituent of almost all of the AISI/SAE alloy steels. Further, chromium has a strong tendency to form hard and stable carbides. This property gives chromium steels the ability to resist softening during tempering and makes the resulting products hard and wear resistant. However, it also means that for a given hardness level, chromium steels will require somewhat higher tempering temperatures, or longer tempering times, than their plain carbon counterparts. This effect increases with increasing chromium content. Tool steels, and alloy steels containing significant quantities of carbide-forming elements such as chromium, require higher austenitizing temperatures in order to dissolve the carbides completely. As in the case of stainless steels, chromium has a tendency to promote grain growth, therefore careful control of austenitizing temperatures is important in chromium alloy and tool steels. (Some chromium steels contain vanadium to counteract this phenomenon.) Chromium and nickel-chromium alloy steels are particularly susceptible to several heat treatment-related embrittlement mechanisms. These should be understood and care taken to avoid them. Temper embrittlement is the loss of ductility (or increase in ductile-to-brittle transition temperatures) after tempering in the range of 375-575 C (700-1070 F) or slow cooling through this range. It is now known to be related to impurities such as phosphorus, tin, arsenic and particularly antimony. Unless special care is taken, these impurities are invariably present in sufficient concentrations to cause damage. The presence of more than 0.5% molybdenum retards but does not eliminate the embrittlement. Unless otherwise impossible, as in the slow cooling of large forgings or castings, care should be taken to avoid the dangerous temperature range.

350 C (500 F) embrittlement is the loss of room temperature impact toughness after tempering to high strength levels, i.e., in the range 200-370 C (400-700 F). Aluminum tends to reduce this problem, but 0.10% Al is required to eliminate it completely. In martensitic stainless steels, the critical temperature for embrittlement is raised to about 480 C (900 F). 500 C (932 F) embrittlement is found in high chromium ferritic stainless steels that have been held in the damaging temperature range, 400-500 C (750-932 F), for very long periods of time. The problem does not exist in steels containing less than 15% Cr. It can be cured by heating to temperatures above the embrittlement range for several hours. Sigma phase embrittlement results from the precipitation of the iron-chromium compound FeCr after holding austenitic or ferritic stainless steels for long periods of time in the range 560-980 C (1050-1800 F). Slow cooling from the range 10401150 C (1900-1200 F) produces the same effect, as does quenching from this range followed by subsequent heating in the range 560-980 C (850-1560 F).

Applications
Steels containing a minimum of about 12% chromium are considered stainless, i.e., resistant to oxidation and corrosion due to the existence of a thin but tightly adherent protective oxide layer on the steel's surface. The most widely used stainless steel, Type 304, contains approximately 18% chromium and 8% nickel. It is found in chemical, food processing, architectural, automotive and other decorative and functional applications. Like the remainder of the 300 series, it is austenitic in structure and does not transform to martensite on cooling from elevated temperatures. Most other 300 series stainless steels can be looked upon as modifications of this basic 18/8 type, with compositional changes specifically tailored for particular metallurgical or corrosive/oxidation resistance reasons. Thus, Type 304L has carbon restricted to 0.03% maximum to avoid intergranular corrosion; Types 321 and 347 contain small additions of titanium and columbium, respectively, for the same reason; Type 316 and its low carbon variant; 316L, are slightly richer in chromium and nickel and contain 2-3% molybdenum for increased pitting corrosion resistance. Type 310, with nominally 25% chromium, 20% nickel, has very high resistance to oxidation and may be used in such applications as combustion chambers and high temperature heat exchangers. Many stainless grades, 300 series and others, may be modified with additions of sulfur or selenium for improved machinability. Type 409 is the most popular of the ferritic stainless steels, and has been widely used in automotive exhaust systems and fuel tanks. Lacking nickel, it is less expensive than the austenitic grades. Type 410, a martensitic grade, and its lower silicon modification, Type 403, are extensively used for steam turbine blading and for such mechanical uses as valve parts, pump components, shafts and screens. Cutlery is manufactured from Type 440C,a martensitic stainless high in both chromium and carbon. Up to about 1% chromium is found in most standard AISI/SAE alloy steels, including those of the 41XX, 50XX, 51XX, 61XX, 86XX and 94XX series. Chromium imparts hardenability, wear resistance and a measure of corrosion resistance. Bearing steels, such as AISI 52100, contain up to 1.5% chromium for just these reasons. Carburizing and nitriding steels contain chromium (as in the Nitralloy series) since chromium has a strong affinity for bothcarbon and nitrogen. Here, chromium is usually used in combination with other strong carbide or nitride formers such as vanadium, aluminum and molybdenum to form thin but extremely hard nitrided cases. Chromium improves the resistance of steels to hydrogen attack. Chromium and chromium-molybdenum steels have long been standard materials in applications where hydrogen-bearing atmospheres are present: petrochemical plants, petroleum refineries, power boiler tubing, etc. It is believed that chromium carbide, being stable at elevated temperatures, resists the strong reducing power of hydrogen present in these environments. The presence of chromium carbide also gives structural steels the ability to resist softening at elevated temperatures. This leads to greater creep and stress-rupture resistance. Steels selected for elevated temperature service will contain increasing amounts of chromium and molybdenum depending on the expected service temperature. Chromium contents may range from a minimum of 1.25% to the maximum values found in austeniticstainless steels and high temperature/corrosion resistant alloys. Chromium is the most important element in tool steels, after carbon. Besides imparting hardenability, chromium forms a variety of carbides (depending on composition and heat treatment). These carbides, along with those of vanadium, molybdenum and other constituents, provide the necessary wear and abrasion resistance. As mentioned above, chromium does have a tendency to promote grain growth, and since most tool steels require high austenitizing temperatures, vanadium is frequently added as well.

CARBON
Atomic number : 6 Density, 20 C : 2.3 g/cm3 Atomic weight : 12.01 Melting point : >3550 C Boiling point : 4827 C

General
Carbon is the most important alloying constituent in steel and cast iron and is chiefly responsible for the broad range of mechanical properties attainable in both wrought and cast products. When an iron based alloy contains more than 2.0% C (except in the case of ferroalloys), it is classified as cast iron. Plain carbon steels are metallurgically subdivided into hypoand hypereutectoid grades, depending on whether their carbon content is less or more than 0.80%. Additional alloying elements (manganese, silicon, nickel, etc.) change the carbon content of this, the eutectoid point, and may even eliminate it entirely. Limitations of carbon led to the development of microalloyed steels (with low carbon content). However, this chapter

will consider only those steels and irons in which carbon is the principal alloying element, ignoring the unavoidable presence of other elements remaining after deoxidation or necessary for the control of sulfur.

Available Forms
Carbon is, of course, present in almost all steel from the onset of the steelmaking process. Steelmaking begins with raw materials (hot metal, pig iron, scrap, ferroalloys, etc.) normally containing more carbon than is needed in the final product. Carbon is eliminated by oxidation during steelmaking and heats are tapped when the required carbon content is reached, or at slightly below that level if high-carbon ferroalloy additions are to be made in the ladle. It is common practice in BOF practice to "blow down" to below 0.10% C and recarburize the steel in the ladle. Carbon is injected into EAFs for foamy slag practice and carbon cored wire is fed in ladle refining stations for precise control of carbon content. When used, high carbon ferroalloys become, as well, the carbon "addition agent". When carbon levels are too low for compensation by the required amount of ferroalloy, carbon addition may take the form of graphite, coke, petroleum coke, anthracite coal or, very seldom, high-carbon scrap such as cast iron or cold pig iron. Cast iron used for carbon correction has the danger of exceeding the phosphorus specification. Similarly, coke used for recarburizing should be as low in sulfur and volatile components as possible. The electric furnace production of cast iron often requires a recarburizing step because the process relies on inexpensive, relatively low carbon scrap as a starting material. High carbon scrap, high carbon ferroalloys or even pig iron are used as sources of carbon but when practice, specifications or economics dictate, specific recarburizers are needed. These usually take the form of graphite or coke. Graphite may be natural or synthetic. The former is used more often in North America than elsewhere since a major source is located in Mexico. The natural product has less carbon (70-85%) and more impurities than eithersynthetic graphite or coke, and this restricts its usefulness. Synthetic graphite for iron foundries is a scrap product, often derived from the production of electric arc furnace electrodes. All graphites are crystalline, and this can influence the structure of the cast iron, as explained below. Metallurgical coke is an inexpensive and widely available recarburizer, but its high ash content (~9%) may make it unsuitable for many applications. Calcined petroleum coke is a higher purity product (~99%) but may contain more than 1% S. Both forms of coke are amorphous.

Addition Practice
When carbon is added in the form of a high-carbon ferroalloy, addition may be made in the furnace, just before tap, or in the ladle. The common practice is to decarburize the heat slightly more than necessary in the furnace, using the ferroalloy to make up the specified carbon range. The carbon-oxygen-temperature balance at the time of tap is the governing factor, but the situation is somewhat at the discretion of the individual operator. Since furnace time is expensive, the tendency is to tap the heat "open" and deoxidize as necessary and make chemistry adjustments in the ladle. It should be emphasized that using cast iron to correct carbon levels can introduce too much sulfur and/or phosphorous. Unless the heat is already very low in these elements, or the amounts added can be tolerated in the final composition, the hot metal should be as low in phosphorus and sulfur as possible. The carbon recarburizers (graphite, coke, and anthracite) are quite light and will easily float on the slag, where they can burn wastefully. They should therefore be added very early in the tap, or placed in the ladle before the steel is introduced. The tap should have enough turbulence to provide rapid carbon dissolution. In foundry practice, recarburizers are added in the ladle, observing the same precautions as described above. The type of recarburizer chosen depends on the cast iron being produced. Crystalline recarburizers, i.e., graphites, have an inoculating effect in iron, especially if the base sulfur content exceeds 0.04%. If the tap sulfur content is below this value, it may be more efficient to perform primary recarburization with (high sulfur) petroleum coke and trim with graphite just before casting. When inoculation is to be avoided, as in white irons, coke is the preferred addition agent. The higher nitrogen content of petroleum coke (~1%) can be used to increase strength through the formation of a fully pearlitic matrix and a compacted eutectic graphite. However, if nitrogen is known to produce porosity defects, it can either be avoided by using graphite or a lownitrogen coke or controlled through the addition of titanium, zirconium or similar stabilizing elements. It should be noted that in adding carbon, a reduction in temperature of 2.98 C (5.36 F) is produced for each pound of graphite per net ton of steel treated.

Rolling/Forging
The carbon content of steel influences deformation processes in several ways. In general, such processes become more difficult as carbon content increases. The effect of carbon is first felt in the soaking pit or re-heat furnace. High carbon steels are more sensitive to thermal shock and must be heated slowly to avoid cracking. Step heating - allowing the ingot to equalize in temperature at several plateaus before the rolling or forging temperature is reached - may be necessary, especially for large cross sections. Steels with more than 0.30% C are also more susceptible to "burning", or deep surface oxidation. This leads to cracking or, at best, unacceptable surface conditions in the final product and almost always requires that the burned ingot be reverted to scrap. High carbon steels should therefore be heated slowly and evenly, avoiding hot spots due to direct flame impingement.

Both hot- and cold-rolling forces increase with carbon content. In hot rolling, the effect becomes more pronounced as the finishing temperature is approached. An additional 0.15% C in a plain carbon steel produces as much as a 20% increase in power consumption at 870 C (1600 F), for example. The energy required for cold working is strongly dependent on carbon content, a consequence of the proportion of pearlite in the microstructure. The need for intermediate anneals therefore increases with carbon content, all other factors being equal. It should be noted that the carbon has a relatively strong tendency to segregate in thick sections (e.g. ingots), and will be enriched (along with manganese, phosphorus and sulfur) in the last metal to solidify. This can lead to nonuniform carbon distribution in the final product, such as the familiar "banding" (caused by phosphorus segregation: high P areas rejecting C) seen in hot rolled sheet and plate. This is not necessarily detrimental, however. For steels utilizing microalloying additions, the ratio of atomic percent microalloying element (MAE) to carbon percent determines the amount of MAE precipitate formed at a given low temperature. Here, both cold rolled and annealed sheet steels rely on carbon content being under 0.01%. Carbon increases the strength of hot rolled steels but decreases the notch toughness, ductility and weldability. Reference Vanadium, Columbium, and Titanium for details on carbon's use in continuously cast and hot rolled steels.

Heat Treatment
The interaction between carbon and iron is the basis for all common heat treating reactions. (Essentially carbonfree steels such as the maraging grades are heat treated as well, but these are special cases, which will not be considered here.) Unless added for specific reasons, e.g., corrosion resistance, alloying elements normally serve to modify the iron-carbon reactions - or combine with carbon themselves - to enhance mechanical properties. Carbon dissolves in iron, but the solubility limits depend on crystal structure. High temperature d-ferrite can contain up to 0.10% C at 1492 C (2718 F); austenite (g) will dissolve up to 2.0% at 1130 C (2066 F), but lesser amounts are soluble at lower and higher temperatures; carbon is only sparingly soluble in low temperature a - ferrite, the maximum being about 0.025% at 723 C (1333 F). Less than 0.008% C is soluble in ferrite at room temperature. The iron-carbon equilibrium diagram (Fig. 1) shows three reactions and indicates the formation of cementite, Fe3C, at 6.67% C. At 1492 C (2718 F), d-ferrite containing more than 0.10% C reacts peritectically with liquid to form austenite. Iron containing more than 2.0% C undergoes an eutectic reaction at 1130 C (2066 F) forming ledeburite, a rod-like dispersion of cementite in austenite. At 723 C (1333 F), austenite decomposes eutectoidally into the lamellar composite, pearlite. Carbon lowers the allotropic g - a transformation temperatures from 910 C (1670 F) for pure iron to the eutectoid temperature at 0.80% C. Below the eutectoid (723 C, 1333 F), carbon has a strong influence on the kinetics (rate) of pearlite formation and reacts with iron to form the nonequilibrium phases bainite and martensite. Pearlite forms at higher temperatures, between about 550 C (1020 F) and the eutectoid temperature, becoming increasingly finer in structure as the transformation temperature is lowered. Between roughly 220 C (425 F) and the lower limit of the pearlite formation range, austenite transforms to bainite, of which there are two main types: Upper bainite is formed at higher temperatures. It has an acicular structure containing cementite particles oriented along the boundaries of the ferrite regions. Lower bainite is also acicular, though much finer in structure. In it, the carbide particles are oriented across the ferrite regions, a fact that contributes to its higher toughness. The temperature dividing upper and lower bainite is a function of composition, especially carbon content. Both bainites grow at rates determined largely by the diffusion of carbon in iron. The diffusionless, or shear, transformation of austenite to martensite at temperatures below about 220 C (425 F) is the most important reaction in commercial heat treating. The martensite start, or MC as the eutectoid composition is approached. If the product application requires a hard, wear resistant surface but a tougher, more ductile core, the steel may be carburized. In this process, carbon is intentionally diffused into the surface layer of a low carbon steel, normally to a depth not exceeding a few thousandths of an inch. Carburizing is carried out at about 925 C (1700 F), and it is important that the steel's composition allows it to remain fine grained at this temperature. After carburizing, the steel will be heat treated as usual.

Applications
Carbon steels constitute by far the largest tonnages of all steels sold. A full listing of their applications is obviously impossible. Carbon steels are used as castings and forgings, pipe and tubes, sheet and plate, wire, rod, rails and structural shapes. Carbon steels are, of course, the least expensive ferrous alloys and designers will endeavor to specify them unless specific properties necessitate the use of more expensive alloy grades. Carbon steels may be classified in several ways. Composition is the most obvious, and this is usually done through the use of established standards, such as those published by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) specify steel properties, regarding the compositions only as incidental. Many of these standards identify the same steels by their own individual specifications. The individual user may choose to add such requirements to any general specification to suit his needs. Many large users, such as automotive and construction equipment manufacturers, prefer to establish their own standards, which may be more restrictive than those published by national organizations. Sheet steels tend to have the lowest carbon levels (under 0.10% C). In general, ultra-low carbon steels include high formability sheet steels with carbon under 0.02%. Low carbon steels include most hot rolled strip, plate and pipe with 0.05-

0.20% C. Medium carbon steels include the forging grades with 0.25-0.55% C. The high carbon steels include rail steels with over 0.6% C

SULFUR
Atomic number: 16 Density, 20 C: 2.05 g/cm3 Atomic weight: 32.066 Melting point: 119 C Boiling point: 444.6 C

General
Sulfur is often regarded as an impurity in steel, to be reduced to the limits of practicality. Nonetheless, steels that are to be machined require certain minimum sulfur content for proper chip formation. Where machining constitutes a major fraction of the end products cost, many types of steel (carbon, alloy, and less often stainless) are intentionally resulfurized for just this reason.

Desulfurization
Except in those cases where it is added for machinability, or where residual sulfur contents of approximately 0.040% max.are tolerable, the usual aim of iron- and steelmaking is to reduce sulfur to low levels, consistent with mechanical property requirements. For high strength plate and extra quality bar products, this may mean removing sulfur to less than 0.005%. There are several commercial means now available and widely used to achieve this degree of cleanliness, as will be discussed. First, it should be noted that the efficient removal of sulfur from liquid steel or iron depends on specific metallurgical, i.e., thermodynamic, conditions. Although conditions vary with the type of sulfur removal system, most require that reducing conditions (low FeO presence) be maintained. Also, it is important that slag, and therefore refractory, conditions be basic (high V or V^I ratio) andMthat the temperature preferably be high; the latter due to the fact that sulfur removal is usually endothermic. While sulfur can be removed anywhere between the blast furnace and the ladle, it is now generally accepted that greatest cost benefits are obtained when desulfurization is performed early, at the hot metal stage. The insatiable need of the BOF or Q-BOP for hot metal encouraged the use of less stone in the BF, thereby increasing capacity, but also raising hot metal sulfur contents accordingly. Removal of this excess sulfur in the BOF/Q-BOP was time-consuming, often requiring an afterblow that was not very reliable. Of course, the EF can easily remove sulfur by trapping it in a removable slag, but few EFs take hot metal in the charge. LMFs have helped solve that problem. At any rate, thermodynamic and economic conditions together gave the go-ahead to the development (actually redevelopment, since the principles and some practices were well known as early as the 1950s) of the hot metal desulfurization techniques now employed at all major steelworks. All of these processes rely on contact between sulfur in the iron and a desulfurizing agent able to form a nonsoluble sulfide, which could rise to the slag. Of all desulfurizing agents in use, most contain one or more of the alkali metals, usually calcium or magnesium. They are relatively cheap, widely available, and highly reactive. Actually, they are often too reactive and must be diluted or dispersed in order to prevent violent boiling in the vessel. In all cases, it is important that the desulfurizer remain in intimate contact with the hot metal for as long as possible, and that all the metal be contacted during the process. To accomplish this, pneumatic injection is employed. Calcium carbide and some form of magnesium are frequently injected. It is important that the carbide be finely divided since it is not volatile and reaction with sulfur occurs only at the particles' surfaces. Thus, fine sizes maximize the reaction area. Magnesium, on the other hand, does volatilize quite violently, so much so that it can lead to spillage and safety hazards. It is therefore diluted with either lime, dolomite, or alloyed with aluminum. Typical mixtures, for various processes, run 10 to 20% magnesium powder, the balance lime. These mixtures are injected into the vessel (hot metal transfer ladle, mixer, submarine ladle, etc.) by means of a refractory lance, using argon or nitrogen as a carrier gas. The gas, in addition to acting as a propellant, gives additional stirring action to disperse the reactant. There is little nitrogen pickup, even when pure N2 is used as a carrier. The choice of using magnesium or calcium carbide usually rests on which is cheaper or more available at the time, although magnesium is thermodynamically the more active agent. Many processes are so designed that they can take either or both reactants. It should be noted that desulfurizers also lend themselves to injection in pneumatic steelmaking processes, the BOF and Q-BOP. Lime or burned dolomite is used in this fashion. The latter has the added advantage of protecting the (normally 100%) magnesia linings of the Q-BOP vessel. Treated hot metal will contain less than - sometimes very much less than - 0.010% S after desulfurization. With injection of lime or burned dolomite in the basic oxygen steelmaking furnaces, this can be reduced still further. In the electric furnace, sulfur can enter through the scrap (which should be carefully segregated if a low sulfur heat is to be made). Ladle desulfurization, more properly sulfur control, is another process that has come into widespread use. Again, it may take the form of simple addition of bagged material to the ladle or pneumatic injection. Calcium compounds, normally either CaC2 or calcium-silicon alloys are injected using argon as a carrier gas. Nitrogen can also be used, but only if the residual amounts remaining can be tolerated in the final product, or if nitrogenfixing elements such as aluminum or titanium are present in sufficient quantity. For a discussion of ladle injection, see Calcium. Synthetic slag practices, including additions of relatively high alumina slag from ferrovanadium producers, for example, help also as modern ladle furnace steelmaking practices have been developed employing synthetic slags for efficient sulfur removal prior to casting.

The function of these additions is either to remove sulfur in excess to that specified or to control the shape of the remaining sulfide inclusions, rather than remove them completely. It is simply a question of practicality and economics: It is cheaper and easier (besides increasing BF capacity, as explained above) to remove the sulfur at the hot metal stage. Nonetheless, a considerable amount of sulfur can be removed in the ladle.

Available Forms
Cored wire, flowers of sulfur, stick sulfur and iron sulfide (or pyrite, FeS) are the most common resulfurizing agents. Manganese sulfide (MnS) and sodium sulfide (Na2S) or sulfate (Na2SO4) are also used, but much less frequently. All of the above products are relatively free from impurities and may be used without danger of contaminating otherwise clean steel.

Addition Practice
Resulfurization is normally performed in the ladle. If added to the furnace, sulfur tends to suppress the evolution of CO since it is also a fairly strong deoxidizer. This thermodynamic property can be beneficial in that MnS containing steels will not require so much aluminum for deoxidation, (silicon containing alloy additions are avoided in free machining steels since silicate inclusions are detrimental to machinability), thereby reducing cost. Sulfur additions are normally in the form of cored wire, which is typically added to the ladle furnace. It can also be added to the tapping stream. All addition agents have low density and will float at the slag/metal interface, so addition should be made with adequate mixing in the ladle to insure rapid dissolution. Manganese sulfide is used in free machining stainless steels because it gives more consistent recoveries than pure sulfur and better morphology and distribution to the sulfides. Pure sulfur boils well below steelmaking temperatures. It also oxidizes readily in air. Basic slags react with sulfur, tending to remove it from solution; slags should therefore be held back or decanted in a heat to be resulfurized. Despite the potential for loss, sulfur recoveries will normally be quite high, 85-90%. It should be remembered that sulfur is a relatively low cost addition; it is certainly the cheapest free machining addition agent.

Rolling/Forging
In the absence of manganese, sulfur readily combines with iron to form low-melting iron sulfide, a grain boundary phase that causes severe hot shortness during rolling or forging (see Manganese). In normal steels, even those which have been resulfurized, manganese contents are high enough (Mn/S=8/1 min.) to prevent this problem. Thus, sulfur appears in the microstructure as MnS inclusions: if the steel has been hot worked, the inclusions will be deformed accordingly. Their shape and orientation, along with that of other nonmetallic inclusions, gives the steel a characteristic texture, which is reflected in directional ductility and impact properties. In high strength flat rolled products, where directional isotropy is important, this texture is definitely detrimental. Preventing it has been the basis for the development of modern, extremely low sulfur steels and the technology of inclusion shape control.

Heat Treatment
Sulfur is only sparingly soluble in steel (about 0.003%) and takes no part in normal heat treating reactions.

Applications
Steel that must be machined may contain sulfur to break up chips and reduce tool wear. The exceptions are aircraft quality steels that, despite reduced machinability, will have reduced sulfur contents for the sake of improved mechanical properties. Common alloy steels will contain no more than 0.04% S. Free machining resulfurized carbon steels in the AISI/SAE 11XX series contain 0.08-0.13% S, but the AISI/SAE 12XX series carries up to 0.24-0.33% S (and 0.04-0.09% P). Resulfurized stainless steels, such as types 303 and 416, contain up to 0.35% S. The directional ductility and impact properties of plate steels are reduced by the presence of elongated manganese sulfides and other inclusions. For this reason, sulfur may be kept as low as 0.005% or less in these products, particularly when they are used for such critical applications as arctic grade line pipe and ship plate. Mention should be made, however, of what has been called the "sulfur paradox" in HSLA steels. Increasing the sulfur content from a nominal, say 0.008% to 0.060% lowers the Charpy upper shelf level, thereby raising the transition temperature as fixed by a given impact energy. However, when transition energy is defined at, for example, 85% shear area in a Battelle Drop-Weight Tear Test (BDWTT), the trend is exactly the opposite. Sulfur content specified for a given steel must therefore be predicated on the stated design parameters. Other considerations are also important, however. High sulfur contents are known to increase corrosion rates in certain environments. They promote stress corrosion cracking and hydrogen induced cracking, possibly, through electrochemical or "poisoning" effects (see Hydrogen).

PHOSPHORUS
Atomic number : 15 Density, 20 C : 1.82 g/cm3 Atomic weight : 30.974 Melting point : 44.1 C Boiling point : 280 C

General
Phosphorus is normally considered an impurity in steel. It is present in varying concentrations in iron ore, is retained in hot metal, but is eliminated early in the steelmaking process. Phosphorus oxidizes readily and is removed from steel as P2O5, which is taken up by the oxidizing slag, before the oxidation of carbon takes place. Carryover of any P2O5 containing oxidizing slag can result in phosphorus reversion to the steel in subsequent steelmaking operations. In normal commercial steels, residual phosphorus contents will run less than 0.040%, but concentrations as low as 0.005% are not unusual. Phosphorus is readily removed only in basic steelmaking processes; acid processes must therefore begin with low phosphorus raw materials. It was the ability to remove this element that led to the widespread adoption of the basic open hearth and basic electric furnace processes, and to the use of the basic Bessemer, or Thomas-Gilchrist, converter and subsequently BOF's in Europe and the United Kingdom. Phosphorus is sometimes intentionally added to steel to improve strength, machinability and atmospheric corrosion resistance. These uses are described below.

Available Forms
Phosphorus is added to steel in the form of ferrophosphorus, containing 23-26% P. Ferrophosphorus is a lump alloy, available in sizes from 8 in. x 3 in. to 1/2 in. x D. It is normally shipped in bulk although pallet boxes or drums can be specified. Ferrophosphorus fines are usually briquetted, after using a binder that is capable of oxidizing the residual silicon to silica, thus enabling it to float out to the ladle slag. The intent is to reduce the concentration of residual siliceous inclusions, which are detrimental to machinability. Ferrophosphorus is normally added to the ladle after the steel has been thoroughly deoxidized. Recovery should be approximately 90 to 95%.

Heat Treatment
Although an iron phosphide, Fe3P, is known to exist, it is never present at the phosphorus contents encountered in commercial steels, but common in irons as an Fe/Fe3P eutectic, steadite. In steels, the element exists exclusively as a solid solution in ferrite. It is the most potent ferrite strengthener after carbon. Phosphorus coarsens the grain size and tends to produce massive, undesirable segregates. Aside from its grain coarsening property, phosphorus has an intrinsically positive effect on hardenability, but this feature cannot be exploited at the low concentrations present even in rephosphorized steels. In certain high carbon steels such as spring steel, the limits on phosphorus must be adhered to in order to prevent the formation of high concentrations of martensite.

Applications
Phosphorus is added along with sulfur to enhance machineability. Such steels are identified by the AISI/SAE 12XX designation. Limits on phosphorus content are 0.07-0.12% unless the steels are also leaded, in which case only 0.04-0.09% P will be present. The latter phosphorus content also applies when carbon is held below 0.10%. Up to 0.15% P can be present in some HSLA steels for increased strength. Whereas phosphorus is normally considered to be an embrittling element in steel, substantial amounts can be tolerated when carbon is less than 0.15%. Phosphorus also improves atmospheric corrosion resistance in mild and low alloy steels, especially when copper are also present.