C programming for embedded microcontroller systems.

Assumes experience with assembly language programming.

V. P. Nelson
Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Outline
Program organization and microcontroller memory Data types, constants, variables Microcontroller register/port addresses Operators: arithmetic, logical, shift Control structures: if, while, for Functions Interrupt routines
Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Basic C program structure

#include <hidef.h> #include <MC9S12C32.h> /* common defines and macros */ /* I/O port/register names/addresses for the MC9S12C32 microcontroller */ /* Global variables accessible by all functions */ int count, bob; //global (static) variables placed in RAM /* Function definitions*/ int function1(char x) { //parameter x passed to the function, function returns an integer value int i,j; //local (automatic) variables allocated to stack or registers -- instructions to implement the function } /* Main program */ void main(void) { unsigned char sw1; //local (automatic) variable (stack or registers) int k; //local (automatic) variable (stack or registers) /* Initialization section */ -- instructions to initialize variables, I/O ports, devices, function registers /* Endless loop */ while (1) { //Can also use: for(;;) { -- instructions to be repeated } /* repeat forever */ } ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab
Spring 2013 V. P. Nelson

Declare local variables Initialize variables/devices Body of the program

Address
0x0000 0x0400 0x0800 0x1000 0x4000

MC9S12C32 memory map

I/O Registers Vacant 2KB RAM Vacant 16KB Flash Memory Vacant 16K byte Flash EEPROM [0x4000..0x7FFF] for program code & constant data storage 16KB Vacant: [0x8000..0xBFFF] (Available in larger devices - MC9S12C64/96/128) 16K byte Flash EEPROM [0x4000..0x7FFF] for program code & constant data storage Interrupt vectors: [0xFF00..0xFFFF] (Last 256 bytes of Flash EEPROM)
ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Control registers for I/O [0x0000..0x03FF] 2K byte RAM [0x0800..0x0FFF] for variable & stack storage

0x8000

0xC000

0xFF00

16KB Flash Memory

Spring 2013

Microcontroller include file

CodeWarrior provides a derivative-specific include file for each microcontroller, which defines memory addresses and symbolic labels for CPU and peripheral function registers.
#include <hidef.h> /* common defines and macros */ #include <MC9S12C32.h> /* derivative information */ #pragma LINK_INFO DERIVATIVE "MC9S12C32" // DDRA and PORTA addresses are defined in MC9S12C32.h void main(void) { DDRA = 0xff; // Set direction of Port A as output PORTA = 0x55; // Set bits of Port A to 01010101 for(;;) {} /* execute forever */ }

Spring 2013

ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

CodeWarrior C data types

Always match data type to data characteristics Variable type indicates how data is represented
#bits determines range of numeric values signed/unsigned determines which arithmetic/relational operators are to be used by the compiler non-numeric data should be unsigned
Data type declaration * Number of bits char k; 8 signed char k; unsigned char k; 8 int k; 16 signed int k; short k; signed short k; unsigned int k; 16 unsigned short k; * First (black) form is preferred
Spring 2013

Range of values -128..+127 0..255 -32768..+32767

0..65535

ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Data type examples

Read bits from PORTA (8 bits, non-numeric)
unsigned char n; n = PORTA; unsigned int t; t = TCNT;

Read TCNT timer value (16-bit unsigned) Read 10-bit value from ADC (unsigned)
unsigned int a; a = ADC; int ctrl; ctrl = (x + y)*z;

System control value range [-1000+1000] Loop counter for 100 program loops (unsigned)
unsigned char cnt; for (cnt = 0; cnt < 20; cnt++) {
ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Spring 2013

Constant/literal values
Decimal is the default number format Hexadecimal: preface value with 0x or 0X m = 0xF312; n = -0x12E4; Octal: preface value with zero (0) m = 0453; n = -023;
int m,n; //16-bit signed numbers m = 453; n = -25;

Character: character in single quotes, or ASCII value following slash m = a; //ASCII value 0x61 n = \13; //ASCII value 13 is the return character String (array) of characters: unsigned char k[7]; strcpy(m,hello\n); //k[0]=h, k[1]=e, k[2]=l, k[3]=l, k[4]=o, //k[5]=13 or \n (ASCII new line character), //k[6]=0 or \0 (null character end of string)
Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Dont use leading zeros on decimal values. They will be interpreted as octal.

C variables
A variable is an addressable storage location to information to be used by the program
Each variable must be declared to indicate size and type of information to be stored, plus name to be used to reference the information int x,y,z; //declares 3 variables of type int char a,b; //declares 2 variables of type char Space for variables can be allocated in registers, RAM, or ROM/Flash (for constants) Variables can be automatic, static, or volatile
ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Spring 2013

C variable arrays
An array is a set of data, stored in consecutive memory locations, beginning at a named address
Declare array name and number of data elements, N Elements are indexed, with indices [0 .. N-1]
n[0] Address: n n+2 n+4 n+6 n+8

int n[5]; n[3] = 5;

//declare array of 5 int values //set value of 4th array element

n[1] n[2] n[3]

Note: Index of first element is always 0.

Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

n[4]

Automatic variables
Declare within a function/procedure Variable is visible (has scope) only within that function
Space for the variable is allocated on the system stack when the procedure is entered
Deallocated, to be re-used, when the procedure is exited

If only 1 or 2 variables, the compiler may allocate them to registers within that procedure, instead of allocating memory. Values are not retained between procedure calls
Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Automatic variable example

void delay () { int i,j; //automatic variables visible only within delay() for (i=0; i<100; i++) { //outer loop for (j=0; j<20000; j++) { //inner loop } //do nothing } } Variables must be initialized each
time the procedure is entered since values are not retained when the procedure is exited.

CodeWarrior (in my example): allocated register D (B:A) for variable i and top word of the stack for variable j
Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Static variables
Retained for use throughout the program in RAM locations that are not reallocated during program execution. Declare either within or outside of a function
Use normal declarations. Example: int count;

If declared outside a function, the variable is global in scope, i.e. known to all functions of the program If declared within a function, insert key word static before the variable definition. The variable is local in scope, i.e. known only within this function.
static unsigned char bob; static int pressure[10];
ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Spring 2013

Static variable example

unsigned char count; //global variable is static allocated a fixed RAM location //count can be referenced by any function void math_op () { int i; //automatic variable allocated space on stack when function entered static int j; //static variable allocated a fixed RAM location to maintain the value if (count == 0) //test value of global variable count j = 0; //initialize static variable j first time math_op() entered i = count; //initialize automatic variable i each time math_op() entered j = j + i; //change static variable j value kept for next function call } //return & deallocate space used by automatic variable i void main(void) { count = 0; while (1) { math_op(); count++; } } Spring 2013

//initialize global variable count

//increment global variable count

ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Volatile variables
Value can be changed by outside influences, i.e. by factors other than program instructions
values applied to the pins of an input port bits within a timer register result of an analog to digital conversion

Used to access C I/O ports and function registers

Define variable name as a pointer to the port/register address 8-bit port pointer Then use as any other variable
address 0000

#define PORTA (*((volatile unsigned char*)(0x0000))) PORTA = 0x55; /* write value 0x55to PORTA */
Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Volatile variable example

C I/O ports and function registers are defined as voltatile variables
Derivative-specific include file defines these for each C
#define PORTA (*((volatile unsigned char*)(0x0000))) #define PORTB (*((volatile unsigned char*)(0x0001))) char c; c = PORTB; PORTA = c;
From include file

/* read value from PORTB into variable c */ /* write value to PORTA from variable c */

Note: value at PORTB determined by external sources

Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

C statement types
Simple variable assignments
Includes input/output data transfers

Arithmetic operations Logical/shift operations Control structures

IF, WHEN, FOR, SELECT

Function calls
User-defined and/or library functions
Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Arithmetic operations
C examples with standard arithmetic operators
int i, j, k; // 16-bit signed integers unsigned char m,n,p; // 8-bit unsigned numbers i = j + k; // add 16-bit integers m = n - 5; // subtract 8-bit numbers j = i * k; // multiply 16-bit integers m = n / p; // quotient of 8-bit divide m = n % p; // remainder of 8-bit divide i = (j + k) * (i 2); //arithmetic expression
*, /, % are higher in precedence than +, - (higher precedence applied 1st) Example: j * k + m / n = (j * k) + (m / n) Floating-point formats are not directly supported by HCS12 CPUs.
ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

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Bit-parallel logical operators

Bit-parallel (bitwise) logical operators produce n-bit results of the corresponding logical operation: & (AND) | (OR) ^ (XOR) ~ (Complement) C = A & B; (AND) A B C A B C A B C A B 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1

C = A | B; (OR)

C = A ^ B; (XOR)

B = ~A; (COMPLEMENT)
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ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Bit set/reset/complement/test
Use a mask to select bit(s) to be altered
C = A & 0xFE; A 0xFE C A 0xFE C A 0x01 C A 0x01 C a b c d e f g h 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 Clear selected bit of A a b c d e f g 0 a b c d e f g h 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Clear all but the selected bit of A 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 h a b c d e f g h 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Set selected bit of A a b c d e f g 1 a b c d e f g h 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Complement selected bit of A a b c d e f g h
ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

C = A & 0x01;

C = A | 0x01;

C = A ^ 0x01;

Spring 2013

Bit examples for input/output

Create a pulse on bit 0 of PORTA (assume bit is initially 0)
PORTA = PORTA | 0x01; //Force bit 0 to 1 PORTA = PORTA & 0xFE; //Force bit 0 to 0

Examples:
if ( (PORTA & 0x80) != 0 ) //Or: ((PORTA & 0x80) == 0x80) bob(); // call bob() if bit 7 of PORTA is 1 c = PORTB & 0x04; // mask all but bit 2 of PORTB value if ((PORTA & 0x01) == 0) // test bit 0 of PORTA PORTA = c | 0x01; // write c to PORTA with bit 0 set to 1
Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

/*** PTT - Port T I/O Register; 0x00000240 ***/ CodeWarrior include file typedef union { defines C registers byte Byte; struct { as structures of bits, byte PTT0 :1; /* Port T Bit 0 */ allowing access to byte PTT1 :1; /* Port T Bit 1 */ byte PTT2 :1; /* Port T Bit 2 */ individual register bits. byte PTT3 :1; /* Port T Bit 3 */ (Read file to view names.) byte PTT4 :1; /* Port T Bit 4 */ byte PTT5 :1; /* Port T Bit 5 */ byte PTT6 :1; /* Port T Bit 6 */ byte is defined as unsigned char byte PTT7 :1; /* Port T Bit 7 */ } Bits; } PTTSTR; Equivalent C statements: extern volatile PTTSTR _PTT @(REG_BASE + 0x00000240UL); #define PTT _PTT.Byte #define PTT_PTT0 _PTT.Bits.PTT0 PTT = PTT | 0x01; #define PTT_PTT1 _PTT.Bits.PTT1 PTT_PTT0 = 1; #define PTT_PTT2 _PTT.Bits.PTT2 #define PTT_PTT3 _PTT.Bits.PTT3 #define PTT_PTT4 _PTT.Bits.PTT4 if ((PTT & 0x04) == 0x04) #define PTT_PTT5 _PTT.Bits.PTT5 If (PTT_PTT2 == 1) #define PTT_PTT6 _PTT.Bits.PTT6 #define PTT_PTT7 _PTT.Bits.PTT7fine TFLG1 _TFLG1.Byte
Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Example: I/O port bits

7 6 g 5 f 4 e 3 d 2 c 1 b 0 a

PORTB

Switch connected to bit 4 of PORTB unsigned char sw; sw = PORTB; sw = PORTB & 0x10; if (sw == 0x01) if (sw == 0x10) if (sw == 0) if (sw != 0) PORTB = 0x5a; PORTB_BIT4 = 0; if (PORTB_BIT4 == 1) if (PORTB_BIT4 == sw)
Spring 2013

//8-bit unsigned variable // sw = hgfedcba // sw = 000e0000 (mask all but bit 4) // Result is sw = 00000000 or 00010000 // NEVER TRUE for above sw, which is 000e0000 // TRUE if e=1 (bit 4 in result of PORTB & 0x10) // TRUE if e=0 in PORTB & 0x10 (sw=00000000) // TRUE if e=1 in PORTB & 0x10 (sw=00010000) // Write to 8 bits of PORTB; result is 01011010 // Sets only bit e=0 in PORTB (PORTB now hgf0dcba) // TRUE if e=1 (bit 4 of PORTB) // Mismatch: comparing bit to byte
ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Shift operators
Shift operators: x >> y (right shift operand x by y bit positions) x << y (left shift operand x by y bit positions) Vacated bits are filled with 0s. Shift right/left fast way to multiply/divide by power of 2 B = A << 3; (Left shift 3 bits) B = A >> 2; (Right shift 2 bits) A B A B 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1

B = 1; B = 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 (ASCII 0x31) C = 5; C = 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 (ASCII 0x35) D = (B << 4) | (C & 0x0F); (B << 4) = 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 (C & 0x0F) = 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 D = 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 (Packed BCD 0x15)
Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

C control structures
Control order in which instructions are executed (program flow) Conditional execution

Iterative execution

Execute a set of statements if some condition is met Select one set of statements to be executed from several options, depending on one or more conditions Repeated execution of a set of statements
A specified number of times, or Until some condition is met, or While some condition is true

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IF-THEN structure
Execute a set of statements if and only if some condition is met
TRUE/FALSE condition

if (a < b) { statement s1; statement s2; . }

a<b ?
No

Yes

S1; S2;

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ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Relational Operators
Test relationship between two variables/expressions
Test (m == b) (m != b) (m < b) (m <= b) (m > b) (m >= b) (m) (1) (0) TRUE condition m equal to b m not equal to b m less than b m less than or equal to b m greater than b m greater than or equal to b m non-zero always TRUE always FALSE
ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Notes Double = 1 1 1 1

1. Compiler uses signed or unsigned comparison, in accordance with data types Example: unsigned char a,b; int j,k; if (a < b) unsigned if (j > k) - signed

Spring 2013

Boolean operators
Boolean operators && (AND) and || (OR) produce TRUE/FALSE results when testing multiple TRUE/FALSE conditions
if ((n > 1) && (n < 5)) //test for n between 1 and 5 if ((c = q) || (c = Q)) //test c = lower or upper case Q

Note the difference between Boolean operators &&, || and bitwise logical operators &, |
if ( k && m) //test if k and m both TRUE (non-zero values) if ( k & m) //compute bitwise AND between m and n, //then test whether the result is non-zero (TRUE)
Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Common error
Note that == is a relational operator, whereas = is an assignment operator.
if ( m == n) //tests equality of values of variables m and n if (m = n) //assigns value of n to variable m, and then
//tests whether that value is TRUE (non-zero)
The second form is a common error (omitting the second equal sign), and usually produces unexpected results, namely a TRUE condition if n is 0 and FALSE if n is non-zero.
Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

IF-THEN-ELSE structure
Execute one set of statements if a condition is met and an alternate set if the condition is not met.
if (a == 0) { statement s1; statement s2; } else { statement s3; statement s4: }
Spring 2013

S1; S2;

Yes

a == 0 ?

No

S3; S4;

ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

IF-THEN-ELSE assembly language vs C example

AD_PORT: EQU $91 ; A/D Data Port MAX_TEMP: EQU 128 ; Maximum temperature VALVE_OFF: EQU 0 ; Bits for valve off VALVE_ON: EQU 1 ; Bits for valve on VALVE_PORT: EQU $258 ; Port P for the valve ... ; Get the temperature C version: ldaa AD_PORT ; IF Temperature > Allowed Maximum #define MAX_TEMP 128 cmpa #MAX_TEMP bls ELSE_PART #define VALVE_OFF 0 ; THEN Turn the water valve off #define VALVE_ON 1 ldaa VALVE_OFF staa VALVE_PORT if (AD_PORT <= MAX_TEMP) bra END_IF VALVE_PORT = VALVE_OFF; ; ELSE Turn the water valve on else ELSE_PART: VALVE_PORT = VALVE_ON; ldaa VALVE_ON staa VALVE_PORT END_IF: ; END IF temperature > Allowed Maximum
Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Ambiguous ELSE association

if (n > 0) if (a > b) z = a; else z = b;

//else goes with nearest previous if (a > b)

if (n > 0) { Braces force proper association if (a > b) z = a; } else //else goes with first if (n > 0) z = b;
ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Spring 2013

Multiple ELSE-IF structure

Multi-way decision, with expressions evaluated in a specified order
if (n == 1) statement1; //do if n == 1 else if (n == 2) statement2; //do if n == 2 else if (n == 3) statement3; //do if n == 3 else statement4; //do if any other value of n (none of the above) Any statement above can be replaced with a set of statements: {s1; s2; s3; }
Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

SWITCH statement
Compact alternative to ELSE-IF structure, for multiway decision that tests one variable or expression for a number of constant values /* example equivalent to that on preceding slide */ switch ( n) { //n is the variable to be tested case 0: statement1; //do if n == 0 case 1: statement2; // do if n == 1 case 2: statement3; // do if n == 2 default: statement4; //if for any other n value } Any statement above can be replaced with a set of statements: {s1; s2; s3; }
Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

WHILE loop structure

Repeat a set of statements (a loop) as long as some condition is met
while (a < b) { statement s1; statement s2; . }
S1; S2;

a<b ?
No

Yes

loop through these statements while a < b

Something must eventually cause a >= b, to exit the loop

Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

WHILE loop example:

C version: #define MAX_ALLOWED 128 #define LIGHT_ON 1 #define LIGHT_OFF 0

C vs. Assembly Language

while (AD_PORT <= MAX_ALLOWED) { LIGHT_PORT = LIGHT_ON; delay(); LIGHT_PORT = LIGHT_OFF; delay(); }

AD_PORT: EQU $91 ; A/D Data port MAX_ALLOWED:EQU 128 ; Maximum Temp LIGHT_ON: EQU 1 LIGHT_OFF: EQU 0 LIGHT_PORT: EQU $258 ; Port P ; --; Get the temperature from the A/D ldaa AD_PORT ; WHILE the temperature > maximum allowed WHILE_START: cmpa MAX_ALLOWED bls END_WHILE ; DO - Flash light 0.5 sec on, 0.5 sec off ldaa LIGHT_ON staa LIGHT_PORT ; Turn the light jsr delay ; 0.5 sec delay ldaa LIGHT_OFF staa LIGHT_PORT ; Turn the light off jsr delay ; End flashing the light, Get temperature from the A/D ldaa AD_PORT ; END_DO bra WHILE_START END_WHILE:

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ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

DO-WHILE loop structure

Repeat a set of statements (one loop) until some condition is met
do {
S1; S2; loop through these statements until a < b

} while (a < b);

statement s1; statement s2; .

Yes

a<b ?
No

The condition is tested after executing the set of statements, so the statements are guaranteed to execute at least once.
Spring 2013

ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

DO-WHILE example
C version: #define MAX_ALLOWED 128 #define LIGHT_ON 1 #define LIGHT_OFF 0 do { LIGHT_PORT = LIGHT_ON; delay(); LIGHT_PORT = LIGHT_OFF; delay(); } while (AD_PORT <= MAX_ALLOWED);
;Assembly Language Version ; DO ; Flash light 0.5 sec on, 0.5 sec off ldaa LIGHT_ON staa LIGHT_PORT ; Turn light on jsr delay ; 0.5 sec delay ldaa LIGHT_OFF staa LIGHT_PORT ; Turn light off jsr delay ; End flashing the light ; Get the temperature from the A/D ldaa AD_PORT ; END_DO bra WHILE_START ; END_WHILE: ; END_WHILE temperature > maximum allowed ; Dummy subroutine delay: rts

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ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

WHILE examples
/* Add two 200-element arrays. */
int M[200],N[200],P[200]; int k; /* Method 1 using DO-WHILE */ k = 0; //initialize counter/index do { M[k] = N[k] + P[k]; //add k-th array elements k = k + 1; //increment counter/index } while (k < 200); //repeat if k less than 200 /* Method 2 using WHILE loop k = 0; //initialize counter/index while (k < 200} { //execute the loop if k less than 200 M[k] = N[k] + P[k]; //add k-th array elements k = k + 1; //increment counter/index }
Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

WHILE example
PORTA bit0 0
1 Read PORTB No operation

Wait for a 1 to be applied to bit 0 of PORTA and then read PORTB

while ( (PORTA & 0x01) == 0) // test bit 0 of PORTA {} // do nothing & repeat if bit is 0 c = PORTB; // read PORTB after above bit = 1

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ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

FOR loop structure

Repeat a set of statements (one loop) while some condition is met
often a given # of iterations
Initialization(s) Condition for execution Operation(s) at end of each loop

for (m = 0; m < 200; m++) { statement s1; statement s2; }

Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

FOR loop structure

FOR loop is a more compact form of the WHILE loop structure
/* execute loop 200 times */ /* equivalent WHILE loop */ for (m = 0; m < 200; m++) m = 0; //initial action(s) { while (m < 200) //condition test statement s1; { statement s2; statement s1; } statement s2; m = m + 1; //end of loop action }
Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

FOR structure example

/* Read 100 values from PORTB into array C */ /* Bit 0 of PORTA is 1 if data is ready, and 0 otherwise */ unsigned char c[100]; unsigned char k; for (k = 0; k < 200; k++) { while ((PORTA & 0x01) == 0) //repeat until bit 0 of PORTA = 1 {} //do nothing if bit = 0 c[k] = PORTB; //read data from PORTB }

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ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

FOR structure example

/* Nested FOR loops to create a time delay */ for (i = 0; i < 100; i++) { //do outer loop 100 times for (j = 0; j < 1000; j++) { //do inner loop 1000 times } //do nothing in inner loop }

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ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

C functions
Functions partition large programs into a set of smaller tasks
Helps manage program complexity Smaller tasks are easier to design and debug Functions can often be reused instead of starting over Can use of libraries of functions developed by 3rd parties, instead of designing your own
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Spring 2013

C functions
A function is called by another program to perform a task
The function may return a result to the caller One or more arguments may be passed to the function/procedure

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Function definition
Type of value to be returned to the caller* Parameters passed by the caller

int math_func (int k; int n) { //local variable int j; j = n + k - 5; //function body return(j); //return the result }
* If no return value, specify void
Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Parameters passed to

Function arguments
Calling program can pass information to a function in two ways
By value: pass a constant or a variable value
function can use, but not modify the value

By reference: pass the address of the variable

function can both read and update the variable

Values/addresses are typically passed to the function by pushing them onto the system stack
Function retrieves the information from the stack
Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Example pass by value

/* Function to calculate x2 */ int square ( int x ) { //passed value is type int, return an int value int y; //local variable scope limited to square y = x * x; //use the passed value return(x); //return the result } void main { int k,n; //local variables scope limited to main n = 5; k = square(n); //pass value of n, assign n-squared to k n = square(5); // pass value 5, assign 5-squared to n }
Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Example pass by reference

/* Function to calculate x2 */ void square ( int x, int *y ) { //value of x, address of y *y = x * x; //write result to location whose address is y } void main { int k,n; //local variables scope limited to main n = 5; square(n, &k); //calculate n-squared and put result in k square(5, &n); // calculate 5-squared and put result in n }

In the above, main tells square the location of its local variable, so that square can write the result to that variable.
Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Example receive serial data bytes

/* Put string of received SCI bytes into an array */ Int rcv_data[10]; //global variable array for received data Int rcv_count; //global variable for #received bytes void SCI_receive ( ) { while ( (SCISR1 & 0x20) == 0) {} //wait for new data (RDRF = 1) rcv_data[rcv_count] = SCIDRL; //byte to array from SCI data reg. rcv_count++; //update index for next byte } Other functions can access the received data from the global variable array rcv_data[].
Spring 2013 ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Tutorial to be continued ..

Spring 2013

ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Spring 2013 Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Some on-line C tutorials

http://www.cprogramming.com/tutorial/ctutorial.html http://www.physics.drexel.edu/courses/Comp _Phys/General/C_basics/ http://www.iu.hio.no/~mark/CTutorial/CTutor ial.html http://www2.its.strath.ac.uk/courses/c/
ELEC 3040/3050 Embedded Systems Lab V. P. Nelson

Spring 2013