Formulas GAS: Engine Design

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FORMULAS AND DATA

FOR
GAS ENGINE DESIGN

SECOND EDITION
MACHINERY'S REFERENCE BOOK NO. 65 PUBLISHED BY MACHINERY, NEW YORK
MACHINERY'S REFERENCE SERIES

EACH NUMBER IS ONE UNIT IN A COMPLETE LIBRARY OF MACHINE DESIGN AND SHOP PRACTICE REVISED AND REPUBUSHED FROM MACHINERY
NUMBER
65
FORMULAS AND CONSTANTS

FOR
GAS ENGINE DESIGN

SECOND EDITION
Introduction
-..---.-3
4
CONTENTS
Suggestions in the Design of Combustion Engines, by HARRY E. DEY -
Formulas and Design
Constants
for
Combustion
Engine
-
Crank-Shafts for Internal Combustion Engines, by D. 0. BARRETT
25
30
The Crank-Case Problem

Water Required SWEET to
Cool a
Gas Engine, by
S.
IJ.
-
35
38
Commercial Ratings for Internal Combustion Engines, -^ by WILLIAM D. ENNIS :-; \

:
Copyright. 1910,
The
Industrial Press, Publishers of
MACHINERY.
49-55 Lafayette Street,
New York
City
INTRODUCTION*
The past fifty years have been remarkable for mechanical development in many lines, and one of the most important improvements of that period was made in the internal combustion engine. This type of prime mover, which comprises gas, gasoline, oil, alcohol and other engines of various descriptions in which the fuel is burned in the work cylinder, dates from the introduction of the crude Lenoir engine in 1860. This was the first gas motor brought before 'the public, although by no means the first actually built. Since that date there has been a steady improvement in design and growth in size, until to-day there
are in use gas engines of four thousand horsepower, or more, driving dynamos with the regularity and smoothness which characterize the best steam engines.
Although essentially simple, the simplicity of the gas engine is more real. Possessed of but few parts, there are nevertheless many defects likely to affect the gas engine that never trouble the steam engine. Poor ignition, back firing, carbon deposits, poor compression and short circuits are a few of the troubles that have played havoc with its reputation as a reliable motive power. The simplicity of its mechanism is in part responsible for these troubles. Not sufficient care was taken in the design and construction and the conditions of operation often were notoriously bad. But the advent of the motor boat and automobile has been followed by a great improvement in design and construction. The number of users has greatly increased, and their requirements for uninterrupted service have made imperative
apparent than
the elimination of the ordinary faults inherent in the earlier designs. The steam engine is rapidly passing for small stationary plants, and It fs practically out of the automobile field. The competition between
it
and the gas engine as the motive power of the automobile resulted
in a complete victory for the latter with its simpler construction, com-
great power, superior economy and other characteristics, it the leading place, and the trend is toward the use of gas engines as the motive power for all purposes. The modern gas producer and the improved gas engine are for manufacturing plants
pactness,
which have won for
practically as simple to operate as the steam engine, and the cost of fuel and labor is less. Cheap fuel can be used; there is no boiler to
explode, no tubes to leak, no trouble with water supply and little or no waste of fuel after the engine is stopped. In the evolution of the gas engine, little attention was given to the weight of the motor per horsepower until it had reached a stage which made it reliable and adapted it to wide fields of usefulness. The chief question which first concerned the designers and manufacturers was how much power it was possible to obtain from a single engine working under economical loads, and how reliable it could be made under con*
*
MACHINERY, April, 1910.
347619
*:
No. 61
GAS ENGINE DESIGN
tinuous operation. The question of reducing the weight of gas engines arose when builders of boats and airships began to experiment with The elimination of superfluous metal in this form of motive power. the gas engine is following the lines of development of the steam engine. A hundred years ago a steam engine which produced ten horsepower weighed some ten to twenty tons, including engine, boiler and all equipment. Similarly, the early gas engines were heavy and unnecessarily clumsy. Even those first used in automobiles were so large,
heavy and clumsy that when mounted on trucks they

little
left
apparently
room
for passengers or freight, but the systematic cutting
down
of weight has progressed rapidly.
CHAPTER
SUGGESTIONS IN THE DESIGN OP COMBUSTION ENGINES*

Motors of any type gasoline, electric or steam are compromises from beginning to end; we cannot design any one part to obtain the theoretically best results from it without interference with some other feature. With the gasoline engine there are certain advantages in a short stroke, but in the short-stroke motor we also meet with many objections. This same condition applies to the number of cylinders and their mounting (horizontal, vertical or oblique), to the casting en bloc or individually, and to the amount of compression. In many cases the best results can only be arrived at by actual "cut-and-try" experiments, and it is, therefore, not possible to give any definite The suggestions given are figures except for purposes of illustration. based upon an extensive experience with automobile and marine
engines.
engine will deliver more than its rated horsepower, owing it is built to run economically by cutting off the steam as it enters the cylinder during the early part of the stroke. With a cut-off of one-quarter or one-fifth, the expansive qualities of the steam are utilized, and the engine is rated at its economical output. If, however, more power is required temporarily, the point of cut-off is shifted ahead until the required power is obtained, up to the maximum attainWith able, when steam enters during the full length of the stroke. gasoline engines, -however, this conservative rating has never been observed. The A. L. A. M. rating, for example, gives the highest capacity of the engine under the best conditions; under unfavorable conditions, such as bad carburetor adjustment, poor compression, weak spark, and innumerable other troubles, the power output may be an
Any steam
to the fact that
indefinite
*
amount
less.
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS
Lack of Economy
It
in Present
Automobile Engines
seems to have always been the aim of the automobile engine deall the power possible from a given bore engine, regardless of gasoline economy or other considerations. Hence the oldtime efficient suction valves have been superseded by mechanically operated valves, offering no resistance to the incoming charge; and, in addition, the valve is left open long after the piston reaches the end of the outward stroke, thus taking advantage of the momentum of the gases in the pipes to crowd more than atmospheric pressure into the The result of all this, of course, is increased power, the cylinder. same as in the case of the steam engine taking steam the full length of the stroke; but who would buy a steam engine working in such an
signer to obtain
inefficient
manner?
engine working under the above conditions will exhaust at about 60 pounds pressure. This 60 pounds multiplied by 125 per cent of the piston displacement is a complete loss, and amounts to nearly 50 per cent of the original power of the charge. Compound engines have been built to utilize this exhaust pressure, but there is no excuse for this complication when the same results may be accomplished by proper design of a single-expansion engine, by simply carrying the expansion down as far as may be found desirable. When expansion is carried beyond certain limits in a steam engine, trouble is encountered from condensation, but as there is little or no moisture in the explosive mixture, we need fear no trouble from that source with the gasoline enWith a compound engine of the gasoline type, a great deal of the gine. unused power of the gases is lost by cooling when passing through the ports, a large quantity is used to fill the ports, and the extra piston adds a large amount of extra friction, so that the only benefit obtained
is
An
practically the muffling action.
There should be no side pockets (for valves) in the cylinder heads,
trimmed down to the minimum possiThe less internal surface we have exposed to the heat, the smaller the number of heat units that will be absorbed by the metal. Whatfor the inside surface should be
ble.
is taken into the metal has to be disposed of, either by air or water, which adds to the difficulties of air cooling in the one case, and to the size of the cooling apparatus and the amount of water carried in the other. In both cases there is a loss in efficiency, for every heat
ever
unit radiated
If
is
one heat unit
less
power delivered at the
shaft.
could obtain a material for the cylinders that was an absolute non-conductor of heat, we would not have cause to worry over any system of cooling. If the metal would not conduct heat, it would not absorb any. But suppose we go to the other extreme and obtain a metal that is a perfect heat conductor; then as soon as the first explosion takes place the outside of the cylinder would be just as hot as the inside surface; it would instantly become red hot. How would we
we
keep the latter cylinder cool? According to the above reasoning, it appears most desirable to have a very poor conductor of heat for the cylinder, for while we cannot ob-
No. 65
GAS ENGINE DESIGN
tain the absolute non-conductor, the nearer we reach that point the less heat will be absorbed by the metal at each explosion, and the greater proportionate effect the incoming charge will have toward cooling the internal surface. If the heat of the explosion were constantly applied,
this beneficial result could, of course, not be expected.
Cylinder and Valves
The head of the cylinder should be as nearly hemispherical in form as possible and polished inside. With our best endeavors, however, it
much flattened hemisphere unless the length of the stroke carried far beyond the limits of good practice, for the cubic contents of a hemisphere would be too great for the piston displacement, and hence the compression would be too low.
will be a very
is
With the pocketless head the placing of the valves has always been more or less of a problem. The most popular method at present appears to be the placing of the valves obliquely, and to mount the cam-shaft directly over the center of the line of cylinder tops. Another method is that which the H. H. Franklin Mfg. Co. has adopted of mounting the
valves concentrically; that
valve.
is,
the inlet valve
is
inside of the exhaust
Ratio between Bore and Stroke

to the problem of the ratio between the bore and the stroke, there is a wide divergence of opinion among designers. The writer is very strongly in favor of the long stroke. Abroad, the long-stroke engine
As
has become very popular on automobiles, and where racers have been limited by the bore, the long-stroke types have carried off the honors. The reasons for a long stroke are several: 1. With a given cubic content of compression space (and upon that the amount of power obtainable depends), the shape is nearer that of a hemisphere, and
consequently possesses the least absorbing surface possible for the quantity of mixture. 2. There is less piston diameter for a given charge, which gives less leakage area. 3. There are less reversals of motion of the reciprocating parts, thus reducing the number of hammer
blows, giving higher mechanical efficiency and longer
gine.
It
life
to the en-
may
be argued that the engine will have to run slower and thus
deliver less power. This difference of speed, however, is made up by the additional amount of the charge due to the additional length of the
is made proportional to the length. practicable, an increase of power is thus obtained, although not commensurate to the additional weight; but the advantages obtained outweigh in value the objectionable weight.
compression space, which, of course,

is
As a higher piston speed
Increase of Efficiency of Present Engines

of efficiency of present engines has been mentioned. We take up the problem of how to increase it. For illustration, suppose that the compression space of motors as at present constructed is 25 per cent of the combined piston sweep and clearance, and let the bore and stroke ratio be 1 to 1. Design an engine with double this
The lack
will
now
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS
stroke, without increasing the bore; let the compression space remain the same, and design the cam so that the incoming charge will be shut
off
at one-half the stroke.
this charge it will
have the same
mentioned engine. Now one-half the outward stroke falls to the exhausting pressure of the former engine. Both engines have received the same amount of charge and have thus far delivered the same amount of power. The first one exhausts at this point, but the last one has as muck additional distance to travel, commencing with a charge of about 60 pounds pressure multiplied by four times the compression space. Owing to the latter fact the pressure will drop very slowly during the remainder of the stroke in comparison with the early portion, and there is no compression pressure to subtract from it, as the compression did not begin until after passing this point. Consequently the last half of the stroke is a pure gain, and is obtained at a high efficiency, for we have no losses in compression to subtract, nor the loss due to large leakage and heat losses under the high pressure and intense heat at the beginning
of the stroke.
the piston returns and compresses compression as the firstthe explosion takes place, and the pressure at
When
maximum
Taking these
facts into consideration
we
will probably
receive, in addition, a third of the power of the first half of the stroke, thus obtaining a gain of 25 per cent in efficiency. The output of the motor, however, is only two-thirds of the maximum obtainable under
the old system, and the efficiency and power may be still further increased by raising the compression, for the high point of compression is reached so much later in the stroke that the point of self-ignition
will be just that
much nearer
the dead center.
Another advantage of
this plan is the fact that the average temperature is lower, and it is thus better suited for air cooling. The dimensions given are used only for conrenient illustration. They will, however, probably be found,
after experiment, to be not very far from the correct ones. For a company that intends to take up the manufacture of such an engine the best plan will probably be to make up an adjustable engine
one in which the compression space and the length of the stroke can be varied at will, independently of one another. The cam should be designed so as to give a variable cut-off. This latter feature should also
made an element of the standard engine, as it can then be used in place of a throttle valve, and also for providing a~ larger charge when at high altitudes, so that the same compression may be obtained then
be
as at lower levels.
loss in
With the present type

altitudes, as
power capacity in high
of engine there is a large has often been demonstrated
with automobiles when taken to elevated sections of the country.
CHAPTER
II
FORMULAS AND CONSTANTS FOR COMBUSTION

ENGINE DESIGN*
from an
In the following chapter are given a number of formulas abstracted article by Mr. Sanford A. Moss, published in MACHINERY, February, 1906, and from an article by Mr. G. W. Rice, published in the Slbley Journal of Engineering, June, 1906. This latter article was ab-
MACHINERY, October, 1906. The formulas are rational whenever possible, but in some cases, of course, they are necessarily emAn attempt has, however, been made to place them on a more pirical. rational basis than usual. The constants and coefficients given are for the most part taken from an investigation of current practice in gas engine design made at the Cornell University a few years ago. The data on which the formulas are based was obtained from a great number of builders and represent the average of a great variety of commercial engines. An effort has been made to arrange the formulas in
stracted in
the most convenient form for the use of the designer. The cases to which the rules mainly apply are that of a single-acting, trunk piston, stationary gas engine between 5 and 100 horsepower, and that of the light-weight type engine used in automobile practice. Some
formulas for heavy marine practice, however, are also given when this practice differs from ordinary stationary and automobile gas engine practice. In the following, will be given, first, rules and formulas
which are especially applicable to stationary gas engine practice, and second, formulas more especially applicable to automobile and marine
engines.
I.
FORMULAS FOB STATIONARY GAS ENGINE PRACTICE
In the following formulas all pressures and stresses are in pounds per square inch, and all dimensions in inches. The maximum pressure during normal operation varies from 250 to 350 pounds, the usual value being 300 pounds per square inch. The stresses in the various parts which are of most importance are the continuously repeated stresses due to constant repetition of the normal pressure, and not the occasional higher stresses due to a high value of the maximum pressure produced by excessive explosions now and then. Hence the normal value of the maximum pressure should be used in the formulas rather than the occasional extreme value sometimes occurring.
Thickness of Cylinder Walls

of the cylinder walls depends upon the stress s which can be safely allowed for continuous service. Considering the cylinder as an indefinitely long pipe with uniform fluid pressure, and adding a
*
The thickness
MACHINERY, February and October, 1906.

constant for reboring, crooked cores,
stress * is
etc.,
the thickness necessary for a
in which formula
= maximum pressure during normal operation, d = diameter of cylinder.

Owing
to the stiffening effect of the jacket, unstressed portions of
=a thickness of cylinder walls,
walls,
and cylinder ends, a rather high value of the apparent stress
may
be used in this formula.

t
safe value
is
2450.
Then
= 0.000204 pd-\-4
t
If
*>
has the usual value, 300, this reduces to
+
16
4
Thickness of Jacket "Walls
and Water Jacket
The thicknesses of the jacket walls, !T, and water jacket, ;, are determined almost wholly by considerations of molding and casting, and depend directly on the thickness of the cylinder walls t.
Safe values are
T
number
= 0.6, and; = l%
Cylinder
If
Head Studs
of cylinder head studs is q, satisfactory results will be obtained by use of the empirical expression
the
2d
+ 2.
3
of course, be used. the initial load on the studs, caused by screwing them up, is not greater than the load due to explosion, the latter gives the maximum
If
The nearest whole number must,
stress s at the root of the threads of the studs.
(The nuts, of course,
may may
be carelessly screwed up tighter, causing unknown stresses.) It be shown (since the area at the root of a thread is about 0.7 of the outside area) that the outside diameter o necessary for a stress s is
HT
^
A
safe value for the stress
is
7800.
Then P
d-
= 0.0135
If
w
g
or thereabouts, this reduces
to o
= l/12d.
p has the usual value,
300,
and q
is 8,
10
No. 65
GAS ENGINE DESIGN

Length of Piston
be-
Let u be the ratio of the length of the connecting-rod (distance
tween centers) to the radius of the crank.
usual valve for this is about 5. Let & be the average bearing pressure on the projected area of piston (Ld square inches) during the explosion stroke. The piston must be long enough to give a safe value to & in order to avoid undue wear. It can be shown that the average total load on the projected area
0.22
T
.
of the piston (due to connecting-rod thrust only) is pd 2
X
4
Hence
the length of piston L, necessary for a bearing pressure &
is
IT \ pd /0.227r\
safe value for 6 is 7
4u / (0.22 pounds per square inch.

Z>
Then
0.025
pd
this reduces
u
If
p has the usual value of
300,
and u the usual value
5,
to
The weight of the reciprocating parts produces an additional pressure on the projected area of the piston, which is usually slight compared with the rod thrust. In cases where it becomes appreciable it should be taken account of, however, by adding the bearing pressure produced by the weight to that produced by the rod thrust.
Thickness of Rear Wall of Piston
The thickness Z of the rear wall of the piston depends upon the stress which can be safely allowed. By considering the wall as a circular plate, fixed at the circumference, and without ribs, it may be shown
is
that the thickness necessary for a stress s
z=l
Owing
\di/T
may
added to help support the be used in this formula.
to the fact that ribs are usually
wall, a high value of the apparent stress A safe value is 5320. Then
Z
If
0.00562
di/J~
p has the usual value, 300, this reduces to d
10
Length and Diameter of Wrist-pin

Let 5 be the stress in the wrist-pin due to continuous repetition of the pressure p, and & the bearing pressure on the projected area of the wrist-pin at the instant of maximum pressure, when the tendency to squeeze out the oil is greatest. The length Z 2 and diameter ^ of the

wrist-pin
11
to give s and 6 safe values. By taking the a beam uniformly loaded, and supported at points Z, inches apart, it may be shown that the diameter and length necessary for a stress s and a bearing pressure 6 are
must be such as
as
wrist-pin
d2
=d
s
7T
4sb
i/p, and L
7TS
d,
4&
Then
Safe values for
and 6 are 10,500 and 2800, respectively.
If
p has the usual value of 300, this reduces to d 2 =s 0.22 d, and 1 2 1% d 2
Area of Mid-section of Connecting-rod

Let k be the factor of safety of the connecting-rod, or ratio of the breaking load to the actual maximum working load. Then the area must be such that k has a safe value. Let c be the distance from center to center of rod, and r the radius of gyration of the mid-section.
If
the mid-section
is
2 round, having a diameter D, r
=
16
r*
If
the mid-section
is
rectangular, having a height H, then
=
12
It
efficient
can be shown (by using Ritter's formula for long columns; end counity for ends free but guided; elastic limit of material 35,000;
modulus of elasticity, 29,000,000; neglecting obliquity and inertia of rod which nearly neutralize each other) that the area a necessary to give a factor of safety k is
k
a =a
44,560
2
c\ 0.00012 c'\
I
+ pd-[l (l-{
\
3.9.
r2
safe value for k is
Then
c*
* (0.00012
If
\
1
/
is
p has the usual value 300,

of diameter D,
if
the mid-section of the rod
circular
0.00012 c9
and
and
if
the proportions are such that 1
-\
has a value of about

to
1.6 as is
usually the case, this expression reduces
D = 0.23d
Diameter of Crank-pin
of d, of the crank-pin depends upon the stress s which can be safely allowed. Let Z 8 be the length of crank-pin journal, l the one-half of the distance from length of the main bearing journal, and
The diameter
center to
center of the
main bearings.
center-crank engine
is as-
sumed.
12
No. 65
GAS ENGINE DESIGN
Z -f }i This is a quantity needed in our formulas. ( the arm. of the effective bending moment on the crank-pin for the stress caused by the reaction on the main bearing due to the explosion.
M=m
is
This bending moment is the only one which need be taken into acIt can be shown that all other effects, such as inertia, centrifugal force, obliquity of rod, effect of counter balances, weight of flywheels, belt-pull, etc., all practically neutralize each other.
count.
Then the usual
relation between stress

s
and bending moment gives as
the diameter necessary for a stress
d a =^l
Mpd
safe value for s is 10,600.
Then
If
p has the usual value of 300, and
if
the proportions are such that
Id is about 0.6 d, as is usually the case, this expression reduces to

<Z 3
0.41
Length of Crank-pin Journal

Let d, be the diameter of the crank-pin, and let b be the average bearing pressure on the projected area of the crank-pin due to the average value of load during a complete cycle. The length of the crank-pin
must be such that & has a safe value, in order to avoid heating. It can be shown that the average value of the total load on the crankpin, taken regardless of directions, is about 14^ per cent of the maximum load due to the explosion. Hence the length la of crank-pin necessary for a bearing pressure & is
7i
pd*
d,
4b / (0.145
safe value for b
is 213.
Then
0.000535 p d3
d,
p has the average value 300, and this expression reduces to

If
if d, is
0.41
d as previously given,
Dimensions of Crank Throws

Let x be the thickness (in the direction of the shaft axis) of the throws of a center-crank engine, y the breadth (perpendicular to the shaft axis) and d t the diameter of the crank-pin. Then the following
are safe values:

Diameter of Crank-shaft at the Main Bearings
13
The diameter of the crank-shaft at the main bearings depends on the stress s which can be safely allowed at the inner edges of the main bearing journals. Let ^ be the length of the main bearing journal, and I the length of the stroke. A center-crank engine is assumed. 0.325 Zi 0.09 I is a quantity needed in our formulas. This is M!
of the effective bending moment on the crank-shaft at the inner edge of the main bearing, for the stress caused by the reaction on
the
arm
to the explosion. It can be shown that this gives equal to the combined bending and twisting moment, taking flywheel, weight, belt-pull, etc., into account. Then the usual relation between stress and bending moment gives as the diameter necessary for
the
main bearing due
moment
a stress s
A
If
safe value for s is 9500.
Then
0.000422 p d*
if
Mi
p has the usual value 300, and

0.4(2,
the proportions are such that
is
about
as
is
usually the case, this expression reduces to d t
3
d.
8
t
Length of Main Bearing: Journals
A single cylinder with two main bearings is assumed. Let dj. be the diameter of the crank-shaft at the main bearing, and let & be the average bearing pressure on the projected area of the main bearing due to the average value of the load during a complete cycle. The length of the main bearing must be such that & has a safe value, in order to avoid heating. It can be shown that the average value of the total load on the main bearings, taken regardless of directions, and taking into account belt-pull, flywheel weight, etc., is about one-third of the maximum load due to the explosion. Hence the length of each main bearing necessary for a bearing pressure 6, is
*!
safe value for & is 123.
Then
0.001068 p d*
If
p has the average value 300, and
if
t? 4
is
d,
as previously found,
this expression reduces to
Outside Diameter of Flywheel
rim of a cast-iron flywheel of the usual type depends directly upon the velocity of the rim 7, in feet per minute. Hence
stress in the
The
14
No. 65
GAS ENGINE DESIGN
the flywheel diameter should be such as to give V a safe value. If is the number of revolutions per minute, the diameter D necessary to give a velocity 7, is
_/!!Z\
\
rj*
Then
12,300
safe value for
is
3220 feet per minute.
N
Weight
Let
of Flywheels
all flywheels, in pounds, for the case of a single cylinder, hit-and-miss engine. Let / be the speed fluctuation coefficient. This is the ratio of the difference between the maximum and minimum revolutions per minute, to the average revolutions per minute, N. The flywheels must be such as to give a safe value to /.
W be the total
weight of
Let
be the rated brake horsepower, and
the outside diameter of
and the least working load is taken to occur when the engine misses three times between each fire. Then it can be shown (on the basis that maximum indicated horsepower is 1.4 times rated brake horsepower H; that the radius of gyration of an average flywheel is 0.83 of the outside radius; and that the ratio of the energy added to the wheel and causing the
the wheels.
The greatest
fluctuation is at light loads,
maximum
acceleration in the case considered, to the net indicated
energy developed per cycle if exploding every time, is 1.197) that the flywheel weight required to give a fluctuation coefficient / is
w
A
-- 272,300,000,000
.
safe value for / for ordinary engines is 0.054 (5.4 per cent).
W = 5,000,000,000,000
It
Then
we
D=
insert the average value of the rim diameter found above

I
12,300 \
this expression reduces to
II.
FORMULAS FOB LIGHT- WEIGHT TYPE GAS ENGINES
In the following are given formulas applying particularly to lightweight gas engines, especially such as are used in automobile and marine practice. As these formulas are deduced from actual practice as exemplified in approved designs of such machines, they are of special value to designers. All pressures and stresses are in pounds per square inch, and all dimensions in inches. In order to get the maximum exstresses in the enplosion pressure which is necessary for finding the
15
gine parts, the assumption is made that the compression pressure is one-fourth of the maximum explosion pressure. This assumption is very nearly correct and is used throughout the remainder of this
chapter.
Ratio of Length to Diameter
While in stationary gas engines running at slow speed, the stroke is about 1.5 times the bore for thermodynamic reasons, practice differs in
high-speed petrol engines.
Let
D = diameter
I
= cylinder length in inches,

of cylinder in inches.
Values of
and
were plotted from actual designs, giving
1.07 as
mean value of A in formula I AD. The designer's formula is, hence,

I
1.07 D.
Let
D = the
I
R. P. M.
= = revolutions per C = clearance as a

for the
it
cylinder bore, length of stroke,
minute,
fraction of piston displacement.
is
The equation
constant in
maximum horsepower
3
a rational formula, the
being based on current practice.
H. P. per cylinder
D X
R, P. M.
(0.48
+ 0.1 C)
.
14,000
Thickness of Cylinder Wall
The thickness
of the cylinder wall
depends on the stress which can
safely be allowed for continuous service. On account of the desire for lightness and the stiffening action of the jacket wall, this stress is
taken as high as possible; in fact, instead of allowing the usual constant for reboring, it was found on plotting the data from engines in actual practice that this constant had a negative value of inch.
Let
= thickness of cylinder wall, = allowable stress per square inch, p = maximum explosion pressure, D = cylinder diameter.
t
The
t
designer's formulas are then:
=
=
pD
5300
% inch. % inch.
Light automobile practice )
PD
3700
Medium weight
practice ) .
t>D
3200
% inch.
Heavy marine
practice ) .
D
t
(Rough
16
rule,
not considering pressure).
16
No. 65
GAS ENGINE DESIGN
Thickness of Integral Cast Cylinder Heads The common form of head is that of a flattened ellipse. Liberal fillets should be used where the head joins the cylinder wall, and the
head
may
center.
D -r- 1.5 s.
be gradually reduced in thickness when approaching the Close to the cylinder wall t 0.005 D j/ p7 at the center t
Thickness of Jacket Wall The jacket wall is made as thin as it can be cast some cases it is deposited electrolytically of copper;
cylinder
in the foundry; in in other cases the
is cast without a jacket, turned up inside and out and a thin metal jacket of copper or brass applied. This latter practice came to the front a great deal a few years ago. In cylinders made in this manner the cylinder wall has a constant thickness, which is something which cannot be said of the ordinary type. It is also of a very light
construction.
Length of Piston The normal pressure between piston and cylinder wall for any point in the piston stroke is equal to the pressure on the piston head divided by the ratio of connecting-rod to crank length. By assuming an average clearance and different ratios of connecting-rod to crank, it was
found that the average pressure on the piston head when the connecting-rod and crank were at right angles, giving the maximum normal pressure on the piston, was 0.23 times the maximum pressure. The designer's formulas are:
I
= 0.0167 p = 1.125 D
D
c
in
which
p
c
I
= maximum pressure on piston in pounds per square inch, = ratio of the connecting-rod to the crank, = length of the piston.
Thickness of Bear Wall of Piston
*
Let = thickness of unribbed rear wall of piston, p = maximum pressure in pounds per square inch, D = diameter of cylinder.
The
designer's formula is
t
= 0.0034 i/p" X D.
plotting between piston head thickness and cylinder diameter, we get the rough design formula: Allow 1-16-inch thickness per inch of cylinder diameter.
By
Dimensions of Piston Rings

In the consideration of piston ring dimensions, the first proportion with which we are interested is the diameter to which the outside of the cast-iron ring is finished. This must be a diameter slightly greater than the bore of the cylinder so as to furnish a sufficient packing action to the piston. This diameter, d. is the same for eccentric turned
17
rings as for non-eccentric ones, and by plotting between ring diameter and cylinder diameter it was found that the ring was turned to 1.03
times the cylinder diameter. Due to the heat of the burning gases expanding the piston head, that end of the piston which is in contact with the hot gases must be made slightly smaller down to the first ring than the rest of the piston. This allowance is usually taken as 0.001 inch per inch diameter of cylinder.
of the cylinder
For plain rings of constant thickness the width, wt should be 0.07 diameter and the thickness, t, of the ring 0.5 of the width. The number of rings used by different builders varies widely, the common practice being three at the head end of the piston and one, known as an oil ring, at the open end. The designer's formulas are:
d
= 1.03 D;
w = 0.07 D;
0.5 w.
Design of Wrist-pin
The average pressure on the piston-pin will be the crank-pin, neglecting inertia effects.
p d
I
same
as on the
Z)
= maximum pressure in the cylinder, = diameter of wrist-pin, = length of wrist-pin, = cylinder diameter.
are:
The designer's formulas
= 0.000445 pD* = 2U d
d=: 0.225 Z>

Crank-pin Design in Engines with Main Bearing- Each Side of Crank-pin
Below are given data on the ultimate strength of 14 crank-shafts having an average ultimate strength of 95,000 pounds per square inch.
Autocar Moline Packard St. Louis Nameless
85,000 90,000 100,000 70,000 85,000
Pierce
Haynes
Lozier
and Welch
S.
105,000 90,000 100,000 125,000 115,000
Columbia
Covert
Acme Thomas
90,000 80,000 90,000 105,000

d
Z
for this type of crank-shafts are:
D
VP
43.2
= diameter of pin,
pin.
= ll/3
d =a length of
employs steel of special composition giving greater hardness and a very high tensile strength. When special alloy steels are used, these formulas may have to be
latest
The
practice
modified to suit the high tensile strength of the steel employed.
18
No. 65
GAS ENGINE DESIGN

in
Crank-pin Design
Engine not having- Main BearingEach Side of Crank-pin

d
Assume
for this type of engine
= 2 Inches on the average.

+ 0.9 inch,
3.75 inches.
D
d
36.5
Z
V P
3.75
general average of
all
cases shows that the diameter of the crank-
D
pin equals
2.8
.
Again the general average shows that the projected

is
area of the crank-pin
1/5 of the piston area.
Design of Main Bearings

d
five
= diameter of main bearing.
The length of main bearing per cylinder in four-cylinder engines with main bearings is 2.82 d. The length of main bearing per cylinder in four-cylinder engines with three main bearings is 1.54 d. The length of main bearings per cylinder in two-cycle engines is 4.45
(This applies to one- and two-cylinder engines only.) relative lengths of these bearings, among themselves, varies with the cylinder arrangement whether they are cast in pairs, separIn all cases, the bearing at the flywheel or power end of ately, etc. the shaft is made longer than any of the others because the weight of the wheel rests almost directly on it and, therefore, the average total pressure is much greater than on the others. The designer's formulas are for length of journal given above.
tf.
The
Diameter
H. P. per cylinder
;
7.24
R. P. M.
Crank Throws or Webs

Let d
= diameter of main bearing, d^=i diameter of crank-pin, h = depth of crank throws, 6 = thickness of crank throws, 6 = thickness of crank throws on flywheel 6 = thickness of long crank throws,
t
2
side,
are:
d3 && 2 h =2.66
t
= & = 1.256 h =1.33^ 6 = 1.256

I
1
Inertia Effects ot Reciprocating Parts
Let F=a inertia effects in pounds per square inch of piston area, weight of ( piston -f 2/3 connecting-rod),
W=

tf
19
= R. P. = one half stroke, in = ratio of connecting-rod crank, D = cylinder diameter, inches, w = weight of reciprocating parts per square inch of piston area.
M.,
feet,
to
W X N* X r X 0.00034
JP
i:
v/
0.7854 D*
weight of reciprocating parts is 0.55 and the value of c is 4. We may then of inch piston, pounds per square rewrite the above equation as follows:
find that the
Now
by plotting we
K)
^ = 1.25 (w X
N* X r X 0.00034) N* X r X 0.00034) =j 0.0002435 (2t*Xr)

1.25 (0.55
This gives us a simple equation for inertia effects of a given engine at a given speed. Stress in Connecting-rod Bolts
The
to the inertia pressures at the
stress in the bolts of the connecting-rod is almost entirely due end of the stroke. This stress may be
found from the preceding formula by plotting the maximum inertia pressures at the engine's rated speed with the reduced bolt area. That The average ratio of thread is the area at the bottom of the threads. area to bolt area is 0.65 for the sizes commonly used in automobile
engine construction.
Flywheel Design
In the design of a flywheel for an automobile engine we have a proposition entirely different from the design of a flywheel for any type of stationary engine. In the automobile the function of the flywheel is not to keep the engine speed constant, but to furnish a storage reservoir of energy sufficient to start the car under any working conditions or to keep the engine turning over when running at very low speed and under heavy load. Current practice does not help us as much as it might in this particular, for the weights of flywheels used for the same powered engines vary widely among the different builders. The weight depends, first upon the diameter, and this depends, to a large extent upon where the wheel has to be put; second, upon the weight of the loaded car, relative to the power of the engine. It also depends upon the gearing ratio of the car and other things relative to the car design.
By plotting between engine stroke and flywheel diameter, we find that the diameter varies from 4.9 to 2.9 times the engine stroke, the average value of flywheel diameter being 3.5 times the engine stroke.
Engine Weight
Instead of comparing the engine weight with the horsepower, as is usually done, let us compare it with the cubic inches of piston displacement. By plotting between the weight of the complete engine and
cylinder volume in cubic inches,
W = 1.125 V 4- 100.
we
find:
20
No.
65- GAS ENGINE DESIGN

and cubic inches
On plotting between engine weight without flywheel of piston displacement, we find:
W = 1.125 Y.
This indicates that irrespective of the power of the engine, the builders have always used a flywheel of about 100 pounds weight. By plotting between engine weight and horsepower, we find the average value to be 17.6 pounds per horsepower.
Diameter and
Let
Lift oi
Exhaust Valves
D = cylinder
N = R.P.
d h
lift
L = length
diameter,
= allowable speed of gas in feet per minute = 3520, = diameter of exhaust valve, = of exhaust valve.
of stroke, M.,
In high-speed engines the ring area open to gas passage, seems to be the all important item, and not the diameter of the valve itself. The tendency being to keep the valves large in diameter, and to make the lift as small as possible, 7/16 inch was the highest lift noted on about 80 engines, with cylinder sizes up to 7 X 9 inches, while the theoretical of the diameter of the valve. About 5/16 inch is a lift would be popular lift in this country, while the French use much lower lifts. These low valve lifts are used in order to get a quick closing valve and to prevent hammering of the cams on the valve push rods.
The designer's formula
is:
D'LN
= 84,500 dh.
inlet valves the
Valve Thickness
For the thickness of the exhaust and Reuleaux may be used:
formula of
in
which
= thickness, = radius of supporting p = maximum pressure in cylinder, =

t
circle,
fiber stress.
As given by another designer
this is modified to read:
The maximum normal pressure
of the valve
on
its
seat is given by
several authorities as 900 pounds per square inch and when a conical seated valve is used the angle is usually taken between 45 and 70 degrees, which makes the effective lift of the valve equal to the real lift

times the sine of the valve angle which may be approximated at The diameter of the valve stem is taken as 1/5 valve diameter.
Inlet
21
0.75.
Valve Design
to the
Most that has been said relative

to the inlet valve.
exhaust valve
lifts,
may
be applied
inter-
The valves themselves are very often made
changeable, but they are usually given different valve being smaller. The designer's formula is:
that of the inlet
D LN =:dhx
2
107,000.
Speed of Exhaust Gases through Pipe

Let
D = cylinder
L = length
diameter in inches,
N = R.
S
of stroke,
= allowable speed of gas in feet per minute = 6550, a = area of exhaust pipe (nominal).
is:
P. M.,
The
designer's formula
D*LN
'
50,000
Speed of Gases through The designer's formula is:

a
Inlet Pipe
D'LN
.
= 10,000 feet per
80,000
minute.
Two-cycle Port Design
The design
factors.
of ports for two-cycle engines depends upon two important First, the height of the port determines the valve timing of
when
the engine, and this timing must be arranged to give the proper results the engine is running at slow speed. Next, the ports must be extended around the cylinder until a sufficient area is obtained to give
the required engine speed.
The two points then to consider are valve timing, and limiting gas velocities. This valve timing is very nearly constant for all the engines, the average values being 88 degrees for the The velocity of the inlet ports and 110 degrees for the exhaust ports.
gases through the ports was found by assuming full port opening from the time the port began to open to the time it closed. The exhaust gas velocity was found to be quite constant at about 7500 feet per minThe inlet gas velocity varied with the crank-case pressure, but as ute. this pressure is either about 4 or 8 pounds, we find two values for inlet
gas velocity. The gas velocity corresponding to 4 pounds is 12,000 feet per minute, while that corresponding to 8 pounds is 24,000 feet per minute.
Compression Pressure and Clearance*

to determine is the
*
In designing the cylinders of a gasoline motor, one of the first things volume of the clearance space. In order to find
Herbert
C.
Snow, MACHINERY, July, 1910.
22
this, the
>.
65-GAS ENGINE DESIGN
compression which the motor is to have must be known. Thean engine depends upon the clearance, and from theory we can compute the compression of any engine of which we know the clearance volume. In practice we never get a full cylinder of explosive mixture, and the percentage which we do get depends upon the engine speed, the amount the engine is cooled, the temperature
oretically the compression of
of entering charge,
and the make of carburetor.
In automobile motors the compression varies all the way from 60 pounds to 100 pounds per square inch gage. The formula most generally used for finding the clearance space is:
Pi P
/v
I
Pa
W
90
orjpj
r=p a
MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE-GAGE

110 100 80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
23
Using this value the accompanying diagram, Fig. 1, was plotted. To find the percentage of clearance for a given compression, find the compression in pounds gage in the column at the right, and follow across to the compression curve, thence to the bottom of the diagram where the percentage of clearance is read.
To find the mean effective pressure for a given compression, take the compression in the column to the right, as before, and follow across to the M. E. P. curve, thence to the top where the mean effective pressure These curves give values which come very close to the average is read. for automobile motors.
Formula
The following formula
gines is applied by the formula,
for
Gas Engine Flywheels*
for the calculation of flywheels for gas enMr. R. E. Mathot to all classes of engines. If, in
D = diameter
P = the
weight of the rim (without arms or hub) in tons, of the center of gravity of the rim in meters,
Fig.
Plff.
Figs.
2 to
6.
Diagrams of Different Types of Gas Engines
= the amount of allowable variation,

=
D
of revolutions per minute, of brake horsepower,
coefficient
^^the
JT
n=3the number number
varying with the type of engine,

then,
P=K
N
D an*
2
If
is
transformed into
feet,
the formula will read:

10.75
MACHINERY, August, 1907.
24
No. 65
GAS ENGINE DESIGN

is
The
"
coefficient
K, which varies with the type of engine,
determined
as follows:
= 44,000 for Otto-cycle engines, single-cylinder, single-acting.

2.)
(Fig.
"
= 28,000
for Otto-cycle engines,
two opposite cylinders,

(Fig. 3.)
single-act-
ing, or
"
one cylinder double-acting.
= 25,000
for
two cylinders
(Fig. 4.)
single-acting,
with cranks set at 90
degrees.
"
= 21,000 for two cylinders, single-acting. = 7000 for four twin opposite cylinders,
ders, double-acting.
(Fig. 5.)
or for two
tandem
cylin-
(Fig. 6.)
The
factor
a,
the allowable
amount
of variation in a single revolu-
tion of the fly-wheel, is as follows:
For ordinary industrial purposes For electric lighting by continuous current For spinning mills and similar machinery For alternating current generators in parallel
1/25
to 1/30
1/50
to 1/60 1/120 to 1/130
1/150
The
total
weight of the fly-wheel
may
be considered as equal to
PX
1.4.
CHAPTER
III
CRANK-SHAFTS FOR INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES*

The crank-shaft may rightly be termed the "backbone of the engine," and the designer should use his best judgment and skill in designing In the following, the formulas are given this most important member. for crank-shafts for determining the diameter, and the breadth and
of
thickness of cheeks, of single-acting, single-cylinder, four-cycle engines medium speed with overhanging flywheels and two bearings, of the
ordinary type up to 75 horsepower. The formulas have been actually applied to engines up to 60 horsepower, and as far as known, no crankshaft has ever failed. The data on which the formulas are based have been obtained from a complete line of engines built by one of the largest manufacturers, and from a few sizes from some other concerns.
Diameter of Crank- shaft
The strength
of a shaft as regards twisting, is proportional to the
cube of the diameter, while the torque exerted upon the shaft by the
force of the explosion is proportional to the square of the bore of the cylinder and to the throw of the crank, which is half the stroke. Ex-
pressing this as a formula
we may
3
write:
B*XV*S =c D
in
(1)
which
B =J bore D=
c
$== stroke
of cylinder in inches, of piston in inches, diameter of crank-shaft in inches,
=a constant determined by good practice.

of constant c for existing successful engines varies
The usual value
between 10 and 19, the average value being about 15, which, in the following formulas is assumed as good average practice. The stroke may be expressed as a function of the bore B. Assume,
for example,
Substituting in Equation (1)
we have:
.= 15
D*
Solving for
D we
have:
30
No.
65- GAS ENGINE DESIGN
CRANK-SHAFTS
this factor varies
2,
27
The average engine has a stroke of about 1% times the bore, but 0.347 B, and for a from 1% to 2. For a 1%, D
Z>=r 0.405 B. Fig. 7 is a diagram for determining diameters of crank-shafts for gas engines, according to the formula given. To use the diagram, find the intersection of the bore- and stroke-lines at the right-hand side, and determine the corresponding value of a on the diagonal lines. Then follow the horizontal line from the intersection to the left-hand side of the chart to the same value of a on the diagonal lines, and then follow the vertical line down to the proper diameter of shaft. The heavy dotted line in the diagram shows the procedure for a 12-inch bore, 18-inch, stroke engine, the diameter of crank-shaft obtained being 4% inches.
Size of Bearings
For best results the mean pressure on the crank-pin should not exceed 400 pounds per square inch of projected area. In the following, 390 pounds per square inch has been assumed. The total pressure on the crank-pin bearing is the area of the piston multiplied by the mean
effective pressure (M. E. P.).
Hence,
if
Pjûnit
JB
pressure on pin (390 pounds per square inch of
= of crank-pin bearing, d = diameter of crank-pin bearing,

Z= length
0.7854
projected area), bore of cylinder,
then:
B X
2
M.E.P.
and
if
the
mean
effective pressure is
inch, then,
ld=i
As
0.7854
Id
assumed as 75 pounds per square
B X
2
75
= 0.151 B
0.39
390
we
in these bearings, length and diameter are usually equal have:
(l
= d),
(3 )
d2
= 0.151 B
2
,
ord
this formula gives d smaller than D, the value of d should be increased, because in practice the diameter of the crank-pin is never
When
made smaller than that same size, and it is even
of the shaft.
They are usually made
1%
better practice to times the diameter of the shaft.
make
of the the crank-pin at least

is
The diameter of the shaft in the main bearings times the diameter of the shaft, or
di
usually about 1.1
= l.ID
(4)
Making the shaft in
this
manner
slightly increases the cost, but this
style is used in the best designs.
The length of the main bearings varies from 1.75 to 2 times the diameter of the shaft, or
Z1
=(1.75to2)
XD
(5)
28
65
GAS ENGINE DESIGN
C-T
CRANK-SHAFTS
Dimensions of Cheeks
29
of the shaft and the lengths of the bearings, we will determine the formulas for the cheeks. The crank cheeks in horizontal and in the larger vertical engines are machined and rectangular in section. They act as a beam supported
Having now obtained the various diameters
The strength of such a beam is directly proportional to its breadth b and to the square of its thickness t, and inversely proportional to the length (which, in turn, is proportional to the stroke S). The load acting at the end of the beam is proportional to the square of the bore B. Hence, bt 2
at one end.
B'S
The average value
of the constant c is 0.045,
which has been found by
plotting the constant for existing engines and assuming an average value. The thickness t is usually made about 2.2 ft, and as S=aaB, as mentioned before,
t
z
we
have:
=
a
0.045, or
2.2
=f/Q.QWaXB
(6)
All dimensions have now been reduced to some term containing B, BO that, having decided upon the bore and stroke of the proposed engine, it is an easy matter to proportion the crank-shaft. In Fig. 8 is shown a diagram for determining the breadth and thick-
ness of the cheeks for crank-shafts for gas engines. To use the diagram, find the intersection of the bore- and stroke-lines at the right, and determine the corresponding value of a on the diagonal lines. Then follow the horizontal line from the intersection to the left-hand part of the diagram, to the same diagonal line a. Then follow the vertical line down to the bottom of the diagram where the breadth and thickness of cheek are given. The heavy dotted line in the diagram shows the pro-
cedure for a 12-inch bore, 18-inch stroke engine. The breadth and thickness found are 2% inches and 6% inches, respectively. The ends of the cheeks are made concentric with the pin or shaft opposite, that is, the pin end of the cheek is turned when revolving about the shaft center and vice versa. The length of the crank-shaft depends upon whether the driving pulley is to be bolted to the arms of
the flywheel or keyed to the shaft. The latter method is preferable, although slightly more expensive. The shaft, however, should only be long enough to engage the pulley hub, thus keeping the driving pulley
close to the flywheel. longer shaft gives an inexperienced operator an opportunity to set the pulley out far enough to seriously strain the unsupported end of the shaft.
CHAPTER
IV
THE CRANK-CASE PROBLEM*

Volumes of catalogues and trade literature have been published descriptive of the operation of what is known as the enclosed crankcase two-cycle motor, but very little real information has been given
relating to the principles of design and the inherent difficulties to be
met with
as a
in this class of engines.
Everyone knows that in this class
of engines the crank-case is used
pump
to force the charge into the

is
working cylinder; in
fact,
the
one end of the cylinder which has been enlarged enough to permit the crank-shaft and connecting-rod inside and give them room to work. This makes a double-acting cylinder just like a steam engine, except that one end is an air or gas compressor with the moving parts of the engine inside of it, and the other is an explosion engine. The same piston serves for both uses and, of course, sweeps through the same volume or "displacement" at each end, this volume in cubic inches being the area of the piston in square inches multiplied by the
crank-case
stroke in inches.
to
The engine end of the cylinder has means for admitting the mixture it, and releasing the burned gases from it, these means being two
ports, or series of ports, in the cylinder walls which are covered by the piston, except for a short time near the end of the stroke. The exhaust
port is wider and opens first, at a point ten to fifteen per cent before the piston reaches the dead center. This gives a chance for the hot gases to escape and reduces the pressure in the cylinder before the piston uncovers the inlet port at five to eight per cent from the end of the stroke. This is necessary to prevent the burning gases from shooting down into the crank-case and firing the new charge before it is time. Before the exhaust opens, the pressure in the cylinder may be as much as thirty or forty pounds per square inch, while the pressure in the crank-case is seldom over six pounds. One of the difficulties in twocycle design is to get these ports right, so that the pressure in the
cylinder will be lower than the crank-case pressure by the time the inlet port is uncovered. This inlet port to the engine end is the discharge port for the compressing or pump end; and for all three of the events thus far mentioned, viz., admission and discharge in the engine end
The is the controlling valve. fourth event, admission to the pump end, is also controlled by the piston in the type known as three-port, or valveless engine. In the two-port engine the admission to the pump is by a check valve. In the operation of these pumps there are four main sources of loss 1. Suction loss due to taking in in capacity or volume of charge:
and discharge in the pump end, the piston
*
THE CRANK-CASE PROBLEM
31
charge at less than full atmospheric pressure. 2. Discharge loss due to failure of charge in crank-case to be fully delivered to the working end during the brief opening of the inlet port. 3. Exhaust loss due to entering charge partially mixing with exhaust gas, and going out the open exhaust port. 4. Leakage from the crank-case at bearings, etc. Clearance space in the crank-case is often mentioned as a cause of reduced charge and is so, but in an indirect way, through its influence on suction and discharge. These latter are primarily due to fluid friccharge to passing through the inlet valve there were no friction, the clearance would have no effect, but as a matter of fact it has a great effect in increasing both the suction loss and discharge loss, as will be shown.
tion, or the resistance of the
and
inlet port.
If
The above losses are not all in the same direction; for instance, if an engine has a large clearance resulting in increased loss in (1) and (2) it will at the same time have a lower pressure and less leakage from the
Fig. 9.
Diagrammatic View of Two-cycle Engine of the Type having a Check Valve for the Admission to the Crank-case or Pump
crank-case (4), and likewise, because of the reduced volume actually delivered to the cylinder, less chance of blowing fuel out through the exhaust (3). Designers nowadays do not worry so much about (3) because the other results are such that it usually is not important, but
he
who attempts
loss.
Nash
neers.
is
to make his pump too efficient must watch out for this interesting commentary on this point was made by Mr. L. H. at a recent meeting of the American Society of Mechanical Engi-
An
Mr. Nash exhibited the accompanying illustration, Fig. 9, which of one of the first two-cycle engines. Note the large space in the crank-case and the enormous baffle plate on the piston with its precautions for heading the charge straight for the cylinder head. In this
case the designer evidently feared nothing so the exhaust.
much
as blowing out at
as possible.
most designers work to keep this as low This is done by making the crank-case as close a fit as is safe, by using a short connecting-rod, by putting balance weights on
to the clearance,
To return
32
No. 65
GAS ENGINE DESIGN
the crank webs, and even by attaching false pieces in the pistons. The object of this is not merely to get a high crank-case pressure, but also to reduce the suction loss. If we designate the displacement or volume swept by the piston as 100, the waste space in the crank-case will vary
in different designs from say 150 to 250 additional, say 200 as a fair average; then the volume of air in the crank-case when the piston is
TABLE
I.
SUCTION LOSS IN PER CENT OP DISPLACEMENT FOR VARIOUS CLEARANCES
Suction Pressure Below
THE CRANK-CASE PROBLEM

does not drop entirely to atmospheric pressure, howless than 1 pound gage pressure on account of the very limited time that this port is open. With a clearance of 200 and a pressure in crank-case reduced to 1
starts to drop.
ever,
It
and probably seldom to
pound at the point of inlet port closure, it will require 13.6 per cent of the return stroke before the charge remaining in the crank-case will
expand to atmospheric pressure, and this reduces the charge delivered to the cylinder by 13.6 volumes in 100.
TABLE
III.
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY OF CRANK-CASE FOR ONE POUND SUCTION AND ONE POUND RESIDUAL PRESSURE FOR VARIOUS CLEARANCES
34
No. 65
GAS ENGINE DESIGN
In Table III the net capacity is given under assumed conditions such as exist in good practice. These values are obtained by subtracting from 100 per cent the sum of the suction and clearance loss in Tables I and II. It will readily be seen that for some of the conditions of Tables I
and
II the capacity
may why
lead one to
would be zero or less. A study of these tables wonder not why his engine does not run sometimes, but
it does run at all. In estimating the suction pressure if the clearance is known or vice versa, the highest pressure obtained in the crank-case is a valuable aid. This can be found with a ball check valve connected to the crank-case and to a low reading gage. Table IV shows what the pressure will be under stated conditions. It may be remarked that the usual value in good engines is from 4 to 6 pounds. A leaky bearing or stuck inlet valve will at once cut this down. It will be easily seen from the tables why it is that motors choke up and refuse to run at speeds above what they are designed for, on account of the loss of charge at both ends of the stroke, and also what are the best results which may be expected of motors of this type.
CHAPTER V
WATER REQUIRED TO COOL A GAS
ENGINE*
The water pump for a gas engine is generally designed to carry off one-half the heat produced by combustion. At times one-quarter would be sufficient, but one-half is the amount that should be figured on. If
the heat per minute generated by an engine for a thermal efficiency of 12% per cent, a 0.5 the heat to be carried off by the water.
= 339.2 X
is
represented by
I.
q,
then
The constant
?
= the thermal efficiency, which for gasoline
Hence, q
-I.
339.2 is obtained
from the formula q

is
I.
-H. P.
33,000
H.
P.,
and q
778
taken as
12%
per cent.
H. P.
33,000
= 339.2 X
I.
H. P.
Other constants
may
.0.125
778
be obtained by substituting the thermal efficiency expected or known. The maximum efficiency of gasoline is about 19 per cent, and a number of very good engines have shown about 15 per cent efficiency, but for the general run, the safe figure to use is 12% per cent.
Let
t
*j
= allowable
t= maximum
rise in temperature,
W=
Jj
temperature of water in degrees F.; (about 180 maximum temperature allowed), normal temperature of water in degrees F., the number of pounds of water required per minute, then
degrees should be the
169.6
t
I.H.P.
t,
ti
= the number of B. T. U. absorbed per pound of water.
the
As the pump is generally attached to the engine shaft, it will have same number of revolutions as the engine. Let p equal pounds
of water required per revolution, then
W
R. P. M.
-=
P
8.33
As one
gallon of water weighs 8.33 pounds,
number
of gallons required per revolution.
for
Let us take an example and assume that we wish to design a a 20 I. H. P. gas engine which turns at 300 R. P. M.
q
pump
= 339.2 X 20 = 6784 B. T. U.
MACHINERY, December, 1909.
36
65
GAS ENGINE DESIGN

U
which
is
= 6784 X = 3392 B. T. q to carry the water = 180, = 180 60 = 120. 169.6 X 20 =3 28.267 pounds. W=
x
0.5
0.5
the
amount
of heat
is
off.
t,
60,
120
28.267
p==
300
0.0942
8.33
= 0.0942 pound per revolution.

= 0.0113 gallon per revolution.
iy 2 inch pumped
By referring to the accompanying table we see that a pump bore by 1% inch stroke will answer. The number of gallons
TABLE
V.
GIVING GALLONS PER STROKE FOR VARIOUS SIZES OF SINGLE-ACTING PUMPS
"TlioTn
WATER REQUIRED FOR COOLING

660,000
37
660,000
If
778 # E = 12% per cent, then:

660,000
82,500
= 5938B. T. U.
more than 20 per
97.25
The thermal
efficiency of gas engines being rarely
cent, the error in the given method, however, is not important and for practical purposes it is to be preferred because of its simplicity.
CHAPTER
VI
COMMERCIAL RATINGS FOR INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES*

Various empirical ratings have been proposed for automobile and other engines, based on the cylinder dimensions and the speed. These are founded either on tests of a large number of types, or on an analysis, such as follows, of the factors limiting the output of an engine running
under stated conditions.
The Indicator Diagram The power exerted by an engine during a working stroke is shown by such a diagram as that given by the indicator. The factors which
Machinery, ff.T,
Fig. 1O.
Ideal
Gas Engine Diagram
would influence this diagram in an internal-combustion engine may be

listed as follows:
a.
ft.
c.
The diameter of the cylinder and the stroke of the piston. The type of the engine, whether 2-cycle or 4-cycle. The mechanical design, including the questions of port
and gas
velocities.
areas,
jacketing,
The fuel used, the nature of the fuel limiting the temperature d. allowable during compression. The clearance, which is determined by reference to factors b, c e.
and d. The ideal diagram of a gas engine
* is
shown
in Pig. 10.
Gas enters
HORSEPOWER OF GAS ENGINES
39
the cylinder along a&, without friction, at constant pressure. It is compressed along be, without gaining or losing heat, until the piston has reached the end of its stroke at c. Ignition then occurs. The spread of flame is instantaneous, so that the line cd, representing a
temperature and pressure, is straight and vertical. The piston immediately moves forward, the gas expanding behind it along de, again without gaining or losing heat. At e, the piston has reached the outer end of its stroke, the exhaust valve opens, and the gas passes out without friction. The pressure falls instantaneously to that at 6, the remaining low-pressure gases leaving the cylinder (also without
rise of
friction) during the return stroke of the piston along &aThe actual indicator diagram of the 4-cycle type of engine is
shown
in Fig. 11.
along ab,
Gas enters as before during the out-stroke of the piston but port friction wire draws the charge so that the pressure
Machinery, N. Y.
Fig.
11.
Actual Diagram, Four-cycle Type Engine
gradually decreases. The pressure at Z) in a 4-cycle engine may be about 12 pounds absolute (2.7 pounds less than atmospheric pressure) and in a 2-cycle engine about 20 pounds absolute. Compression occurs along 6c, but the curve does not rise as rapidly as the corresponding curve in Fig. 10. This is to be explained on the ground that heat is being given up to the cylinder walls, so that the temperature and pressure of the gas at any point are less than they would otherwise be. It has been found that the curve 6c follows approximately the law
pyn
in
= constant,
-
which P and V are corresponding pressures and volumes and the value of n may be taken at 1.3. Then
for example. important principle in gas engine design may here be suggested. The temperature due to the compression reached at c must not exceed that at which the gases will ignite of themselves. Suppose this tern-
Pb
Fb
PC Fc 1
An
40
No. 65
GAS ENGINE DESIGN

Then by a fun
perature, for the fuel in question to be 600 degrees F. damental formula for gases,
PeV
TC
P F
b
F
and
rb
Fb
P T p r
b
c
(1)
in which the symbol T refers to the absolute temperature, equal to the Fahrenheit temperature plus 460. We have, moreover, as already stated
PC
'
=P F
b
'-
and
P =P
c
(2)
y Combining Equations
(1)
and
(2),
we
find
,3.33
Fb
The value
of
mitted to the of heat from the walls during the suction stroke. Suppose 600 460 200 1060, T b degrees F. We then find Tc
T b depends upon the temperature of the gases when adcylinder, and the warming which they undergo by transfer
+ 460 = 660,
it
to be 200
and
e /l.OBOi- 3 33 = 0.26 the clearance exI =0.206, whence Fb \ 660 / Fb - F, pressed as a fraction of the stroke. Ignition occurs at c; but as the spread of the flame is not instantaneous, the ignition path cd is swerved to the right by the movement of the piston. Further, the resulting rise of temperature attained at d is only a fraction of that which might be expected from a computation based on the composition of the gas. This fact is due to the increase of volume during ignition, the transfer of heat to the cylinder walls, and the slow burning, by reason of which some of the combustion occurs along the expansion path de. The temperature attained at d 3460 degrees absolute, and the corseldom exceeds 3000 degrees F. responding pressure, assuming no important change of volume to occur
Fc
between
and
d, is
given by the formula,
PC
T.
Along the expansion path de some heat is given up by the gas to the Any "after-burning" due to incomplete ignition along cylinder walls. cd will also affect the shape of de. In most cases, the curve in question may be approximately represented by the same sort of formula as that
given for the compression curve.
py n
in
= a constant,
which the value
When
of n, for our present purpose, may be taken at 1.33. the value of n is the same for the expansion curve as for the
compression curve, we have the simple relation:
41
The exhaust valve opens at e, and the gas is forced out of the cylinder against an appreciable resistance along efa- The indicated work is
cdefg
agb.
The Designer's Diagrram
We may now simplify the indicator diagram as in Fig. 12, eliminating the negative loop ag'b and the rounded corners of the diagram in Fig. The in11, and treating the ignition line cd as straight and vertical. dicated work of such a diagram would be represented by the enclosed
area, or,
we may
say,
by
widen
mcbn.
like de,
For an area
'formula
like
mden, subtended by a curve
we have
the
Pd
Fd - P F
e
0.33
Machinery, N.T.
Fig. 12.
Designer's Diagram
the 0.33 being the quantity n 1, where tion representing the curve. Similarly,
is
the exponent of the equa-
mcbn
= PC F
-P F
b
b
,
and
PC
0.3
cdeb
= mden
racZm
= Pd F
- Pe F
F -P F
c
0.33
0.3
Computation of Pressures and "Work

For a
4-cycle engine,
Pb
= 12 X 144 = 1728
P F
b
b
pounds per square
foot.
To
find
P c we
,
write
PC
Fc
Pb
F T
b
and substituting values already given, we obtain:
42
No. 65
1728
0.206
GAS ENGINE DESIGN

pounds per square
foot, about.
Pc=
For
Pd
X X
1060
660
= 13,400
=
P d we
,
have, approximately,
Id
;
Pd = PC
write
Td Tc
3000
13,400
460
= 44,000
x
For
Tc P e we
,
pounds per
sq. foot.
1060
:=Pd
square
Fd
i-33;
P = Pd
e
44,000
0.2061-33
5380 pounds per
foot, about.
Let
Yb
c
y = Fe
c
y d =-D,
b,
the displacement of the piston per stroke.

0.794
But F = 0.206 F whence = Fd = 0.26 D. Then,
F =
b
D; F b
= F =
e
1.26
and
Fc
=D
( \
(13,400
(44,000
0.26)
0.33
(5380
1.26)
0.26)
0.3
(1728
1.26)
6780
(11,4400.33
3490
0.3
2180V
1
= 9750 D.
Under the assumed conditions, viz., a pre-compression pressure of 12 pounds per square inch and a temperature of 200 degrees F., a com1 -' a constant, a temperature after compression of pression curve P7 F. and after ignition of 3000 degrees F., with an expansion 600 degrees a constant, with a piston displacement of D cubic feet, curve Pyi 88 the work per active stroke, measured in foot-pounds, is 9750 D. This must be somewhat reduced to allow for the rounding of corners of the actual diagram, the negative loop agb, Fig. 2, etc., say to 9000 D, which then represents the indicated work to be expected from the engine.
'
Engine Capacity
Let 8 be the piston speed in feet per minute, s the piston speed in A the area of the piston in square feet, a its area in square inches, and N the number of revolutions per minute. The displacement of the piston in cubic feet per stroke is then AS -*- 2N. The number of active strokes per minute depends upon the form of engine. Thus, for 4-cycle engines, we have the following ratio of active strokes
inches,
to total strokes:
Single-acting, 1-cylinder, 1 to 4; 2-cylinder, 2 to>4; 4-cylinder, 4 to 4;

6-cylinder, 6 to 4;
Double-acting, 2-cylinder, 4 to 4;
4-cylinder, 8 to 4.
43
Since there are 2N total strokes per minute, the number of active strokes in a single-acting engine, if 4-cylinder, is 2N; and if 6-cylinder,
6
4
X 2N = ZN.
9000
The indicated horsepowers
of the
two forms
of engine
X 2ND
and
9000
X 3ND
:
are then
and since
D = A8 -4- 2N,
these
33,000 33,000 horsepowers may also be written

:
9000
X 2AN8
0.273A&, and
9000
X 2ANS X 2N
= 0.409AS.
33,000
X 2N A=
a
,
33,000
Empirical Ratings
Since S
and
12
we have
s
for the 4-cylinder engine:
144
I.H.P.
= 0.273 X
X
12
= 0.000158sa.
,
144
If
d be the cylinder diameter in inches, a =3 0.7854<f and

I.H.P.
= 0.000158 X 0.7854sd = 0.000124s<Z

2
2
.
If
the piston speed be taken in feet as in standard nomenclature, then,

I.H.P.
= 0.00149 Sd* =
Sd*
.
670
From
power
this
we may formulate
the following rule:
The indicated horse-
of a single-acting four-cylinder four-cycle engine is equal to the piston speed in feet per minute, multiplied by the square of the cylinder
diameter in inches, and divided by 670. A 4%-inch engine at 800 feet piston speed would then be rated at 28 H. P. Ratings are sometimes based on the cylinder dimensions only, the number of revolutions per minute being regarded as standard. If L
be the length of the stroke in inches,
S=z2LN -j-
12
LN
,
and, for a four-cylinder engine,
LNd
I.H.P.=
4020
=
4020
LNa
X 0.7854 LNa
LNa
3155
I.H.P. per cylinder
LNa
12,620
3155
is then equal to the product of the length of stroke in inches, piston area in square inches, and number of revolutions per minute, divided by 12.62.
At 1000 R.P.M. the indicated horsepower per cylinder
Another method of rating at 1000 R.P.M. may be derived as follows:

I.H.P.
LNd*
4020
Ld*
,
or
4.02
44
No. 65
I.H.P.
GAS ENGINE DESIGN

2
=
d3
Ld
per cylinder.
16.08
If
the diameter of the cylinder equals the stroke,

I.H.P.
we have:
d3
.
per cylinder, or approximately

16.08
16
For
cylinders this becomes:

I.H.P.
md
16
a
.
Effective
Horsepower
be assumed to be 85 per cent of the indicated horsepower. By inserting this value in the formulas for the indicated horsepower per cylinder we find the actual horsepower:
effective
The
horsepower
may
Sd*
jj
LNa
14,900
LNd
Nd
3150
19,000
19,000
to facilitate calcula-
The denominators are given in round numbers tions. They are, however, very close to the exact
values.
Bules Based on Formulas Given

of pressure, temperature, etc., which are approximately correct for four-cycle gasoline automobile engines, the effective horsepower per cylinder may be estimated by any of the following rules:
1.
Under the stated conditions
The product
of the piston speed in feet per
minute times the square
of the diameter in inches, divided by 3150.

2. The product of the stroke in inches, the area of the piston in square inches, and the number of revolutions per minute, divided by
14,900.
3.
inches,
4.
The product of the stroke in inches, the square of the diameter in and the number of revolutions per minute, divided by 19,000. The product of the cube of the diameter in inches times the numThis last rule holds
ber of revolutions per minute, divided by 19,000. good only when the stroke equals the diameter.
Rule 1 appears to be the simplest and most direct. The rule sometimes quoted, giving the horsepower of the whole engine as equal to the diameter squared multiplied by the number of cylinders and divided by 2.5, can be justified only on assumptions of a constant piston speed and fixed length of stroke for all engines. Rules in any one of the four forms given are, however, satisfactory and scientific as long as their application is limited to a specific fuel and specific type of engine. The constants will vary if the rules are extended to cover such cases as:
a.
6. c.
double-acting four-cycle engine using producer gas.

gas.
The same engine using natural gas. The same engine using blast furnace

d.
e.
45
A A
single-acting four-cycle engine using kerosene. single-acting two-cycle engine using kerosene.
The following data will permit of establishing rules for the kinds of engines suggested, as well as for some other forms.
The value of P b , Fig. 12, in two-cycle engines equals 18 to 21 pounds; The value of T b will in four-cycle engines, 12 to 14 pounds, absolute.
range from 140 to 300 degrees F.
of n (the exponent for the expansion curve) vary from being lower in larger engines. The values of the exponent for the compression curve are usually taken slightly smaller, say from T c should not exceed 0.03 to 0.05 less than n for the expansion curve. 450 degrees F. if the gas contains more than 10 per cent, by volume, of hydrogen. In no case should it exceed 600 degrees F.
1.2 to 1.38,
The values
The value
of
Pc
will usually be kept within the following ranges:
In automobile engines, 45 to 100 pounds. In ordinary gasoline engines, 60 to 85 pounds. In kerosene engines, 30 to 85 pounds. In natural gas engines, 75 to 130 pounds. In producer gas engines, 100 to 160 pounds. In blast furnace gas engines, 120 to 190 pounds.
The value
of
T&
will
may, without serious
error, be
seldom or never exceed 3000 degrees F., and taken at this value for all the fuels men-
tioned. The percentages of deduction to be made for the rounding of the corners of the diagram, etc., and losses between cylinder and crankshaft will aggregate from 15 to 25 per cent in four-cycle, and from 30
to 40 per cent in two-cycle engines, being greatest in small engines.
Approximate Horsepower Formulas
for Gasoline Engines*
In the September 3, 1909, issue of Industritidningen Norden, Mr. E. Hubendick reviews the various approximate formulas which have been adopted or proposed by a number of societies and individuals for the horsepower of gasoline engines. In these formulas
D = diameter
N = number
8
7i
= =
of cylinder, of cylinders, length of stroke, number of revolutions per minute.

is:
The French Automobile Club's formula

H. P. H. P.
= 0.07 DW, when the diameter = 0.45 D*N, when the diameter
is
is
given in centimeters. given in inches.
In this formula the mean pressure has been assumed to be 5.3 kilograms per square centimeter (75 pounds per square inch), and the piston speed 5 meters (16 feet 5 inches) per second.
The Royal Automobile Club's (British) formula

H. P. H. P.
*
is:
= 0.0625 D*N, when the diameter = 0.405 D N, when the diameter

2
is is
in centimeters.
given in inches.
MACHINERY, November, 1909.
46
No. 65
Mr. Arnon's formula
is:
GAS ENGINE DESIGN
H. P. =3 0.0061 D'N, when the diameter is in centimeters. H. P. 0.1 D'N, when the diameter is given in inches. Mr. Faroux's formula is:
H. P. H. P.
= 0.0074 D = 0.121 D
2
:
S
8
S:
when the diameter is in centimeters. when the diameter is given in inches.

,
Another French formula

H. P. H. P.
is
as follows:
is
= 0.02562 D*'*N, when the diameter in centimeters. = 0.24 D*:'N, when the diameter given in inches.
is is:
Mr. T. Thornycroft's formula
H. P.
=
35,000
when
when
the diameter
is
given in centimeters.
D
H. P. =3
/Sf'
75
N
,
the diameter
is:
is
given in inches.
2,700
Prof. H. L. Callender's formula
= 0.0875D (D meters, H. P. = 0.565D (D

H.P.
2.5)
N,
when
the diameter
is
is
given in centi-
1) N,
In this latter formula the
when mean
I if
the diameter
given in inches.
to vary in the
'in
pressure
is
assumed
is
same proportion as
and II
the diameter
given
centimeters,
I if
the diameter
is
given in inches.
is:
The Royal Automobile Club's (Swedish) formula

H. P.
H. P.
D SnN
2
when
the diameter
is
given in centimeters.
250,000
D'SnN
15,240
when the diameter
is
given in inches.
In this connection the formula of the Association of Licensed Automobile Manufacturers should be included:
H. P.
= when the diameter given in inches. H. P. = 0.062 D N, when the diameter given in centimeters.
,
2.5
is
is
of the formulas proposed, with fractional exponents, are more cumbersome to use than would be the exact horsepower formula, and
Some
are of very doubtful value for their purpose. It is difficult to understand why one should be given an approximate formula at all, unless the form of that formula be such that it greatly facilitates computations, as compared with the exact formula. In this respect the A. L. A. M.
formula
is
one of the best of those given.
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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
CONTENTS OF DATA SHEET BOOKS

NO. 1. Screw Threads United States, Whitworth, Sharp V- and British Association Standard Threads; Briggs Pipe Thread; Oil Well Casing Gage's; Fire Hose Acme Connections; Worm Thread; Threads; Metric Threads; Machine, Wood, and Lag Screw Threads; Carriage Bolt Threads, etc. No. 2. Screws, Bolts and Nuts. Fillister-head, Square-head, Headle. s, Collar-head and He :agon-hc. J Screws, Standard and Special Nuts; T-nuts, T-bolts and Washers; Thumb Screws and Nuts; A. L. A. M. Standard Screws and Nuts; Machine Screw Heads; Wood Screws; Tap Drills; Lock Nuts; Ej e-bolts, etc. No. 3. Taps and Dies. Hand, Machine, Tapper and Machine crew Taps; Taper Die Taps; Sellers ll.^bs; Fcrew Machine Taps; Straight ind Taper Boil n- Taps; Stay-bolt, W^hout, and latch-bolt Taps; Pipe Taps and Hobs; Solid Square, Round id Spring Screw Threading Adjustable
x
Steel Tools; Taper Turning; Change Gearing for the Lathe; Boring Bars and Tools,
etc.
Chimneys. No. 14. locomotive ~nd Railway Data. Lo. motive Bolters; .earing Pressures for ôcomotive Locomotive Journals;
Rail Sections; Frogs, Switches and Cross-overs; Tires Tractive Force; Inertia of drains; Brakt Levers; Brake R"ds, etc. No. 15. Steam and Gas Engines. Saturated Steam; Steam Pipe Sizes; Steam Engine Design; Volume of CylindersStuffimg Boxes; Setting Corliss Engine Valve Gears; Condenser and A r Pump Data; Horsepower of Gasoline Engines; Automobile Engine Crankshafts, etc. No. 16. Mathematical Tables. Squares of Mixed Numbers; Functions of Fractions; Circumference and Diameters of Circles; Tables for Spacing off Circles; Solution of Triangles; Formulas for Solving Regular Polygons; Geometrical ProClassifications;
;
No. 11. MillingMachine Indexing Clamping; Devices and Planer Jacks. Taules for Milling Machine Indexing; Change Gears for Milling Spirals; Angles for setting Indexing Head when Milling Clutches; Ji.er C nping Devices; Straps and Clamps; Planar Jacks. No. 12. Pipe and Pipe Fitting's. Pipe Threads and Gages: C;ist iron Fittings; Bronze Fitt'nsrs; Pipe Flanges; Pipe Bends; Pipe 'L.mps and Hangers; Dimensions of Pipe for Various Servii es, etc. No. 13. Boilers and Chimneys. Flue Spacing and Bracing for Boilers; Strength of Boiler Joints; Riveting; Boile- Setting;
1
'
Dies.
Morse ~nd Jarno Taper Sockets and Reamers; Drills; Wire Gages; Milling Cutters; Setting Angles for Milling Teeth in End Mills and Ang Jar Cutters, etc. No. 5. Spur Gearing Diametral and Circular Pitch; Dimensions of Spur Gears; Tables of Pitch Diameters; Odontograph
1
Reamers. Sockets, trills and Cutter?. Hand Reamers; Shell Reamers an, Arbors; Pipe Reamers; Taper Pins nvJ Reamers; Brown & Sharpe,
No.
4.
Milling:
Tables; Rolling Mill Gearing; Strength of Spur Gears; Horsepower Transmitted by Cast-iron and Rawhide Pinions; Design of Spur Gears; Weight of Cast-iron Gears; Epicyciic Gearing. No. 6. Bevel, Spiral and Worm GearRules and Formulas for Bevel ing Gears; Strength of Bevel Gears; Design of Bevel Gears; Rules and Formulas for Spiral Gearing; Tables Facilitating Calcu) .tions; Diagram ftr Cutters for Spiral Gears; Rules- and .-'ormulas for Worm Gearing, etc. No. 7. Shafting Keys and Key ways. Horsepower of Shafting; Diagrams and Tables for the Strength of Shafting; Forcing, Driving, Shrinking and Running <>dr..ff Keys; United States Navy Fits; Standard Keys: Gib Keys; Milling Key1
gression, etc.
ways; Duplex Keys. No. 8. Bearing's, Coupling's, Clutches, Crane Chain and Hooks. Pillow Blocks; Babbitted Bearings; Ball and Roller Bearings; Clamp Couplings; Plate Couplings; Flange Couplings; Tooth Clutches; Crab Cone Universal Clutches; Couplings; Crane Chain; Chain Friction; Joints;
Crane Hooks;
No.
9.
Drum
Fori.iulas and Tables for Spring Machine Slides; Machine Handles and Levers; Hand Collars; Wheels; Pins and Cotters; Turn-buckles,
Details.
Spring's,
Scores. Slides
and
Machine
Force; Center of Gravity; Motk Friction; Pendulum; Falling Bodies; 'trerigth of Materials; Strength of Flat Plates; Ratio of Outside and Inside Krdii of Thick Cylinders, etc. No. 18. Beam Formulas and S- uctural Design. Beam Forn-ulas; Sectioi 1 Moduli of Structural S. apes; Beam Charts; Net Areas of Stru, tural Angle: Rivet Spacing; Splices for Channels and Ibeams; Stresses in Roof Trusses, etc. No. 19. Belt, Rope and Chain Drives. Dimensions of Pulleys; Weights of Pulleys; Horsepower of Belting; Belt Velocity; Angular Belt Drives; Hor. ^power transmitted by Ropes; Sheaves f r Rope Drive; Bending Stresses in Wire Ropes; Sprockets for Lii,,c Chains; Formulas and Tables for Various Classes of Driving Chain.
,
No. 17. Mechanics and Strengt terials. WorkCe Energy;
of
;
Ma-
.rifugal
Calculations;
etc.
No. 10. Motor Drive, Speeds and Feeds, Change Gearing and Boring* Bars. Power for Machine Tools: Cutting Speeds and Feeds fo. Carbon and Hlghspêd Steel; Screw Machine Speeds ;.nd Feeds; Heat Treatment of High-speed
1
required
Fan ami Blower Capacities; Hoi Water Main Capacities; Miscellaneous Tables: Decimal Equivalents, Metric Conversion Tables, Weights :ind Specific Gravity of Metals, Weights of Filiels, Drafting-room
Conventions,
r*c.
No. 20. Wiring Diagrams, Heating and and Miscellaneous Tables. Typical Motor Wiring Diagrams; Resistance of Round Copper Wire; Rubber Covered Cables; Cun.nt Densities for Various Contacts and Materials; Centrifugal
Ventilation,
MACHINERY, the monthly mechanical journal, originator of the Reference and Data Sheet C ;ries, is published in three editions the Shop Edition, $1.00 a year;
the Engineering Edition, $2.00 a year, and the Foreign Edition, $3.00 a year.
The Industrial Press, Publishers of MACHINERY, New York City, U. 49-55 Lafayette Street,
S.
A.

Formulas GAS: Engine Design

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FORMULAS AND DATA

GAS ENGINE DESIGN

MACHINERY'S REFERENCE BOOK NO. 65 PUBLISHED BY MACHINERY, NEW YORK

MACHINERY'S REFERENCE SERIES

FORMULAS AND CONSTANTS

GAS ENGINE DESIGN

Suggestions in the Design of Combustion Engines, by HARRY E. DEY -

Formulas and Design

Crank-Shafts for Internal Combustion Engines, by D. 0. BARRETT

The Crank-Case Problem

Commercial Ratings for Internal Combustion Engines, -^ by WILLIAM D. ENNIS :-; \

Industrial Press, Publishers of

49-55 Lafayette Street,

which have won for

MACHINERY, April, 1910.

GAS ENGINE DESIGN

heavy and clumsy that when mounted on trucks they

for passengers or freight, but the systematic cutting

of weight has progressed rapidly.

SUGGESTIONS IN THE DESIGN OP COMBUSTION ENGINES*

to the fact that

MACHINERY, April, 1910.

practically the muffling action.

There should be no side pockets (for valves) in the cylinder heads,

one heat unit

power delivered at the

GAS ENGINE DESIGN

Cylinder and Valves

the inlet valve

inside of the exhaust

Ratio between Bore and Stroke

compression space, which, of course,

As a higher piston speed

Increase of Efficiency of Present Engines

at one-half the stroke.

this charge it will

have the same

facts into consideration

the dead center.

With the present type

power capacity in high

of engine there is a large has often been demonstrated

with automobiles when taken to elevated sections of the country.

FORMULAS AND CONSTANTS FOR COMBUSTION

FORMULAS FOB STATIONARY GAS ENGINE PRACTICE

Thickness of Cylinder Walls

MACHINERY, February and October, 1906.

FORMULAS AND CONSTANTS

the thickness necessary for a

= maximum pressure during normal operation, d = diameter of cylinder.

=a thickness of cylinder walls,

and cylinder ends, a rather high value of the apparent stress

be used in this formula.

has the usual value, 300, this reduces to

Thickness of Jacket "Walls

and Water Jacket

The nearest whole number must,