bUQkZsesfVDl iszfDVlsl

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v/;k;&2

MkVkcs l vo/kkj.kk
Database Concept
User interface : gkykafd cgqr ls ;wtj MkVkcsl dk mi;ksx djrs gSaA ysfdu dqN ;wtj MkVkcsl

dks mi;ksx esa ysus ds fy;s DoSjh ySaXost dk mi;ksx djrs gSaA T;knkrj ;wtj MkVkcsl dk mi;ksx
djus ds fy;s fuEu Vwy dke esa ysrs gSaA ftUgsa aUV ,sUM Vwy Hkh dgk tkrk gSA ;s Vwy fuEu
izdkj gSa %&
1. Forms and Graphical user Inteface: ;g Vwy ;wtj dks oSY;w ,sUVj djus dh vuqefr iznku
djrs gSa] ftuds }kjk igys ls crk;s x;s dk;Z dks iwjk fd;k tkrk gSA blds ckn flLVe DoSjh dks
,sfXtD;wV djrk gS vkSj ;wtj ds crk;s x;s QkWjesV esa fjtYV dks vkmViqV ds :i esa nsrk gSA xzkfQDy
;wtj bUVjQsl ;wtj dks vklkuh ls mi;ksx esa ykus okys Vwy miyC/k djkrs gSAa
izksxkz ej xzkfQDy ;wtj bUVjQsl dks osc czkmtj dk UV,s.M ds :i esa iz;ksx djds rS;kj dj ldrk
gSA ;g blds fy;s og vU; izksxzkfeax Hkk"kkvksa ds }kjk miyC/k djk;s tkus okys QWkeZ vkSj nwljh
lqfo/kkvksa dk mi;ksx dj ldrk gSA bu lqfo/kkvksa dks ,Iyhdsku izksxzkfeax bUVjQsl (API) dgk
tkrk gSA ftuesa java Swing fotqvy csfld ;k fotqvy lh $ $ dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA osc
czkmtj esa HTML ls fMtkbZu fd;s x;s QkWeZ dk mi;ksx cgqrk;r ls fd;k tkrk gSA
2. Report Genrator : ;g Vwy ;wtj ds fy;s igys ls fMtkbZu dh xbZ fjiksVZ esa orZeku MkVk dk
mi;ksx djus dh btktr nsrk gS ;gka fjiksVZ dk QWkjesaV igys ls fu/kkZfjr gksrk gSA bl QkWjesV esa
oSY;wt ml le; mi;ksx fd;s tkus okys MkVkcsl ds vuqlkj mi;ksx gksrh gSA vkSj fokys"kd rFkk
eSustj fdlh fjiksVZ Hkfo"; dh :i js[kk rS;kj djus ds fy;s dke esa ysrs gSaA bl fjiksVZ ds vk/kkj
ij vxys fu.kZ; fy;s tkrs gSaA fjiksVZ tujsVj Vwy ,sls Vwy gSaA ftuds }kjk ;wtj ds ]}kjk i<s tk
ldus okyh lkjkak fjiksVZ rS;kj djrs gSaA blds }kjk bUVsDV djds QkWjesVsM VSDLV o pkVZ cuk;s tk
ldrs gSAa fjiksVZ ds QkWjesV dks iznfkZr djus ds fy;s ;wtj fjiksVZ tujsVj dh lqfo/kk dk mi;ksx
djrk gSA
fjiksVZ tujsVj VwYl tSls fLVy fjiksVZ rFkk ,l-D;w-,y- loZj fjiksfVZax lfoZl miyC/k gSA blds
vykok ,e-,l-vkWfQl] pkVZ tujsVj] ,e-,l- ,Dlsy esa Hkh MkVkcsl dk mi;ksx djds QkWjesVsM
fjiksVZ rS;kj dh tk ldrh gSA
3. Data Analysis Tool : ;g Vwy ;wtj dks bUVDs Vhoyh MkVk dk mi;ksx djus o mudk fokys"k.k
djus dh vuqefr iznku djrs gSaA mijksDr Hkh bUVjQsl flQZ fdlh DoSjh Hkk"kk dk mi;ksx djrs
gSaA ftlds }kjk MkVkcsl flLVe rd ;wtj dh fMek.M Hksth tk lds] vkSj MkVkcsl fMek.M ds
vuq:i MkVk miyC/k djk ldsA
Web Inteface to Database : vktdy osc }kjk UV,s.M ds :i esa foks"k dk;Z fd;s tk jgs
gSa ftlds cgqr ls dkj.k gSa] oso czkmtj ,d lkoZHkkSfed .V,s.M dh rjg dk;Z djrk gSA ftles
nqfu;k ds fdlh Hkh Hkkx ls Hksth xbZ lwpuk,sa (BackEnd) ds :i esa fn[kkbZ tkrh gSAa ;g .V,s.M
fdlh Hkh dEI;wVj ij fcuk fdlh foks"k izkx
s zke dks dke es fy;s mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gSA vkSj

MkVkcsl vo/kkj.kk

25

blls fofHkUu izdkj ds MkVkcsl dks tksMk tk ldrk gSA oso czkmtj ,d LVsVhd VkbZi dk .V,s.M
miyC/k djkrk gSA
Undrelaying database (BackEnd): bUVjfjysVsM MkVk dk lewg MkVkcsl dgykrk gSA ;g
MkVkcsl fdlh ,sUVjizkbt ls lEcfU/kr lwpuk dk lap; djrs gSAa MkVkcsl flLVe dk izkFkfed dk;Z
,d mi;qDr rjhdk miYc/k djkrk gSA ftlds }kjk MkVkcsl esa lwpukvksa dks lap; fd;k tk lds
o vko;drk iM+us ij mi;qDr lwpukvks d
a ks izkIr fd;k tk lds A MkVkcsl flLVe cMh ek=k esa
lwpukvksa dks O;ofLFkr djus dk rjhdk gSA blds vUrxZr lwpukvksa dks fdl izdkj laxzg fd;k tk
ldsA mudk <kapk D;k gks fu/kkZfjr fd;k tkrk gSA rFkk blds vyko MkVkcsl laxzfgr lwpukvksa dh
fcuk vkKk dke djus okyksa rFkk flLVe ds [kjkc gksus ij lqj{kk Hkh djrk gSA ;fn lwpuk,sa dbZ ;wtj
ds fy;s ks;j dh xbZ gks rks vokafNr ifj.kkeksa ls Hkh MkVkcsl dh lqj{kk djrk gSA MkVk fooluh;
cus jgrs gSaA D;ksafd fdlh ,Iyhdsku ds fy; lwpuk vfregoiw.kZ gksrh gSA blfy;s dEI;wVj
oSKkfudksa us MkVk dh O;oLFkk ds fy;s fofHkUu rjhds o vo/kkj.kk;sa miyC/k djk;hgSA ftUgsa cSd,.M
ds :i esa dke esa fy;k tkrk gSA ;g cSd,.M izkslsflax osc loZj dks dke esa ysdj Hkh f;kfUor dh
tkrh gSA ftlds fy;s Java Servlets, Java Server page (JSP) ;k Active Server page (ASP)
dks dke esa fy;k tkrk gSA
cSd,.M esa MkVk dh lqj{kk ds fy;s rFkk mldh fooluh;rk dks cuk;s j[kus ds fy;s daLVUs V yxk;s
tkrs gSaA ;g daLVsUV MkVk dh mi;qDrrk rFkk mlds vko;d foLrkj dks pSdd djrs gSa vkSj mUgha
MkVk dks lap; gksus dh vuqefr iznku djrs gSaA tks bu daLVUs V dks Iyku djrs gSAa
Integration of user Interfac and database : tSlk fd geus ns[kk fd ,Iyhdsku dh
vko;drkuqlkj ge ;wtj bUVjQsl UV,.M rFkk MkVk lap;u cSd,.M djus gsrq MkVkcsl dke esa
ysrs gSaA ;s Front End and Back End ;wtj o izksxzkej viuh vko;rkvksa dks /;ku esa j[krs gq,
fu/kkZfjr djrs gSa buds fy;s dkSulh izksxzkfeax ySaXost ;k ,Iyhdsku izksxzke mi;qDr gksxkA lk/kkj.kr%
fdlh Hkh DBMS izksxzke esa Front End and Back End vyx&vyx okrkoj.k esa cuk;s tkrs gSAa
vkSj mUgsa vyx&vyx VsLV djds ,d lkFk dk;Z djus gsrq tksM+k tkrk gSA blh f;kfof/k dks
Intrageted user interfaca and Database dgk tkrk gSA
;wtj bUVjQsl RkFkk MkVkcsl dks ,d lkFk dk;Z djus ds fy;s nksuksa dk bUVhxsku fd;k tkuk
vko;d gSA osc loZj ij .V,s.M izkslsflax djus ds fy;s osc loZj dks dke esa fy;k tkrk gSA
ftlesa jave Servlets, java Server page (JPS) or Active Server Page dk mi;ksx fd;k
tkrk gSA
Application of Database:
1. Inventory control : bl rjg ds ,Iyhdsku esa Database esa Products ds ckjs esa tkudkjh

lap; dh tkrh gSA ftlds }kjk cktkj esa izkstDs V csps o [kjhns tkrs gSAa bl rjg ds MkVkcsl izksMsDV
ID uke] [kjhn] ewY;] [kjhn fnukad ] fcdk mRikn] mudk fjvkWMjZ ysoy LVksj djrs gSaA bl rjg ds
MkVkcsl dk v/;;u djus ij mRiknd o fjVsyj Hkfo; ds ckjs esa vuqeku yxk ldrs gSa fd mUgsa
dkSulk mRikn dc o fdruk cukuk gS] eaxkuk gS vkSj mUgsa cspus ds volj dgka o dc fey
ldrs gSaA
2. Financial accounting : QkbusfUk;y vdkm.fVax ds {ks= esa MkVkcsl dk mi;ksx mi;qDr

bUQkZsesfVDl iszfDVlsl

26

miHkksDrk dks pquus ds fy;s fd;k tkrk gSA rFkk mudk iwjk fooj.k j[kk tkrk gSA iqjkus MkVk dk
mi;ksx djds vuqeku yxk;s tkrs gSa fd fdlh miHkksDrk dks fdruk Fincance fd;k tk ldrk gSA
vkSj mlds Finance dks pqdkus dh D;k&D;k laHkkouk,a gks ldrh gSaA D;k oks miHkksDrk fooluh;
gksxk vFkok ugha ;s lHkh fu.kZ; ysus ds ckn fokyskd mfpr miHkksDrk dk pquko djrs gaSA blesa
miHkksDrk dh vkfFkZd fLFkfr] ekfld vk;] O;;] iwoZ yksu] fk{kk Lrj] bR;kfn dh tkudkjh MkVkcsl
esa lapl djrs gSaA
3. Pay-Accounting System : blesa MkVkcsl dk eq[; mi;ksx fofHkUu deZpkfj;ksa dh csfld
is] dVkSfr;ka] osru o`f)] Hkks rFkk o`f) fnukad] fy;s x;s yksu bR;kfn ds ckjs esa tkudkjh j[k mudh
osru Lyhi fudkyuk gksrk gSA ftlls fdlh izdkj dh xyfr;ka gksus dh lEHkkouk de gks tkrh gSaA
blds vykok fdlh deZpkjh dh vyx&vyx le; ij fdlh osru o`f) gqbZ D;k dVkSfr;ka gqbZ dh
tkudkjh izkIr dh tkrh gSA
4. Invoicing Managment System : bl izdkj ds flLVe esa MkVkcsl dks fofHkUu izdkj ds
ysu&nsu] fcfyax] dskcqd] esUVsuUs l o fofHkUu izdkj ds LVsVesUV izkIr djus ds fy;s dke esa fy;k tkrk
gSA vyx&vyx [kkrksa o enksa ds [kpZs] izkfIr;kas ls lEcfU/kr lwpukvksa dks lap; djds mudh
vyx&vyx djksa o C;kt bR;kfn dh x.kuk,aa dh tkrh gSaA vkSj lEiw.kZ ys[k cuk;s tkrs gSaA
5. Personal Mangment System/HRD System : bl izdkj ds flLVe esa fofHkUu Jsf.k;ksa
ds vk/kkj ij vyx&vyx ;kstukvksa ls lEcfU/kr MkVkvksa dks ladfyr djds mlds vk/kkj ij fofHkUu
tu mi;ksxh ;kstukvksa dks ykxw fd;k tkrk gS rFkk mu ;kstukvksa ds izHkkoksa ds vk/kkj ij u;h
;kstukvksa ds ckjs esa fu.kZ; fy;s tkrs gSaA
6. Fees managment System : bl rjg ds flLVe fofHkUu fk{kk laLFkkuksa esa fo|kfFkZ;ksa dh
Qhl dk ys[kk tks[kk j[kus ds fy;s dke esa fy;s tkrs gSaA ftlls fofHkUu M~;t
w ] fofHkUu enksa dh Qhl
rFkk M~;w fnukad dk irk yxk;k tk ldrk gSA Qhl dh jlhn fizUV djus rFkk vyx&vyx dkslZ
ds vuqlkj Qhl Lor% x.kuk dh tkrh gSA vkSj mlds vk/kkj ij fofHkUu dkslst
Z ls vk; o O;; dks
tkuk tk ldrk gSA
7. Result Analysis System : bl izdkj ds flLVe esa fofHkUu ijh{kkvksa ds ifj.kke fudkyus
muds vk/kkj ij fofHkUu Js.kh Kkr djus esa MkVkcsl dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA fdlh ijh{kk ifj.kke
dks Kkr djus ds fy;s fofHkUu le; ij gq, VsLV muds iw.kkZd
sa o izkIrkadksa ds vk/kkj ij izfrkr fudkys
tkrs gSaA vkSj mlds vuqlkj Jsf.k;ka] vf/kdre vad gj fo"k; esa] vf/kdre o U;wure vad VksVy o
gj fo"k; esa izfrkr ikl o Qy fo+|kfFkZ;ksa dh x.kuk;as dh tkrh gSAa
8. Addmission Managment System : bl flLVe esa MkVkcsl esa izosk ds fy;s vk;s QkeZ
dh lwpuk;sa lap; dh tkrh gSaA mlds ipkr fofHkUu fu;eksa ds vk/kkj ij izosk gsrq ik=rk dks tkapk
tkrk gSA vkSj mlds ckn izosk gsrq ik= lHkh izos kkfFkZ;ksa dks NkaVk tkrk gSA blds ipkr vkj{k.k
ds vk/kkj ij izos k lwfp;ka cuk;h tkrh gSaA vkSj izosk uk ysus dh fLFkfr esa gksus okys vU; izosk ds
fy; dqy lhVksa ds vk/kkj ij osfVax fyLV rS;kj dh tkrh gSA
9-Insurence Management System : bl flLVe esa fofHkUu esSut
s j^];wfuV eSut
s j]],Qlh rFkk fQYM esa dk;Z djus okys vius }kjk fd;s x;s fctul dk fglkc j[krs gSa vkSj mlds vuqlkj
vius VkjxsV dks izkIr djus ds iz;kl djrs gSaA fofHkUu dkWy ij tkus dh rkfj[k rFkk fofHkUu dkWy

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MkVkcsl vo/kkj.kk

ij D;k izksxzsl gwbZ budk fglkc j[krs gsSa A buds vk/kkj ij fu"dkZ fudkys tkrs gSa fd fdl O;fDr
dks dkSu lh ikWfylh vkWQj dh tk;s o fdl ,fj;k ;k Lrj ds yksx dkSulh ikWfylh dks ysus ds mRlqd
gksxasA
MkVkcsl eSustesaV flLVe
MkVkcsl eSustesaV flLVe ,d ,slk flLVe gS tks MkVkcsl dks eSut
s djrk gS vFkkZr fdlh
MkVkcsl dk lqfu;ksftr fof/k }kjk cU/ku djuk MkVkcsl eSustesaV flLVe dgykrk gSA de ls de
;Ru esa mi;ksxh lwpuk, MkVkcsl eSustesaV flLVe }kjk gh kIr dh tk ldrh gSA bl .kkyh
System esa MkVk dks tksM+uk] gVkuk ;k mls cnyuk fdlh vU; .kkyh ls vklku gS A Mh-ch-,e,l- dk kFkfed y{; ,slk okrkoj.k nku djuk gS] tks fd lqfo/kktud ,oa MkVkcsl lwpuk dks
LVksj djus ,oa fjVho djus ds ;ksX; gksA
MkVkcsl eSustesaV flLVe ds Qk;ns %
1- MkVkcsl ls dkQh gn rd MkVk jhM~;wMsUlh MkVk MqIyhdsku ?kVkukA
2- MkVkcsl ls cM+h gn rd MkVk laca/kh vfu;ferrk dks fu;U=.k djukA
3- MkVkcsl ls vklkuh ls MkVk dks Access djuk A
4- MkVk ds fc[kjko dks jksdukA
5- MkVk dks lqjf{kr j[kukA
Data Models MkVk ekW M Yl
MkVk ekWMy ,sls fHkUu ekWMy gksrs gSa] ftudk mi;ksx MkVkcsl dks fMtkbu djus esa gksrk gSA
MkVk fMtkbu esa MkVk dk o.kZu] MkVk fjyskukhi] MkVk dh Hkk"kk fo"k; tkudkjh vkSj daflLVVsalh
daULkVsDVl tSlh ckrsa kkfey gksrh gSA fofHkUu LVDpj vkSj vewrZrkvksa ,DLVDs kUl ds lkFk fofHkUu
MkVk ekWMy Lrkfor fd, x, gS A
DATA MODELS

Object based Data

Models

Entity Relationship Data

Model

Record based Data

Models
Relational Data Model

Object Oriented Data

Model

Network Data Model

Semantic Data Model

Hierarchical Data
Model

fp= 1 Data Models

vkWCtsDV vk/kkfjr MkVk ekWMYl %
ykWftdy o O;w ysoy ij vkWCtsDV vk/kkfjr ykWftdy ekWMYl dk mi;ksx MkVk dks fMLkbo

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28

djus ds fy, ;qDr gksrk gS A mudh fofk"Vrk bl rF; esa gS fd os dkQh yphyh <kapkxr {kerk
miyC/k djkrs gS vkSj MkVk dULVsUV~l dks Li"V :i ls O;Dr djus dh lqfo/kk nsrs gS A
1- ,aVhVh fjyskukhi ekWMy
2- vkWCtsDV vksfj;saVsM ekWMy
3- flesafVd MkVk ekWMy
4- QaDkuy MkVk ekWMy
1 ,aVhVh fjyskukhi MkVk ekWMy %&
,aVhVh fjyskukhi MkVk ekWMy ml fj;y oYMZ dh le> ij vk/kkfjr gS] tks ewyHkwr
vkWCtsDV ftUgsa ,aVhVht dgk x;k gSS ds laxgz ls cuk gqvk gS A bl le> esa bu vkWCtsDVl ds vkilh
lac/a k Hkh vkrs gS A ,d ,aVhVh fj;y oYMZ dh ,slh oLrq ;k y{; gS] tks vU; oLrqvksa ls fHkUu gS A
fdlh vkWCtsDV esa ,aVhVht dks ,VhC;wV~l ds lsV ls of.kZr fd;k tkrk gS A dbZ ,aVhVht dk vkilh
la?k gh fjyskukhi dgykrk gS A ,d gh dkj dh lHkh ,aVhVht ds lsV vkSj ,d gh dkj dh
fjyskukhi ds lsV dks ek% ,aVhVh lsV vkSj fjyskukhi lsV dgrs gS A
,aVhVht vkSj fjyskukhi ds vykok E-R ekWMy dqN daLVUs V~l dks Hkh nfkZr djrk gS A
MkVkcsl dks ftuds vuq:i gksuk pkfg, A ,d egRoiw.kZ daLVsUV gS A eSfiax dkMZufyVht] ,aVhVht
dh og la[;k crkrh gS] ftuls fjyskukhi lsV ds tfj;s vU; ,aVhVh tksM+h tk ldrh gS A
MkVkcsl dks vkWojvkWy ykftdy <kapk xzkfQDl rjhds ls E-R fp= ds lkFk vfHkO;Dr fd;k
tk ldrk gS] tks fuEu dEiksusUV~l ls cuk gksrk gS A
1- vk;r
&
tks ,aVhVh lsV dks nkkZrk gS A
2- nh?kZ o`r
&
tks ,aVhC;wV~l dks nkkZrk gS A
3- leprqHkqZt
&
;g ,aVhVh lsVl
~ ds chp lac/a kksa dks nfkZr djrk gS A
4- ykbZUl
&
;g ,VhC;wVl dks ,aVhVh lsV~l vkSj ,aVhVh lsVl
~ dh fjyskukhi
ls tksM+rk gS A

fp= 2 E-R Models

2 vkWCtsDV vksfj;aVsM MkVk ekWMy %&
E-R MkVk ekWMy dh rjg] vkWCtsDV vksfj;sV
a sM ekWMy vkWCtsDV ds laxzg ij vk/kkfjr gS A
vkWCtsDV esa blds baLVsUl osfj;scYl esa laxfz gr osY;wt gksrh gS A vkWCtsDV esa dksM laca/kh ckWMht gksrh
gS] tks vkWCtsDV ij vkWijsV gksrh gS A dksM dh bu ckWMht dks esFkM dgrs gS A
vkWCtsDV ftlesa leku dkj dh osY;wt vkSj leku dkj dh esFkM gksrh gS] dks vkil esas

29

MkVkcsl vo/kkj.kk

Dyklst Jsf.k;ksa esa xzqi fd;k tkrk gS A Dykl vkWCtsDV ds fy, ,d dkj dh MsfQusku gS A VkbZi
MsfQusku ls cuk MkVk o esFkM dk ;g dkWEchusku ksxzkfeax ysaXost ,CLVDs V MkVk VkbZi ds
leku gS A
,d ek= rjhdk ftlls ,d vkWCtsDV nwljs vkWCtsDV ds MkVk dks ,Dlsl dj ldrk gS A og ml
vU; vkWCtsDV dh esFkM dks cqykuk invoke djuk gh gSA ;g f;k vkWCtsDV dks eSlt
s Hkstuk
dgykrh gSA bl izdkj fdlh vkWCtsDV dh esFkM dk dkWy baVj Qsl ml vkWCtsDV ds ckg; :i ls
nkZuh; fgLls dks fMQkbZu djrk gSA vkWCtsDV dk vakrfjd fgLlk] bLVsUl osfj;scYl vkSj esFkM dksM
ckgjh rkSj ij utj ugha vkrs gSA bldk ifj.kke f}Lrjh; MkVk ,CLVsDku esa fudyrk gSA E-R ekWMy
dh ,aVhVht ds foijhr izR;sd vkWCtsDV dh viuh loZ/kk fHkUu igpku gksrh gSA tks bles fufgr osY;wt
ls Lora= gksrh gSA bl dkj ,d gh osY;w okys nks vkWCtsDV fcYkdqy fHkUu gksrs gSA fMfLVDVj vkWCtsDV
vkbMsUVhQk;j ds vlkbZuesaV ds }kjk HkkSfrd Lrj ij vkWOtsDVl ds chp fHkUurk cuk,a j[kh tkrh gSA
jsdkMZ vk/kkfjr MkVk ekWMYl %
jsdkMZ vk/kkfjr ykWftdy ekWMy dk mi;ksx ykWftdy o O;w ysoy ij MkVk fMLkbo djus ds
fy, fd;k tkrk gSA vkWCtsDV vk/kkfjr MkVk ekWMy ds foifjr mudk mi;ksx MkVkcsl ds vksojvkWy
ykWftdy LVDpj dks LislhQkbZ djus vkSj bEiyhesaVsku dk mPp Lrjh; fMLIku miyC/k djkus
nksuksa ds fy, gksrk gS A
jsdkMZ vk/kkfjr ekWMyksa dks ,slk uke blfy, fn;k x;k gS] D;ksfa d MkVkcsl dks dbZ dkj ds
fQDl QkWjesV fjdkWM~Zl esa <+kyk tkrk gS A R;sd jsdkMZ Vkbi r; laLFkk esa QhYM ;k ,VhC;wV dks
fMQkbu djrk gS vkSj R;sd QhYM vkerkSj ij fQDl yEckbZ dk gksrk gS A r; yEckbZ okys fjdkWMZ
dk mi;ksx MkVkcsl ds HkkSfrd Lrjh; f;kUo;u dks ljy cuk nsrk gS A
fjysku] usVodZ vkSj gk;jvkdhZ ekWMy ;s rhu :i O;kid :i ls Lohdk;Z fjdkWMZ vk/kkfjr ekWMy gSA
fjyskuy MkVk ekWMYl %
;g ekWMy MkVk vkSj mu MkVk ds chp lac/a kksa dks nkkZus ds fy, Vscy ds laxgz dk mi;ksx djrk
gS A R;sd Vscy esa dbZ dkWye gksrs gS vkSj R;sd dkWye dk fofk"V uke gksrk gS A bl fp= esa rhu
Vscy ls cus fjyskuy MkVkcsl dk uewuk fn;k x;k gS A
Customer Table
Customer ID

Customer Name

Customer Adress

Customer City

101

Raj Kumar

C-12, Shyam Nagar

Jaipur

102

Pooran Singh

142, Chopasani

Jodhpur

103

Parfull Naruka

Aasha Ganj

Ajmer

104

Bharat Kumar

Ram Nagar

Udaipur

105

Vijay Kumar

166, Shiv Nagar

Kota

106

Ram Singh

200/ USD Colony

Delhi

107

Vikas Kumar

North Street

Ajmer

30

bUQkZsesfVDl iszfDVlsl
Account Table
Account No.

Balance

A-10001

50,000

A-20001

25,000

A-20016

35,000

A-40007

1,45,000

A-40013

1,35,000

A-50000

70,000

A-50020

85,000

Depositer Table
Customer ID

Account No.

101

A-10001

102

A-20001

103

A-20016

104

A-40007

105

A-40013

106

A-50000

107

A-50020

;gk Fke Vscy Customer, Customer ds ID, uke] irk] kgj ds ckjs esa tkudkjh nsrh gS] tcfd
nwljh Vscy vdkmUV] vdkmUV ua- o cSyl
as dh tkudkjh nsrh gS A fdUrq nksuksa Vscy ds e/; Depositer
Table ds ek/;e ls fjysku LFkkfir fd;k x;k A Fke Vscy esa ls Customer ID o f}rh; Vscy
esa Account No. ,d Unique dkWye gks budh lgk;rk ls ge nksuksa VscYl esa fjysku dk irk dj
ldrs gSaA
fjyskuy MkVkcsl cgqr kfDrkkyh gksrh gS] D;ksafd MkVk dSls lacfa /kr gks ;k bls MkVkcsl ls
dSls fudkyk tk;sxk A
fjyskuy ekWMy ds xq.k
1- lai.w kZ MkVk Vscy ds :i esa nfkZr fd;k tkrk gS A
2- MkVk ds e/; fjyskukhi dks dkWye osY;w ls nkkZ;k tkrk gS \
3- ;g MkVkcsl es Qsjcny dh fLFkfr esa ,Iyhdsku izksxzke cnyko ykus dh vko;drk dks
[kRe dj nsrk gSA
4- ;wtj dks MkVkcsl dk mik;ksx djus ds fy, HkkSfrd jpuk Lo:i dh Bhd&Bhd tkudkjh

31

MkVkcsl vo/kkj.kk

gksus dh vko;drk ugha gksrh gSA

5- HkkSfrd jpuk Lo:i es fd, x, fdlh Hkh Qsjcny ds f[kykQ ;wtlZ dks laj{k.k feyrk gSA
6- fjyskUl dh iafDr;ksa dks Tuples o dkWye dks ,VhC;wV Attributes ds :i es mYysf[kr fd;k
tkrk gSA
7- fjysku dk R;sd xq.k dk viuk fofk"V eku gksrk gSA
8- ,VhC;wV ;k dkWye ds fy, osY;w ]osY;wt ds lsV esa ls fudkyh tkrh gSA bl lsV dh Mksesu
dgrs gSA
fjyskuy ekWMy ds ykHk
1- <kapkxr ;k jpukRed LorU=rk %& fjyskuy MkVkcsl ekWMy esa <kapkxr LoraU=rk gSA
%&fjyskuy MkVk ekWMy fMtkbZuj dks HkkSfrd MkVk ds C;kSjksa ls eqDr
2- vo/kkj.kkRed ljyrk %&
j[krk gSA fMtkbulZ MkVkcsl ds ykWftdy O;w ij viuk /;ku dsfUr j[k ldrs gSA
3- fMtkbZu ] fz;kUo;u ]j[kj[kko o mi;ksx esa vklkuh %& fjyskuy MkVkcsl ekWMy MkVk o
<kapkxr LorU=rk nksuksa gkfly djrk gSA ftlds dkj.k MkVkcsl fMtkbZu j[kj[kko kklu vkSj
mi;ksx] vU; ekWMyksa dh rqyuk esa dgha vf/kd vklku gks tkrk gS A
fjyskuy ekWMy dh [kkfe;k %
1 - gkMZos;j esa vfrfjDr [kpZ % fjyskuy MkVkcsl flLVe] f;kUo;u laca/kh tfVyrkvksa
vkSj fQftdy MkVk LVksjst C;kSjks dks ;wtlZ ls fNikdj j[krk gS A bls djus ds fy, vFkkZr ;wtlZ
ds fy, phtsa vklku cukus ds fy, fjyskuy MkVkcsl flLVe dks vf/kd kfDrkkyh gkMZos;j
dEI;wVlZ vkSj MkVk LVksjst lsokvksa dh vko;drk gksrh gS A
2 - fMtkbu dh vklkuh [kjkc fMtkbu dks tUe ns ldrh gS % fjyskuy MkVk ekWMy
esa ;wtlZ dks fQthdy MkVk LVksjt
s ds tfVy C;kSjs tkuus dh vko;drk ugha gS A mUgsa ;g Hkh tkuus
dh vko;drk ugha gS fd MkVk okLro esa dSls LVksj gS o bls dSls ,sDlsl djuk gS A
NETWORK DATA BASE MODEL

usVodZ MkVk ekWMy eas MkVk esa jsdkWMZ o fjyskukhi ds laxzg dks fyad ls nkkZ;k tkrk gS vkSj
bUgsa iksbUZ VlZ ds :i eas ns[kk tk ldrk gS A MkVkcsl dks euekus xzkQ ds laxgz ds :i eas vkWxZus kbZt
fd;k tkrk gS A
School

English

Yogita

Hindi

Pushpendra

Maths

Science

Pawan

fp= 3 Network Models

Gopal

Vinod

bUQkZsesfVDl iszfDVlsl

usVodZ
123-

32

ekWMy ds xq.k %
usVodZ ekWMy eas MkVk dks jsdkWMZ ,oa fyad }kjk nkkZ;k tkrk gS A
MkVk ds chp fjyskukhi dks fyad vkSj iksbZaVlZ ls nfkZr fd;k tkrk gS A
nks fjdkWMZ ds chp funsZfkr lac/a kksa dks nkkZus ds fy, lsV dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS vkSj ;s
vkuj
fjdkWM~lZ rFkk esEcj fjdkWMZ ds :i esa tkus tkrs gS A
4- lsV esa vkWuj vkSj esEcj fjdkWMZ ds chp ,d o dbZ i : n fjyskukhi gS A
5- lsV esa esEcj fjdkWMZ rks ,d ls T;knk gks ldrs gS] ysfdu vkWuj fjdkWMZ ,d gh gksxk A
usVodZ MkVk ekWMy ds ykHk %
1 - vo/kkj.kkRed ljyrk % usVodZ ekWMy Hkh vo/kkj.kk ds Lrj ij cgqr ljy vkSj fMtkbu
djus esa cgqr vklku gS A
2 - vf/kd fjyskukhi VkbZi dks gsaMy djus esa l{ke % usVodZ ekWMy ,d ls dbZ (i
: m) vkSj dbZ ls dbZ m : m fjyskukhi dks laHkky ldrk gSA okLrfod thou dh fLFkfr;ksa dks
ekWMy djus esa ;g okLrfod enn gS A
3 - MkVk ,Dlsl esa vklkuh % usVodZ ekWMy esa MkVk ,Dlsl vklku vkSj yphyk gS A
4 - MkVk kq)rk % usVodZ ekWMy fdlh Hkh esEcj dks fcuk vkWuj ds ugha jgus nsrk gS A bl
dkj ;wtj dks igys vkuj fjdkWMZ ifjHkkf"kr djuk pkfg, vkSj mlds ckn esEcj fjdkWMZ A blls MkVk
dh kq)rk cuh jgrh gS A
5 - MkVk dh LorU=rk % usVodZ ekWMy esa tfVy fQftdy LVksjst C;kSjksa ls ksxzke dks vyx
djus iwjh rjg ls ugha oks vkafkd :i ls gh lgh ds fy, vPNk gS A ;g dqN gn rd ;g lqfufpr
djrk gS fd MkVk dSjsDVj fLVdl esa ifjorZu ds dkj.k ,Iyhdsku ksxkz e esa Qsjcny dh vko;drk
u gks A
usVodZ ekWMy dh [kkfe;k %
1 - flLVe dkEIysfDlVh % usVodZ ekWMy MkVk dks usohxskuy ,Clsl dh lqfo/kk nsrk gS]
ftlesa MkVk ,d le; ,d gh fjdkWMZ dks ,Dlsl djrk gS A ;g usohxskuy MkVk ,Dlsl esdfs uTe]
flLVe bEiyhesVa sku dks cgqr tfVy cukrk gS rFkk MkVkcsl ,MfeuhLVsVj] MkVk fMtkbZuj] ksxkz elZ
rFkk ,aM ;wtlZ dks MkVk dks ,Dlsl djus ds fy, baVjuy MkVk LVsDpj ls Qsefs y;j gksuk pkfg, A
2 - LVDpjy LorU=rk dh vuqifLFkfr % pwafd MkVkcsl usVodZ ekWMy es MkVk ,Dlsl djus
dh fof/k usohxskuy flLVe gS rks vf/kdrj fLFkfr;ksa esa MkVkcsl ij dksbZ Hkh lajpukRed ifjorZu
dfBu gksrk gS rFkk dqN fLFkfr;ksa esa ;g vlEHko gksrk gS A
gs j kfdZ d yMkVk ekW M y
gsjkfdZdyekWMy] usVodZ ekWMy dh rjg gh bu vFkksaZ esa leku gS fd MkVk rFkk fjyskukhi
dks ek% jsdkWMl
~ Z }kjk nfkZr fd;k tkrk gS A gsjkfdZdyekWMy jsdkWMZ dks Vh esa vksxZsukbZt fd;k
tkrk gSA

MkVkcsl vo/kkj.kk

33

fp= 4 Heirarchical Models

gsjkfdZdy ekWMy ds xq.k %
1- gsjkfdZdy ekWMy esa fjdkWM~l Vh QkeZ esa vkWxsZukbt fd, tkrs gS A
2- gk;dhZ ,d lqO;ofLFkr Vh gS tks le>us esa vklku gS A
3- MkVk ds chp fjyskukhi fjdkWMZ vFkok fyad ls nkkZ;k tkrk gS A
4- Vh dks uksM~l ds lsV ds :i esa fMQkbu fd;k tk ldrk gS] oSls blesa ,d foks"k rkSj ij
funsZk uksM gksrk gS ftls :V dgrs gS A
5- Vh ds lsV esa ,dek= isjaVs gksrk gS isjsaV ds dksbZ Hkh ugha] ,d ;k vf/kd pkbZYM cPps uksMl
~
gks ldrs gSA
6- gsjkfdZdy ekWMy esa isjVas fjdkWMZ vkdjsl
a ds fcuk dksbZ Hkh fMisM
a Vas fjdkWMZ ugha gks ldrk A
gsjkfdZdy MkVk ekWMy ds ykHk %
1 - ljyrk % pwafd MkVkcsl gsjkfdZdyLVDpj ij vk/kkfjr gS fofHkUu ys;lZ ds chp laca/k
ykWftdyh vo/kkj.kkRed :i ls ljy gS A bl rjg gsjkfdZdyMkVkcsl dk fMtkbu ljy gS A
2 - MkVk lwj{kk % gsjkfdZdyekWMy eas MkVk lqjf{kr jgrk gS A
3 - MkVk kq)rk % pwafd gsjkfdZdyekWMy isjsaV@pkbZYM lac/a k ij vk/kkfjr gS blesa geskk isjsaV
vkSj pkbZYM lsxesVa esa fyad cuh jgrh gS A pkbZYM lsxesVa geskk Lopkfyr rjhds ls vius isjVas jsQjsl
a
djrs gSA bl rjg ;g ekWMy MkVk bafVfxzVh dks c<+krk gS A
4 - dk;Z{kerk % gsjkfdZdyMkVkcsl ekWMy cgqr gh dk;Z l{ke lkfcr gksrk gS A tc MkVkcsl
esa cM+h la[;k esa 1 : n fjyskukhi ,d ls dbZ gks vkSj ;wtj dh fQDl fjyskukhi okys MkVk dk
mi;ksx djds cgqr lkjs VkatsDku dh vko;drk gks A
gsjkfdZdy MkVk ekWMy dh [kkfe;k
1 - f;kUo;u dh tfVyrk % gsjkfdZdyMkVkcsl ekWMy vo/kkj.kkRed :i ls ljy gS vkSj
fMtkbu esa Hkh vklku gS] ysfdu vey esa ykus esa dkQh tfVy gS A MkVkcsl fMtkbZulZ dks fQftdy
MkVk LVksjst dk cgqr vPNk Kku gksuk pkfg, A
2 - MkVkcsl eSustesaV dh leL;k, % gsjkfdZdyMkVk ekWMy eas MkVkcsl vkSj ,Iyhdsku dk
j[kj[kko cgqr dfBu gks tkrk gS A
MkVkcsl ysa Xost
1 - MkVk MsfQusku ysaXost DDL % MkVkcsl Ldhek dks fMQkbu djus esa mi;ksx esa ykbZ

bUQkZsesfVDl iszfDVlsl

34

tkus okyh ysaXost dks MkVk MsfQusku ysaXost DDL dgrs gS A MkVkcsl dks fMQkbu djus ds fy,
mi;ksx esa ykbZ tkus okyh dek.M~l DDL dek.M~l gS A MkVk MsfQusku dek.M~l MkVkcsl LVDpj
ij dk;Z djrh gS A DDL dek.M~l }kjk Vscy dks cukus] Vscy ds LVDpj Ldhek cnyko djus] o
Vscy fMfyV djus ds ;ksx esa yk;k tkrk gS A
2 - MkVk esfuI;wysku ysaXost DML % og ysaXost tks ;wtlZ dks MkVk ,Dlsl ;k esfuI;wysV
djus esa ;ksx yh tkrh gS mls MkVk esfuI;wys ku ysaXost dgrs gS A MkVk ,Dlsl ;k esfuI;wysV djus
~ Z
ds fy, mi;ksx esa ykbZ tkus okyh dek.M~l DML dek.M~l dgykrh gS A DML dek.M~l fjdkWMl
ij dk;Z djrh gS A blesa lwpukvksa] balVZ] fMfyku vkSj viMsku dek.M~l kkfey gksxh A DML
ewyr% nks dkj dh gksrh gS &
(i)
kslhtjy MkVk esfuI;wysku ysaXost % blesa ;wtj dks ;g LisflQkbZ djuk
vko;d gS fd fdl MkVk dh vko;drk gS] mls dSls kIr fd;k tk ldrk gS A
ukWu&kslhtjy MkVk esfuI;wysku ysaXost % blesa ;wtj dks dsoy ;g crkuk
(ii)
gksrk gS fd fdl MkVk dh vko;drk gS ukWu&kslhtjy DML esa ;wtj ;g LislhQk; ugha djrk
gS fd MkVk dSls kIr gksxk A
3 - MkVk daVksy ysaXost DCL % MkVkcsl daVksy djus ds fy, mi;ksx dh tkus okyh ysaXost
s djus okyh dek.M~l DCL dek.M~l
dks MkVk daVky
s ysaXost DCL dgrs gS A MkVkcsl dks daVky
dgykrh gS A DCL dk ;ksx foks"kkf/kdkj ds mi;ksx vkSj MkVk dfefVax MkVkcsl daVky
s djrk gSA
4 - Vk atsDku daVksy ysaXost TCL % MkVkcsl ij vkWijsku fu"iknu dh f;k dks
VkatsDku dgrs gS A tc Hkh MkVkcsl ij ,d fufpr VkatsDku fu"ikfnr gksrk gS] rks ;g fu"iknu
daVksy ds vUrxZr gksuk pkfg, A bl vkWijsku dks fu"ikfnr djus ds fy, tks ysaXost ;ksx esa ykbZ
tkrh gS mls VkatDs ku daVky
s ysaXost TCL ds uke ls tkuk tkrk gS A
,aVhVh fjys kukhi ekWMy
,aVhVh fjyskukhi ekWMy dk mi;ksx vo/kkj.kkRed MkVk ekWMy cukus esa fd;k tkrk gS A
;g lkWVos;j ls LorU= MkVkcsl ds LVDpj o dULVDs V~l MkVkcsl dks vey esa ykus ds fy, mi;ksxh
gS A blls ,lksfl,V MkVk ekWMy fj;y oYMZ MkVk ds fu;eksa ij vk/kkfjr gksrk gS A
,aVhVh fjyskukhi ekWMy ds ?kVd rRo %
,aVhVh % ,aVhVh fj;y oYMZ esa dksbZ O;fDr] LFkku] oLrq] ?kVuk ;k vo/kkj.kk gksrh gS] tks vU;
lkjs vkWCtsDV ls fHkUu gksrh gS A ,aVhVh es kWiVhZt dk lsV gksrk gS vkSj kWiVhZt ds dqN lsV dh osY;w
fofk"V rjhds ls ,aVhVh dh igpku dj ldrh gS A ,aVhVh ,VhC;wV~l ds lsV ls nkkZbZ tkrh gS A
,aVhVh nks dkj dh gksrh gS &
1
LVksax ,aVhVh % LVkax ,aVhVh og gksrh gS] ftldk vfLrRo vU; ,aVhVh ls LorU= gksrk gSA
1LV
nwljs kCnkssa eas ftl ,aVhVh lsV dh kbejh dh gksrh gS] mls LVkx
a ,aVhVh lsV dgrs gSa A
2ohd
2
ohd ,aVhVh % ohd ,aVhVh og gksrh gS] ftldk vfLrRo fdlh vU; ,aVhVh lsV ij fuHkZj
gksrk gS A nwljs kCnksa esa ,slk ,aVhVh lsV ftlds ikl kbejh dh cukus ds fy, i;kZIr ,VhC;wV ugha
gks mls ohd ,aVhVh lsV dgrs gSA
,aVhVh lsV % ,aVhVh lsV] leku dkj dh ,aVhVh dk lsV gksrk gS] bu ,aVhVh dh kWiVhZ ;k
,VhC;wV leku gksrs gS A ,aVhVh lsV dks vk;rkdkj ckWDl }kjk nfkZr fd;k tkrk gS A

MkVkcsl vo/kkj.kk

35

tSls %& fdlh cSad ds xzkgdksa dk lsV

Customer

& fdlh cSad foks"k }kjk fn, x, lHkh dkj ds _.k

Loan

,VhC;wV~l % ,VhC;wV~l dks ,aVhVh dh kWiVhZ ;k djsDVj LVhDl ds :i esa fMQkbu fd;k tk
ldrk gS A R;sd ,aVhVh lsV esa blds lkFk tqM+s ,VhC;wV dk lsV gksrk gS A ,VhC;wVl
~ dks v.Mkdkj
vkfr (Oval Shape) }kjk nfkZr fd;k tkrk gS A

fp= 5 Attribute of Customer

1 - flaiy vkSj daiksftV ,VhC;wV~l % flaiy ;k ,VkWCustomer_Street
fed ,VhC;wV~l os gksrs gS tks Customer_City
NksVs
lcikVZ mifgLlksa esa ugha ckaVs tk ldrs gS A mnkgj.k ds fy, ,VhC;wV LVwMsaV jksy uEcj dks
mifgLlksa eas ugha foHkkftr fd;k tk ldrk gS A daiksftV ,VhC;wV~l os gksrs gS] ftUgsa vkSj NksVs fgLlksa
Customer_Name
eas ckaVk tk ldrk gSA mnkgj.k ds fy, ,VhC;wV LVwMsaVCustomer_Id
use dh rhu miHkkxks esa foHkkftr fd;k tk
ldrk gS A Fke uke] e/; uke] vafre uke A
2 - flaxy osY;w vkSj efYV osY;w ,VhC;wV~l % flaxy osY;w ,VhC;wV~l ogCustomer
gksrs gS] ftlesa
dsoy ,d gh osY;w gksrh gS A mnkgj.k & ,d vdkmaV cSyal
s esa dbZ ckj esa ,d gh osY;w gks ldrh
gS A ;g flaxy osY;w ,VhC;wV dk gh mnkgj.k gS A
efYVosY;w ,VhC;wV] og ,VhC;wV gS] ftlesa ,d ls vf/kd osY;w laHko gS A tSls ,d O;fDr ds
,d ls T;knk Qksu uEcj lEHko gS A
3 - fMjkbZo ,VhC;wV~l % ,slk ,VhC;wV tks fdlh vU; lacaf/kr ,VhC;wV ls fy;k x;k gS] mls
fMjkbZo ,VhC;wV~l dgrs gS A tSls fdlh deZpkjh dh mez Age dh x.kuk MsV vkWQ cFkZ ls dh
tkrh gS A
4 - uy ,VhC;wV % ,slk ,VhC;wV ftlesa uy osY;w gks ldrh gSA uy ,VhC;wV dgykrk gS A uy
osY;w dk mi;ksx rc fd;k tkrk gS tc ,aVhVh ds ikl ,VhC;wV ds fy, osY;w ugha gksrh gS A mnkgj.k
ds fy, fdlh ,aVhVh ,EIyksbZ ds ,VhC;wV Qksu uEcj esa osY;w gks Hkh ldrh gS vkSj ugha Hkh gks ldrh
gS A lHkh deZpkfj;ksa ds ikl Qksu gks] ;g t:jh ugha A ;gk Qksu uEcj uy ,VhC;wV gS A
esfiax dULVsaV~l
E-R baVjkbtst Ldhek dqN dULVsaV~l dks ifjHkkf"kr dj ldrk gS A MkVkcsl ds daVsV dks

36

bUQkZsesfVDl iszfDVlsl

ftuds vuq:i gksuk pkfg, A bl f;k dks esfiax dULVsV~l dgrs gS A

fjys kukhi %
1 - ,d ls ,d fjyskukhi (One to One Relationship) % A esa ,d ,aVhVh B dh
vf/kd ls vf/kd ,d ,aVhVh vkSj B esa ,d ,aVhVh A dh vf/kd ls vf/kd ,d ,aVhVh ls tqM+h gksuh
pkfg,A

a1

b1

a2

b2

a3

b3

a4

b4

fp= 5 One to One Relationship

2 - ,d ls vusd fjyskukhi (One to Many Relationship) % A esa ,d ,aVhVh B esa
fdruh Hkh la[;k esa ,aVhVh ls tqM+h gks ldrh gS A gkykafd B esa ,d ,aVhVh A esa vf/kd ls vf/kd
,d ,aVhVh ls tqM+ ldrh gS A
a5
b3

a4

b2

a3

b1

a2
a1

fp= 6 One to Many Relationship

3 - vusd ls ,d fjyskukhi (Many to One Relationship) %
blesa A esa ,d ,aVhVh vf/kd ls vf/kd B dh ,d ,aVhVh ls tqM+ ldrh gS A gkykafd B
esa ,d ,aVhVh A esa fdruh Hkh la[;k ,aVhVht ls tqM+ ldrh gS A
a1
a2

b1

a3

b2

a4

b3

a5

fp= 7 Many to One Relationship

37

MkVkcsl vo/kkj.kk

4 - vusd ls vusd fjyskukhi (Many to Many Relationship) % A esa ,d ,aVhVh B esa

fdruh Hkh la[;k esa ,aVhVht ls tqM+ ldrh gS vkSj B esa Hkh ,d ,aVhVh A esa fdruh Hkh la[;k esa
,aVhVht ls tqM+ ldrh gS A

a1

b1

a2

b2

a3

b3

a4

b4

fp= 8 Many to Many Relationship

E-R Mk;xz ke

MkVkcsl ds vksojvkWy ykWftdy LVDpj dks xzkfQd :i eas E-R Mk;xzke ls O;Dr fd;k tk
ldrk gS A bl Mk;xzke okyh rduhd dh rqyukRed ljyrk rFkk fp=kRed Li"Vrk E-R ekWMy ds
O;kid mi;ksx eas dkQh fgLlk j[krh gS A
E-R Mk;xzke ijEijk, % E-R Mk;xzke esa ,aVhVht vkSj ,VhC;wVl
~ dks nkkZus dh dqN
Fkk, gS &
1- ,aVhVht dks pkSdksj ckWDl ls nkkZ;k tkrk gS vkSj ,aVhVh dk uke vk;rkdkj ckDl eas
gksrk gSA
2- ,VhC;wV dks lacfa /kr ,aVhVh ls ykbZu ds tfj;s tqMh+ vaMkdkj vkfr ls fn[kk;k tkrk gS vkSj
bls ,VhC;wV use ls ysoy fd;k tkrk gS A
3- ,aVhVh use dks dsfiVy vijdsl vkSj ,VhC;wV use dks Leky ykWojdsl ysVj esa fy[kk
tkrk gS A
4- kbejh dh dks vaMjykbZu fd;k tkrk gS A
5- ,VhC;wV~l dks ,aVhVht ls ykbZu ds tfj;s tksM+k tkrk gS A
E-R Model esa ;ksx fd;s tkus okys flacy %
dh Key
dh og ,VhC;wV ;k ,VhC;wV~l ds lsV gS ftudk mi;ksx ,aVhVh lsV esa ,d ,aVhVh dks nwljh
ls vyx djus esa fd;k tkrk gS A
kbZejh dh % kbejh dh R;sd fjdkWMZ eas ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd QhYM dk lewg gksrk gS] tks
fd R;sd fjdkWMZ dks vyx ls nfkZr djrk gS A ;g MkVk ds eku dh ,d ls vf/kd fof"V dks
jksdrh gS A fdlh Vscy esa fjdkWMZ dks ;wfud rjhds ls vk;MsafVQkbZ djus ds fy, dkWye esa ,aVj dh
xbZ lkjh osY;wt ;wfud gksuh pkfg, vkSj mlesa dksbZ uy osY;wt ugha gksuh pkfg,A
Qksjsu dh % Qksjsu dh dk ;ksx nks VscYl ds e/; laca/k LFkkfir djus ds fy, fd;k
tkrk gS] nksuksa Vscy ds e/; de ls de ,d QhYM dkWeu gksuk pkfg, A Fke Vscy esa ;g dh
kbZejh dh dgykrh gS ,oa nwljh Vscy esa ;g dh Qksjus dh dgykrh gS A Qksjus dh dk eku ckj&

38

bUQkZsesfVDl iszfDVlsl

ckj vk ldrk gSA

Strong Entity

Associative
Entity

Weak Entity

Attribute

Relationship

Multi-valued
Attribute

Primary Key

Derived
Attribute

Many To
Many
Relationship

Many To One
Relationship

One To One
Relationship

One To Many
Relationship

fp= 9 E-R Model esa ;ksx fd;s tkus okys flacy %

lwij dh % ;g ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd ,VhC;wV dk lsV gksrk gS] tks fofk"V rjhds ls fdlh
,aVhVh lsV esa ,aVhVh dks igpku ldrk gS A lwij dh ds fdlh lwij lsV dks Hkh lwij dh ds :i esa
fy;k tk ldrk gS A tSls fd ,d ,aVhVh ds pkj ,VhC;wV A, B, C vkSj D gS] ;fn ,VhC;wV A fdlh
,aVhVh dh fofk"V igpku dj ldrk gS rks A ml ,aVhVh ds fy, lwij dh gS A blh rjg fdlh
,VhC;wV ;k ,VhC;wV dk ,VhC;wV ds lkFk dkWfEcusku lwij dh dgyk ldrk gS A {AB}, {AC},
{AD}, {ABC}, {ABD}, {ACD} vkSj {A, B, C, D} dks lwij dh dgk tk ldrk gS A

MkVkcsl vo/kkj.kk

39

Concept of RDBMS using SQL : sql dk okLrfod laLdj.k IBM dEiuh }kjk San Jose
Research Lab esa cuk;k x;kA IBM ds }kjk cuk;h Hkk"kk dk uke Sequal FkkA Sequal Hkk"kk esa dqN
cnyko djds bls sql uke fn;k x;k ftld iwjk uke LVsDpj DoSjh ySaXost gSA sql us vkt [kqn dks
lkQ :i ls Relational database Language ds :i esa LFkkfir dj fy;k gSA
1986 esa American National Institute rFkk International Organization for Standardization
us sql ds ekud cuk;s ftls sql-86 dgk x;kA vkt t:jr ds vuqlkj sql dks vkSj vf/kd foLr`r fd;k
x;k gSA bldk vk/kqfud laLdj.k sql 1999 gSA
SQL esa fjyskuy MkVkcsl dks mfpr izdkj ls O;ofLFkr djus ds fy;s cgqr ls Hkkx gSa tks

fuEu gSa %&

1. DDL Datadefination language : blds }kjk dek.M dke esa ysdj Relation scheme dks

fMQkbZu esa fd;k tkrk gSA rFkk fjyskUl dks fMfyV o eksfMQkbZ fd;k tkrk gSA
2. Interactive data manipalation_language (DML): ;s fjyskuy ,sytczk o V;wiy
fjyskuy dSYdwyl ij vk/kkfjr LVsVesUV gksrs gSAa blds }kjk u;s fjdkWMZ tksMs tkrs gSAa iqjkus esa cnyko
fd;k tk ldrk gSA rFkk gVk;k Hkh tk ldrk gSA
3. View defination : blesa SQL DDL LVsVesUV gksrs gSa ftuls Viewdks cuk;k tkrk gSA
4. Transaction : blds }kjk Trnasaction dh kq:vkr o vUr dks crk;k tkrk gSA
5. Embedded SQL and dynamic SQL : blds }kjk crk;k tkrk gS fd SQL
LVsVesUV fdl rjQ vU; izksxzkfeax Hkk"kkvksa ds lkFk dk;Z dj ldsaxsA
6. Integrity : SQL ds DDL LVsVesUV ds }kjk Constraints yxk;s tkrs gSa ftudk ikyu djds
gh MkVk Vscy esa LVksj gks ldrk gSA budk ikyu uk djus okys MkVk [kkfjt dj fn;s tkrs gSAa
7. Authorization : SQL ds DDL LVsVesUV ds }kjk MkVk dks Access djus ds vf/kdkj fn;s
tkrs gSaA fjysku MkVkcsl esa MkVkcsl dk lewg gksrk gSA ftudk ,d vyx uke gksrk gSA fdlh SQL
lehdj.k dk ,d csfld LVDpj gksrk gSA ftlds rhu Hkkx Select, from o Where gksrs gSAa
Select : ;g Projection Operatin ls lEcfU/kr gksrk gSA ;g mu vVhC;wV ds uke nsus ds fy;s
mi;ksx esa fy;k tkrk gSA ftUgsa ge vkmViqV esa ns[kuk pkgrs gSAa
From : ;g Cortesion_product ls lEcfU/kr gksrk gSA blds }kjk ml fjysku dks crk;k tkrk
gS ftlls ,Dlizsku dks izkIr gksrk gSA
Where : ;g Selection operation ls lEcfU/kr gksrk gSA ;gka vVhC;wV ls lEcfU/kr d.Mhku
dks crk;k tkrk gSA tks From clause dh Vscy ij ykxw fd;s tkrs gSaA
Data Mining :- MkVk ekbZfuax dks lk/kkj.k rkSj ij cM+s MkVk csl ls pkgs x;s mi;ksxh MkVk
fudkyus dh rduhd dgk tk ldrk gSA vkfVZfQfk;y bUVsyhtsUlh o lkaf[;dh ds {ks= esa mi;ksxh
gSA MkVk ekbZfuax ekhu yfuZax ls vUrj j[krh gSA tks LFkk;h :i ls LVksj fd;s x;s gksrs gSa ls pkgs
x;s vkadMksa dks pquus dk dk;Z djrh gSA vr% MkVk ekbfuaax MkVkcsl ls ukWyt
s yssus dk dk;Z
djrh gSA
bl izdkj dh ukWyt
s fMLdojh gsrq dqN fu;eksa dk ikyu djuk gksrk gSA tSls ,d ;qod ftudh
ekfld vk; 50]000 ls vf/kd gS NksVh dkj ysuk ilUn djrs gSaA ;g fu;e geskk lR; ugha gksrk
gSA rFkk blds lgh gksus dk vuqikr vyx&vyx gks ldrk gSA nwljh rjg dh ukWyst lehdj.kksa ds

bUQkZsesfVDl iszfDVlsl

40

}kjk vyx&vyx ,d nwljs ls lEcfU/kr pjksa ds }kjk iznfkZr dh tkrh gSA ftuesa dqN pj dk eku
gesa Kkr gksrk gSA LVksj fd;s x;s MkVk vyx&vyx rjg gks ldrs gSsa ftUgsa izkIr djus ds fy;s
vyx&vyx rjhdk dke esa ysuk gksrk gSA
lk/kkjr;k MkVk ekbZfuax esa ,d oS;fDrd Hkkx gksrk gS tks izkslfs lax ls iwoZ Lohdk;Z iSVuZ tkapus
dk dk;Z djrk gSA rFkk nwljk Hkkx MkVk ds ipkr fudkys x;s MkVk ls mi;qDZr }kjk pquus dk dk;Z
djrk gSA ,slk lEHko gS fd fdlh MkVk esa cgqr ls mi;ksxh iSVuZ gksaA vr% muesa ls mi;qDZr dk pquko
djus ds fy;s oS;fDrd rkSj ij pquko djuk gksrk gSA blh dkj.k MkVk ekbZfuax dks v()ZLopkfyr
fof/k ekuk x;k gSA
Data Warehousing :- cM+h dEifu;kasa ds dbZ txg ij dk;kZy; gksrs gSaA gj dk;kZy; esa cgqr
cMs MkVk ,d= fd;s tkrs gSaA tSls & bUkksusUl dEiuh rFkk dkWyt
s cgqr cM+h la[;k esa gksrs gSa vkSj
gj yksdy dEiuh o dkWyst esa vkadM+ksa dh la[;k gtkjksa yk[kksa esa gks ldrh gSA blds vykok bu
dEiuh o dkWyt
s ksa esa vyx&vyx Js.kh esa iz.kkyh esa Hkh vUrj gks ldrk gSA tSls ,d mRiknd dEiuh
vius }kjk mRikfnr izkM
s sDV dh tkudkjh j[kus ds fy;s vyx&vyx MkVkcsl dk mi;ksx djrh gSA
ysfdu fokys"kd bu lHkh vkadMksa dk mi;ksx djrh gSA ftlls fd lgh fu.kZ; fy;s tk ldsa mlds
}kjk dke esa ykbZ xbZ rduhd vyx gks ldrh gSA blds vykok MkVkcsl esa T;knkrj orZeku MkVk
gh lqjf{kr j[kk tk ldrk gSA tcfd fokys"kd iwoZ MkVk Hkh mi;ksx esa ysrs gSaA MkVkos;j gkml bUgh
leL;kvksa dk lek/kku djrk gSA
MkVkos;j gkml fofHkUu lk/kuksa ds ek/;eksa ls izkIr lwpuk,sa lap; djus dk rjhdk gSA MkVkos;j
gkml dks ,d ckj fufeZr djus ds ckn yEcs le; rd iqjkuk MkVk LVksj fd;k tk ldrk gSA vr%
MkVkos;j gkml mi;ksxdrkZ dks ,d ,fdr rjhdk miyC/k djkrk gSA vkSj fokys"kd MkVkos;j
gkml ls MkVk izkIr djrs oDr lqfufpr dj yssrs gSa fd bl izf;k ds nkSjku vkWuykbZu flLVe dh
dk;Ziz.kkyh izHkkfor uk gksA
Data Dictionary :- dqN le; igys rd ge izLrqfrdj.k ds lac/a k dks gh ekurs FksA ,d
fjyskuy MkVks csl flLVe dks laca/k ds vuqlkj MsVk dks O;ofLFkr djus dh vko;drk gksrh gSA
tSls lEcU/kkas dk vkUrfjd Lo:i (Schema) bl izdkj dh lwpukvksa dks MsVk fMDkujh ;k dsVykWx
dgrs gSaA
fuEufyf[kr esa ls lwpukvksa dks fdlh Hkh izdkj ls lap; fd;k tk ldrk gS %&
1- lEcU/kksa dk uke
2- lEcU/kh ds xq.kksa dk uke
3- xq.kksa dh yEckbZ o Mksesu
4- MsVkcsl esa ifjHkkf"kr fd;s x;s O;w dk uke] O;w dh ifjHkk"kk
5- la;qDr ikcfUn;k (Integrity constraints)
blh ds lkFk] fofHkUu flLVe blh izdkj dk MkVk ;wtj ds flLVe ij j[krs gSa %&
1- ekU; mi;ksxdrkZ dk uke
2- mi;ksxdrkZ dh okf.kfT;d lwpuk
3- vU; lwpuk tSls ikloMZ tks fd ;wtj&dh ekU;rk dks fu/kkZfjr djrk gSA
MsVkcsl esa lEcU/kksa dk lkaf[;dh o foLr`r MsVk fd;k tkrk gS tSls %

MkVkcsl vo/kkj.kk

41

1- lEcU/kksa esa vkus okys fjdkWMZ dh la[;k

2- lEcU/kksa dks lap; djus dk rjhdk
MsVk fMDkujh esa lapf;r laxBu dks Hkh eq[; :i fn;k x;k gSA tSls ghi] gSk vkfn
1- ;fn lEcU/k vkiWjsfVax flLVe QkbZy esa lap; fd;k x;k gS rks fMDlujh ml QkbZy dk uke lqjf{kr
djsxhA
2- ;fn MsVk csl ds lHkh lEcU/k ,d gh QkbZy esa gS rks fMDlujh mu lHkh fjdkW M Z dk
CykWd lqjf{kr djsxhA tSls fyad fyLV ds lekuA
gesa izR;sd bUMsDl ds ckjs esa lwpuk vkSj izR;sd fjysku dh vko;drk gksrh gS tks fuEu izdkj gS %&
1- bUMsDl dk uke
2- lEcU/k dk uke ftlls bUMsDl fd;k x;k gSA
3- og xq.k ftl ij bUMsDl ifjHkkfkr fd;k x;k gSA
4- bUMsDl cukus ds izdkj
bl izdkj dh lHkh lwpukvksa o izHkko fefups;j MsVkcsl dgykrs gSaA dqN MsVkcsl bl izdkj dh
lwpukvksa dks foks"k izdkj ds MsVk LVDpj o dksM esa lap; djrs gSaA eq[; :i ;s ;g izpfyr gS fd
MsVkcsl ds fy;s MsVk lap; MsVkcsl esa gh lap; gksuk pkfg,A flLVe dk izdkj MsVk dSls iznfkZr gks
bldk fu.kZ; flLVe fMtkbZuj djrk gSA ,d lEHkkfor izLrqfrdj.k fuEu izdkj gSA ftlesa izkbejh
dh dks js[kkafdr fd;k x;k gSA
MetaData :- fdlh MsVk os;j gkml ds fy;s esVkMkVk cukuk ,d vR;kf/kd dfBu dk;Z gSA
esVk kCn ,d xzhd kCn gS ftldk vFkZ gS lkFk essa] ckn esa vkSj dksbZ ,d
esVk MkVk ,d lwpuk gS tks fd vU; tkudkjh iznku djrh gSA MsVkos;j gkml esa esVkMkVk
fofHkUu izdkj dh ifjfLFkfr;ksa ds fy;s mi;ksx esa yh tkrh gSA esVk MkVk ds lEcU/k esa lwpuk dks dgk
tkrk gSA esVk MkVk dks fuEu ds fy;s mi;ksx esa yk;k tkrk gS %&
1- MsVk dks cnyuk vkSj yksM djus gsrq
2- MsVk dh O;oLFkk ds fy;s
3- DoSjh dks cukus gsrq
Relation-Metadata (relation-name, no_of-Attribute, Storage-org, locaility)
Attribute_Metadata (Athivute-naem, relation-name, domain_type, position, length)
Index-Metadata(Index-name, relation-name, index-type, ind-attribute)
View-Metadata(view-name, defination)
Object Oriented modeling using UML : fdlh lkWVos;j flLVe esa ER Diagram MkVk

dks fjiztsUV djus okys dEiksusUV ds :i esa enn djrk gSA gkykafd MkVk fjiztUs Vsku fdlh flLVe
dk ,d ikVZ gh cukrk gS] flLVe ds nwljs Hkkx ;wtj bUVjsdku] ekWMy dk LislhfQdsku rFkk bu
Hkkxksa dk vkil esa lEcU/k gSaA
;wfuQkbZM ekWMfyax ySaXost ,d LVs.MMZ gS tks fd vkWCtsDV eSustesUV xzqi ds }kjk cuk;h x;h
gSA ;g ySaXost flLVe ds fofHkUu dEiksusUV dk LislhfQdsku rS;kj djus esa lgk;d gSA
UML ds fuEu Hkkx gSa&
* Class diagram: ;g E-R Mk;xzke tSlk gksrk gSA
* Use-case-diagram : ;g Mk;xzke flLVe o ;wtj esa bUVjsDku dks crkus dk dk;Z djrk

bUQkZsesfVDl iszfDVlsl

42

gSA eq[; :i ls mu LVsi dks crkrk gS tks ;wtj fdlh dk;Z dks djus ds fy; mi;ksx esa ykrk gSA
* Activity Diagram : bl Hkkx }kjk fdlh dk;Z dks djus ds fy;s flLVe ds fofHkUu Hkkxksa
esa fdl izdkj lkeatL; yks gksrk gS] crk;k tkrk gSA
Inplementation diagram : ;g flLVe dEiksusUV o muds bUVjdusDku dks crkrk gSA blesa
gkMZos;j dEiksusUV o lkWVos;j dEiksuUs V kkfey gksrs gSAa
UML entity sets dks box ds :i esa iznfkZr djrk gSA UML okLro esa vkWCtsDV dks cukrh gSA
vkWCtsDV ,sUVhVh dh rjg gksrs gSa vkSj muds vVhC;wV Hkh gksrs gSa ij ;s lkFk gh QaXku esFkM ds cukrs
gSa tks vVhC;wV fn;s tkus ij vkWCtsDV }kjk fd;k tk;sxk rFkk lkFk gh ;s vkWCtsDV dks viVwMsV djrs
gSaA
ge UML ds }kjk ckbusjh lEcU/kksa dks Hkh crk ldrs gSaA blds fy;s flQZ nks ,sUVhVh dks tksM+us
okyh ykbu cuk;h tkrh gSA vkSj bl ykbu ij fjyskufki dk uke fy[k fn;k tkrk gSA bl ykbu
ij ge jksy uEcj fy[k dj ;g Hkh crk ldrs gSa fd ,d ,sUVhVh fdlh fjyskufki esa D;k jksy vnk
dj jgh gSA
UML 1.3 ukWu ckbusjh fjyskufki dks liksVZ djrk gSA bls fjiztUs V djus ds fy;s igys ckbujh
fjysku esa cnyk tkrk gSA
UML esa dULVsUV Hkh mlh izdkj crk;s tkrs gSa tSls fd ER ekWMy esAa budh QkeZ l...h ls fn[kkbZ
tkrh gSA tgka l ls de ls de o h T;knk ls T;knk fjyskufki dks nkkZrk gS tks fd dksbZ ,sUVhVh
fuHkkrh gSA ;gka dUlVsUV dks Lrj E-R Mk;xzke esa dULVsUV ds Lrj dk foifjr gksrk gSA tSls fp=
esa crk;k x;k gSA
dUlVsUV 0...* E2 lkbM esa rFkk 0---1 E, lkbZM esa ;g crkrk gS fd E2 ,sUVhVh flQZ ,d
fjyskufki esa rFkk E1 ,sUVhVh cgqr lh fjyskufki esa Hkkx ys ldrh gSA nwljs kCnksa esa dg ldrs
gSa fd E1 ls E2 esa fjyskufki esuh Vw esuh gSA ,d eku tSls 1 o * fdlh ,d lkbZM fy[kk tkrk
gSA vkSj ,d eku 1 fdlh lkbZM 1...1, k rFkk * 0...* cjkcj ekuk tkrk gSA
UML ds }kjk tujyykbZts ku o LislhykbZts ku dks cukus ds fy;s ykbZu ds ,d fljs ij
f=Hkqt ds }kjk tksM+k tkrk gS ;g f=Hkqt tujy ,sUVhVh lsV dh vksj gksrk gSA tSlk fd ,sUVhVh lsV
- Person costumer vkSj Employee dk tujykbZts ku gSA
UML fp= disjoint constreints o tujykbZts ku ij Overlaping dks Hkh vyx ls crkrk gSA
;g fp= esa Costmer ;k Employee dk Person ls crk;k x;k gSA ;fn Costmer ;k Employee dk
Person ls fMltksbV tujykbZts ku gS rks bldk eryc gS fd dkssbZ Hkh Costmer o Employee nksuksa
ugha gks ldrkA ,d Overlapping Gevieralization ;g btktr nsrk gS fd ,d Person ,d
Costmer rFkk Employee nksuksa gks ldrk gSA
Client-Server System :- tSls O;fDrxr dEI;wVj QkLV] vf/kd o l{ke o lLrs gksrs tk
jgs gaSA os lsUVykbt flLVe ls nwjh cuk jgs gSaA ;s dEI;wVj lsUVjykbt flLVe ls tqM+s VfeZuy dh
txg ysrs tk jgs gSaA blds vljLo:i vkt lsUVj flLVe loZj dh Hkwfedk fuHkkrs gSa tks Client
flLVe dh Request dks Satisfy djrs gSaA fuEu fp= esa Client server dk LVDpj crk;k x;k gSA

MkVkcsl vo/kkj.kk

fp= 10 UML

43

44

bUQkZsesfVDl iszfDVlsl

Client 1

Client 2

Client 4

Client 3

Server
Network
fp= 11 Client-Server System
MkVkcsl ds dk;Z nks Hkkxksa esa CkaVs gksrs gSaA Front end rFkk Back End

SQL User
Interface

Form
Interface

Report
Writer

Graphical
Interface

Front End

Interface (SQL+API)

SQL Engine
Back End

fp= 12 Front end rFkk Back End

Back end MkVk dks dke esa ysus dk rjhds dk fu;af=r Optimize, Concurrency control o
recovery dk dk;Z djrk gSA ogha Front End dqN [kkl VwYl forms, report vkSj GUI ls lEcfU/kr
gksrk gSA bu nksuksa End ds e/; lkeatL; cSBkus dk dke SQL ;k ,sIyhdsku izksxzke ds }kjk fd;k
tkrk gSA
OBBC o JDBC ekud Client o Server ds e/; Interface dk dk;Z djus ds fy;s fufeZr fd;s
x;s gSAa igys Client o Server lkWVos;j ,d gh dEiuh }kjk miYc/k djk;s tkrs FksA ysfdu rduhd
esa o`f) gksus ds dkj.k Front-End user interface o back End Server vyx&vyx dEiuh }kjk
miyC/k djk;s tkrs gSaA Application development Tools dks ;wtj bUVjQsl ds fy;s dke esa fy;k
tkrk gSA
vk/kqfud ;qx esa fdlh usVodZ esa ;fn vyx&vyx dk;Z ds fy;s vyx&vyx foks"kK dEI;wVj
yxk fn;s tkrs gSaA rFkk ;s dEI;wVj vius dk;Z ds vykok nwljk dk;Z ugha djrs loZj dgykrs gSaA
rFkk vU; dEI;wVj tks flQZ yksdy izkslsflax dk dk;Z djrs gSaA rFkk nwljs dk;kZsa ds fy;s foks{kK
dEI;wVj ij vk/kkfjr jgrs gSa DykabVZ dEI;wVj dgykrs gSAa bl rjg dk usVodZ DykbaV&loZj usVodZ

45

MkVkcsl vo/kkj.kk

dgykrk gSA bl flLVe esa yksdy o Xykscy nksuksa izdkj dh izkl

s fs lax djk;h tkrh gSA vkSj ;s izkl
s fs lax
iwoZ fu/kkZfjr gksrh gSA fd DykabV D;k dk;Z djsaxs o loZj D;k dk;Z djsaxsA

vvvvvvvvvcvcvcvvvv
vH;kl iz'u H;kl iz'u %
vvvvvvvvvcvcvcvvvvvH;kl
cgq p ;ukRed iz ' u

1-

fjysku MkVkcsl esa MkVkcsl dk vFkZ gSA

v rdZ
c Vsfcy
l fjrk
n laca/k
2MkVkcsl ,Iyhdsku ds eq[; Hkkx gSA
v .V,s.M] csd ,.M
c ;wtj] MkVk
l Vsfcy] MkVk
n MkVk] fQYM
3fofHkUu {ks=ksa esa dEI;wVj ds mi;ksx ls laHko gSA
v le; dh cpr
c esu ikoj dh cpr
l x.kuk;sa de djuk
n mijksDr lHkh
4,sUVhVh ls vFkZ gSA
v Vsfcy
c fQYM
l fjdkWMZ
n buesa ls dksbZ ugha
5,l-D;w-,y-dk iwjk uke gSA
v flDosal DoSjh ySaXost
c lsUVsDl DoSjh ySXost
l LVDpj DoSjh ySaXost
n mijksDr lHkh
6vVhC;wV dk izdkj ugha gSA
v flaxy
c eYVhoSY;wM
l dEiksftV
n Mcy
vfry?kqjkRed izu
1 - ;wtj bUVjQsl dk vFkZ gSA
2- MkVkcsl dks ifjHkkf"kr djksA
3- ,sUVhVh D;k gSA
4- vaVhC;wV D;k gksrs gSaA
5- loZj dk eq[; dke D;k gSA
y?kq j kRed iz u
1- ER Mk;xzke dks le>kvksa
2- ER Mk;xzke esa dke vkus okys fofHkUu fp= dkSuls gSAa
3- fofHkUu izdkj dh fjyskufki dks mnkgj.k lfgr le>kvksa
4- fk{kk ds {ks= esa MkVkcsl eSustesUV flLVe dk D;k dk;Z gSA
5- MkVk fefuax D;k gSA
6- esVk MkVk dk D;k mi;ksx gksrk gSA
7- flLVe MoyiesUV ykbZi lkbfdy ij laf{kIr fVIi.kh fy[kksA
fucU/kkRed iz u
1- DBMS dh mi;ksfxrk ij ys[k fyf[k,A
2- fjysku MkVkcsl flLVe D;k gSA bldk ego crkbZ;sA
3- .V,s.M o cSd,.M D;k gSA ;g D;kas vko;d gSA
4- MkVkos;j gkl ij ys[k fy[ksaA
5- UML dk fdl izdkj mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA
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