NRLF

B M

ES3 7Et

r^l^/V

LIBRARY
OF TIIK

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
GIKT OK
Mrs.

SARAH

P.

WALSWORTH.
Class M).
...

Received October, 1894.

Accessions No.S+fif-l, 5~~"

The frontispiece consists of two copper-plate engravings, one printed from an engraved plate, and the other from an electrotype copy taken from it in the mode described on page 204. The engravings are introduced for the purpose of showing the accuracy of the copies obtained by this process.

D A V

S'S

MANUAL

OE MAGNETISM.
INCLUDING ALSO

ELECTRO-MAGNETISM, MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY, AND THERMO-ELECTRICITY.

WITH A DESCRIPTION OF THE ELECTROTYPE PROCESS.

FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS AND LITERARY INSTITUTIONS.

WITH

100

ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS,

BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY DANIEL DAVIS,
MAGNETICAL INSTRUMENT MAKER,
No. 11 Cornhill.
J

1842.

Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1842, by

DANIEL DAVIS,

JR.

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts.

WILLIAM

8.

DAMHELL,

PRINTER,
NO. 11 CORNHILL.

PREFACE
MAGNETISM and Electricity have become related sciences within so short a period, and their growth has "been so rapid, that many important facts which
have been observed have not yet been collected in any scientific treatise, and the amount of unwritten

For knowledge has been constantly increasing. this reason it has been necessary, in preparing the
following work, which
to the
fuller
is

intended as a companion

apparatus manufactured by me, to give a

view of these

sciences,

and more minute

descriptions of

the instruments and experiments designed to illustrate them, in their relation to each other, than would otherwise have been required.

This Manual, therefore, will answer the purpose of an elementary treatise on those branches of
science to
text-book.

which

it

relates,

and

may

be used as a

VI

PREFACE.
The
aid of several gentlemen
scientifically ac-

quainted with the subject has been obtained in

describing the various instruments, the experiments

which may be performed with them, and the prinThe object, which ciples on which they depend.
has been kept in view, is in all cases simply to state the facts which have been observed, and to generalize them only so far as the progress of discovery has fully authorized. The theories concerning magnetism and electricity in their relation to each other,

which have been discussed in the scientific journals of Europe and America, must yet be regarded as
hypothetical,

and have been

as far as

possible

avoided.
It will

be found that

recorded here, and

scribed, are

new.

many of the observations many of the instruments deWood cuts have been introduced,

wherever, from

the nature of the instrument or

experiment under consideration, it has been deemed advisable in order to ensure a clear comprehension
of the subject.

BOSTON, AUGUST,

1842.

CONTENTS,

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.
Page

DEFINITIONS

AND EXPLANATIONS,

PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
1.

2.
3.

MECHANICAL OR FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY, GALVANIC OR VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY,

THERMO-ELECTRICITY,

7
21

4.

ANIMAL ELECTRICITY,

34

MAGNETISM.
CHAPTER
IN
I.

DIRECTIVE TENDENCY OF THE MAGNET.

1.

2. 3.

IN REFERENCE

REFERENCE TO ANOTHER MAGNET, TO A CURRENT OF ELECTRICITY,

35

43
52

IN REFERENCE TO THE EARTH,

Vlll

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER
1.

II.

INDUCTION OF MAGNETISM.
2.
3.

BY THE INFLUENCE OF A MAGNET, BY THE INFLUENCE OF A CURRENT OF ELECTRICITY, BY THE INFLUENCE OF THE EARTH,

Page. 61

68
122

CHAPTER

III.

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
1.

2.
3.

BY THE INFLUENCE OF A CURRENT OF ELECTRICITY, BY THE INFLUENCE OF A MAGNET BY THE INFLUENCE OF THE EARTH,

125

153
197

THE ELECTROTYPE PROCESS.

1.

2. 3.

ORIGIN OF THE ELECTROTYPE, PROCESSES FOR ELECTROTYPES IN COPPER,

199

200
. .

PROCESSES FOR GILDING, SILVERING, AND PLATINATING,

205

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.
DEFINITIONS
1.

AND EXPLANATIONS.

The term magnetism expresses the of attraction,repulsion, &c., possessed, peculiar properties under certain circumstances, by iron and some of its
MAGNETISM.
compounds, and in a feebler degree by the metals nickel and cobalt. Hammered brass is said to be sometimes
magnetic.
ties is also

The

science which treats of these proper-

called magnetism.

relates to the

ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. That branch of science which development of magnetism by means of a

current of electricity, is called electro-magnetism. It of in in be treated section and will 2, chapter I, chapter
II, section 2.

MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY
electricity

treats

by the

influence of magnetism,

of the development of and will form

the subject of chapter III, section 2.

2. THE MAGNET. Any body in which the magnetic phenomena manifest themselves, is called a magnet. It may be of any form, but it must be composed in whole

or in part of iron, nickel, or cobalt. NATURAL MAGNETS. Certain ores of iron are found to

be possessed of the magnetic properties

state.

in their natural

These are
1

called natural magnets, or loadstones.

DANIEL DAVIS,
ARTIFICIAL MAGNETS.

JR.'s

MANUAL.

Bodies of whatever form or

is

composition, in which magnetism are called artificial magnets.

3.

artificially

induced,

INDUCTION OF MAGNETISM.

Whenever magnetic

properties are developed in bodies not previously possessed of them, the process is termed the induction of

magnetism.

When

this

is

effected

by the influence of

a magnet, it is called magnetic induction : when current of electricity, electro-magnetic induction.

by a

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY, is whenever electricity developed by the influence of other electricity in its In neighborhood, or by the influence of magnetism.
is

order to distinguish the inductive action of an electric

current from the static induction of electricity at the former is called electro-dynamic induction.
rest,

The

is

development of electricity by the influence of a magnet termed magneto-electric induction.

4.

POLES.

The

selves principally at the

magnetic phenomena manifest themtwo opposite extremities of the

as may be shown with regard to the attractive the following experiment by EXP. 1. Immerse a magnet in iron filings and then withdraw it. A considerable quantity of the filings will be found to adhere to its ends, while few it; being accumulated most abundantly about

magnet:

force

or none will be attached to

its

middle : thus proving the attractive

force to be strongest at the extremities, and to diminish rapidly as the distance from them increases, until it becomes entirely These extremities are called the insensible at the middle point.
poles of the

magnet
earth itself
is

5.

The

found to possess the properties

of a magnet, having magnetic poles corresponding nearly in their direction with the poles of its diurnal rotation.

EXPLANATIONS.
Now
if

a straight magnet be suspended so as to allow of

it

a free horizontal motion,

will

be found
:

to place itself in

hereafter.

a direction nearly north and south as will be explained The end which turns towards the north is

called the north pole of the magnet, the other end its Hence every magnet, whatever its form, is south pole.
said to
to

have a north and a south pole.

In the figures

be hereafter described, the north pole is indicated by the point of an arrow, and the south pole by the feather. The poles of a galvanic battery will be described when
treating of that instrument.
6.

PERMANENT MAGNETS.
acquires

It is

found that pure

to
this

soft

iron easily

magnetism when exposed

any

magnetic influence, but immediately loses when that influence is withdrawn. But
a

magnetism steel, which is

acquires the
less

compound of iron with

a small quantity of carbon, and

especially hardened

cast-steel,

though

it

magnetic properties

less readily, retains

them more or

Hence a magnet permanently after they are acquired. formed of hardened steel is called a permanent magnet.
1.

BAR MAGNET.
lg
'

An
'

artificial
is

permanent magnet

in

the form of a straight bar,

n

called a bar magnet.

Fig.l represents a small case containing two bar

nets, with

magtwo short
their
to

pieces of soft iron

connecting
poles
:

these act as armatures

(see

9),

and serve

preserve the

power of the magnets.

The

magnets, when

DANIEL DAVIS,

J R. S

MANUAL.

not in use, should be kept packed in the case, with their opposite poles connected by the armatures, in the manner shown in the cut.

COMPOUND BAR MAGNET.

magnet composed of

several straight bars joined together, side by side, with, their similar poles in contact, for the purpose of increasing

the magnetic power,

-

is

called a

compound bar magnet.

2.

8.

HORSE-SHOE OR
is

U MAGNET. A magnet
upon the same

bent into such a form as to bring the two opposite poles near together, so that

which

they

may
is

act simultaneously

body,
tion.

called a horse-shoe or

U magnet.
this descripis

Fig. 2 represents a magnet of

The

middle of the magnet

usually

painted, as represented in the cut.

COMPOUND

HORSE-SHOE MAGNET.
several horse-

magnet composed of

shoe magnets joined together, side by side, as in fig. 3, for the purpose of increasing the power, is called a compound horse-shoe magnet or magnetic
are charged are put together with all and separately, the similar poles in the same direction.
battery.
9. ARMATURE. piece of soft iron, adapted to, and intended to connect the poles of a magnet, is called an Horse-shoe magnets are usually armature, or keeper. provided with an armature, consisting of a straight bar of iron, for the purpose of preserving their magnetic

These magnets

EXPL ANATI ONS

power
fig.
:

this

poles of the
3,

magnet when

should be kept constantly applied to the it is not in use as shown in

;

where

is

the keeper.

Armatures are employed

their forms vary

in

various experiments, purposes intended.

Fig.

and

with the

10.
light

MAGNETIC NEEDLE.
and
slender

A
of

magnet,
centre

mounted upon
motion, as in
fig.

4, so as to

allow

it

to

traverse freely in
is

certain directions,

called

magnetic needle.

11

The most obvious effects

power
to attract iron,

exhibited

by magnets

are

their

and

their tendency,

when

freely suspended, to

reference to

assume a determinate position in For a long time these were the the earth.

only properties which were noticed, or at least which The attractive power of received particular attention.
the loadstone over small pieces of iron seems to have been known from the remotest ajitiquity ; but its polarity with regard to the earth does not appear to have been

observed until the eleventh or twelfth century of the

Christian era.

1*

DANIEL DAVIS.

R/S

MANUAL.

PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
12.

As

a current of electricity

is

requisite in

many

of

the experiments to be mentioned hereafter, it becomes necessary to describe the various means by which it

may be
I.

produced.

MECHANICAL OR FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY.

electricity

The
is

developed by the electrical machine

it

called mechanical or frictional, from the mechanical

force or friction

by which

is

obtained.

It

possesses

properties differing degree from those exhibited the galvanic arrangements described below, and is by
in

much

altogether less capable of producing magnetical effects.

also developed, though not in the by pressure of some minerals, and of certain elastic substances, such as India rubber.
electricity
is

Mechanical

so striking a manner,

13.

The

great development of electricity recently

observed during the escape of steam from high pressure This is collected boilers, may also be mentioned here.
purposes of experiment, by plunging into the steam, escaping from a safety valve, a brass rod (fig. 5) furfor

nished with a brush of points P, at one end, to collect

Fig.
5.

the electricity, and held by means of a glass insulating handle attached to the other end. length of six or

eight feet

is

found advantageous

in

this instrument, to

PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.

which may be conconvey and insulate the electricity, In the lower the part of the rod. veniently drawn from
cut, the brass rod
in a brass represented as terminating by a ball B, and insulated from the wooden handle stout glass rod G. obtained in this way from steam is of The
is

electricity

of an inch or more in high intensity, affording sparks the Leyden jar so as to give strong length, and charging
shocks.

almost always positive, and is not obtained unless the steam is of high pressure so as to issue from the
It is

valve as a transparent vapor.

II.

GALVANIC OR VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.

to that

14.

These names are given

is

form of electricity

which

produced by chemical action. It is found, that when two metals are placed in connection with some more powerfully upon one than liquid capable of acting

upon the

other, electricity of a

peculiar character

is

metals usually employed are zinc and developed. the chemical and agent some liquid containing copper, The a an acid having powerful affinity for the zinc.

The

phraseology used in describing the effect is founded upon the idea, that electricity is given out to the copper from
Fig.

6.^

them
cut, f

the zinc, through the liquid between as is shown in the adjoining ;

fig. 6, which represents a vessel some non-conducting substance,
?

as gl ass P art ly filled with the fluid, and containing a zinc plate marked Z, and one of copper, C. Now the supposed motion of

the electric current within the vessel

is

from

to

DANIEL DAVIS,

J R.'s

MANUAL.

is then, if a wire passing from brought in contact with another from Z, as represented in the figure, the elec-

tricity will

to the zinc again.

pass around through the wires from the copper Thus the current is considered as

passing from zinc to copper within the series, and from copper to zinc without it. C is therefore called the
positive or delivering pole of the arrangement, and the negative or receiving pole. This, however, must not be considered as an established theory, but only
as the idea

whether there
described, or

on which the phraseology is founded. For is one fluid flowing in the direction above

two flowing

in opposite directions, or
still

no

motion of a

fluid at all, is

a matter of discussion

philosophers. In order to avoid the inconvenience of having phraseology in use which is based upon a doubtful
15.

among

theory,
ities

some philosophers

call the

two opposite extrem-

of the galvanic arrangement electrodes, that is, ways To distinguish the two, they or paths of electricity. call the copper end the anode, and the zinc end the
cathode.
are,

The

terms positive pole and negative pole

however,

still

these extremities

most frequently employed to designate and the wire without, when in con;

nection with these poles, is spoken of as the channel of a positive current passing from the former to the latter.

This language, however, as has been already remarked, must be considered as conventional, and not as an expression of actual facts. 16. Instead of using
circuit,

two metals

to

one metal

in

different conditions
;

form the galvanic may be used

on the same principle

the necessary condition of this

PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
tricity shall

current being only that one part of a conductor of elec-

be more corroded by some chemical agent than another part. Thus, if a galvanic pair be made of the same metal, one part of which shall be softer than
another, as of cast and rolled zinc, so as to be differently
if a greater amount of surface be exposed on one side than on the other, or a more corrosive chemical agent be used on one side, a current

corroded, or
to corrosion

will

be determined from the part most corroded through

the liquid to the part least corroded,

whenever the

circuit

of the poles
17.

is

completed.

There are two modes by which the peculiar

powers of a galvanic arrangement, like the one previously described,

may be increased. First, by increasing the size of the plates used, and secondly, by increasing their number. 1. The extension of the size of the plates.
If the size of the plates, that
is

the extent of the surfaces

is

acted upon by the chemical agent,

the resulting effects become ratio, while others do not.

increased,

more powerful

in the

some of same

The power

to

and magnetism
is

is

increased, while the

develop heat power to de-

compose chemical compounds and

to affect the

animal

Batsystem very slightly or not at all augmented. teries constructed in this way, of large are someplates, times called calorimotors, from their great power of
producing heat
;

and they usually consist of from one to

eight pairs of plates. They are made of various forms. Sometimes the sheets of copper and zinc are coiled in

concentric spirals, sometimes placed side by side ; and they may be divided into a great number of small plates,

provided that

all

the zinc plates are connected together,

10

DANIEL DAVIS,

and all the copper plates together, and then, finally, that the experiments are performed in a channel of electrical communication opened between the one congeries and
the other
;

be used, or
together.

immaterial whether one large surface small surfaces, electrically connected many The modification of electricity which such
for
it is

arrangements develop,
2.
ly.

is

said to

be great

in

quantity.

The extension of the number of the plates consecutiveThat is, by connecting the copper plate of each pair

with the zinc plate of the next pair.

By

this

arrange-

ment, the electricity is obliged to traverse a longer or shorter series of pairs each pair being separated from
;

the adjoining ones

by a stratum of imperfectly conductis,

The result ing liquid. what is called intensity.

that the electricity acquires

It

has greater power to pass

through imperfect conductors, or through intervals in the circuit, to give shocks to the animal system and to de-

compose chemical compounds

and when the number

of consecutive pairs of plates is increased to some thousands or even hundreds, the electricity developed approaches very near in its character to that produced by
the electrical machine
;

it

manifests similar attractions

the

and

repulsions, and
it.

in

fact

Leyden

jar

may

be

charged with

These

different modifications of elec-

tricity are therefore

spoken of as characterized by differThat which is obtained from ent degrees of intensity. one pair of plates has a very low intensity. As the

number of consecutive
increases, until
fractional

pairs
it

is

at

length

multiplied, the intensity approximates to that of

electricity,

which
air,

is

able to strike across a

to fracture solid

considerable interval of

and

non-

conductors

interposed in its circuit.

PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
18. In consequence of the
tricity required for electro-magnetic
it

11

low intensity of the elecexperiments,

is

This is a great advantage in very easy of insulation. of magnetic apparaconstruction regard to the practical
it

Where electricity exists in a state of high intensity, has a strong tendency to pass off and dissipate itself through imperfect conductors ; but where it exists only
tus.
it

in great quantity, to allow

it

requires nearly perfect conductors

The electricity developed by a much its power may of however single pair plates, be increased by increasing the size of the plates, will scarcely pass across the smallest interval of air, and a
a passage.

wire conveying the current may be perfectly insulated by a covering of varnish. In working the electrical machine, on the other hand, the electrified parts of the apparatus must be kept at a distance from each other,
tall glass supports, or suspended by long silken and then, unless the atmosphere is very dry, the But in the electricity will be very rapidly dissipated.

raised
;

on

lines

case of currents of low intensity, however great what is called the quantity may be, two wires may lie side by
side,

with a coating of varnish or

different

and convey

wax between them, and opposite currents, without any

perceptible electrical intercommunication. 19. Now for the purposes of magnetic experiments, electricity of a low intensity is required ; for the power

of the magnetical effects of a current of electricity depends upon an increase of its quantity, mainly. Increasing the number of consecutive pairs, would only add to the intensity of the current, making it more unmanageable in respect to insulation, without adding

much

to

/%>%

DANIEL DAVIS,
its

J R.'s

MANUAL.
many

Galvanic batteries having magnetic effects. pairs of plates, are therefore unsuitable for these

ments. The maximum magnetic effect is produced by a single galvanic combination, or at most by three or
four; the condition for the production of the effect being the extent of the surface acted upon. The form found most convenient is the
following.

experi-

20.

Cylindrical Battery.

section of
,fcd

This battery, a which

fig.

vertical
is

repre-

Q, p

sented in

7, consists

ty

of a double cylinder of copper, C C, with a bot-

tom of the same metal

which answers the purpose both of a galvanic plate and of a vessel to

The space between the two copper cylinders is the receptacle for the solution. There is a movable cylinder of zinc, marked Z in the
contain the chemical solution.
section,

which

is

to

be

let

down

into this solution

when-

ever the battery is to be put in action. It is, of course, intermediate in size, as well as in position, between the
exterior

two copper cylinders and is made to rest upon the one by means of three insulating branches of
;

Thus it or ivory, projecting from it outwardly. in the solution, and presents its two opposite surfaces to the action of the liquid, and to the

wood

hangs suspended

is

inner and outer cylinders of copper respectively. There a binding screw cup connected with the zinc cylin-

der,

and

also

one marked P, with the copper cylinder

and, according to the principles heretofore explained,

PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
when a communication
electricity
is

13

will pass

developed by from one to the other.

made between these cups, the the action within the battery

The liquid employed for putbattery in action is a solution of the sulphate of copper (the common blue vitriol) in water. To prepare it r a saturated solution of the salt is first made, and to this
21.

Chemical agent.

ting this

solution

is

then added as

much more

water.

It

may be

convenient to

know,

that a pint of water, at the ordinary

temperatures of the atmosphere, is capable of dissolving one fourth of a pound of blue vitriol so that the half
;

saturated solution

employed

will contain

about two ounces

The zinc is oxydized by the of the salt to the pint. the oxide combines with the acid of the water oxygen
;

of the
lution

salt,
;

forming sulphate of zinc, which remains in sowhile the oxide of copper, which was previously
acid, being set free, partly adheres

combined with the

to the surface of the zinc cylinder, or falls to the

bottom

of the solution as a black powder, and partly is reduced to metallic copper, which is precipitated on the surface

of the copper cylinder, or falls to the bottom in fine This reduction of the oxide to the metallic grains.
state takes place in the following

manner.

The

water

of the solution furnishes oxygen o the zinc, and thus enables it to combine with the acid, while the hydrogen

which

is liberated, again forms water with the oxygen of any oxide of copper with which it may come in conHence but little gas is tact, leaving the metal free. the off action of a sulduring given battery charged

by phate of copper, as the hydrogen, which usually escapes, is in this case The coating of oxide mostly absorbed.

14

DANIEL DAVIS,

J R.'s

MANUAL.

of copper should always be removed from the zinc after For this purpose a card brush is using the battery.
provided.

With

this

the surface of the zinc should be

thoroughly cleansed, with the aid of plenty of water, whenever it has been in use. If this has been neglected, so that the zinc has become covered, in whole or in part, with a hard coating, it will be necessary to The scrape or file it to obtain a clean metallic surface.

deposit of copper, also, which will gradually accumulate below, must be removed from time to time. 22. The zinc cylinder should of course be always taken out of the solution when the battery is not in use,

but the solution

itself

may

remain

in

the battery, as

it

has no chemical action upon the copper, but tends to keep its surface in good condition. When the solution

has
it is

lost its

power, as

it

will do, of course, after a time,

its

not best to attempt to renew

efficiency

by adding

a fresh quantity of the salt. It should be thrown away, and a new solution be prepared, according to the fore-

going directions. 23. These cylindrical batteries are made, for the purposes of magnetical experiments, of three sizes, called
the large, small, and medium sizes. 24. When a current of electricity
is

passed through a metallic wire in greater quantity than it can readily transmit, the wire becomes more or less heated ; if its
length and thickness be proportioned to the power of the battery, it may readily be melted. single pair

of plates would be the most efficient arrangement for producing this effect, were it not that an increase of
intensity

enables

a greater quantity of electricity to

traverse the wire.

Hence,

for igniting a great

length

PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.

15

of wire, a battery of a considerable number of pairs is necessary ; but a much thicker wire may be ignited by
a few pairs of large size. When a very extensive series of small plates is used, the current acquires so high an
intensity that
ished, as
it

its power of producing ignition is diminbecomes capable of traversing a pretty fine

wire without obstruction.

25. Metals differ very

much

in their

power of con-

following are several ducting galvanic electricity. of the most useful metals, in the order of their conducting power;
viz.
silver,

The

For conducting
delicate

wires,

copper, brass, iron, platinum. copper is generally used ; for

connections, silver.
it is

used where

Iron and platinum are an object to employ the poorest con23 has

ductors, as in the following experiment.

EXP. 2.

Either of the batteries mentioned in

sufficient

power to ignite a fine wire of iron or other metal, through which the current is made to pass. This effect is most easily produced
in those metals which offer the greatest resistance not only to the passage of electricity, but also to that of heat ; hence a larger wire of platinum may be ignited than of perhaps any other metal, as that is a poor conductor both of electricity and of heat A steel

wire,

tillations.

when intensely heated in this way, burns with beautiful scinThe shorter and finer the wire, within certain limits,
is

the greater

the effect produced.

26.
little

Fig. 8, No. 1, represents a instrument designed to show the heating power of the

The Powder Cup.

16

DANIEL DAVIS,
Two

J R.'s

MANUAL.

battery current.

copper wires,

W and W', wound

with cotton thread, except at their ends, are joined by a short piece of fine platinum wire P, No. 2. These wires
pass through the bottom of a small glass cup, C, so that the platinum wire lies free in its On putting a cavity. little gunpowder into the cup C, and then connecting

with the poles of the battery, the platinum will become heated, in consequence of the flow of the current

and

W'

through it, so as to inflame the powder. 27. The Voltaic Gas Pistol, represented

in fig. 9, is

constructed on the same principle as the last described instrument. The wire Fig. 9.

*ffi

^=*=,

&

passes

up through a brass

piece which screws into the barrel; the wire being

sectional view completely insulated from the brass. of this part is annexed. One end of the fine platinum

wire

is

connected with
is

W,

the other with the brass

piece.

A stop-cock C

added, to insure the introduc-

tion of a proper quantity of

hydrogen.
:

effected in the following manner regulating reservoir of hydrogen, a leaden or other tube, so bent as to deliver the gas under the surface of water
in a jar.

This object is Connect with a self-

The

pistol

being uncorked and the stop-cock

open, immerse the muzzle in the jar to such a depth Then that the water may fill one quarter of the barrel. close C, and bringing the muzzle over the end of the
tube,

open the stop-cock of the reservoir. escape of bubbles shows the pistol to be
it,

When
full

the

of gas,
it

withdraw

and

insert the cork.

In this

way
air,

will

contain one volume of hydrogen to three of

which

PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
is

17

If too much hydrogen is inoccur it is not, however, will no troduced, explosion and it will answer the necessary to be very particular is held for a few moments over a purpose, if the pistol

the best proportion.

jet of the gas.

The
it is

tain to occur, if

filled

explosion is louder and more cerwith a mixture of oxygen and

former hydrogen, in the proportion of one volume of the to two of the latter.
28.

The

connect

being corked and the stop-cock closed, with one pole of the battery and bring the
pistol

wire from the other pole in contact with the stop-cock, The circuit will now be or any part of the barrel.

completed through the platinum wire ; this will instantly be ignited, setting fire to the gas, which will expel the
cork with a loud report.

mixed gases
desired.

to

be

fired

The stop-cock allows the of flame the when by application

(<>

29.

By connecting two or three batteries

is

same size together consecutively, that

to say, the zinc

20) of the of

one with the copper of the other, the power of the current For most experiments relatwill be greatly increased. there is no to advantage in extending the magnetism ing
series

number, however, of single batteries may be usefully combined, where great power is desired, by dividing them into two or three sets, and uniting the plates of each set among themselves, copper

beyond

this.

Any

with copper, and zinc with zinc connected consecutively.

30.

the sets

may
is

then be

Where

a battery of a

number of

pairs

wanted,

the arrangement represented in fig. 10 is very convenient. The zinc plates are flat, and are enclosed in copper

2*

18
cases,

DANIEL DAVIS,
open only
at top
10>

and bottom

each zinc plate being insulated from

;

by

the surrounding copper slips of wood at the

edges,

and connected
of copper it, with the

by a strip soldered to

case belonging to the next pair. The whole series is firmly fixed in a wooden frame B pieces of pasteboard soaked in melted wax
;

being interposed between the adjacent copper cases. means of the windlass C, the frame, with the plates,
liquid, or

By
may

be raised out of the trough A, containing the exciting

allowed to descend into
it

at pleasure.

Diluted

acid

is

employed

for the charge, in preference to a solu-

tion of sulphate of

copper

sulphuric acid, one part, with

is

forty or
is

fifty

parts of water,
little nitric

desired, a

acid

very good if greater power may be added. E E are

;

small hand-vices, connected with the poles, for the pur-

The battery represented in pose of holding wires, &tc. the cut, consisting of twenty-five pairs of plates, is able to ignite a considerable length of wire, to decompose
acidulated water with rapidity, and to give a brilliant light with charcoal points.

31. Fig. 11 represents a

still

more powerful

battery.

There

are

two

distinct series of fifty pairs,

each connect-

ed with two of the cups on the table above the battery. In this way the whole may be used as a single series of

one hundred
size,

pairs, or as a battery of fifty pairs of

double

by

establishing proper connections

between these
put in action
;

cups.

Or

only half the battery

may be

PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
Fig. 11.

19

each having a separate trough to contain the acid.

plates are stationary,

The

and the troughs are raised up to them by means of two racks moved by the crank and handle H, which lift the platform on which the troughs
stand
:

either trough

may

be removed from the platform

at pleasure,

when

it is

wished to use only half of the

battery.

32. In the cut, the arrangement for producing the

arch of flame between charcoal points is shown. Two pointed pieces of prepared boxwood charcoal are fixed
in the pincers at

A, and the battery being put

contact.
;

in action,

spark passes and the ignited points they may then be separated to a greater or less distance, in proportion to the power of the battery, and the current will continue to flow
are

brought

in

The

become

through the interval with the production of intense light

and heat.

20

DANIEL DAVIS,

J R.'s

MANUAL.
<>

33. In the batteries described in

30 and 31

in

which

the plates are fixed permanently in a frame, the solution of sulphate of copper cannot be employed, on account of the
deposit which it forms. Hence diluted acid is used the batteries will not maintain a good action for
;

and

more

than a few minutes at a time

in fact their highest rate of ; action only continues for a few seconds after immersion.

The

plates require to be taken out of the acid occasion-

ally during the experiments,

minute or two.

The
in

batteries

and exposed to the air a worked by sulphate of

for
fifteen or thirty

copper will keep minutes at a time.

34.

good action

the zinc and copper plates are separated by a porous partition or membrane, on each side of which a different solution is put, so that one solution

When

comes

in contact

with the copper, and the other with

is
it

the zinc plate, the battery

stant battery, because

called a sustaining or conmaintains a nearly uniform

power for hours and days in succession. This arrangement is very useful for many purposes, and will be more particularly described hereafter when we come to speak
of experiments which require a steady and constant
current.

35.

The

wires used for conveying the electrical cur-

rent in electro-magnetic

and magneto-electric experi-

ments are wound with cotton thread, and sometimes, in This is sufficient for addition, covered with varnish.
their perfect insulation, as the electrical current

employ-

ed

is

one of very low

intensity.

The

extremities of the
;

communicating wires should be kept clean and bright

it is

often advantageous to tin them, or cover

them with

PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
soft solder,

21

when

the connections are

mercury
contact.

cups, as they then

made by means of become amalgamated when

dipped into the mercury, and thus form a perfect metallic

III.

THERMO-ELECTRICITY.

expresses the deIt was the of heat. agency electricity by discovered by Prof. Seebeck, of Berlin, in 1822, that

36.

The term Thermo- Electricity

velopment of
if

electrical

the junction of two dissimilar metals was heated, an current would flow from one to the other.

Thus, if the ends of two wires, or strips of German silver and brass are made to touch each other, or are brazed
together,

and the junction heated, a current

will flow

from the German

ties

silver to the brass, if the free extremi-

of the wires are connected by any conductor of electricity, and an electrical circuit will be established,
as the galvanic circuit
is

established

by connecting the

Fig. 12.

B
In the cut, fig. 12, represents poles of the battery. the brass the direction of the the German silver, and

current being indicated

by the arrows.
in

37. In thermo-electricity, as in galvanism, instead of

two metals, one metal,

different conditions,

can be

Thus, merely twisting the middle of an iron or platinum wire, and' heating it on

used to excite a current.

22

DANIEL DAVIS,

J R.'s

M A N U A L.

one side of the twisted portion,

flowing, at the

will produce a current heated part, from the untwisted to the twisted portion, whenever the extremes are connected. current may also be excited with two wires of 38.

the same metal,

it

in contact

by heating the end of one and bringing with the other. It is difficult to succeed

in this

experiment when metals are used whose con-

Thus copper or silver ducting power for heat is great. wires produce a very feeble current, but iron or platinum an energetic one, especially when the ends, which are

The dibrought in contact, are twisted into a spiral. rection of the current at the junction is from the cold to
the hot wire
;

and

it

temperature

is

established
is

ceases as soon as an equilibrium of considbetween the two.

produced by heating the junction The curof two platinum wires of different diameters. rent flows from the fine to the coarse wire, whether the
erable current
also

heat

applied at the point of junction or to either wire In large arrangements, plates at a little distance from it. or strips of dissimilar metals are generally used.
is

39.

The

cause of the thermo-electric current, thus

is

excited between two metals,

difference in their conducting

generally referred to the power for heat, and to the

different orders of crystallization to

which

their particles

belong, the laws of crystallization being supposed to result from the electrical character of the particles.

Where

the same metal in different conditions

is

is

used,

the production of electricity

referred to the unequal

propagation of heat on each side of the heated point, caused in the single wire by the obstruction occasioned

by the

twist, a'nd in the case

of two wires, by the contact

PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.

23

of the cold wire, or where they are connected together, by the difference in their diameters. The causes, however,

have not yet been

fully investigated,

and many

points are involved in great obscurity.

40. Metals differ greatly in their power to excite a

current, when associated together in thermo-electric pairs.

of the peculiarities in the combinations of the more <> 43. It is necessary, however, to say a few words with regard to the galvanometer, an

Some

useful metals are given in

instrument to indicate or measure electrical currents,

and which

is

more

section 2. fully described in chapter I,

or coil of passing through a wire found to deflect a magnetic needle in its neighborhood. By an arrangement, such as fig. 13, where
wire,
is

A current of electricity

is

the galvanometer, consisting of a magnetic needle in

Fig. 13.

close

proximity to a

coil

of

wire,

above which

is

fixed a graduated circle, the direction of an electrical

current made to pass through the wire is indicated by the deflection of the needle from the north and south
line, in

one direction or the other, and

its

strength

is

measured by the number of degrees to which it is deflected. The deflection of the needle will be frequently

24

DANIEL DAVIS,

J R.' S

31

ANUA

L.

alluded to hereafter.
.

In the figure, a thermo-electric

pair, of bismuth and antimony, heated by a spirit lamp, is shown in connection with the The galvanometer.

arrows indicate the course of the current from the anti-

mony

to the

bismuth B,

in the

exterior circuit

its

direction being of course the reverse of that at the juncto A. tion, where it flows from

character of the juncture between the plates or wires has an important influence on the amount of

41.

The

the current with the same metals. Frequently, when the elements of the pair are merely made to touch each other, the current is greater than when they are brazed
or soldered together. Generally, the slighter the connections are, the better. They must be sufficient to

conduct

all

the electricity generated, but no more, for

if

they are unnecessarily large, they allow the electricity to return to the metal whence it proceeded, without ac-

which the current proceeds the heated junction is exactly analogous in situthrough ation to the zinc or positive plate in the galvanic pair,
from which the current proceeds through the liquid of the to which the current proceeds battery, $14. The metal
through the junction
tive plate.

complishing the circuit. 42. The metal from

The

analogous to the copper or negapositive or delivering pole of the thermois

is the extremity of the negative or receiving the metal,as copper pole is the positive pole of the battery. The negative thermo-electric pole is the extremity of

electric pair

In the observations and table which the positive metal. follow, the positive element of the pair, answering to the
zinc in a galvanic pair, will always be placed
first.

PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
43.
cited

25

German
these

Silver
is

and Antimony.

The

current ex-

greater than that from bismuth and by same temperature. Their junctions the antimony at being put into hot oil, of a fixed temperature, and the
free

ends of the plates connected with the galvanometer used in these experiments, the bismuth and antimony occasioned a constant deflection of the needle of 75
;

and antimony, a deflection of 85 the heat being increased with the bismuth and antimony to the melting point of bismuth, the deflection was 82,
the
silver
;

German

while the

German

silver

and antimony, heated

in a spirit

lamp, gave a deflection of

88.

Plates of these metals Bismuth and Antimony. have been heretofore generally used in large thermoelectric

arrangements.

The
used
;

current excited

their junctions is greater than

when

a feeble heat

is

by heating other metals, but from the fusibility of

from

many

The bismuth, the heat can never be raised very high. current flows through the junction from the bismuth to
the antimony.

44.

German
in the

Silver

and Carbon.

A current of
combination.

con-

siderable energy
this

was produced by

this

In

and

carbon

is

succeeding experiments, where the use of mentioned, the kind employed was the com-

pact carbon deposited from the gas in the retorts of the It is nearly or quite pure, and is a better gas works. conductor, both of heat and electricity, than ordinary
charcoal.

45.

and

silver is an alloy of nickel with copper the zinc, proportion of nickel being about twenty or

German

twenty-five per cent.

This alloy

is

not magnetic.

Its

26

DANIEL DAVIS,

JR.'s

MANUAL.

value in thermo-electric combinations has only recently been observed. It will be used in many of the thermoelectric instruments, to
silver
is

be hereafter described.

German
tried,

positive to all the metals that

have been

even

to nickel itself; with the exception of bismuth, to

it is

which

negative.
Silver, or Iron.

Carbon and

In these combinations,
is

and also with antimony, the carbon

rent being rather feeble.

positive, the cur-

46.

The

deflections given in the following table admit

of comparison with each other to a considerable extent, though not so strictly as if wires of the same size had

been employed in all the experiments. It must be that as the needle remembered, too, approaches the extreme angle of deflection 90, a much greater increase of the current is required to carry it a few degrees farther towards 90 than when it is near the zero. Hence,
a deflection of

40

does not indicate a current of half

the power of one of

ones, in estimating the

80,

but considerably

less.

Nor

can momentary deflections be compared with permanent

power of the current

as a current

which by

its first

a large arc,

may

impulse causes the needle to traverse not be able to maintain more than a

few degrees of steady deflection. 47. The wires were not soldered together, but their ends were brought in contact before the application of
the heat, and kept so to the end of the experiment. With the more fusible metals, the greatest heat was

The

employed which was consistent with their fusibility. object was to produce the greatest current that
It

could easily be obtained from each combination.

PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY
will

be found that there

is

an entire difference between

the series of positive and negative metals for thermoelectricity

and

for galvanism.
DEFLECTION OF THE NEEDLE.

CURRENT FLOWS THROUGH HEATED JUNCTION. To negative. From positive.

German German German German German German German German German German
Silver,

Silver,. ......

Antimony,
Silver,

Silver,
Silver,
Silver,

Brass,
Iron,

Silver,
Silver, Silver,

Palladium, Copper,

Cadmium,.
Zinc, Platinum, Carbon,

Silver,
Silver,

88 85 85 85 85 85 85 84
81

Silver,

Bismuth, Bismuth, Bismuth, Bismuth, Bismuth, Platinum, Carbon,

Antimony, Antimony,
Silver,

Palladium, Carbon,

German
Carbon,

Silver,

Antimony,

82 88 82 78 85 85 83 78 75

48. In some cases, the direction of the current is reversed, either by raising the heat at the junction to a high degree, or by heating one metal more than the
other.

The

following are instances of this kind.

is

The
low

metal of each combination, which

is

positive at

Increasing the temperature temperatures, of the negative metal generally increases the amount of deflection, produced by heating the junction ; while, if
first.

named

the higher heat

applied to the metal which is positive at moderate temperatures, a current in the opposite
is

direction
in these

is

established.
is,

The

direction of the current

however, often uncertain, and the few experiments which have been made, afford no explanation of the cause of the changes.
combinations

28

DANIEL DAVIS,
49. Iron and Platinum.

When

heat

is

applied to

the junction, or to the platinum a little one side of it, a deflection of about 50 is obtained ; when to the iron

near the junction, or when the junction to a red heat, the direction of the current
reversed,
it

itself is raised
is

immediately

flowing from the platinum to the iron, and the needle is deflected 60 or 70 in the opposite
direction.

now

50.
is

Copper and Iron.

With

fine wires the current

The defeeble, with large ones tolerably powerful. flection is increased by heating the iron near the junction. When the junction is raised to a red heat, the current is
reversed, and
to the
still

more
it.

readily

when

the heat

is

applied
heat-

copper near

Silver

and

Iron.

Deflection considerable.

On

ing the silver, an energetic current ensues in the opposite direction ; also, in a less degree, by raising the junction to a red heat.

Brass and Iron.

red heat, and
still

Current moderate
effectually

reversed at a
brass.

more

by heating the

Zinc and Iron.

direction.

Current moderate, and on heating

its

the zinc near the junction to

its

melting point, changes

51. Platinum and Silver.

Deflection

70. On

heat-

in the opposite ing the platinum a strong current flows

direction.

Brass and
heat, or

Silver.

The

current

is

reversed at a red

by

applying the heat to the brass, near the

thermo-electric current

junction. 52. In

quantity, the

much
it is

resembles a feeble galvanic current.

In intensity,

PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
somewhat
set in
in
less.

29
is

In a single galvanic pair, electricity

motion in a certain direction, and cannot return the same path to the zinc, from which it proceeded,
fluid

which

without passing through the is a poor conductor.

between the

plates,

It is, therefore, partially,

though very imperfectly, insulated. In a thermo-electric pair, the electricity is set in motion from one of the metals
to the other, through the metallic junction.
is

Here there

current flows through a perfect conductor, and can only be the excess of the force which
insulation.
sets the

no

The

electricity in

motion over

its

constant effort to

return to equilibrium. It is probably for this reason that the intensity of thermo-electricity is less than that

of galvanism.
EXP. 3.

A single galvanic and thermo-electric pair were taken,

each of which deflected the needle 75, permanently. The galvanic current was then made to flow through a hundred feet of
fine steel wire

1-150 of an inch in diameter. From the poor conduction of the wire, the needle was only deflected 60. By experiment it was found that the thermo-electric current deflectit

ed the needle 60, when

of the wire.

was passed through only fourteen

feet

the conducting power of a wire is in proportion to the intensity of the current, some estimate may therefore be made of the relative intensity of the two currents by the respective

As

numbers 100 and

14.

53. In soldering the wires or plates together, they are not usually connected in a straight line, but at an If several of these single acute angle with each other.

be associated together consecutively, that is, by connecting the German silver of the one to the brass of
pairs

the next, or the bismuth of one to the antimony of the next, and so on, we have a thermo-electric battery, in

3*

30

DANIEL DAVIS,

J R.'s

MANUAL.

which the powers of thermo-electricity are much exalted. It will be understood that in these cases there is German
silver

and brass

alternately, or bismuth

and antimony

FoiUhe alternately, &c., throughout the whole series. sake of compactness, the wires or plates are laid side by
side,

and soldered by

their alternate ends, while they

are insulated or separated from each other

pasteboard, which prevents from one to the other.

all

by paper or passage of electricity

Fig.U.

54. Fig. 14 represents a series, consisting of eleven pairs of German silver and brass wire, arranged in

two rows, one behind the

other.

When

several pairs

it is necessary that the junctions should be somewhat larger than in the case of a single pair. Then, the slighter the junction the better ; but as the current has to flow through all the

are connected in this manner,

junctions in a series of pairs, the electricity generated

would scarcely be conducted through them

all

at all,

were

they imperfect. By heating the junctions of the wires on one side of the series with a spirit lamp, a current
is is

produced which increases or diminishes as the heat

applied, depending altogether for its existence on the difference of temperature in the opposite junctions of the wires. By grasping the junctions on one side in the

PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
fingers,
effect.

31

even the warmth of the hand produces a sensible It is evident that, if the junctions on both sides

of the series were heated, currents would be produced

in

opposite

directions,

which would neutralize each

other.

55. Fig. 15 represents a battery, consisting of sixty and antimony plates, each three inches pairs of bismuth
Fig. 15.

long, three-fourths of an inch broad,

and one-fourth of an

inch thick.

They

are arranged side

by

side, in

an ex-

that one series of junctions underneath the battery may be heated by the radiation of a hot iron plate, I, shown separately in the cut, while the opposite
terior case, so

are kept cool by water or ice placed junctions seen at in the receiver, which forms the upper part of the battery.

still greater depression of temperature is produced by a mixture of snow or pounded ice with half its weight of

common

salt.

In order to

make
into

the plates are

cemented
at

a water-tight receiver, the case with plaster.

pairs,

Refrigeration
anticipated,
direction,
is

one end of the

as
in

would be

found to produce a current

to that

and equal

the same which would be produced

;

by

a similar excess of heat at the other end

difference

of heat at the different ends, however produced, being

32

DANIEL DAVIS,

the occasion of the current. By associating both of these causes in this battery, there is a corresponding increase of power. As the metals employed in the

never

battery are fusible, the radiant heat of the iron ought to exceed 300 Fahrenheit. The iron plate
tile,

being laid upon a large

it,

the battery

is

placed over

the iron being pretty near the ends of the bars, but

not in contact with them. 56.

The

terminal plates of the battery are connected

with two binding screw cups, passing through the exteIn the cut, the battery is seen in connection rior case. with an apparatus to be described in chapter II, sect. 2, by which the magnetizing power of the current is shown.

The

ends of the

coil

of insulated wire

being fixed in

the cups, the current is obliged to traverse the coil, and the two semicircular armatures of iron seen at D, are

much

held together by the magnetism thus induced, with so force as to require a weight of forty or fifty pounds
to separate them.

This battery has

sufficient

power

to

give shocks and sparks, and produce various magnetic phenomena, with the appropriate apparatus, which will

be described

hereafter,

when

the principles on

which

those effects depend have been explained. thermo-electric battery of considerable energy 57. can also be constructed of strips of German silver and

brass.

It will

very compact.
perfection
;

bear contact with red hot iron, and is This has not yet been fully brought to

so that a comparison cannot

its

be

instituted

here between

powers and those of the bismuth and

antimony battery described in sect. 55. 58. By forming a bundle or small battery, consisting

PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
of

33

many

pairs of wires, the slightest increase of heat at

one end produces a sensible current of electricity. This forms an instrument for measuring heat far more delicate
than any other which has been contrived.
It

has been

used in ascertaining the temperature of insects, and of various parts of the animal system.
59. In thermo-electricity, an electrical current is produced by heating unequally the opposite ends of metallic The conplates, associated in a thermo-electric series.
verse of this
is

found true.
the

If a galvanic current

is

series, the opposite pass through the one side and lose it will heat on junctions acquire on the other.

made

to

same

60. Fig. 16 represents an instrument for showing the simultaneous production of heat and cold by the
galvanic
current.
It

consists of three bars,

two of bismuth and one

of antimony, arranged as seen in the figure?

where the antimony is shown at A, and the

two bars of bismuth

at

B', the bars being soldered together under the bulbs of two air thermometers, and x ; a little cavity being

made

a drop put in each cavity, in order to facilitate the conduction of heat from the metals to the thermometers.
to receive the
is
;

bulb of each thermometer

of water

The galvanic current being sent through the metals, in the direction indicated by the arrows, from the bismuth B', through the antimony, to the other bar of bismuth,

34

DANIEL DAVIS,
to
is

J R.'s

MANUAL.

and thence back

with B', cold

the battery, at the junction of produced, as will be indicated by the

thermometer T', and heat at the junction between and B, as the thermometer will show ; by reversing the direction of the battery current, the effect on the two

thermometers

will

be reversed.
is

The

elevation of tem-

perature produced always greater than the depression ; this difference is probably due to the low conducting

power of the metals for electricity, which causes them become slightly heated by the current, a phenomenon altogether distinct from the heating of the junction
to

by

it.

It will

be observed

in the figure that the current

has the same direction as that which would be produced, were the battery removed, by the application of heat at
the junction of with B', or of cold to that between and the current which produces heat flowing in the ;

opposite direction to the current which would be pro-

duced by

it.

IV.

ANIMAL ELECTRICITY.

torpedo, on the shores of Europe, the gyrnnotus, or electrical eel, inhabiting the fresh waters of

61.

The

rivers of Africa,

South America, and the silurus electricus, living in the have been celebrated for their powers of producing electricity. As it appears to be dependent
will, although associated with certain organs, it has It possesses received the name of animal electricity.

on

considerable intensity, and is capable, to a certain exThe tent, of producing all the magnetic phenomena.

production of electricity by animal life, has been occasionally noticed under other circumstances.

MAGNETISM,
DIRECTIVE TENDENCY OF THE MAGNET.
I.

IN

REFERENCE TO ANOTHER MAGNET.

The
effects

62.

ATTRACTIONS AND REPULSIONS.

produced by the opposite poles of a magnet, though in some respects similar, are in others contrary to each
other
;

the one attracting what the other repels.

Poles

of different magnets, of the same name, that is, both north or both south, are found to repel, while those of

an opposite
EXP.
4.

name
".".

attract
:'-'"

each other.
V" ! -'','""' ,~'"-'- r ">.;'; be a magnetic needle poised npon a pivot Let be the north and
'

",'.';.

*";

S. (fig. 17,) Fig. 17.

Let N.

T\C

S the south pole. Then bring near

to its north pole the north pole

of

the bar

magnet M.

The

north

pole of the needle will be repelled, causing the needle to assume the
position r
is
r.

If now the
its

magnet

south pole is made to approach the north pole of the needle, the latter will be
attracted,

reversed, so that

and the needle will be a a. The south pole of the needle, on the contrary, would be attracted by the north pole of M, and repelled by its south pole.

drawn

to the position

36
63.

DANIEL DAVIS,
The intensity of the

J R.'s

MANUAL.

attraction or repulsion exerted

in the inverse ratio
is, if

between two magnetic poles, varies

of the square of their distance
the poles
is
;

that

the distance of

doubled, the force with which they attract or other is reduced to one each quarter of its previous repel amount ; if their distance is trebled, to one ninth ; and
so on.
attractions and repulsions are not afthe by interposition of glass or metal, or any substance whatever between the two magnets ; unless

64.

These

fected

the interposed body is itself susceptible of magnetism. 65. Whenever a piece of iron, as is (fig. 18) brought near to one of the poles of a magnet, M, the iron

Fig- 18.

becomes magnetized

by

in-

be explained hereafter, chapter

II,

NJJ duction,aswill sect. 1 ; and the ex-

tremity nearest to the pole acquires an opposite polarity to that of the pole, while the end farthest off acquires the

same

Thus, in the figure, the point of the polarity. arrow indicates the north pole of the magnet, and the extremity S of the iron bar will acquire a south polarity.
It follows

from

this, that it

is

only that part of a frag-

magnet, which can be attracted by that pole, while the part most distant must be repelled. If the fragment of iron has any con-

ment of iron nearest

to the pole of a

siderable length in proportion to

its

breadth, the end

which

is repelled will be at such a distance from the influence of the magnet that its repulsion will be over-

powered by the
it.

attraction of the extremity

is

which

is

near

If,

however, the fragment

very

short, so that the

DIRECTIVE TENDENCY OF MAGNET.

repelled pole
repulsion will
tion will

37

is brought very near to the magnet, the be proportionally stronger, and the attrac-

be neutralized

to a considerable extent
is

and,

finally, if the

fragment of iron

made of such

a form as

to bring the
sible, so

as to expose

two opposite poles as near together as posthem both nearly equally to the

influence of the pole of the magnet, the attraction will

scarcely perceptible. This may be satisfactorily in the following manner.

become
EXP.

shown very

5.

Let

(fig.

19) be the south pole of a bar or horse-

shoe magnet, and

a piece of sheet iron, somewhat smaller than the end of the magnet. When this
iron plate
is placed in the position represented in the upper figure, the surface next the pole of the magnet will acquire north

polarity, while
;

the opposite surface will

become south and the iron being thin, the two surfaces are both so near to the pole of
the magnet that one is repelled nearly as much as the other is attracted. The thin
plate will be found to adhere to the pole with a very slight force, and will tend to

"1

slip down into the position represented in the lower figure. In this position it will be much more strongly attracted ; for the two opposite ends, instead of the two opposite surfaces, will become the poles, and the end in contact will be at-

tracted, will

and the remote end will be repelled. The same effect be produced if the plate is applied to the pole of the magnet by its edge, instead of by one of its surfaces; by this means the repelled pole of the plate is removed to a distance from the magnet, leaving the latter to attract the other pole, with a less inter-

ference from the counteraction which operated in the former case.

66. MAGNETIC TOYS. Various magnetical toys are constructed to exhibit the effects of the attractions and
repulsions, described in

62 such

as swans, ships, fishes,

38

DANIEL DAVIS,
figures,

J R.'s

MANUAL.

and other

and intended
floating,

to

with magnets concealed within them, float upon the water. When thus

they may be attracted or repelled over the surface of the water at pleasure by means of another

magnet held in the hand. 67. FLOATING NEEDLE.

and perfectly dry sewing-needle, being previously magnetized and

very
fine

then laid carefully upon the surface of water, will float, and being thus at liberty to move freely in any direction, may be conveniently used to show the above-described
attractions

and repulsions.
if

A larger needle will

answer

equally well,
that
it

passed through a small piece of cork,

may

float.

This apparatus consists horse-shoe compound magnet and an armature conof an iron wire whose sisting length is a little greater than
of a

68.

ROLLING ARMATURE.

the breadth of the magnet, so that when applied to it the extremities may project a little beyond its sides. To

each of these extremities a small fly-wheel

is

attached.

DIRECTIVE TENDENCY OF MAGNET.

This armature
is

39

then

placed

across

some distance from the

magnet
it is

poles, as seen at

the magnet, at A, and the

ward, that the armature

held in such a position, with the poles downmay roll towards them. When

reaches the poles, the magnetic attraction for the iron axis will prevent its falling off, while the momentum

it

acquired by the fly-wheels will carry it forward and some distance up the under side of the magnet to

roll

B in

the figure ; and by varying the inclination of the magnet to B, S, the armature may be made to roll from

and from
69.

to

A,

at pleasure.

65, that the a mass of iron is not simply action of a magnet upon an attraction or a repulsion of it as a mass, causing it merely to approach or to recede ; but that there is a
It results

from what was said in

complicated reciprocal action between the poles of the magnet and those which the mass of iron has assumed.
a magnet, the position of the north EXP. 6. Let (fig. 21) be if the small bar of iron pole being indicated by the arrow. S N, suspended by a thread, is placed in the position marked 1, it becomes magnetized by induction from the fixed magnet, so

Now

Fig. 21.

that the extremity S will be attracted by the north pole

of the magnet, and the extremity

will

be repelled

by

has already been exBoth these forces plained.

it,as

will conspire to retain the

body

T
marked
2, the

resented

in the direction repin the drawing;

while the influence of the remote extremity of the magnet M, is removed to the position will be insensible. Now if the bar S

north pole of the magnet will attract the south pole of the bar, and will repel the north pole, as before but then, on
;

40

DANIEL DAVIS,

J R.'s

MANUAL.

account of the inclined position of the bar, the attractive force

between the south extremity of the mag-net and the north extremity >f the bar will come into action ; so that the north pole of the bar will be drawn towards the south pole of the magnet, and the bar will be deflected somewhat from the which
position
it

would otherwise have assumed.

This tendency of the bar to

place itself in a certain determinate direction, in reference to the other magnet to whose influence it is exposed, is called its directive tendency.

70. This effect of the remote pole of the magnet in giving direction to the bar, will be quite decided when the suspended bar is carried still farther from the north
pole: for example; nearly opposite the centre of

the magnet, as in

where

fig.

22,

represents the

magnet
in this

as before.

Now

case, if the sus-

pended

bar

were acted

upon solely by the north pole of the magnet, it would assume the position for the pole S being attracted, ;

AB

and the pole

repelled, the bar

would place

itself in

line directed towards the north pole of the

instead of this, the bar

is

in

magnet. But such a position that the

;

south pole of the magnet acts powerfully upon it also and if the magnetic forces of the two poles of the magnet are of equal intensity, the south pole will act upon the end

marked N, as strongly and the suspended bar

as the north pole acts

will

upon S assume the position marked

magnet.

S, that

is,

parallel to the

71.

The

directions

thus assumed

by an

iron

rod

brought near a magnet depend upon the facility with which the bar receives polarity

much

greater

in the direc-

DIRECTIVE TENDENCY OF MAGNET.

tion of its length than transversely.

41
is

Thus

if

the bar

placed on one side of the magnet, at right angles to it, and opposite its middle, it would remain in this position
instead of turning itself parallel to the magnet, were it not for the difficulty of developing the two polarities on

opposite sides. steel magnet does not experience that change 72. in the distribution of its polarity, by altering its position
its

with regard to the fixed magnet, which the iron bar does. Hence the experiments above described are better per-

formed with a magnetic needle, which

may be suspended

by a thread, or, which is better, supported by a pivot, and thus held in various positions near to a bar magnet. The needle being a permanent magnet, and having been
powerfully magnetized by the process to which it has been subjected in the manufacture, the action of its poles will be more decided than that of the poles of a

bar of iron magnetized only by temporary induction.

Fig. 23.

By passing
it

such a needle carefully around a bar magnet will be found that it will assume positions in relation
it, as represented in the above cut, fig. 23. 73. These effects, produced by the combined attrac-

to

42
tions

DANIEL DAVIS,

JR.'s

MANUAL.
poles,

and repulsions of the magnetical

may

be

also rendered sensible in a very satisfactory

manner by

the following experiment.

EXP.
7.

Spread a thin covering of iron filings or ferruginous sand over a sheet of paper, and Fig. 24.
place a

powerful horse-shoe
vertically beneath
it,

magnet

with the poles very near to the

paper. The dotted lines in the cut (fig. 24) show the arrange-

ment which the

iron will assume.

particles

of

Each one

becomes a magnet with its two and connects itself with those adjoining it so as to form curved lines of a peculiar character. This experiment may be
poles,

performed in a still more satisfactory manner, by supporting the paper, with the magnet in contact with its under surface, and then showering down iron sand or iron filings from a sand-box

The particles of iron, as they strike the paper can thus more readily assume the positions to which they tend under the magnetic influence.
held some inches above.

74.

The

lines

formed by the

filings afford

a good ex-

of what are called magnetic curves, perimental that is, the curves into which an infinite number of very
illustration

minute magnetic needles suspended freely would arrange themselves, if placed in all possible positions about a
magnet.
tive

the particles are very small, the attracexerted force upon them by the magnet, being the difference of its action upon the two poles of each
particle,
is exceedingly slight while the directive force The direction assumed by each very considerable. particle, and consequently the form of the magnetic
;

When

is

curve, connecting any point on one half of the magnet, with the corresponding point of the other half, is de-

DIRECTIVE TENDENCY OF MAGNET.

43

ducible on strict mathematical principles from the laws The curvature of of magnetic attraction and repulsion.

the lines

is

of the magnet.
particles,

due to the combined action of the two poles If only one pole acted on the minute

they would arrange themselves in straight lines, diverging in all directions from the pole, like radii from

This may be partially shown the centre of a sphere. by placing a bar magnet perpendicularly under the paper which is strewed with filings, with its upper pole close
to the sheet.

II.

IN

REFERENCE TO A CURRENT OF ELECTRICITY.

75. It was discovered by Prof. CErsted, of Copenhagen, in the year 1819, that a magnet, freely suspended,
tends to assume a position at right angles to the direction This may be of a current of electricity passing near it.

made

manifest as follows.
8.

EXP.

Let

S, fig. 25,

be a magnetic needle poised upon

a a pivot so as to allow of a free horizontal motion, and wire passing directly over and Fig. 25.
TO:r

WR

--*-

Of course, the parallel to it. direction of the wire must be

north and south, as the needle
will

necessarily assume that direction, on account of the

If

influence of the earth.

now

the extremities of the wire are

put

in

connection with the

poles of a galvanic battery, in such a manner as to cause a

through

current of electricity to pass S will it, the needle

be deflected and will turn towards the position aborcd, according to the direction of the current of positive electricity, whether from

44

DANIEL DAVIS,
to

JR.'s

MANUAL.

tion

R, or from R to W. If the wire be placed in the same direcbelow the needle, the deflections will be the reverse of those

produced by the same current when flowing above. If the positive current is passing from south to north in the wire, as shown by
west, if it be below the wire

the arrow in the cut, the north pole of the needle will turn to the and to the east if above it. ;

76. In these cases the needle will not be deflected so

to assume a position really at right angles with the wire, on account of the influence of the earth, which
far as
still

acts

upon the magnet, and tends

position.
It will

to

draw

it

back

to

its

original

accordingly come

to rest

in a state

of equilibrium between the forces, in a direc-

tion intermediate

between a

line at right angles to the

wire and that of the needle when controlled by the magnetism of the earth alone. 77. The same experiment may be performed with
the needle. the dipping needle, the wire being placed parallel with By thus varying the positions of the wire
it

and the needle,

will

be found that

in

all

cases the

needle tends to place itself at right angles with the wire, and to turn its north pole in a determinate direction

with regard to the wire. 78. The action of a conducting wire upon a magnet All exhibits in one respect a remarkable peculiarity.
other

known

forces exerted

between two

points, act in

the direction of a line joining these points ; such is the case with the electric and magnetic actions separately considered. But the electric current exerts its magnetic
influence laterally, at right angles to its own course. Nor does the magnetic pole move either directly towards or directly from the conducting wire, but tends to revolve

around

it

without changing

its

distance.

Hence

the force

DIRECTIVE TENDENCY OF MAGNET.

must be considered
to the circle in
It
is

45

as acting in the direction of a tangent

which the magnetic pole would move.

in

true, that

many

positions of the

regard to the wire, apparent attractions

magnet with and repulsions

occur

but they are all referable to a force acting ta* ; gentially upon the magnetic poles, and in a plan^perpendicular to the direction of the current. This peculiar action may be better understood by means of a figure.
vertical

n (fig. 26) be a wire, placed in a and position, conveying a current downwards connected the positive pole of the battery). with (p being
79. Thus,
let

Fig. 26.

Now
a

suppose the north pole of to be brought near magnet the wire, and to be perpen-

>
c

to

jy

any point C. If free the move, pole will revolve as a centre in the diaround
dicular to

Af\>

rection indicated
in the cut
;

by the arrows that is, in the same

the
its

direction

as

hands of
is

f
the pole describes
is

upwards. plane of the circle which horizontal. On causing the current

watch,

when

face

The

to ascend in the wire, the pole will rotate in the opposite direction.

If the wire

be placed

in a horizontal position,

the plane in which the pote revolves will, of course, be vertical. The actions of either a descending or an as-

cending current upon the south pole are exactly the If the wire reverse of those exerted on the north pole.
is

movable and the magnet

in

fixed, the

former will revolve

in

around the latter

a similar manner, and

the

same

46

DANIEL DAVIS,
Thus, a wire conveying a descending current

directions.

tends to rotate round the north pole of a magnet, in the In the experiment direction of the hands of a watch.

given in
acting at

75, no revolution occurs, because the current,

once on both poles, tends

;

to give

them motion

magnet comes to rest in a position of equilibrium between these two forces, It will be shown hereafter (chap. II, across the wire.
in opposite directions

so that the

sect. 2) that, by confining the action to one pole, a continued rotation is produced.

following apparatus illustrates the directive of the magnet in respect to a current of tendency

80.

The

electricity.

MAGNETIC NEEDLE, HALF BRASS.

the steel needle
is

In

this

instrument

support, and is other side. By this arrangement the action of a current upon the pole which is situated at the centre of motion

wholly upon one side of the point of counterpoised by a brass weight on the

can have no influence

particular direction
solely
;

in

turning the magnet in any

and

its

motion will be determined

;

by
is

the action

upon

the other pole

no

rotation,

however, can be obtained.

ment

object of the instruto show the directive tendency of a single pole

to the electrical current.

The

with reference

81. ASTATIC
its

NEEDLE.
shall

A needle

so contrived that
is

directive

tendency
it

in respect to the earth

neutralis

ized, so that

remain at
It is

rest in

any

position,

called an astatic needle.

constructed as represented in the following cut, fig. 27, consisting essentially of two needles, one above the other, placed in positions the Such a reverse of each other in respect to their poles.

DIRECTIVE TENDENCY OF MAGNET.

47

system will of course not be affected by the magnetic influence of the earth, as whatever forces may be
Fig. 27.

exerted upon the upper needle, will be counteracted by equal

forces
tions

exerted in reverse direc-

upon the lower.

It

would

be the same, indeed, with the

influence exerted

by the current
the wire were

of electricity,
to

if

be placed

in

such a position

as to act equally

on both needles.

the wire parallel to and above the upper needle, the influence of the wire will be, of course, far more powerful upon the upper

But by placing

than upon the lower one, and the action of terrestrial magnetism being neutralized, the needle will assume a
If the position at right angles with the conducting wire. wire be placed as nearly as possible between the needles and parallel to them, the influence of the upper side of

the wire will deflect the upper needle in the same direction as the lower needle will be deflected by the action of
the lower side of the wire, causing a
Fig. 28.

82.

more powerful effect. 28 Fig. represents another

astatic needle, similar to the above,

but consisting of two horse-shoe or

as to

magnets united at the bend, so have their opposite poles in

the same line, and delicately sup-

These ported upon an agate cup. needles need not be perfectly astatic,
nor
is it

easy to

make them

so.

48

DANIEL DAVIS,

JR.

MANUAL.

83. If the wire transmitting the electrical current, after passing over the needle, is bent and returned under it, as
in fig.

29, it might be supposed that

as the electricity

which flows from

to

in

the

upper part of the wire, must pass in

a contrary direction, in returning

from A to B, below (the cup C

being connected with the positive
with the negative), the inpole of the battery, and fluence of the one part of the wire would neutralize that

of the other, for it has already been stated that the needle is deflected to one side or the other according to
the direction of the electrical current.
in fact

And

this

would

be the case,

upon the same and at an equal distance from

ting an
electrical current,

the returning part of the wire were side of the needle with the other part,
if
it.

But a wire

transmit-

passing beloiv the needle, will produce an effect the reverse of that produced by one passing above, if the current in both cases flows in
the

when

same

direction.

And of course
is
it

it

follows, that if the

direction of the electric current

reversed in the wire

which passes below,

will exert a force auxiliary,

and

not antagonist, to that of the wire This passing above. is the case with the arrangement here represented.

DIRECTIVE TENDENCY OF MAGNET.

The
tion,

49

electric current flows,

it is

true, in a contrary direc-

below the needle, but then it is on the opposite side of it, and therefore the effect produced by the lower
with that of the upper portion of the wire will conspire It should be stated, that the two portions of the part. wire are not allowed to touch each other where they
cross,

but are insulated at that point by some nonconductor of electricity, as by being wound with thread.
84.

The

vertical portions of the wire also aid in

as may be shown by connecting ; and C with one pole of the battery by both the cups two wires of equal length and thickness, and the cup

deflecting the needle

The current with the other pole (say the positive). will then be divided into two portions very nearly equal, both flowing in the same direction and at the same distance from the magnet M, but one below and the other above it. Now if the horizontal portions of the wire
alone acted on the needle,
it

would remain unaffected

but

it

will

be found

to

be deflected

to a considerable

extent by the current which is descending in the vertical portion of the wire near A, and ascending in that below

B, as these conspire
85.

in their influence.

THE GALVANOSCOPE on GALVANOMETER.

In-

struments of a variety of forms are constructed on the

above principles, and are called galvanoscopes or galvanometers, as they serve to indicate the presence of a
current of electricity and in some degree to measure its If the wire is carried many times around the quantity.
needle, as in
fig.

30, the power of the instrument

its

is

much
;

increased, as each turn of the wire adds

influence

provided the wire

is

not so long or of so small a size as

50
to

DANIEL DAVIS,
be unable
to

J R. S

MANUAL.
The

convey the whole of the current.

instrument thus becomes a delicate test of the presence of a current of electricity. The coil of wire is supported
Fig. 30.

on a tripod stand, with leveling screws the ends C and of the wires being connected with the binding screw
;

cups

and B.
86.
In this
fig.

Fig. 31.

UPRIGHT GALVANOMETER.

instrument, represented in 31, both the coil of wire and the

needle are placed in a vertical position, the north pole being made a little heavier, in order to keep the

magnet perpendicular.
rent
is

When a cur-

passed through the coil, the deflection is towards a horizontal po-

sition.

The needle

is

made of large

purpose of exhibiting the deflections before an audience.

size, for the

DIRECTIVE TENDENCY OF MAGNET.

87.

51

GALVANOMETER WITH ASTATIC NEEDLE.

is

This

instrument

similar in construction to the preceding,

The slight except that the needle is nearly astatic. is allowed to remain which of directive tendency degree becomes the measure of the force of the electric current,
as the angle of deflection from the north

and south

line

shows how

far this resistance

is

overcome.

This instru-

ment may be made so extremely delicate in its indications, that if two fine wires, one of copper and one of
zinc, are

connected with

it,

and

their

ends immersed in

mouth, it will be very Before proceeding to experiment with any galvanometer, it should be so placed that the direction of the coil may coincide with that of the needle,
diluted acid, or even placed in the

perceptibly affected.

as this

is

88.

The galvanometer
Mechanical

the position of greatest sensibility. is a measurer of what

is

called,

the quantity of electricity, but takes no cognizance of

intensity.
electricity

which possesses great

intensity

and but

little

quantity, very slightly deflects the

needle of the galvanometer. The current from one galvanic pair influences the needle powerfully, the quantity If a hundred being very great, and the intensity small.

be connected together in a single series, the intenincreased a hundred fold, but the quantity remains sity the same, and the needle is but little more deflected than
pairs
is

by one

pair.

The
is,

reason that there

is

any
is

difference in

this respect

that

when

the electricity

of high ten-

sion, the wire of the

less,

galvanometer obstructs the current and more actually passes through it. In thermo-

electricity,

with a single pair, the intensity is less in proportion to the quantity than with a single galvanic is strongly indicated by the galvapair, and the current

52

DANIEL DAVIS,
The amount
is

J R.'s

MANUAL.
power
its

nometer.

of decomposing
exactly as
therefore

in

current of electricity

always

quantity.
electro-

The

galvanometer

indicates

the

magnetic and the decomposing capacity of a current of

electricity.

An

easily than one of of matter decomposed

more

intense electrical current decomposes little intensity, but the amount

is

proportional

merely to the

Besides the galvanometers in quantity of the current. which a magnetic needle is used, the gold-leaf galvanoscope, an instrument possessing great delicacy in its
indications, will
III.

be described hereafter.

IN REFERENCE TO

THE EARTH.

exact period of the discovery of the directive of the magnet with respect to the earth, and of tendency its employment as a guide to the mariner, cannot be as89.
certained with certainty ; but it was used for this purpose by the nations in the north of Europe, at least as early as the twelfth or latter part of the eleventh century.*
Fig. 32.

The

90. Fig. 32 represents a magnet poised upon a

pivot so as to turn horizontally.

ment
'the

is

This arrangeessentially on
principle as
;

same

the compass-needle
latter,

the

however,

being

fixed to a circular card

on which the cardinal

points are marked.
* The Chinese claim to have known the polarity and use of the magnet
second century or earlier.
in the

DIRECTIVE TENDENCY OF MAGNET.

91.
It is

53

found that a magnetic needle, so suspended

as to allow of a free horizontal motion, spontaneously

assumes a direction nearly north and south ; and if disreturns to it after a number of placed from this position
oscillations.
r S Fig. 33.

as to

92. If the needle be suspended so have freedom of motion in a ver-

tical direction, it is

found not to main-

tain
its

a horizontal position, but one of

inclines

poles (in this hemisphere the north) downwards towards the earth.

At

the magnetic poles of the earth the direction of the needle would be verti;

cal

but the inclination diminishes as

we

recede from the poles towards the equator, and at the magnetic equator,

which is near the geographical one, the needle becomes horizontal. needle

properly prepared
inclination,
is

exhibiting this called a dipping needle.

for

93. Fig. 33 represents a dipping needle whose mode of suspension allows of its turning freely in any direction. It is fixed by means of a universal joint to a brass cap

The containing an agate, which rests upon the pivot. usual arrangement allows only of motion in a vertical
plane, the needle having an axis passing through
its

middle at right angles to

supported horizontally. The small needles shown in fig. 34 are suspended in this manner. Sometimes a vertical

its

length, which axis

is

graduated circle is added, to measure the angle which the needle makes with the horizon. In using a needle

5*

54

DANIEL DAVIS,
is

JR.S

MANUAL.
it

whose motion

confined to a single plane,

must be so

placed that this plane may be directed north and south, coinciding with the plane of the magnetic meridian.

dipping needle, before being magnetized, should be as equally balanced as possible, so as to remain at rest in

any direction in which it may be placed ; a high degree of accuracy is, however, difficult of attainment. 94. The dipping needle will assume, also, in various
latitudes

the

directions

exhibited in the annexed

diagram,

fig.

34, where

i]
r\
needle to dip
is

the point of the arrow indicates the north pole

<

^^^^l^rl

Jcui^d

the

Bather

the

south pole of the needles placed around the globe.

The angle which the needle makes with the

called the dip, at that place.

horizon at any place is The tendency of the

mariner's and sur-

counteracted

in the

veyor's compasses, by making the south ends of needles intended to be used in northern latitudes, somewhat

heavier than the north ends.

34, near magnetic pole

fig.

95. In

M
S

represents the North American the north pole of the earth. The

line

is nearly the present line of no variation, (see the line and curved at the centre is the magnetic 98) the is at zero, and the direction of equator, or where dip

LV

the dipping needle needle.

is

the same as that of the horizontal

DIRECTIVE TENDENCY OF MAGNET.

96.

55

By

comparing the directions assumed by the

needle

in its various positions in respect to the earth, as

represented in fig. 34, with those assumed by a magnet in reference to another magnet, as illustrated in sect. 72,
it

will

be found that there

This analogy led

is

a great analogy between

them.

to the opinion,

which was

for-

a long time entertained, that the earth was itself a magnet, or that it contained within it large magnetic bodies, under the influence of which the magnetic needle as-

sumed these

various directions

just as a small needle

assumes such directions when brought in various positions near to a bar magnet.
another mode of accounting for the of the magnet in respect to the earth ; tendency and that is by supposing, instead of magnetized bodies
97.

But

there

is

directive

within the earth, lying parallel to the direction of the needle, currents of electricity passing around the earth,

within

it,

direction.

but near the surface, at right angles with that This would identify the directive power of

the needle in respect to the earth, with its directive tendency in regard to a current of electricity, as described

under the
magnet.

last

head, instead of with respect to another

this
is,

fact, the view which philosoThe inclined to take of the subject. theory, however, is yet unsettled ; and in fact all these three forms of directive tendency may hereafter be

And

in

phers are

now

In the mean time the pheshown to be identical. nomena being distinct, they may properly be arranged
in different classes.

EXP.

9.

Lay a

fine sewing-needle,

unmagnetized, upon the

surface of water, where, if it is perfectly dry, it will float, and it will be found that it will lie nearly indifferently, in any position.

56

DANIEL DAVIS,

it, by touching it with any magnet, and replace upon the water, in a direction east and west. It will immediately turn and assume a position in the magnetic meridian, that is, nearly north and south.

Then magnetize

it

EXP.

10.

Place a magnetic needle upon

its

pivot so that

its

north pole turns towards the north. Then take it off its pivot and draw the north pole across the north pole of a strong magnet, and the south pole of the needle across the south pole of the

magnet On replacing it upon its pivot, it will be found that the pole which was previously north will now turn towards the south, and the south pole towards the north. In this way the poles of
the needle
11. of the dipping needle not occasioned by the greater weight of the north extremity of the needle used, reverse its poles, as described under the last exis

EXP.

may be reversed at pleasure. To prove that the inclination

periment, and then what was before the south pole will be depressed, the pole which was previously north being elevated.

98.
earth

The
is

direction of the needle in respect to the

Its variation, that
is
is, its

not fixed.

deviation

from the true geographical meridian,

subject to several

So also is the intensity changes, more or less regular. of the action exerted on it by the earth, as shown by the number of oscillations made by it in a given time.

When examined also by means of apparatus constructed with great delicacy, the needle is found to be seldom at rest, but to be actuated with incessant fluctuations and
more
tremulous motions, a phenomena supposed to comport easily with the idea that electric currents constitute the influence
position
is

by which it is controlled, than that its governed by the power of fixed permanent
instrument represented in fig. 35 is intended magnetism of the earth on the latter

magnets
99.

in the earth.

The

to illustrate the

supposition.

(See section

96.)

The compound

bar

DIRECTIVE TENDENCY OF MAGNET.

magnet, n
in
s, is

57

the

magnetic

axis

placed of

the earth, not coinciding exactly with the axis of

rotation,

S.

small

^magnetic needle placed at fB *B on the magnetic meridian, wili point both to the magnetic pole s, and to the north pole N, both

But if the needle be placed

at

being in the same line. A, or any where except on

the magnetic meridian, it will point to the magnetic pole alone, the two poles not being in the same direction.

The

magnets represented at n s are not fastened This allows their but together, only fixed on one axis. poles to be separated a little, to imitate more closely the
several
distribution of terrestrial

magnetism

the earth really

having four magnetic poles, two strong and two weak ; the strongest north pole is in America, the weakest in
Asia.

The

line of

no variation on the earth

differs,

however, considerably from the magnetic meridian, and the lines of equal variation and equal dip are not exactly
meridians and parallels of latitude to the magnetic pole. The action of the magnetism of the earth at its surface
is

therefore irregular.

The

temporary fluctuations, how-

ever, are so slight as not to interfere with the use of the

compass, and the variation of the needle is observed and noted on charts for different parts of the earth.

any place is found by observing the magnetic bearing of any heavenly body

100.

The

variation of the needle at

58
whose

DANIEL,

DAVIS, JR.

MANUAL.
known.
It is

true position at the time

is

imme-

diately obtained by comparing the direction of the needle V- 36. w ith the north star

when it
culation

crosses the

meridian or by cal-

when
is

the

north star

at its

greatest elongation.

An
is

observation

of

the sun, however,

usually preferred.
latitude

The

of a

the exact bearing of the place (fig. 36)being known, sun S, east or west, can be obtained by calculation,* for any given moment of time at that place. If the needle
at

MAS
noted.

M, instead of N, the true north, the angle be the magnetic bearing of the sun west. Suppose this angle to be observed by the surveyor's compass, and found equal to 76, the time being exactly
points to
will

The

at the time,

is

S, the true bearing of the sun angle then calculated. Suppose it equal to
difference

NA

85

30'.

The

between the magnetic bearing

and the true bearing, represented by the angle 30' .f is the variation of the needle, and equals 9
illustrate the

M A N,

101. Fig. 37 represents an instrument contrived to theory which ascribes the magnetism of
it

the earth to electrical currents circulating around

right angles to
its

at

axis.

is

merely a
is

wooden

axis to

the globe.

When

a galvanic current
is

sent through the

* See Bowditch's Navigator. t The present variation at Boston

appears to be increasing.

The

present dip

9 deg. 30 min. west. The westerly variation is 74 deg. 20 min. north.

DIRECTIVE TENDENCY OF MAGNET.

coil

59

of wire about the equatorial regions, small needles placed in different situations will arrange themselves as
Fig. 37.

By comparthey would in similar terrestrial latitudes. ing this figure with fig. 35, representing the globe with
the included magnet, a comparison tween the two theories of magnetism.

may be made beThe small needle

With a small

arranges

itself similarly

on both globes.

dipping needle the resemblance between its positions on both, and those assumed by it on the earth's surface are

very striking. 102. It will be observed that, in fig. 35, the south pole of the included magnet is represented at the north

So also, in fig. 37, the geographical pole of the earth. wooden rod S, passed through the axis of the globe, shows the direction of the polarity induced by the cur-

The

rent to be contrary to that of the geographical poles. reason of this may be easily understood. The

northern magnetic pole is the one which attracts the north pole of a magnet, and therefore must itself possess
south polarity and not north, as its name might seem to In the figure the battery current is of course indicate.

60

DANIEL DAVIS,

JR.'s

MANUAL.

considered as flowing round the globe in the same direction as the supposed currents in the earth that is to say,
;

from east to west, in the opposite direction to that of the earth's rotation. The principle on which the coil acts in
inducing polarity will be explained in chap. II, sect. 2. 103. The aurora borealis is found to affect a delicately suspended magnetic needle, causing
it

to vibrate

constantly but irregularly during

its

continuance, and

especially when the auroral beams rise to the zenith ; if the aurora is near the horizon the disturbance of the

needle

is

very
its

slight.
is

When

the beams unite to form

a corona,
meridian.

centre

often in or near the magnetic

104. Within a few years a considerable number of

magnetic observatories have been established

in various

parts of the world, for the purpose of making systematic

and corresponding observations

in relation to terrestrial

the variation of the magnetism. needle and the intensity of the earth's action upon it are observed and recorded almost hourly, and on
stations

At

these

stated days at intervals of a few minutes only.

These

observations

made by means of

excellent instruments,

in widely remote regions, admit of with each other, and can hardly fail to comparison throw light on many parts of this important and intricate

and

at the

same time

subject.

MAGNETISM,
ii.

INDUCTION OF MAGNETISM.
I.

BY THE INFLUENCE OF A MAGNET.

105. If a magnet is brought near to a piece of iron of any form, the latter becomes itself magnetic by the
influence of the former.

EXP. 12. Let M, fig. 39, be a bar magnet, the point of the arrow indicating the north pole and the feather the south pole ; and B a bar f i ron brought Fig. 39.

g
the bar will
will

near to it

Now

by the influence of the magnet

become

become magnetized; the end towards the north pole south, and the end remote from it, north. The mag;

when the bar is brought in contact with the pole of the magnet a decided effect,however,is produced by the mere proximity of the magnet to the iron. That the iron bar
netical induction is stronger

while under the influence of the magnet actually possesses magnetic properties, may be shown by presenting to it some iron filings or small nails, which will adhere to each extremity ; and
also

by bringing near

to

it

a
to

pivot, the north pole of

which

a small magnetic needle balanced on will be repelled by the end of the

M, and attracted by the end nearest M. This induced magnetism will immediately disappear when the iron is removed from the vicinity of the magnet If a small
bar farthest from the magnet bar of steel, a large sewing-needle for instance, be substituted for the iron bar, it will acquire magnetism much less readily, but will
retain
it

after

removal becoming in fact a permanent magnet

;

62
106.

DANIEL DAVIS,
It

JR.'s

MANUAL.

was

for

tractive force of the loadstone or

a long time supposed that the atany other magnet was

exerted upon iron simply as iron ; whereas it is now to be the attraction of one pole of a magnet for the opposite pole of another magnet. In all cases, when

known

brought near to or in contact with any magnetizable bodies, as pieces of iron, iron filings, or ferruginous sand, all such bodies, whether large or
a magnet
is

small,

pole,

coming thus within the influence of a magnetic become magnetized the part which is nearest
;

acquiring a polarity opposite to that of the pole of the magnet ; while the remote extremity becomes a pole of

the same name.

EXP.
13.

If several pieces of iron wire of the

same length be
;

suspended from a magnetic pole, they will not hang parallel but the lower ends will diverge from each other, in consequence of
their all receiving the same polarity by induction, while the upper ends will be retained in their places by the attraction of

the magnet.

EXP. 14. Suspend two short pieces of iron wire by threads of equal length, fastened to one end of each piece so that the wires may hang in contact. If now the south pole of a magnet be
placed below the wires, the lower ends of both will become north poles, and their upper ends south poles ; and the wires will recede

This divergence will increase as the magnet brought nearer, until it reaches a certain limit, when its attraction for the lower poles will overpower their mutual repulsion and cause them to approach each other ; while the repulsion of
from each other.
is

the upper ends will remain as before.

107. In former times

artificial

magnets were always

made by
pared
;

by

induction from strong magnets previously prethe original source of the power being provided natural magnets. When this was the case, it became

INDUCTION OF MAGNETISM.

63

and what important to ascertain what arrangements modes of applying a magnet to a bar or needle, were most efficacious in communicating or developing the
magnetic virtue ; and accordingly various and complicated arrangements and manipulations for this purpose,
are detailed in old treatises on this science.

Recently,

however, other and

far

more powerful means have been

discovered for magnetizing bars of iron or steel, as will be hereafter described ; so that all those methods have

measure superseded. The induction of means above referred to, is now only the magnetism by for magnetizing needles or small bars. employed

been

in a great

108.

It

may however

be convenient to

know

a good

technically process for magnetizing (or touching, as One the simplest of of steel magnets. the aid by called) small bar of steel may and best will here be given.
it is

be magnetized by drawing

it

across the poles of a

mag-

net in the following manner ; place the middle of the bar on one of the poles and draw one end of it over the
pole a

number of times

the direction of the motion

Then turn being always from the middle to the end. the bar in the hand, and pass the other half over the
other pole of the magnet in the same way. is thick, the process may be repeated with
sides.

If the bar
its

different

The end which

has been drawn over the south

pole of the magnet will now possess north polarity, and the other extremity south polarity.

109.
loses

The magnet which is used to induce magnetism none of its own power in the process, but often
it

receives a permanent increase

polarities

has induced upon

its

by the reaction of the own.

64
EXP.
its

DANIEL DAVIS,

J R. S

MANUAL.

15. That a magnet possesses greater power while exertinductive action, may be shown by suspending from one pole of a bar magnet as much iron as it can hold. If now a bar of iron be applied to the other pole, the first will be found capa-

ing

ble of sustaining a greater weight than before.

110. When the arrangement of the experiment is such that while one extremity of an iron bar is exposed to the influence of one pole of a magnet the other extremity may be acted upon by the other pole, there will be a sort of double induction, and the effect will be
increased.

EXP. 16. Let M, fig. 40, be a compound horse-shoe magnet, and A an iron armature, of such a length that while one extremity is applied to one pole of the magnet the other Fig. 40. extremity may be applied to the other. In this
case both poles of the magnet will act, each

inducing a polarity opposite to its extremity of the armature which

influence, as
is

own
is

in that
its

under

cut

The

indicated by the letters in the force with which the armature ad-

heres will consequently be greatly increased, for there will be a strong attraction between

g each pole of the magnet and the corresponding

extremity of the armature, that is, corresponding in position ; for the polarity of the parts in
contact will evidently be of opposite denominations. If a bar of iron be placed between the north poles of two magnets, both extremities will become south poles, while a north pole will be

developed at the middle of the bar.

111.

ARMATURE.

iron in the shape of the letter

This consists of a piece of soft Y. If one of the branches

of the fork be applied to the north pole of a horse-shoe magnet, as seen in fig. 41, the lower end of the armature,

and

also the other

branch of the fork acquire north

INDUCTION OF MAGNETISM.
Fig. 41.

65

polarity,
iron.

and

will sustain small pieces of

If both
to

branches of the fork be

applied, one
as

each pole of the magnet,

lines in the cut,

shown by the dotted

This
is

the polarity of the lower end immediately

disappears.

because the two

poles tend to induce opposite polarities of equal intensity in the extremity of

the armature, which of course neutralize

each other.

If the branches of the fork

are applied to the similar poles of

two

magnets,

their influence will conspire in

inducing the same polarity in the lower end,and a greater weight will be support-

ed by

it,

than

when one branch is

Fig. 43.

Fig. 42.

applied to a single pole. EXP. 17. Place the

north
pole of a

bar

42) on the centre of a circu-

magnet

(fig.

lar plate of iron

it

will

south polarity in the part im-

now induce

mediately beneath it, and a weak north polarity in the

whole

cirit

cumference, so that
5

will sustain iron filings as shown in the cut

EXP.

18.

If an iron

plate be

cut into the

star, as in fig.

form of a
43,

each point will acquire a. stronger north polarity than the edge of the round plate

6*

66

DANIEL DAVIS,
Fig. 44.

J R. S

MANUAL.

in the last experiment, and may be able to lift several iron screws or nails; the letters in the cut indicate the position of

the poles.

EXP.

19.

middle of a bar of iron

the bar will

Place the north pole on the both extremities of

;

"S

become north poles and the middle a south pole, as indicated by the letters in the cut (fig. 44) where repremts the magnet.

112 Fig. 45 represents the successive development

of magnetism in several bars of iron.

M
$3gj

JVff. 45.

a "(*

>

NJJL

"fc

bar a being near to or in placed ^contact with the north

The

netic,

pole of a magnet M, becomes itself temporarily magand is able to induce magnetism in a second bar
b
;

this

again in
less

less

and

and so on, each succeeding bar being The same thing strongly magnetized.
c,

occurs with the iron nails represented in fig. 43, hanging be refrom the points of the star. If the magnet

moved from
is

disappears. well shown

the bar a, the magnetism of the whole series This successive development of magnetism

by plunging one of the poles of a strong

a mass of small iron bodies, such as

bar magnet
113.
It is

in

screws, nails, &c.

not easy to magnetize a bar whose length its diameter, in such a manner that exceeds considerably be its two developed along two opposite sides poles may
instead of at
its

extremities

for the opposite

polarities

tend to keep as far from each other as possible. The points of greatest intensity in a permanent magnet are
not however situated precisely at distance from them.
its

ends, but at a

little

INDUCTION OF MAGNETISM.
114.

67

The

inductive action of a magnet

is

not impeded

by the interposition of any unmagnetizable body whatever. Thus, if a plate of glass be placed between the
influenced,

magnet and a piece of and will be

at the

iron, the

iron will

be as
it

much
would

attracted as strongly, as

be

same distance with no

glass interposed.

115.
exists
tricity

FRACTURE or MAGNETS.

close

analogy

between the phenomena of magnetism and elecin many important points. But in some respects

it altogether fails. Electricity, whether positive or negative, can be actually transferred from one body to another, so that a body may be charged with an excess

of electricity of either kind.

ism.

It is

not so with magnet-

Every magnet possesses both polarities to an equal extent, though each may be diffused through different
its

portions of

mass.

long conductor exposed to the

inductive influence of an electrified body, has opposite electricities developed at its two ends. If now it be

divided in the middle,

we

obtain the two electricities

separate ; one half of the conductor possessing an excess of positive, the other of negative electricity. The con-

regard to the distribution of its appears to be exactly analogous to that of the conductor ; the north polarity seeming to be collected

dition of a
polarities

magnet

in

in

one half of

its

length,

and the south

in the other.

We

the magnet in halves

by breaking should obtain the two polarities But such is separate, one in each portion of the bar. not the case each half at once becomes a perfect

might therefore naturally expect that

we

mag-

net.

The

original north pole

still

remains north, but

is,

the other extremity of the magnet, that

the broken

68

DANIEL DAVIS,

J R.'s

.MANUAL.

The converse of this end, has acquired a south pole. occurs with respect to the other portion in which the south pole was situated, as shown in fig. 46. These
halves

may be

again broken with the

Fig. 46.

same

result

and

in fact into

however

fragments a "magnet may be subdivided, each will possess a north and a south pole.
.small

EXP. 20. Suspend a piece of iron from one pole of a magnet, and bring up to this pole the opposite pole of another magnet.

The iron will immediately fall the poles when in contact representing the middle or neutral portion of a magnet. If the piece of iron is nearly as heavy as the pole can sustain, it will fall on the mere approach of the other magnet to the pole and before it
:

touches it

II.

BY THE INFLUENCE OF A CURRENT OF

ELECTRICITY.

116. It has already been stated, under the head of the directive tendency of a magnet in reference to a current of electricity, that a magnetized body, freely
to

suspended within the influence of such a current, tends assume a position at right angles to it. It is also found that if any magnetizable body be placed in this
position with regard to an electrical current,
it

acquires
is

magnetism by

its

influence.

This phenomenon

termed

The subject of this section, electro-magnetic induction. with the one referred to above, form the department of
electro-magnetism. 117. short copper wire connecting the poles of a

battery will attract iron

filings, as

represented in

fig.

47.

INDUCTION OF MAGNETISM.
It will

69

be observed that the lines of

divergent

filings

have not that

bristled,

arrangement,
steel

under the influence of a

they exhibit but adhere magnet, equally all around the circumference
the

which

of

wire

forming

cir-

cular bands, the particles of

mutually cohere in consequence of each particle

which

becoming a magnet with

its

poles tranverse to the wire. The attraction is also equal

at

every part of the length of

:

the wire

hence these trans-

verse bands, lying in contact with each other, present the appearance of a closelycompacted layer. Whatever form the metal conducting the electricity may have, the filings will always arrange

themselves in lines encircling

course of the current.
fall

it

at right angles

to the

The

iron filings will of course

;

off

when

the current ceases to flow

but

if steel

filings be employed, they will remain attached, in consequence of the adhesion of the magnetized particles

among

themselves.

EXP. 21.

A sewing- needle

may be magnetized by
it.

placing

it

across the wire and at right angles to the wire, it acquires feeble polarity on

its

If placed parallel to opposite sides instead

of in the direction of its length, and probably will not retain it after removal it being very difficult to maintain this transverse dis:

tribution of

magnetism

in

magnets whose length considerably

exceeds their diameter.

EXP. 22. Place a short iron rod or a piece of iron wire at right angles to the wire conveying the current On bringing a delicate

70

DANIEL DAVIS,

JR.'s

MANUAL.

to its extremities, they will be found to a sensible polarity ; which however they will lose when possess removed from the influence of the current

magnetic needle near

118.

Though

the relation between the current and

it

the direction of the polarity which

induces

is

fixed

and determinate, yet

it is

very

difficult to express.

The
its
it.

action of the current in inducing

magnetism follows the

to determine

same law which we have already seen

influence in

moving a magnetic pole placed near

See

79.

119.

The
is

memory
First,

following mode of fixing the rule in the perhaps the best that has been contrived.
to
fix

it is

more natural

our attention on the cur-

rent of positive, than of negative electricity. Secondly, in a vertical wire, a descending current will occur to us

more

readily than an ascending one

or, if

we

imagine

ourselves borne along by the current, it would be more natural to conceive ourselves moving with our feet fore-

most

but

if,

on the contrary,
feet.

be

at rest,

we

we suppose ourselves to should conceive the current to be passing

Our face would, of
to

from our head to our

course,

be turned towards the body

be magnetized

we should

attend to the north pole in preference to the south ; and to our right hand rather than to our left. Combining
these conditions, then,

we may

always recollect, that if

we

conceive ourselves lying in the direction

of the

current,

of positive electricity flowing through our head towards our feet, with the bar to be magnetized before
the stream

pole of that bar will always be towards our If any one of these conditions be reversed, hand. right the result is reversed likewise.
us, the north

INDUCTION OF MAGNETISM.

71

4g

120. HELIX, ON STAND.

The

magnetizing power will be greatly increased if the wire be coiled in

the
to

manner of a cork-screw, so
form
a

as

hollow cylinder into which the body to be magnetized

can be inserted.
?

Such a
is

coil is

denominated a Helix ; and

sented at d,
fig.

repre-

48, mounted upon

a stand. 121. In using the coil, the following rule will indicate the extremity at which the north pole will be found. If the helix be placed before the observer with one of
its

ends towards him, and the current of electricity in

passing from the positive to the negative pole of the battery, circulates in the coil in a direction similar to
that of the hands of a

watch or the threads of a common

screw

then the north pole will be from the observer, ; and the south pole towards him. If it passes round in

the contrary direction, the poles will be reversed. Or the formula may be stated thus the south pole will
:

always be found at that end of the helix where the positive current circulates in the direction of the hands of
a watch.

122. Thus, in fig. 48 the current flows from the cup C, up the wire a, to the coil ; and then down again

by the wire &, to the cup Z, producing north polarity at N, and south polarity at S. This rule is strictly deducible from that given in <> 119 for finding the direction

of the polarity induced by a current flowing in a

straight wire.

72

DANIEL DAVIS,

J R.'s

MANUAL.

it

Exr. 23. Place a bar of soft iron within the coil, and connect with the battery by means of the two cups attached to the stand. Then the two extremities of the bar will be found to be strongly

in contact with them.

magnetic, as will be seen by bringing a key or other piece of iron On separating one of the wires communi-

cating with the battery, the magnetic power of the iron bar will be immediately destroyed, and the key will drop. If iron filings or small nails are held near one of the extremities of the iron, they will be taken up and dropped alternately, as the connection with
the battery
is

made

or broken.

If two soft iron bars are inserted in the helix, at the opposite ends, in such a manner as to have their extremities in contact in the middle of the helix, they will be held in conjunc-

EXP. 24.

tion by a strong force.

EXP. 25. The coil being connected with the battery and a bar of iron placed within it, bring a magnetic needle near the two extremities of the bar, in succession. One of the extremities will

be found to have north and the other south polarity, and they attract and repel the poles of the needle accordingly. EXP.
helix.

will

26.

It will

Place a steel bar, instead of an iron one, within the acquire polarity somewhat less readily, but the

broken, and after

polarity will continue after the connection with the battery is it is removed from the helix ; and thus a perma-

nent magnet be made.

Any

small rods or bars of steel, needles,

&c., will answer for this experiment

EXP. 27.

Bars of iron or steel brought near the outside of the

helix will not acquire any appreciable degree of magnetism. An iron tube will not become perceptibly magnetic when a current
is

passed through a helix placed within

it

it,

though when enclosed

in a larger helix

will

become strongly

so.

EXP. 28.

If a needle or a small bar of steel previously

mag-

netized, is placed within the helix, in such a position as to bring the north pole at the south pole of the helix, as indicated by the

preceding

rule, the polarity

of the needle or bar will be destroyed,

and perhaps a new and contrary polarity communicated. EXP. 29. If a small magnetic needle be suspended by a thread near the helix, the mutual action between them will cause the

INDUCTION OF MAGNETISM.

73

needle to enter the helix, its north pole entering the south end of the helix, or its south pole the north end. When the needle reaches
the middle, its north pole will be within that end of the coil which exhibits north polarity. If the magnet be placed within the helix,
in a contrary direction,
will
its

north pole entering the north end,

it

be repelled, and then revolving without the helix, will return and enter by the other pole. This effect will take place unless
the electro-magnetic power of the coil
is sufficient to

reverse the

the needle has entered with its poles correspondpoles. ing in direction with those of the helix, the action of the helix will

When

tend to keep of its axis.

it

in the middle of

its

length, though not in the line

its
it

EXP. 30.

Place the helix with

it.

rod of iron or steel within

battery,
it

If

axis vertical, and a small be now connected with the

may be

out : the tendency of the helix to keep the bar within

raised from the table without the bar falling it over-

powering its gravitation. EXP. 31. The power of the helix to induce magnetism may be shown by holding it vertically, as in the last experiment,
while the current is flowing. small steel bar, merely allowed to fall through the helix, will acquire a considerable degree of

magnetism.

123. FLAT SPIRAL. Fig. 49 represents a ribbon of sheet copper, coiled into a spiral. This instrument is described here in consequence of its possessing considerable magnetizing power, though
Fig. 49.
its

principal uses will not

till

be mentioned
action

the inductive

of

electrical

currents
in

comes under consideration,

The copchap. Ill, section 1. ribbon be an inch wide per may

and one hundred
and soldered together.
thin cotton,
it is

feet long, the

strips being cut from a sheet, of Being then wound with strips

coiled

upon

itself, like

the

mainspring of

74
a watch

DANIEL DAVIS,
;

intead of covering

it

with cotton,

it

may be

coiled with a strip either of cotton or list intervening. binding screw cups are soldered to the ends of the

Two

ribbon; the internal end, for convenience, is brought from the centre, underneath the spiral, to its outside,
care being taken to insure insulation where
coils.
it

passes the
if

The whole may be

by a

firmly cemented together,

desired,

solution of shellac in alcohol.

The

spiral

being connected with the battery, its two faces will a dipping needle placed on any exhibit strong polarity
:

part of its surface or near it will always direct one of its poles towards the centre, as seen in fig. 49, where a

S is represented on the spiral. On redipping needle the versing battery current, the other pole of the needle If the spiral be fixed in a will turn towards the centre.
vertical
position, a horizontal
result.

used with the same

side of the coil,

When

magnetic needle may be brought near to one

it will be found to direct its north pole the centre ; when on the other side, towards constantly When either the horizontal or dipping its south pole. needle is placed near the outside, with its axis of motion

in the

same plane

as the spiral, neither pole will

be

directed towards the centre, but the

itself at right

magnet

will place

angles to the plane of the spiral.

of the spiral

EXP.

32.

The magnetizing power

it

may be shown

by connecting

with the battery, and placing a rod of iron or steel in the central opening, or upon it in the direction of a radius,

when the iron will become temporarily magnetic, and the steel permanently so. If the bar, when laid upon the coil, extends across
the central opening, both ends will

become

similar poles, and the

part over the centre, a pole of the opposite denomination.

124. If the spiral be of considerable diameter, it will exert a feeble magnetizing power on its outside, and a

INDUCTION OF MAGNETISM.
short rod of soft iron placed near
to sustain a
it

75

will

become able
be
in the
it

few

iron filings

its

polarity will

reverse direction to that which

it

would acquire were

The influence of the earth in inducing placed within. in the iron must not be overlooked it may be magnetism
;

by observing whether the transmission of the current through the coil causes more or fewer filings to
allowed
for

in a vertical position with

be sustained by the bar, or avoided by placing the spiral its axis east and west, and the
rod horizontally east and west. 125. When the spiral is in the form of a ring, having a large central opening, it will be found that the magnet-

ism communicated to a bar placed in the centre will be somewhat less than when it is near the side, though very

much

greater than that acquired

by one on the
This
at

outside.
a helia-

Fig. 50.

126.

MAGIC CIRCLE.
shown

is

cal coil of wire,

in fig. 50,

about two inches in diameter, with the extremities a and b of the wire left free,
in order to

be inserted into the cups of

the battery. If two semicircular arma- tures of three quarter inch iron, provided with handles, are passed partly within the
ring, as represented in the cut,

they will adhere together so strongly as to support a weight of fifty-six pounds or more, when
the current from even a small battery is transmitted through the coil. The attractive

power manifested by the armatures

other, but not in actual
is

when near each

contact,

comparatively very feeble.

76

DANIEL DAVIS,

JR.'s

MANUAL.

127. If a ring and armatures of larger size are emare the ployed, as represented in fig. 51, where

AA

armatures, and

the coil, great force will be required

Fig. 51.

to separate them.

The

handles are attached to the armjoints, to

atures

by

ball

and socket

prevent them from

being twisted or

wrenched by

irregular pulling.

The

induction of magnetism in these armatures by means of the current from a thermo-electric battery has already

been mentioned
128.
If the

in

56.

coil

while

conveying the current be

plunged in a mass of small iron nails, a large quantity of them will be sustained by it. An iron bar introduced
If the flow of it will become strongly magnetic. the current in the coil is stopped while the armatures

within

are applied to each other, as

shown

in figures

50 and

continue firmly attached ; but if once not adhere again. will separated, 129. PAGE'S DOUBLE HELIX. This instrument con51, they will
still

sists

of two helices fixed side by side, into which two bars of iron of the form, fitted with handles, can be

inserted so as to bring their extremities in contact in the

centre.

very strong force will be required to separate

INDUCTION OF MAGNETISM.
them, when the
the helices.
bars
electrical circuit is

77

completed through

The

attractive

force manifested

by the

when
is

their extremities

meet

in the centres of the

helices

much

greater than

when

the ends of one of

the bars project beyond the coils. short bars than with long ones.

It is also greater

with

130.

DE

LA RIVE'S RING.
the electric current
Fig. 52.

A
is

coil

of wire while

transmitting

not only capable of communicating

magnetism
or
steel
it,

to

iron

within

placed but itself

possesses
polarity.

magnetic This fact

may be shown by
means of the apparatus figured in the

adjoining cut. end of the

One
wire

forming the coil

is

soldered to a very

small plate of copper c, and the other to a similar plate of zinc z. These are fastened to a small piece of wood, in order
plates
to

keep them apart, and placed

in a little glass

cup D.

To

put the instrument in action, a sufficient quantity of water, acidulated by a few drops of sulphuric or nitric
is poured into the glass cup to cover the plates, and the whole apparatus is floated in a basin of water. The coil will now be found to place itself with its axis

acid,

north and south

its

polarity being in the

same

direction

7*

78
as that

DANIEL DAVIS,
it.

J R.'s

MANUAL.
iron rod placed

which would be exhibited by an

within

The arrow

indicates the course of the gal-

coil, from the copper to the zinc. Take a bar magnet M, and holding it horizontally, bring its north pole near to the south pole of the ring. The ring will move towards the magnet, and pass over it until it reaches

vanic current in the

EXP.
33.

its

middle, where

it

will rest in a state of equilibrium; returning

either pole and then left at libthe ring in its position, withdraw the magnet, and pass it again half way through the coil, but with its poles reversed. The ring when set at liberty, will, unless placed exactly
to this position, if
erty.

moved towards

Now, holding

at the centre,

on
it

till

face.

move towards the pole which is nearest ; and passing clear of the magnet, will turn round and present its other It will then be attracted, and pass again over the pole till
middle of the magnet

rests in equilibrium at the

131. ELECTRO-MAGNETS.

Bars of iron wound with

insulated wire so as to be enclosed in a permanent helix,

are termed Electro-Magnets. During the passage of an electric current along the wire, they exhibit a remarkable

degree of magnetic power, indeed of steel magnets of the same size.

Fig. 53.

far superior to that

They

are usually

made
fig.

in the

form, as

shown

in

eighteen

53, the bar being from six to inches in length before

being bent. nected with a

These,

when consize cylindri-

medium

cal battery, will sustain from a

few

pounds to

fifty

or a hundred pounds.

current from the thermo-electric

battery (fig. 15), when transmitted of an electro-magnet, induces a conthe wires through of siderable charge magnetism.

132. Prof. Henry, late of the Albany Academy, ap-

INDUCTION OF MAGNETISM.
pears to have been the
first

79

any great
bent into

lifting

power.

to construct electro-magnets of In one instance, he employed a

soft iron bar,

two inches square and twenty inches long., the horse-shoe form its weight was twenty-one
;

This was wound with five hundred and forty pounds. feet of copper bell-wire, not in one continuous length,
but
in nine separate coils

of sixty feet each, each strand

of wire occupying about two inches of the bar, and being coiled several times backward and forward upon itself.

By this arrangement the different bined in a number of ways ; thus,

the
first

coils
if

could be com-

the second end of

wire was soldered to the

first

end of the second,

and so on through the series, the whole would form a Or they might single coil of five hundred and forty feet. form a double as to of united so coil be two hundred and
seventy
feet, feet, or

and so on.

a triple one of one hundred and eighty small battery was used,

consisting

of two concentric cylinders of copper, with a zinc cylinThe battery required only half a der between them. for its charge, and the surface of zinc diluted acid of pint

exposed

to the acid

was but

two-fifths of a square foot.

strand of the wire being soldered in succession to this battery, one at a time, the magnetism was just sufficient to

Each

sustain

pounds.

When

the

the armature, which weighed seven first end of each of the nine strands

to the zinc cylinder and the second end to the copper cylinder, so that the current circulated in nine channels of sixty feet each, the magnet supported the extraordinary weight of six hundred and fifty pounds.

was soldered

With
fifty

a larger battery

it

sustained seven hundred

lift

and

pounds.

Each

pole, separately, could

but five

80

DANIEL DAVIS,

MANUAL

or six pounds. On uniting the ends of the wires, so as to form a continuous length of five hundred and forty feet,

the weight raised was only one hundred and forty-five pounds. He afterwards constructed another electro-mag-

net on a similar plan, which was wound with twenty -six strands of copper wire, covered with cotton thread, the

aggregate length of the wires being seven hundred and With a battery of 47.9 square feet, twenty-eight feet.
this

magnet supported two thousand and

sixty-three

Others have since been pounds, or nearly a ton. with a lifting power of three thousand pounds.
Fig. 54.

made

133. Fig. 54 represents an electro-magnet fixed frame, for the purpose of supporting heavy weights.

in a

INDUCTION OF MAGNETISM.

81

semicircular armature A is adapted to its poles, as this form gives the greatest lifting power. It will be observed that if the iron of the magnet is soft and pure, its magnetic power will be immediately communicated and lost,

according as the connection with the battery is made or broken. If, however, the armature is applied to the poles, and the flow of the current is stopped while it is attached, it will continue to adhere for weeks or months

with great force, so as to be able to sustain one third or one half as much weight as while the current was circulating.

But

if

whole magnetism
good
polarity of the

the keeper be once removed, nearly the will disappear, and the magnet, if of

iron, will not

even be able to

lift

an ounce.

The

magnet

will of course

be reversed by

changing the direction of the current.

EXP. 34.

iron nails or filings about of the current is stopped.

small electro-magnet will sustain a large mass of its poles, which will fall when the flow

very small electro-magnet has been

its

made

to lift four

hundred and twenty times

own

weight.

134.
its

An

electro-magnet, like the steel

are
its

magnet, exerts
;

attractive force through intervening substances

and
be

the

phenomena
lift its

more

striking with

the former, in
it

consequence of
able to

greater power.

Thus,

will often

and when

armature, with a plate of glass interposed ; a few thicknesses of paper only intervene, a

considerable additional weight will be supported. 135. ELECTRO-MAGNET, WITH THREE POLES.
consists of
in

This

an iron rod wound with wire, which is carried one direction around half the length of the rod, and
is

then turns and

effect of this

wound

in the other
is,

direction.

The

arrangement

that

when

the connection

82
is

DANIEL DAVIS,

R/S

MANUAL.

made with the battery by means of the brass cups on the stand, the two extremities of the bar, c and d, fig. 55, become similar poles, while the middle a acquires a
polarity opposite
ithe ends.

to

that of

By
will

reversing the
all

direction

of the current,

the

poles

be reversed.

The arrangement of the poles may be shown by passing a

magnetic
bar, or

needle

by

along the small iron tacks,

its

a large number of which will adhere to and to its middle.

extremities

136. COMMUNICATION OF

MAGNETISM TO STEEL BY
great
it

THE ELECTRO-MAGNET.
by

The
;

the electro-magnet, renders

power possessed peculiarly fitted for

it is

inducing magnetism in steel

for charging

hence

very convenient

applied like

steel bar, if permanent magnets. an armature to the poles of a shaped electro-magnet, will become strongly magnetic, the end

A short

which was

with the north pole acquiring, of course, south polarity. longer bar may be charged, by employing the same process that has been described
in contact

in

108, for touching by steel magnets. form are most readily magnetized 137. Bars of the the bend to the extremities across them from by drawing
>

the poles of the electro-magnet, in such a way that both halves of the bar may pass at the same time over

This should be the poles to which they are applied. repeated several times, recollecting always to draw the
bar in the same direction.

Then,

if it

has a considerable

INDUCTION OF MAGNETISM.
thickness, turn
it

83

in the
56.

hand and repeat the process

with
its

opposite

surface,

keeping each half applied

to the

same pole

as

before.

Of

course, the result

will
if

be the same,
is

the steel bar

kept stationary and passed over it in the proper direction, that verse direction of the arrow in fig. 56.

the poles of the electro-magnet

is,

in the re-

138. In order to remove the magnetism of a steel form, it is only necessary to reverse magnet of the

the process just described ; that the electro-magnet on each of

is,

its

placing one pole of poles, to draw the

electro-magnet over it, towards its bend, in the direction In this way, a steel magnet of the arrow in fig. 56.

may
to

often be so completely discharged as to

be unable

lift

more than a few

its

iron filings.

A bar magnet

may

magnetism in a great degree by the north of an electro-magnet over it, from passing pole to its middle, and then lifting it off its south pole peralso

be deprived of

pendicularly

if,

then, the south pole be passed in the

same manner over the other extremity of the steel bar, it will be found to have lost the greater part of its
polarity.

If necessary, this process

may be
mode
is

repeated
to

several times.

still

more

effectual

make

use of two electro-magnets ; place the north pole of one on one end of the bar, and the south pole of the other on
its

other extremity, and draw the poles along the bar

till

84

DANIEL DAVIS,
;

If the steel they meet at its middle then lift them off. bar whose polarity is to be removed is of small size, steel

magnets may be substituted for the electro-magnets the above processes, though with less effect.

in

MOTIONS PRODUCED BY THE MUTUAL ACTION OF MAGNETS

AND CONDUCTORS.
139. When a wire conveying a current of electricity brought near to a magnetic pole, the pole tends to revolve around it, as has been explained in <> 79. If the

is

current acts equally upon both poles, no rotation occurs, because they tend to move in opposite directions ; and the magnet rests across the wire in a position of equilib-

rium between the two forces.

current
is

But

if

the action of the

limited to one pole (which

was

first
is

effected

by Prof. Faraday), a continued revolution

If the

magnet has
;

liberty of motion,
is

it

produced. will revolve around

it

the wire

if

the wire only

free to

move,

will rotate

around the pole.

When

both the wire and the magnet

are at liberty to move, they will revolve in the same direction round a comnon centre of motion. number

of instruments have been contrived

for exhibiting these

movements.
140.

MAGNET REVOLVING ROUND A CONDUCTING

WIRE.
magnet

In the instrument represented in fig. 57, the S has a double bend in the middle, so that

this part is horizontal,

while the extremities are vertical.

is attached a north pole piece of brass at a right a and bears rests in an agate cup fixed angle, pivot which on the stand. wire loop attached to the upper pole S

At

its

encircles a vertical wire fixed in the axis of motion,

and

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC ROTATIONS.
thus keeps the

85
is

magnet

upright.
:

The

galvanic current

conveyed by this vertical wire it is surmounted by a brass cup A, and its lower end dips into a small mercury cup on the horizontal portion of the Fig. 57.
magnet. From this part projects a bent wire, which dips into a
circular cistern of mercury,
in

the centre, to allow the

to pass

open mag-

through, and supported independently of it. wire, terminated by a brass cup

net

B,

for

connection with the bat-

proceeds outwardly from the cistern. This arrangement

tery,

allows the current to flow

down
its

by the
middle,
in

side of the

upper pole of
it

the magnet, until

reaches

whence

it is

conveyed

off

such a direction as not to act

pole.

upon the lower

magnet
141.
will revolve rapidly

On making

connection with the battery, the around the wire ; the direc-

tion of the rotation

depending upon that of the current.

ITS

MAGNET REVOLVING ROUND

OWN

AXIS.

The

instrument represented in fig. 58 is designed to show that the action between the current and the magnet
takes place equally well when the magnet itself forms the conductor of the electricity. The lower end of

the magnet, being pointed, is supported on an agate at the bottom of a brass cup connected under the base-

board with the binding screw cup P.

The upper end

86

DANIEL DAVIS,
cup

J R.'s

MANUAL.

is

hollowed out to receive the end of the wire fixed

to the

the brass

arm supporting
lated

this

cup

is

insu-

from the brass

pillar at I I,

by some

non-conductor of electricity.

To the middle

of the magnet is fixed a small ivory cistern

C,

for

containing mer-

cury, into

which dips
of the wire
the

the end

D.
net
its

Thus
is

mag-

supported with north pole downis

wards, and
rotate round
its

free to

mercury should be put into the cavity at S, and into the brass cup at N, and the ivory cistern be filled sufficiently to establish a connection between the magnet and the wire D.
vertical axis.
little

and B with the batconnecting the cups tery, the current will flow through the upper half of the
142.

On

magnet, causing it to rotate rapidly. If the cups B and P form the connection, the current will traverse the
lower
half, equally

Now

connect

and

producing revolution of the magnet. P with the battery, and no motion

will result,

because the electricity passes through the

whole length of the magnet in such a manner that the tendency of one pole to rotate is counteracted by that of
the other to

move

in the opposite direction.

Connect

with one pole of the battery, and

other pole.

and

P both with
;

the

The magnet

will

now

revolve

since the

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC ROTATIONS.
current will ascend in one half of
in the other.
its

87

length and descend

143. REVOLVING

WIRE FRAME.

The

revolution of

a conductor round a magnet is shown by the instrument Two light frames of copper represented in fig. 59.

wire

R R are supported
Fig. 59._

by pivots resting on the poles N and S of a steel magnet of the

form

a small cavity being

drilled in

an agate
pivot.

for the bearing

each pole to receive of the

lower extremities

The

of the wires dip into mercury contained in two circular cisterns sliding on the

arms of the

magnet. from the

Bent wires passing

interior of the cells sup-

port the cups

A and D

and the

cisterns themselves are fixed at

any required height by means

of binding screws attached to them. Each of the wire frames

surmounted by a mercury cup ; into these dip the wires projecting downwards from the cups B and C.
is

mercury, fix them at such a height that the lower extremities of the The cups surwire frames may just touch its surface.

144.

The

cisterns being partly filled with

mounting the frames should also contain a little mercury. On connecting the cups A and B with the battery, the left hand frame will revolve, in consequence of the action
of the north pole of the magnet upon the current flowing in the vertical portions of the frame. By uniting C and

88

DANIEL DAVIS,

JR.'s

MANUAL.

the battery, the other frame will rotate. On to D, it will ascend in transmitting the current from

D with

one frame, and passing along the brass arm which supthem ports B and C, will descend in the other,
both to revolve in the same direction.
causing Instead of the
frame, a single wire may be employed, having the form of a loose helix surrounding the its convolutions
pole,

being

a quarter of an inch or
Fig. 60.

more

apart.

145.

This instrument

REVOLVING CYLINDER. is on the same

motion
takes

principle as that last described,

and

the

place

same manner: the only difference being that two light |D

in the

copper cylinders c

c, fig.

60, are

substituted for the wire frames.

These

cylinders are serrated at

their lower edge, as

shown
in

in

the figure, to lessen the friction

which they experience

cups

mov-

ing through the mercury.

The

for battery connections are

lettered in correspondence with

those in the preceding cut, fig. 59. 146. In the case of a conducting wire revolving round a magnet, the circumstance of the two being joined to-

gether does not affect the result, the wire moving with sufficient power to cause the magnet to turn on its axis

with considerable rapidity, when delicately supported a bar magnet is of course employed. figure and de:

scription of

an instrument designed

to

show

this

revo-

ELECTRO- MAGNETIC ROTATIONS.

lution will

89

be found

in

Silliman's

American Journal of

Science and Arts, Vol. XL, No. 1, p. 111. The current passing within the voltaic battery 147.
itself exhibits the
it

same electro-magnetic

properties that

the poles.
will

does while flowing along a conducting wire connecting Hence the battery, if made small and light,
revolve by the influence of a magnet.

This

is

effected in the following manner.

148.

AMPERE'S

ROTATING

BATTERY.

small

double cylinder of copper, closed at the bottom, is supof an arch ported upon the pole of a magnet, by means Fig
61.

of copper passing across the inner cylinder, and having a pivot projecting
surface,

downwards from
which
rests

its

under

in

an agate

The inner cyl'cup on the pole. inder of course has no bottom.

cylinder of zinc is supported by a pivot in a similar manner upon the

copper arch, and being interjnediate in size between the two copper
cylinders, hangs freely in the cell.

to

This arrangement allows each plate revolve independently of the

In
fig.

other.

61 two

batteries are

represented, one on each pole of a the south pole being shown in one on the magnet,
;

section

in this the zinc plate z

is

seen suspended within

the copper vessel C. 149. On introducing diluted

vessel,

an

electric current

acid into the copper immediately begins to circu*

8*

90
late,

DANIEL DAVIS,

R/S

MANUAL.

which passes from the zinc to the copper, through the acid, and, ascending from the copper through the Hence the zinc plate pivot, descends again to the zinc.
of a conductor conveying a stream of electricity downwards, and will consequently revolve under the influence of the pole which it surrounds. The copper cylinder, on the contrary, is in the situation of a
is

in the condition

conductor conveying a current upwards, and will rotate in the opposite direction. When there is a battery on

each pole of a

U magnet,

be seen

to revolve in contrary directions,

the two copper vessels will and the two

zinc cylinders in directions opposite to these, and of course also contrary to each other.

150. MARSH'S VIBRATING

WIRE.
'

A copper wire W,
?
l [

m gg^ g<2

j g SUS p enc ec over a small basin for

containing mercury excavated in the stand,

by means of a brass arm supporting a mercury cup, in which the upper end of the wire
rests
:

this

mode of
it

suspension allows
vibrate
freely,
is

to
its

if

upper end
bent.

properly

Two cups for connection with the battery communicate, one with the mercury in the excavation, the other with the cup which sustains the wire.
151.
tity

The basin being supplied with a sufficient quanof mercury to cover the lower end of the suspended

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC MOTIONS.

91

wire, lay a horse-shoe magnet in a horizontal position on the stand, with one of its legs on each side of the wire.

On

establishing communication with

magnet backwards or forwards between them, according to the direction in which the current flows through it,
either

poles of the

the battery, the will conspire in urging the wire

and the

position of the magnetic poles.

In either case,

the motion will carry it out of the mercury, as shown by the dotted lines in the cut ; and the circuit being
thus broken, the wire will
fall

back by

its

own weight

the current being re-established, it will again quit the mercury as before, and a rapid vibration will be

when

produced. 152. The vibration

active

may be made somewhat more

by raising the magnet a little from the stand, and Or the nearly to the height of the middle of the wire. be held in a vertical position with one of magnet may
its

vibrate

The wire will also poles on each side of the wire. by the side of a single pole placed either in

a horizontal or vertical position, but its motion is less The wire tends to revolve round the pole preactive. sented to
it,

as has been explained in

79

and when
in fig. 62,

suspended between a north and south pole, as simultaneously around both.

153.

GOLD LEAF GALVANOSCOPE.

glass tube

fixed in a vertical position

magnet of the
narrow

U form,

as

between the poles of a steel shown in fig. 63, contains a

slip of gold leaf c, suspended loosely from forconnected with a brass cup B, surmounting the ceps tube. The lower end of the slip is held by another

forceps communicating with the

cup

on the stand.

DANIEL DAVIS,
When
Fig. 63.

MANUAL.

a very feeble current of electricity is transmitted through the gold leaf, it will become

curved forwards or backwards according to the course of the current in either case
:

tending to

move away from between

a lateral direction
;

the
for

magnetic
the

poles in

same reason that causes the motion of

instrument

the wire in the last described apparatus.

ID

The

does

not

indicate

the

as other quantity of the electrical current, is an but exceedingly galvanometers do, delicate test of its existence and direction.

A powerful
154. VIBRATING

current would of course destroy

the gold leaf.

M,

fig.
;

64,

sition

electro-magnet supported upon a stand, in a horizontal poand a circular coil of wire c is suspended from the
is

MAGIC CIRCLE. An

Fig. 64.

arm of the upright post S

to pass along

in

such a manner as to allow

it

one of the poles of the magnet, the ring enwith the batthe circling pole. On making communication the middle over the towards the move coil will tery, pole

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC MOTIONS.
already described. the electrical circuit

93

of the magnet, in the same manner as De la Rive's ring When it has passed some distance,

is broken by means of the bent wire which the leaves a, mercury cup e. The ring then falls back to its previous vertical position by the side of the

It

post S, and the connection with the battery is restored. is then again attracted by the pole of the magnet, and

thus a continued vibratory motion is produced. The flow of the current through the wires of the electro-

magnet
155.

is

not interrupted

by the breaking of the

circuit

in the coil c.

DOUBLE VIBRATING MAGIC CIRCLE.

Pig. 65.

In the

instrument represented in
fig.

65 two

coils

and

are employed, with a steel magnet. One end of the wire forming each coil
is

so bent as to dip into

in the

mercury contained

cup C, when hangs freely; and

the

ring
to

be

raised out of the mercury when it moves over the

pole.

The

double wire,

by which one of the coils is suspended, is somewhat

longer than that which sustains the other, its axis

of motion being higher in of This length occasions the inequality proportion. be to vibrations of the two rings irregularly alternating.

94
156.

DANIEL DAVIS,

MANUAL.

BARLOW'S REVOLVING SPUR-WHEEL. The reciprocating movement in Marsh's apparatus described in

150,

may be

converted into one of rotation by making

Fig. 66.

use of a copper wheel the circumference of which is cut into rays, instead of the wire. The points of the wheel R, 66, dip into mercury contained in a groove hollowed more rapid revolution will be obtained out in the stand.
fig.

small electro-magnet be substituted for a steel magnet, The electro-magnet is fixed to as is shown in the cut.
if a

the stand, and included in the circuit with the spur-wheel, so that the current flows through them in succession.

Hence
by

the direction of the rotation will not be changed reversing that of the current ; since the polarity of

the electro-magnet will also be reversed. 157. The course of the current is as follows.

Sup-

to be connected with the positive pole pose the cup of the battery, and B with the negative the electricity will flow from through the wire of the electro-magnet
:

S,

and thence

to the

mercury contained

in the

groove,

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC ROTATIONS.
which
is

95
It

connected with one end of

this

wire.

pass along the wheel R, through any point which happens to touch the mercury, to its axis, whence
will then
it

will

be conveyed by the wire

W,

to

the

cup B.

Under

these circumstances, the ray through which the

current is flowing passes forward between the poles of the magnet, like the vibrating wire in Marsh's instrument, until it rises out of the mercury. At this moment the

next succeeding ray enters the mercury, and goes through the same process ; and so on. 158. If the quantity of mercury is so adjusted that one ray shall quit its surface just before the next one
touches
tact.
it,

When

a spark will be seen at each rupture of conthe machine is set in motion in the dark,

it may be illuminated by the rapid succession of these sparks, the revolving wheel will appear to be nearly at rest ; exhibiting only a quick vibratory movement, in consequence of the sparks not succeeding

so that

illusion arises

each other precisely at the same point. This optical from the fact, that the electric light is so
extremely transient
in its

duration that the wheel has

not time to

move

to
;

electrical discharge
in

any appreciable extent during the and iherefore each spark shows it

an apparently stationary position. If the sparks occur at one place more frequently than at the rate of eight
a second of time, the eye cannot appreciate them separately, and the impression of a continuous light is
in

received.
as if
it

For

this

reason the wheel

were illuminated by a steady

seen constantly, light, instead of an

is

intermitting one.

159.

At

the bottom of the groove in the stand, the

96

DANIEL DAVIS,

JR.S

MANUAL.

extremity of a wire projects slightly to form the connection between the mercury and the electro-magnet. In using the instrument, care should be taken that the

end of this wire and also the points of the spur-wheel are clean and bright, so that they may come into good metallic contact with the mercury.
160.

DOUBLE SPUR-WHEEL.

In

this

instrument
;

there are

two spur-wheels and two electro-magnets

arrangement is such that the current rises through the radius of one wheel, and passing along the axis descends by the other wheel.

and

their

161. STURGEON'S REVOLVING Disc.

sential to divide the

It is

not es-

wheel

into rays, in order to obtain

circular metallic disc will revolve equally In this case, the well between the poles of a magnet. electric circuit remains uninterrupted during the entire revolution, and no sparks appear as with the spur-wheel.
rotation.

162. PAGE'S

REVOLVING RING.

This instrument consists of a shaped

circular
steel

magnet, fixed
of
insulated

stand, in

a vertical position,
coil
fig.

upon a and a
copper

wire C,

67, so arranged as to revolve on a vertical axis between

the magnetic poles.
is

The

rotation

effected

in

a different

manner
reversed

from

any

previously

mentioned.
is

The

polarity of the ring

twice in each revolution, by means

of a contrivance of Dr. Page's called

a pole-changer, which
is

employed

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC ROTATIONS.
in

97

many

of the instruments to be hereafter described.

Fig. 68.

The

pole-changer attached to the ring is seen at P, and a horizontal

section of
consists of
it is

shown

in fig. 68.

It

two small semi-cylindrical

pieces of silver

s s

fixed

on opposite sides of the axis of

;

motion A, but insulated from that and from each other to each of these segments is soldered one end of the

The battery current is conwire composing the ring. veyed to the coil by means of two wires terminated by
horizontal portions of flattened silver wire which on sides of the opposite pole-changer, press slightly

WW

whose segments must be

the current in the ring

so arranged that the direction of

may be

reversed at the

moment

when

its

axis

is

passing between the poles of the magnet.

placing the ring with its axis at right angles to the plane of the poles, and making connection with a
battery, one extremity of the axis, or in other words, one

163.

On

face of the coil, will acquire north polarity, and the other south polarity, in the same manner as De la Rive's ring ; the action of the magnet will now cause it to move round

a quarter of a circle in one direction or the other according to the course of the current, so as to bring its poles between those of the magnet. In this position it would
remain, were
it

not that as soon as

is

it

reaches
it,

changer, which
its

carried round with

it, the polepresents each of

segments to that stationary silver spring which was before in contact with the opposite segment. By this movement the current in the ring is first interrupted for

a moment, and as the ring passes on is immediately renewed in the contrary direction, thus reversing the 9

98
polarity.

DANIEL DAVIS,
Each end of

J R. S

MANUAL.

the axis being now repelled by which the magnetic pole previously attracted h, the coil turns half way round so as to present its opposite faces
to the poles.
is

At this point the direction of the current again reversed, causing the motion to be continued in the same direction; thus producing a rapid revolution.

Instead of a ring of large diameter, the wire

coiled into a long helix of small diameter,
rotate in the

may be
will

which

same manner. 164. REVOLVING RECTANGLE.

Fig. 69.

This instrument

is

similar in principle to the preceding, a rectangular coil

of wire C,
rotation
is

fig.

69, being substituted for the ring.

in

The

consequence of the the to the of magnet, not only near rectangle proximity
much, more rapid

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC ROTATIONS.
its

99

the greater part of poles, but throughout

this

By

means the great speed of

its length. or ten thousand eight

revolutions in a minute

may be

attained.

In the cut,

the two silver springs which press on the pole-changer are seen at b 5, each of them attached to a stout brass
wire, proceeding from one of the cups

B, for battery these wires the brass arch ; pass through but are the insulated from it. magnet, surmounting
connection

165. PAGE'S ROTATING MULTIPLIER.

ment
which
axis.

consists of a

This instrupermanent bar magnet fixed in a

horizontal position within a rectangular coil of wire, is so arranged as to revolve around it on a vertical

wire,

On transmitting a galvanic current through the the mutual action between it and the magnet
:

causes the coil to place itself at right angles with the magnet at this point the pole-changer, with which it is provided, reverses the current, and the coil continues to

move on

in the same direction, revolving as long as the battery connections are maintained.

166. REVOLVING RING AND MAGNET. This consists

of a circular
fig.

coil

of wire C,

70,

fitted to

revolve on a
carries a

vertical axis,

which
at a.

So far it pole-changer resembles Page's Revolving But in this case the Ring.
magnet
this

M rotates
it is

also

for

steel,

purpose and bent into a circular

its

made of thin

/orm, with

poles nearly in

100

DANIEL DAVIS,

JR.'s

MANUAL.

contact and connected by a strip of brass. The circle thus formed is a little larger than the coil, and revolves freely around it on a vertical axis. peculiar arrange-

ment

is

required in order to

transmit the voltaic current

to the pole-changer belonging to the ring.

The

springs
cylin-

which press upon

it

are connected with

two small

ders of silver fixed on the axis of motion of the

magnet

and insulated from

it,

one being a

little

below the other ;

or a part of the axis itself being made cylindrical may answer for one of them the wires proceeding from the
:

brass cups on the stand press upon these cylinders. In this manner the current is conveyed to the springs of the
in a constant direction notwithstanding that they are carried round with the magnet in its revolutions.

pole-changer

When

the current

is

mutual action between

both to revolve, but

transmitted through the coil, the it and the magnet causes them
;

in contrary directions

on the well

known mechanical

principle that action

and reaction are

always equal and opposite to each other. 167. The arched flame obtained between two charcoal points attached to the poles of a powerful battery, as repesented in fig. 11, will be thrown into a rapid
rotary motion

when a magnetic
also

pole

is

placed near

it.

This

may satisfactorily shown by one of the wires pressing battery firmly upon a steel
effect

be very

magnet, and bringing the other wire up to one of its The flame which may now be obtained by poles. withdrawing this wire a little, will rotate in one direction
if

drawn from the north

pole,

and
the

in the opposite direc-

tion if from the south.

When

magnet

is

connected
flame

with the negative end of the voltaic

series, the

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC ROTATIONS.
its north pole revolves from the direction of the hands of a watch.

101

drawn from

left

to right, in

MOTIONS PRODUCED BY THE REVERSAL OF THE POLARITY OF AN ELECTRO-MAGNET.

168. RITCHIE'S
net of the
position,

REVOLVING MAGNET.

A steel

mag-

form

is

supported upon a stand in a vertical

its poles being uppermost. The revolving piece a small straight bar of soft iron wound with insulated wire ; it has a pivot projecting downwards from its under
is

surface,

which enters a deep pivot-hole on the top of an

'

horiupright rod so fixed that the iron bar may rotate The two the of between magnet. zontally poles

$he

extremities of

thewire surrounding

this

electro-magnet

descend into a Circular basin of ivory for containing mercury, attached to the upright rod a little below the
divided into two separate cells by two low partitions of ivory, so arranged that when the electro-magnet is passing between the poles of

revolving bar.

This basin

is

the steel magnet the ends of the wire may be moving across the partitions and just above them. On supplying

the cells with a proper quantity of mercury, its surface will be found to curve downwards on every side towards the ivory, so that its general level will be higher than the partitions ; thus allowing the extremities of the wire
to

be immersed

except when passing across them. wire connected with a brass cup, for making comin
it

munication with the battery, projects into the mercury in each compartment of the basin.
169.

On

transmitting the voltaic current,

when

the

9*

102
bar
is

DANIEL DAVIS,
at right angles to the

plane of the magnet,

it

will

Its north immediately acquire a strong polarity. pole will then be attracted by the south pole of the steel

magnet and repelled by its north pole. The south pole of the bar, on the contrary, will be repelled by the similar pole of the upright magnet, and attracted by its

These four forces will conspire in pole. the bringing electro-magnet between the poles of the magnet ; as soon as it reaches this position, the ends of
opposite

the wire will quit their respective mercury cells, and by the momentum of the bar, which at this moment loses
its

magnetism, will be carried across the

partitions, so

that each will dip into that portion of the mercury which the other has just left. This will renew the circuit and
restore the

polarity of the electro-magnet, but in the

reverse direction.
repelled

Each

pole of the bar will

now

be
it it

permanent magnet which has just passed, and attracted by the opposite one

by

that pole of the

will thus continue to nfove on,

its

polarity being reversed

twice

in

each revolution.

170. At the

moment when

to pass across the partitions, a spark

the wires quit the mercury is seen. When the

machine
rise

is

give that mentioned under the head of Barlow's Revolving Spur-Wheel, causing the bar to appear at rest in the
it is in when the The sparks are emitted. of the wires which into the should points dip mercury be kept clean and well amalgamated. The tendency

to

put in motion in a dark room, these sparks an optical illusion of the same character as

position

of the mercury to be drawn over the partitions

may be

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC ROTATIONS.

103

partially prevented by a little water on its surface, which however diminishes the brilliancy of the sparks. 171. PAGE'S REVOLVING MAGNET. In this instru-

ment, represented

in fig. 71, the polarity

s''

of the electro-

71.

magnet is reversed, not by means of mercury,as in the

'one last described, but

by

Dr. Page's pole-changer, 162, the segments of

<

which are so arranged that

the poles of the revolving

bar
the

may be changed
moment when
magnet.
it

at
is

passing the poles of the

fixed

The

silver

springs

which press upon

the pole-changer are attached to two stout brass

wires which pass through
the brass arch surmounting the

U magnet, but are

it

insulated from
intervention of ivory or horn
ports a brass
this
;

by the

each of these wires sup-

In cup for connection with the battery. with than obtained is way a more rapid revolution

Prof. Ritchie's arrangement, but the fine sparks afforded

by

that do not

make

their appearance.

A still more rapid

and
in Ritchie's

rotation

may

be produced, both
employing a

in this

instrument,

by

U shaped

place of the stationary steel magnet.

electro-magnet in In this case, the

104

DANIEL DAVIS,
is

J R.'s

MANUAL

revolution

the current, as

not reversed by changing the direction of it is when a steel magnet is used, since

the poles of both electro-magnets are reversed at the same time, and their relative polarity remains the same.

172.

ROTATING BELL ENGINE.

is

The

general con-

struction of this instrument

similar

to the

preceding,

the

magnet, however, being inverted, so that the

Fig. 72.

revolving electro-magnet A,

fig.

near to the stand; the pole-changer being attached to

72,
is

the axis below

addition,

it.

There

is,

in

arrangement for bell fixed above the a striking axis of the To the magnet.
revolving

an

bar

is

attached

an

endless screw

this acts
is

upon a

toothed wheel, which

provided

with a pin projecting laterally, for the purpose of moving the

hammer
wheel

of the

bell.

As

the

turns,

the

pin

presses

upon the handle of the hammer,

raising
it

from the bell

until

it is

by the pin at a certain of the revolution ; when a point

leased
spiral spring fixed to the

handle

impels the hammer against the bell. 173. If the wheel has sixty-four teeth, the electro-

magnet must revolve sixty-four times in order to produce one revolution of the wheel, and consequently

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC ROTATIONS.
one stroke upon the

105

bell. By counting the number of strokes in a given time, the velocity of the rotating bar may be measured it often makes one hundred or
:

more revolutions
of the wheel

in a second.
raise the

In order that the motion

hammer, it is necessary to may transmit the battery current so that the bar may rotate in the proper direction.
174.
the instrument

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC SEASONS MACHINE. In shown in fig. 73, the revolving magnet A

imparts motion to an astronomical machine, representing the rotation of the earth and moon round the sun. The
earth and sun revolve round a

common

centre of motion
gilt

near the

latter,

which

is

represented by a
axis.

ball

the earth also rotates on

its

The

axis of the earth

has

its proper obliquity with respect to the ecliptic, and preserves its parallelism, pointing in the same direction These circumstances ocduring the whole revolution.

Fig. 73.

casion the north pole to be inclined towards the sun in one half of the orbit, and the south pole in the other, the degree of
inclination

constantly varying. This, in the case of the real

earth,
is

the cause of the varia-

tion of the seasons

and of the

unequal length of the day and night. The moon is also seen to
revolve around the earth, attending
it

in its

course round the sun.

In this instru-

175.

DOUBLE REVOLVING MAGNET.

ment,

represented in fig. 74, there are

two semicircular

106

DANIEL DAVIS,

J R. S

MANUAL.

electro-magnets of the same size, both of which have freedom of motion. Fig. 7*.

The
is

lower semicircle

supported by a pivot
the

entering
pillar

upright
it;
its

below
axis
is

own
to

hollowed

receive the pivot

on which the upper

semicircle
revolves.

At D,
is

in

the figure,

seen a contrivance

for

conveying the curin

rent

constant

direction, of the

same

Fig. 75.

kind as that applied to the Revolving

Ring and Magnet,

166, and which

therefore need not be again described.

176. Fig. 75 represents another form

of the instrument,
electro-magnet
is

in

which the upper

supported on the lower

one without the aid of the brass arm and

pillar,

seen in the preceding cut ; thus admitting of the use of a small circular

stand.

This

figure

is

lettered in

cor-

respondence with the above. The 177. cups C C being connected with the battery, the current will flow along one of the wires W, to

one

of the silver rings secured to the axis at

D, thence

throuo-h the wire enveloping half of the lower electro-

magnet/to one of the springs playing on the pole-changer

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC ROTATIONS.
at

107

then traverses the wire surrounding the upper electro-magnet,with which the pole-changer is connected.
;

it

Descending now to the opposite spring at P, it circulates around the other half of the lower semicircle, and thence

By this means the poles of the are reversed twice in each revolution, semicircle upper while the polarity of the lower one remains unchanged.
back
to the battery.

The upper
the same

manner

electro-magnet will consequently rotate in as those in the instruments we have

the lower one will

just described, while

move

in the

on the principle of reaction ; its own of poles being necessity attracted and repelled with force while they are attracting and repelling those equal
opposite direction,
It would revolve as rapidly as the of the upper one. other, were it not that the friction of its axis is doubled

consequence of sustaining the weight of both electromagnets. By holding the other stationary, however, the lower one will acquire a considerable velocity, which
in
it

will retain for a while

when

its

fellow

is

released

their

rapid motion causes them to present the appearance of a hollow sphere. 178. MAGNET REVOLVING Fig. 76.

BY THE EARTH'S ACTION.

the earth itself exhibits
netic polarity,

As

mag-

an electro-magto revolve in

net

may be made
its

by

influence; though,

consequence of the feebleness of the action, the instrument

must be constructed with some

delicacy.

A
N
S,

small
fig.

electrois

magnet

76,

so

108

DANIEL DAVIS,
in

supported as to have freedom of motion

plane like the secured on its
press

a vertical

dipping needle, a pole-changer being axis of motion. The springs which

upon the pole-changer should be disposed in such manner that the polarity of the bar may be reversed
in

when

the course of

its

revolution

it

reaches the line

of the dip. 179. On placing the electro-magnet horizontally in the magnetic meridian, that is to say, with its extremities
directed north and south, and transmitting the voltaic its north pole (in this hemisphere) immediately
inclines

current,

downwards towards the

earth,

in

the

same
as
it

manner

as that of the dipping needle.

its

As soon

arrives at the line of the dip,

it

continues to

move

poles are reversed, and on in the same direction as long as

the battery connections are maintained, revolving with a moderate velocity. In high latitudes it will be sufficient to

arrange the pole-changer so as to reverse the

poles of the bar

when

it

becomes

vertical.

placing a steel magnet in a proper position near the revolving bar, it will rotate with much greater

180.

By

speed than by the action of terrestrial magnetism alone ; its motion may be reversed, notwithstanding the opposing
influence of the earth,

by disposing the permanent mag-

net in a suitable manner.

181. The electro-magnet may be so fitted as to reIn this case volve horizontally instead of vertically. the springs of the pole-changer must be arranged in such
a

manner

as to reverse

its

polarity

when

it

assumes the
north

position of the

compass-needle,

pointing

and

south.

ELECTRO- MAGNETIC ROTATIONS.

109

MOTIONS PRODUCED BY THE ALTERNATE DESTRUCTION AND RENEWAL OF THE POLARITY OF AN ELECTRO-MAGNET.
182. PAGE'S
of iron,

REVOLVING ARMATURE. A small bar not wound with wire, is fitted to revolve hori-

U form, fixed in the where A

is

zontally just above the poles of an electro-magnet of the a vertical position ; as seen in fig. 77,
iron bar,

and

the electro-magnet.
aris

The

rotation

is

effected

by means of the following

rangement.
affixed

To
is

the axis of motion of the iron bar

called a breakpiece, made by filing away two opposite sides of a small solid cylinder of silver. Upon the narrow prominent portions thus left, play two

what

silver springs,

shown

at

in

the

cut, opposite to

each other.

One

of these springs is connected with a brass cup on the stand ; the other

communicates with one extremity of the wire enveloping the electromagnet, the other end of this wire
being fixed to a second cup on the
stand.

The
as to

breakpiece

is

so ar-

ranged from their

release the springs

bearing just as the armature passes over the poles

;

and

to restore
it

them

to

it

again

when
as to

has

moved on somewhat
a circle, so
little

more than a quarter of

be a
to the plane of the position at right angles

inclined from a

magnet.

10

110
183.

DANIEL DAVIS,

J R.'s

MANUAL.

On placing the bar in this position and connectthe ing cups on the stand with a battery, the electromagnet
will

become charged, and consequently

towards
its

will

poles; as soon as it reaches their plane, the springs leave the projecting parts of the breakpiece, and the current is cut off. The
polarity of the
attract the armature
it

attract the armature

magnet is now destroyed, and it ceases to which moves on by the momentum

;

has acquired, until

it

passes a

little

beyond a
magnet.

position

at right

angles to the plane of the

At

this

point the springs again come in contact with the breakThe piece, and the flow of the current is renewed.
attraction
to the

when
the

now exerted by the poles gives a new impulse armature, and the circuit being again broken it reaches their plane, it continues its motion in

same direction, revolving 'with great speed. 184. In the original form of the breakpiece, one of the springs pressed constantly upon a portion which was
left cylindrical
;

but this

is

disadvantageous where only

one electro-magnet is to be charged, as it increases the friction. Care should be taken that the springs are in
such a state of tension as to open and close the circuit at the proper points, as indicated in the above description.

The motion

of the bar will not be reversed by

In
this

changing the direction of the current. 185. HORIZONTAL REVOLVING ARMATURES.

instrument there are several armatures fixed to the

cirits

cumference of a vertical brass wheel, and

axis
;

parallel to

in

fig.

marked A.
is

78, three are represented, each of them On the poles of the electro-magnet

secured a brass plate, from which

rise

two brass

pillars

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC ROTATIONS.
to
:

Ill

iron

support the axis of the wheel as the wheel turns, the bars pass in succession over the poles with their extremities very near to them. Fig. 78.

At B, on the

shaft of the wheel,

it,

but not insulated from

is

the

breakpiece, consisting of a small metallic disc, from which project

in a lateral direction, several pins,

equal in number to the iron bars ; or the disc may be furnished with
a corresponding

number of

teeth.

spring connected with one end of the wire surrounding

silver

the

electro-magnet plays upon these pins or teeth ; the other end of this wire is soldered to the iron

of the

into metallic

magnet, which brings it communication with

the shaft
plate and
pillars.

by means of the

brass

Or

the wire

may

be terminated by a

second spring pressing upon a cylindrical part of the axis. 186. The breakpiece is arranged in such a manner that the electro-magnet will be charged when any one
of the iron bars wheel.

The

brought near it by the motion of the approaching armature is then attracted

is
;

towards the poles

when

it

arrives at the plane of the

magnet the current is cut off, in consequence of the corresponding pin or tooth releasing the silver spring
from
its

bearing.

The

armature being no longer

its

at-

wheel moves on by next bar comes into the same

tracted, the

momentum

till

the

position,

causing the

112

DANIEL DAVIS,
;

R .'s

MANUAL.
in its turn,

magnet to be recharged it is then attracted and passes on like the preceding one.

187. The spring playing on the breakpiece must be so disposed that the circuit shall be broken when each bar reaches the poles, and not be renewed again until
it

has passed to a greater distance from them than that

between the next succeeding bar and the poles, or it will be attracted back again, preventing the continuance
of the motion.
188. In
class,
this

and many of the instruments of the same

an electro-magnet of a peculiar construction

may

be employed with advantage. Instead of a solid bar within the helix, there is an iron tube filled with wires
of the same metal
;

the tube

is

sawed open on one

side

throughout

its
is

magnetism

whole length. acquired and

By
lost

arrangement the with greater rapidity

this

than by a solid bar. 189. PAGE'S RECIPROCATING

Fig. 79.

ENGINE.

Two U

M, fig. 79, are firmly secured shaped electro-magnets, in a vertical position on a stand, the four poles appearing The two armatures, just above a small wooden table.

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC MOTIONS.

113

horizontal

A, connected together by a brass bar, move upon a axis in such a manner that while one is

approaching the poles of the magnet over which it is placed, the other is receding from those of the other

The brass bar is connected with one extremmagnet. a horizontal beam, the other end of which comity of
municates motion by the intervention of a crank to
the fly-wheel W. To the axis of the fly-wheel at is fixed the silver breakpiece, by means of which the

magnets are alternately charged. It is similar to the one described under Page's Revolving Armature, 182; there are, however, three springs, one playing upon a
cylindrical
portion, the

others

upon two dissected poralternately,

tions of the breakpiece.

Each magnet being charged

in succession, the armatures are attracted

communicating a rapid reciprocating motion to the beam and consequently a rotatory one to the fly-wheel.
190.

UPRIGHT RECIPROCATING ENGINE.

Fig. 80.

In this in-

fig.

strument, represented in 80, the armatures

A, which are semicircular

instead of being straight
as
in

the

one

last

de-

scribed, are each affixed

to

one

extremity

of

vibrating

beam,

which

imparts motion to a bal-

ance wheel placed above

At are the magnets. seen the three springs which play upon a break10*

114

DANIEL DAVIS,

J R. S

MANUAL.
is

The motion piece fixed to the axis of the wheel. in the same manner as in produced Page's Engine.
Fig. 81.

191. Fig. 81 represents another form of the instrument

which

is

more compact.

The

M, are securelectro-magnets, ed to a circular stand ; and the

straight armatures,

A A, are con-

nected by a short beam, which communicates motion by means

of a bent lever and crank to the
fly-wheel.
its

In

other
is

respects

construction

similar to that

of the

preceding

instrument.

At

is

the breakpiece with the

three silver springs,

pressing
r

marked

W,

upon

it.

192. RECIPROCATING

BELL ENGINE.

Two

electro-

M, fig. 82, are supported in form, magnets of the fitted to a horizontal position, with a single armature

vibrate horizontally

between them.

This armature im-

parts motion by means of a crank to the fly-wheel W, and at the same time to machinery by which a hammer

THERMO-ELECTRIC ROTATIONS.
is

115

made

to strike the bell placed over

is

one of the magnets.

The

breakpiece

the

same

as in the three preceding

instruments.

193.
the

When

the battery connections are

made with

cups on the stand, one of the magnets will be charged, provided the breakpiece is in such a position
with regard to the springs as to complete the circuit. The armature will now be attracted towards the charged Just before it reaches them, the movement of poles.
the breakpiece will interrupt the current in the magnet, destroying its polarity, and then cause the current to be
transmitted through the opposite one ; this will become charged in its turn, and attract the iron bar A, which
will thus vibrate

backwards and forwards between the

two magnets.
THERMO-ELECTRIC REVOLUTIONS.

THERMO-ELECTRIC REVOLVING ARCH. It has been shown that when a galvanic current flows through
194.
Fig. 83.

a helix, such as
ring,
<>

De

la

Rive's

130,

its

faces acquire

polarity,

and

if free to

move,

arrange themselves north and In fig. 83 there is a south.

stand supporting an upright brass pillar with an agate cup
at the top.

On

this is bal-

anced by a pivot at

A an

arch

of brass wire, the two ends of

which are
S

connected by a

German

silver wire encircling

the pillar.

116

DANIEL DAVIS,

JR.'s

MANUAL.

195. If the stand be arranged according to the points of the compass, and one of the junctions of the brass and German silver be heated by a spirit lamp on the
east side of the stand at
will

E, a thermo-electric current
silver

be

set in

motion from the German

through

the heated junction to the brass, and back through the arch to the German silver. The current thus established
gives polarity to the faces of the arch, as
heliacal ring
;

if it

were an

circulating in

such a direction that the

face which

is

turned towards the north exhibits south

Since the magnetic pole of the earth there polarity. situated is itself a south pole, as has been stated ip
102, similar poles will be presented towards each and the arch will be obliged to make a semirevolution on its axis in order to present its northern face

other,

to this pole.

This movement

will bring the other juncwill

tion into the flame,

and a current

be produced op-

posite to the former one,

which
it

of the arch and oblige

semi-revolution.

to

change the polarity move on through another

will

Thus

the currents are reversed, and

slow rotation ensues.

This

is

probably the most

deli-

cate reaction between the magnetism of the earth and a current of electricity which has ever been observed.

196. If the lamp be put to the south of east, the heated junction of the arch will move round by the south; if it

be put to the north of east, the heated junction will move round by the north just as a compass-needle, if
;

north pole is made to point south, will return to its natural position either by the east or west, if it is inclined
its

to the

one or the other.

exactly west, or at
is

the figure, the current which excited will tend to keep the arch stationary, by
in

If the spirit

lamp be placed

THERMO-ELECTRIC ROTATIONS.

117

causing the face which exhibits north polarity to be directed towards the south magnetic pole of the earth.

197.

THERMO-ELECTRIC REVOLVING ARCH ON U *& 8 MAGNET. If a thermo-electric arch,

*

84, similar to the one just described, be balanced on one of the

B,

fig.

poles of a magnet, the reaction between the polarity induced in it, by heating one of its junctions, and

the magnetism of the opposite pole of the magnet, will be much more
energetic than in the former case

with the earth.

principle, Page's

It

resembles,

in

162, only that

repelled

it is

Revolving Ring, attracted and

by a single pole instead of the two, pole on which it is supported having no influence upon it.

In this and other instruments of the

same kind, the upper part of the arch may, with equal
advantage, be of silver instead of brass. 198. The most favorable position for the lamp is not that represented in the figure, but at a right angle
with the line connecting the two poles, and in a line with the pole on which the frame is mounted ; or in a
situation analogous to the east side of the stand
last described instrument.

of the

side or the other of this

in either

varying the lamp to one position, the arch will revolve

By

On the opposite side of direction, as before. the pole the lamp would have no tendency to produce revolution ; though if the arch were mounted on the

118

DANIEL DAVIS,

J R.'s

MANUAL.

south pole, the lamp should be on the farther side of the magnet, and in a line with that pole, in order to cause
rotation.

199.

THERMO-ELECTRIC REVOLVING WIRE FRAMES.

s
' '

This instrument, represented

^
i

in fig. 85, consists of two frames mounted upon the poles of a These frames are formed of magnet.

two arches, or rather rectangles,

similar

in construction to that in the last in-

strument, crossing each other at right

angles

and they act on the same

principle as that, the second rectangle

only contributing to the rotation produced by the first. In each individual

rectangle the current
is

reversed every

half revolution.

These were formerly

made of silver and

ity

platinum, but since the recent observation of the superior-

of (jerrnan

silver in

combination

with brass

or

silver,

these substances

are employed.

The

in

lower horizontal portions of the frames, marked G the cut, are composed of German silver, and the
s,

of silver. frame is usually mounted attractions and repulsions of each the on each pole ; from the opposite pole. In frame proceeding altogether
other parts, s order to heat the junctions of both frames at once, the lamp is placed between the two poles, by which there is

a loss of attraction and repulsion to each frame through the distance of 90, in which the heat would act, if two

lamps were employed

junction of the poles.

at

right

angles to the line of

THERMO-ELECTRIC ROTATIONS.
200. THERMO-ELECTRIC

119

ARCH ROTATING BETWEEN

Fig.

THE POLES OF A
thermo-electric arch

MAGNET.

86 represents a

mounted upon a brass pillar between the poles of a horse-shoe magnet the circular part G is of German silver, and the Fig. 86. upper
;

part

of

silver.

In

this case,

both

poles conspire in producing revolution, the

motion of the arch depend-

ing upon the same principle as that of Page's Revolving Ring ; the different

mode of reversing

the current

in this instrument,

however, causes
of the mag-

the arch to rotate in either direction

when the lamp

net, and
to

is

in front

remain at rest when the

side.
slides

lamp

is

on the other

A stand
on the

to support the

lamp
is

brass pillar, and

any remeans of a quired height by binding

fixed at

screw.

The lamp

should be placed

in the position represented in the cut, in front of the

magnet, 201.

north pole being on the left. either of the junctions is in the flame, a current will flow from the German silver to the silver,
its

When

ascending by the heated side of the arch and descending by the other. That face which is presented towards
the north pole will possess north polarity, and the other face south polarity, according to the rule given in 121. The influence of the magnet will now cause the arch to
turn half

way

round, so as to present

its

southern face

to the north pole.

This movement brings the other

'

OF

120

DANIEL DAVIS,
;

J R.'s

MANUAL.
is

junction into the flame

versed, and
it

moves on

the polarity of the arch as before.

re-

tion

202. If the lamp be placed in the corresponding posion the other side of the magnet, the direction of the

current will be such that the southern face of the arch

north pole. In this posipresented towards tion the arch tends to remain, to it when moved returning to either side ; and no revolution can be obwill

be

the

consequently

tained.

Care should be taken not

to allow the junction

to remain so long in the flame as to melt the hard solder.

203.

DOUBLE THERMO-ELECTRIC REVOLVING ARCH.

b, fig.

In this instrument, two arches, a and

Fig. 87.

87, are so

mounted

as to revolve

between the poles of a

magnet

fixed

in

horizontal position.

The

horizontal portion of the arch a is of German silLver,

and the upper part

;

"Tw of silver
lower portion
silver.
is

while

in b the

of

silver,
is

and the upper part of German

;

A single lamp

so placed as to heat both arches

will

the current

excited in

each

ascend on

its

right side
is

and descend on

its left side,

because the heat

to the left of b.

applied

to the right junction of a

and

Each of

them now presents a north pole towards the north pole

of the magnet, the currents circulating in the opposite direction to that of the hands of a watch. They will

consequently both revolve, either in the same or in opIf the arches be transposed, so that posite directions. b occupies the place of a, neither of them will move as
long as the lamp
is

in the position represented in the cut.

INDUCTION OF MAGNETISM.
204.

ELECTRO-MAGNETISM AS A
attractive

MOTIVE POWER.

The

strong

force

and the great velocity of

many of the small electro-magnetic instruments naturally suggested the application of this power to the purposes of the arts as a mechanical agent and numerous experiments have been made with this
motion exhibited by
;

the contriver of the

Prof. Henry was view, but hitherto without success. first instrument whose motion de-

pended upon magnetic

little

attraction

and repulsion

in his

machine, an electro-magnet, whose polarity was alternately reversed, was made to vibrate above the

north poles of two straight steel magnets.

ever,

He, howto practical

made no attempt

to

apply

this

power

There are many obstacles of a purely mepurposes. chanical character in the way of its employment these,
;

though important, are not perhaps insurmountable. the most serious difficulties are those which seem

But
to

be

inherent in the very nature of the power. The motion of the attracting poles of two electro-magnets towards

each other, actually lessens the attractive force

in pro:

the portion to the velocity with which they approach same thing occurs in the recession of mutually repelling
poles.

These phenomena are due

electric currents

to the influence of

will

produced by the motion, as be explained hereafter, which flow against the battery current, and of course partially neutralize its
secondary

The secondary currents present magnetizing power. a very formidable obstacle, as their opposing influence increases with the size of the machine in a rapid ratio.

To

their action

the fact, which

and that of some other causes, is owing was early discovered by those engaged
11

122

DANIEL DAVTS,
by

JR.

MANUAL.
machines pos-

in these investigations, that the smallest

sess

far the greatest proportional

power.

III.

BY THE INFLUENCE OF THE EARTH.

205. It has already been stated (<> 92) that a magnet freely suspended assumes a certain direction with respect to the earth. Now if an unmagnetic bar of iron
or steel be placed in this position, that is, in the line of the dip, it will be found to acquire magnetism by induc-

That extremity which is directed tion from the earth. towards the north pole of the earth will have north pothe other end south polarity. larity, and
EXP. 35.
bring
it

Take a
little

near to a magnetic needle.

rod of soft iron, and holding it horizontally, In this position the earth
it,

exerts very

inductive action upon

and each end

;

will at-

tract indiscriminately either pole of the needle

showing that it possesses no perceptible magnetism except that induced in it by

Fig. 88.

the needle, and which

is

the cause of

its

attraction.

In

fig.

88,

represents an iron bar presented in this manner to the north in the same place, pole of the needle. Now keeping the end B so as to bring the bar into the position C D. The raise the end

AB

will recede from C, as the bar is raised, as indicated north pole by the dotted lines in the cut The upper end of the bar D, on

the contrary, will be found to attract N, and repel S.

These

INDUCTION OF MAGNETISM.
facts

123

show

that

C D

has become magnetic,

being the north

downwards, pole. On reversing the bar, so as to bring the end will immediately become the south pole : thus the polarity of the rod may be changed at pleasure, the induced magnetism

If the bar be brought very near to the pole of the needle, the inductive action of the earth will be overpowered by that of the needle, causing attraction to be exhibited in every position of the bar.

being only temporary.

206. Except

in

places

near

to

the equator,

it

is

bar vertically, as the line of dip to the In approaches perpendicular in high latitudes. of this inductive action of the all earth, consequence
sufficient to hold the

large bars of iron standing in an upright position are more or less magnetic, their lower ends, in this hemi-

Where they have remained sphere, being north poles. for a long time in this situation, the polarity does not
disappear on changing their position. 207. The induction of magnetism by the earth is greatly facilitated by causing a motion among the particles of the bar, as by percussion or twisting.
Place a rod of iron or steel in the proper position, lower end near the north pole of a magnetic needle, but at a sufficient distance to avoid the repulsion of the pole by the bar in consequence of the magnetism induced in it under these
36.

EXP.

with

its

Fig. 89.

circumstances.

Now

strike

the end of the bar with a

hammer, as represented in fig. 89, and the pole will be

instantly repelled.
^larity

The pothus induced will not

be reversed by merely inverting the rod, but the aid

of percussion will also be required, in order to

remove or

reverse the magnetism.

124

DANIEL DAVIS,
Take a
it

JR.'s

MANUAL.

position, twist

piece of iron wire, and placing it in a vertical powerfully. It will then be found to have acquired the power to sustain iron filings at its extremities, and to Fie. 90.

EXP. 37,

in

turn itself north and south, when balanced upon a pivot, as shown fig. 90; the end which was downwards being its north pole.

is not due directly which merely favors the twisting, A considerable degree of permaaction of the earth. nent magnetism may be communicated to a steel bar, by placing it vertically on a large mass of iron and striking its upper end repeatedly with a hammer it will acquire much greater power if struck while resting on

208.

The magnetism

in these cases

to the percussion or

iron than

on any other substance. 209. Percussion may be used to

facilitate the

removal

magnet maybe lessened,or even entirely destroyed, by repeated blows of a hammer, while held horizontally east and west.
This process
is very convenient for removing slight of magnetism from iron or steel bars. Merely degrees falling upon the floor will often injure the power of a

of magnetism.

Thus

the polarity of a steel

magnet considerably,
excited

in

consequence of the vibration

among

the particles of the steel.

"MAGNETISM,
m.
INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
I.

%,

BY THE INFLUENCE OF A CURRENT OF ELECTRICITY.

210. That branch of the science of electricity which of the phenomena presented by it when at rest,
:

treats
is

termed Electro-statics
is

the branch which relates to

electricity in motion,

called Electro-dynamics.

The

phenomena which characterize the latter state " The effects of fied by Faraday as follows
:

are classielectricity

in

motion or electrical currents

Evolution of heat
;

may be
;

considered as
3d, Chemical
;

1st,

2d, Magnetism

decomposition

4th,

Physiological

phenomena

5th,

Spark." 211.
in

Many of the phenomena presented by electricity motion being closely related to magnetism, are usually treated of in connection with that subject, as in the
present case, rather than with electricity. 212. Before entering upon the particular subject of the present section, that is, the inductive action of currents,
it

will

be advisable to occupy a few pages with

a comparison of the phenomena exhibited by electricity in the two states of motion and rest, as induction is ex-

11*

126

DANIEL DAVIS,
them both
;

J R.'s

MANUAL.
(<>

erted in

it

has already been intimated

is

3)

that the inductive action

different in the
rest,

two

cases.

213. In the case of electricity at

two bodies,

charged either positively or negatively, repel each other ; while if one is charged with positive and the other with negative electricity, they exert a mutual attraction.
Electrical currents, on the contrary, attract each other

when

flowing parallel in the

same

direction,

and repel

each other when flowing in opposite directions. The result is the same whether two different currents or two
portions of one current be experimented upon.

214.
to

The instrument represented

in fig.

91

is

designed
currents.

exhibit the attractions

and repulsions of

Two

wooden troughs
Fig. 91,

ported opposite to

for containing mercury are supone another, each being divided into

two oblong

cells

by

partition in the

middle.

Each of
tions of

the four pormercury thus

is

insulated,

connected

by means of a wire
projecting
cell,

into

the

with one of the

binding
c fixed

screw
the

at

cups ends of

the
points

troughs.

The
rec-

of

two

and tangular wires rest in the opposite

compartments of the
troughs
;

this

mode of

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
support allows the wires to be placed nearer to or farther from each other at pleasure, still remaining parallel.

These wires are balanced by two brass balls b b, attached them below, which are capable of being raised or they depressed by means of a screw cut in the wire may thus be so adjusted that the wires will be moved
to
;

from their vertical position by a very slight force, their upper portions rocking towards or away from each other
without requiring any motion of the points of support. 215. Cups C and E being united by a copper wire, and F with the galvanic battery. The connect cups

current will
in the

now

traverse

A and B
The

in succession, flowing

same

direction in both,

and they

will
is

be seen to
slight,

incline towards each other.

motion

but

may
same

be made considerable by breaking and renewing

the circuit in correspondence with their oscillations.

effect will

The

be produced by uniting

with F, and

If a powerful with the battery. current is employed, the wires will still attract each other when separated to a considerable distance, by moving

connecting

and

the points which rest in the mercury to the farther ends of the cells ; with a feeble battery, the wires should be

placed near to one another. 216. Now unite C with D, and connect
the battery.

E and F with

This

will

in the posite directions

cause the current to flow in optwo wires, and they will recede

from each other

the extent of the motion

may

be

in-

creased as before by alternately opening and closing the circuit. may be connected with the Cups C and

battery with the same result, a wire.

and

being united by

128
217.

DANIEL DAVIS,
The
current, instead of traversing the wires in

succession,

may

with D, and

be divided into two portions by uniting with F, by two wires, and then con-

and F or and E. necting the battery either with In this case the two portions of the current will flow in
the same direction in

each other.
currents in

and B, causing them to attract By uniting C with E, and D with F, the A and B will be in contrary directions, and

The movethe wires will exhibit a mutual repulsion. ments produced by a divided current will be feebler than
when
singly
it

traverses the wires

is

in succession, unless

the

battery employed
is

so powerful that

one of the wires

not able to convey the whole of the electricity

supplied

by

it.

218. These attractions and repulsions are sometimes

called magnetic, the
side,

acting upon each other

to end.

two currents when flowing side by like two magnets presented two short pieces of iron wire end, and at right angles to the

end

In

fact, if

be suspended end

to

conducting wires, the magnetism induced in them by the currents (see Exp. 22) will cause them to exhibit
similar
attractions
It is,

and repulsions

to those of the wires

themselves.

however, preferable to regard this peculiar action as a primary one it being highly probable,
;

though not as yet certain, that the polarity of even a steel magnet is due to electric currents circulating within its
substance.

The mutual
and
a

actions of

a magnet
effects,

current

would

two magnets or of thus be secondary

depending upon the attractions and repulsions

It is

just described.

219.

not essential that the current should tra-

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.

129

verse metallic wires in order to produce these effects. Two streams of electricity flowing through a vacuum,
or even through the
air, will

exhibit the

phenomena
in the

in

a very satisfactory manner.

EXP.
rection

38.

The

attraction of currents

moving

same

di-

may be shown by means of frictional electricity, in the following manner. Connect the inner coatings of two Leyden jars with either the positive or negative conductor of a common
electric machine, their outer coatings being insulated sufficiently from each other to prevent the passage of a spark between them

when the jars are discharged in the mode about to be described. With the exterior coating of each jar is connected a wire having
one end free. These ends are left free for the purpose of being placed on a card over which the charge is to be passed. The common enamelled cards should be used, as they receive a dark colored and permanent mark from the passage of the spark over
their surface.

third wire, attached to the discharging rod, is

on the card, at such a distance from the two other wires that the sparks from the jars may be able to pass. The ends of the wires proceeding from the outside of the jars should be placed a quarter or a half of an inch apart, and nearer to one another than to the third wire, which is to be equally distant from it to them they both, so that if two straight lines were dra^nfrom would form the letter V. The jars being chy^ed (during which process the exterior coatings should, of course, be uninsulated), arrange the points as directed, and bring up the ball of the disalso to rest

charging rod to the conductor. The inner coatings being connected, and the outer ones insulated, the current is obliged to divide into two portions as it proceeds from the point attached to the discharger to those in connection with the outside of the
jars.

The two sparks will thus pass simultaneously over the surface of the card, and were they unaffected by each other, would leave a mark in the shape of the letter V. It will be found, on
the contrary, that the tracks left on the card will be more or less in the form of the letter Y, the two currents coalescing in
their passage over its surface. The result will be the same whether the jars be charged positively or negatively on the inside.

130

DANIEL

DAVIS,'

J R. S

MANUAL.

If the wire connected with the discharger be placed under the card while the others are on the upper side, it will be perfo-

rated in one or more places by the passage of the electricity.

EXP.

39.

The experiment may be

varied,

by connecting with

the discharging rod a wire whose ends may both rest on the card at the same distance from each other as that between the two

wires attached to the exterior coatings of the jars. The two sets of points being arranged parallel to each other, and their distances properly adjusted, the two currents will remain separate during the whole of their passage over the card ; and it will be

seen by the marks which they leave, that instead of proceeding in straight and parallel lines, they form curves whose convexity
is

turned towards each other.

The

curvature of the lines

is

greater in proportion to their proximity : if the points are placed too near together, both currents will flow in one track, not separating until they reach one of the wires connected with the outside of the jars. The resistance of the air and other causes often

passing over a card. in these experiments

occasion a stream of electricity to follow a very crooked path in Hence the lines traced by the two currents

may be

very irregular, though the tendency

to converge is perfectly evident.

220.

ELECTRO-DYNAMIC REVOLVING RING.

Fig. 92.

The

mutually attractive

and repulsive action of currents may be made to produce a revolution

analogous to some of those
called electro-magnetic
;

strictly

as in the

which
wire

instrument represented in fig. 92 3 consists of a coil of insulated

fitted to rotate

on a

vertical

axis within a larger one

A, mounted
inner coil

on a brass

pillar.

The

has a pole-changer fixed to its axis of motion for the purpose of reversing
the current twice in each revolution.

INDUCTION OF
The
current

ELECTR

Y.
v

131

may
in

traverse the

two

coils

in succession,

or be divided between them, but

its

direction

must be

changed only

B.

221. The coil B being placed at right angles to A, and the cups on the stand connected with the galvanic battery, the faces of each coil immediately exhibit north

and south
(

polarity, like

those of

130); and

is

tion in order to bring

obliged to make its north pole within the north pole

Rive's Ring a quarter of a revolula

De

of A, the two coils corresponding in direction. As soon as B reaches this position, the current is reversed by means of the pole-changer, and its south pole now being
within the north pole of A, it continues to move on in The motions in this case depend the same direction.

upon the same principle

strument represented in
to
refer

as those of the wires in the in-

fig.

91

but

it is

more convenient
by a current

them

to the polarity exhibited

flowing in

a circle, as

was done

in

describing Page's

Revolving Ring. 222. It is, however, easy to explain the revolution with direct reference to the mutual action of the currents.

As

these circulate in the

same

direction in every convo-

lution of each coil, they

circular currents.

Now
left

regarded as two single suppose the current in A to be

may be

ascending by the
side of this coil.

side

If

and descending by the right be placed at right angles to A,

with

its

current ascending

by the

side towards the spec-

by the left side of A and repelled by the right. The farther side of B, on the contrary, will be repelled by the left side of A,
tator, this

side will be attracted

and attracted by the

other.

These

forces will conspire

132

DANIEL DAVIS,

in bringing

into the

same

direction with

when

the

current being reversed, each side of

is

repelled

by the

corresponding one of A, and

it is

obliged to continue its

motion, revolving from left to right. 223. Portions of the same or of different currents

moving

a continuous line repel one another. Hence in two mercury cups intera short wire whose ends rest
in

posed in the circuit of a galvanic battery, consisting of a few pairs of very large plates, and in vigorous action, will be thrown out of the mercury at the moment of
completing the
circuit.

The

repulsion

is

here exerted

between the immediately succeeding portions of the current, as it passes from the mercury to the wire, and
also as
it

mercury
224.
its

leaves the wire to enter the other portion of the forces thus acting at each end of the wire
it

will conspire in raising

out of the cups.

attracts light substances in

An

electrified

body

neighborhood, having previously induced in their nearest ends the opposite electricity to its own ; and on their approach communicates to them a part of its
charge, when, if insulated, they are instantly repelled wire conveying a current exerts no such inby it.

fluence

upon

light bodies, although placed in the

imme-

diate vicinity.

225.

We

now proceed

to

consider

the

inductive

action of currents, taking

first in

order those

phenomena
on
itself.

which are referred

to the induction of a current

When

the poles of a small galvanic battery, consisting of a single pair of plates, are connected by a copper wire

of a few inches in length, no spark is perceived when the connection is either formed or broken, or at most a

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.

133

very faint spark at the moment of opening the circuit ; but if a wire forty or fifty feet long be employed, though

no spark is seen when contact is made, a bright one appears whenever the connection is broken by lifting
one end of the wire out of the cup
in

which

it

rests.

By coiling the wire into a helix, the spark becomes more vivid ; and a still greater effect is produced by making use
of the wire surrounding an electro-magnet. 226. The most advantageous length for producing the spark depends upon the diameter of the wire, and
size of

pairs in the battery and the the wire, the greater is the the larger plates to the maximum result. With length required produce a single battery whose zinc plate exposes about a square

also

upon the number of

its
;

foot of surface to the solution,

and a wire of one sixteenth

of an inch in diameter, a length of sixty or seventy feet

will

probably give the brightest spark, though much will depend upon the degree of vigor with which the battery is acting. This peculiar action of a long conductor,
either extended, or coiled into

a helix, in increasing the

intensity of the current from a single galvanic pair, at the moment when it ceases to flow, was discovered by

Prof.

Henry (now of New Jersey College) in 1831, while at the Albany Academy. 227. With a wire two or three hundred feet long, a
slight

shock

circuit, if its

felt at the moment of opening the ends near their connections with the poles

may be

are grasped with moistened hands with a shorter wire, shocks may be obtained through the tongue ; their intensity increases until a length of five or six hundred
;

feet

is

attained.

A
12

single pair of plates can, of course,

134

DANIEL DAVIS,
:

the peculiar and continuous give no shocks directly sensation excited in the tongue when the current from

a single pair
shock.

is

made

to pass through

it, is

not called a

battery of smaller size or consisting of a number of pairs, greater lengths may be used with ad-

With a

The maximum vantage both for the spark and shock. of a small battery are, as might be expected, much inferior to those of a large one. If the requisite
effects

lengths of wire are exceeded, the effects are lessened.

228.

The

brilliancy of the spark

is

much
and

increased
flat

by employing a ribbon of sheet copper

spiral, instead of a wire.

coiled into a

A description

figure of this

instrument has been given in <> 123. The spiral being connected with the battery, a brilliant spark will be seen, accompanied by a pretty loud snap, whenever contact
is

broken

and

if

two metallic handles be attached by

wires to the cups of the coil, and held in the hands, a slight shock will be felt ; if the battery is in feeble action, the shocks may be perceptible only when passed through

No shocks can be obtained by interposing the tongue. the body in the direct circuit with the coil, so that the
battery current

may

traverse

them

in succession

as the

electricity supplied by a single pair of plates is of too low intensity to be transmitted, to any considerable

extent,

by so poor a conductor
the
first

as the

human body.

Prof.

Henry was

ribbon for

employ coils of metallic obtaining sparks and shocks from a single

to

pair of plates. 229. For the purpose of rapidly breaking the circuit,

the

convenient.

Contact Breaker, represented in fig. 93, It consists of a bent copper wire

is

very

W,

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
which by means of clock-work
,

135

set in

is

made

to vibrate rapidly, dipping

its

motion by a spring, ends alternately

mercury.

into the glass cups

G, intended

to contain

The

spring

is

wound up by
Fig. 93.

turning the milled head

A.

The
open
to

glass

cups are at the bottom

to allow the

mercury
contact
pillars

come

in

with the brass

into

which they are cemented. These pillars are

both connect-

ed

with

one of the

binding screw cups the other cup communicates with a brass mercury cup P, into which dips a short wire connected with the vibrating wire. Sufficient mercury must be put into the

cup P, to keep the end of the vertical wire covered, and enough into the glass cups to allow one end of

WW

to leave the

mercury end dips into its portion. 230. The Contact Breaker

in its

cup a

little

before the other

used in connection with

affording sparks

may be advantageously many of the instruments for

will

and shocks, which

be described

under the following head. The current must be transmitted through the two instruments in succession, by
connecting one of the cups

CC

with one pole of the

battery, and the other cup with one of those attached

to the spiral or other piece of apparatus, the remaining

cup of which
the battery.

is

to
is

It

better to break the circuit

communicate with the other pole of mechan-

136

DANIEL DAVIS,
this

R/S

MANUAL.

ically in

way, than by means of any interrupting worked by the battery itself, as a considerable apparatus
part of the

power of the current

is

then expended in

giving motion to the interrupter.

231.
flat

On

spiral

making connection in this manner with a and turning the milled head A to (fig. 49),

put the vibrating wire in motion, a brilliant spark will be seen at each rupture of contact, accompanied by a loud snap, and producing considerable combustion of the

With a battery consisting of a few pairs of mercury. plates of large size, such as Dr. Hare's Calorimotor, the size of the spark will be greatly increased and the snap

become
shock

as loud as the report of a

Leyden

jar.

The

will also

be pretty strong, and may be increased

by covering
of
is

oil.

the mercury in the glass cups with a stratum shock may be obtained, especially when oil

used, on closing the circuit as well as on opening it, though inferior to that given in the latter case ; a faint spark is also sometimes seen when the wire dips into

the mercury.

232. The requisite length and thickness of the copper ribbon to give a maximum result depend upon the size of the battery employed. With spirals of considerable
length, even if the copper be pretty thick, two or three are better than one, as the metal opposes pairs of plates

some
sity.

resistance to the passage of a current of

low inten-

A ribbon

spiral

the circuit of a
siderable

pairs, produces scarcely any while a coil containing three or four thousand feet of fine insulated wire will give an intense

compound number of small

of moderate length interposed in battery, consisting of a con-

peculiar effect:

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.

137

shock, though not a very brilliant spark, under the same The higher the intensity of the eleccircumstances.
tricity

and the smaller

its

quantity, the less

is

the size

requisite in the metallic

conductor and the greater

may

be

its

length.

sparks and shocks given by long wires and by spirals are due to secondary currents induced in the metallic conductor at the moment of opening and closing

233.

The

the circuit

their intensity being higher than that of the

current which produces them. The to the same class as those presented

phenomena belong by the secondaries

in

induced

in

another conductor placed

the vicinity of

the one which is conveying the battery current. 234. The secondary currents just referred to

may be

obtained by placing a second spiral of copper ribbon upon the one through which the battery current is If the edges of the copper strips are extransmitted.
posed, some insulating substance, such as glass or paper, must be interposed between the two spirals.
EXP.
to the

40.

Two wires being connected with

the cups belonging

upper spiral,rub their ends together while the circuit through the lower one is rapidly broken. Sparks will be seen, and slight
shocks
in the

through the fingers or by placing the wires the ends of the wires are joined, the sparks and snaps given by the spiral connected with the battery are considerably diminished and no shocks can be obtained from it.
felt

may be

mouth.

When

EXP. 41. Connect the cups of the upper coil with a delicate galvanometer such as that represented in fig. 13. Whenever the battery circuit is completed through the lower spiral, the magnetic needle will be deflected to a considerable extent, but will
immediately return to the meridian,, indicating the flow of a momentary current through the wire of the galvanometer. On

opening the circuit a similar transient deflection will occur in

138

DANIEL DAVIS,

J R.'s

MANUAL.

the opposite direction. No deflection occurs while the battery current is flowing steadily. Care should be taken that the gal-

vanometer
its

is

needle

may be

placed at such a distance from the lower unaffected by it

spiral, that

EXP. 42. A sewing needle will be magnetized if placed within a wire helix of small internal diameter connected with the upper

The polarity produced by the current which attends the spiral. completion of the circuit will be the reverse of that communicated by the one attending its rupture. If both currents are allowed to
act on the needle,
it

will acquire little or

no magnetism.

235. For the purpose of determining the direction of induced currents, the Magnetizing Helix represented in
fig.

94 may be employed.
94.

Its

construction

is

similar to

that of the helix described in

120

it

should, however,

consist of a single length of wire,

but

wound

so as to form six or eight

layers of coils, to enable it to be used for examining currents of considerable intensity.

Its

power

will
is

be greater

if its internal

diameter

very small.

In the cut, the helix

is

mounted upon a
it.

stand, with a small piece of steel

wire within

236.

The momentary waves

of electricity excited by

electro-dynamic induction in a conductor conveying a current, or in a neighboring one, are termed secondary currents, the battery current itself being called in this

connection the primary one. The wave which accomthe of the circuit is termed the initial panies closing
secondary, and flows in the opposite direction to that of the current which induces it. The other, which follows
the opening of the circuit,
is

called the terminal second-

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY
ary,

139

and flows
1831.
fig.

in

the

same

direction

as the inducing

current.

These currents were discovered by

Prof. Fara-

day, in

237. In

95 a

coil

of fine insulated wire

is

represented placed over a ribbon spiral A, which is connected by one cup with the cup C attached to the

copper plate of a sustaining battery.

A
flat

wire from the

steel

cup Z,

belonging to the zinc plate,

is

drawn over a

rasp resting purpose of breaking the circuit rapidly. 238. The ends of the wire coil being fixed in the

on the other cup of the

spiral, for the

binding screw cups of the metallic handles, powerful shocks will be felt when these are grasped in the hands

and the wire connected with

drawn over the

rasp.

In order to obtain the initial and terminal shocks sepaof the rately, the circuit should be broken, not by means

by a cup containing mercury into which one The of the battery wires can be dipped at pleasure. be a with connected by wire mercury should, of course,
rasp, but

one of the cups attached to the ribbon spiral. 239. When a battery of a single pair of plates

is

em-

ployed, the initial secondary is much inferior in intensity to the terminal, and consequently gives a feebler shock.
Prof.

Henry discovered

that the intensity of the terminal

140
current

DANIEL DAVIS,
is

J R.'s

MANUAL.

of pairs

very little increased by adding to the number the slight increase which occurs is due to the

greater quantity of electricity transmitted by the ribbon the intensity of the battery current is inspiral, when creased. With the initial secondary it is different ; every
additional pair

was found

to raise

its

intensity, so that

with about ten pairs it equalled, in this respect, the The terminal, and with a larger number excelled it. also be increased, though not in any initial shock may
great degree,
for instance,

by employing a shorter ribbon

fifteen or

spiral, as

one

twenty feet

in length,

with a

In quantity, as indicated by the single pair of plates. the secondaries are equal two those of galvanometer, the wire coil being inferior in this respect to the currents
;

afforded

by a ribbon

coil.

240. The

coil represented at

W contains
;

three thou-

sand

feet of

copper wire, about

one-fiftieth of

an inch

in diameter,

w ound
r

with thread

the layers are firmly

cemented together by
requisite in

shellac, careful insulation being

consequence of the length of the wire and Where a the high intensity of the current obtained. small battery is used, this length of wire is unnecessary, as the shock given by it is scarcely greater than that
from a
coil

of one thousand feet

the longer one will be

much

with a larger battery sewing needle superior.

;

may be magnetized by the currents from a long wire coil, as well as by those from a ribbon spiral (see Exp. if the wire is fine and very long this effect will be 42)
:

diminished.

241.

95

is

The sustaining battery shown in section in fig. of similar construction to the cylindrical battery

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
described in

141

<> 20, except that the zinc plate is placed within a double cylinder of leather L, closed at the bottom ; the space between this and the copper cylinder

on each side

alone occupied by the solution of sulphate of copper, which may be a saturated one ; while within the leather case is a rather weak solution of Glauber's
is

The leather salt (sulphate of soda) or of table salt. should be free from oil, or the power of the battery will
be greatly reduced. Other porous or membranous substances, such as thick brown paper, or bladder, will

answer the same purpose as leather, in preventing the ready admixture of the solutions, and allowing a free
passage to the electrical current.
is

When

the partition
is

sufficiently thin or permeable, the battery

as

pow-

erful as if

charged

in the usual

mode with

a solution of

blue

vitriol.

action within the battery is as follows oxidized as usual, at the expense of the water of the solution which surrounds it, while the hydrogen,
:

242.

The
is

the zinc

instead of being given off at the surface of the negative

plate, as in

most

batteries,

decomposes the sulphate of

copper, forming water with the oxygen of the oxide of copper, and liberating the sulphuric acid, which passes

through the porous partition into the other cell. gradual and steady supply of acid is thus furnished to
dissolve the constantly forming oxide of zinc.

243. This form of battery will maintain a nearly

unvarying power
sionally adding a
for several

days
is

in

succession,

if

the

solution of sulphate of copper

little
it

kept saturated

by occa-

the liquid to

make

of the pulverized salt and stirring of uniform strength. With weaker

142

DANIEL DAVIS,
permeable
it

R ,'s

MANUAL.
an action of
suf-

solutions, or a less
ficient

partition,

energy
or

for
;

many

purposes

may

be sustained

for a

week

more

and when
zinc plate

declines,

may be renewed

by cleaning the

and removing any loose de-

posit from the cells.

This constancy of action renders

the battery of great value in the electrotype process, which will be described hereafter. The deposition of metallic copper on the negative plate is the principal

inconvenience attending it this deposit sometimes adheres so firmly as to be difficult of removal, which, how:

only necessary when it interferes mechanically with the working of the battery. The adhesion may
ever,
is

be

partially prevented by slightly oiling or greasing the copper cylinders previous to the introduction of the
solutions.

244. Instead of
wire

flat

coils,

long helices of insulatecj

obtaining the secondary when not aided by

may

be employed

for

currents, though with

less

effect

magneto-electric induction. Several of the magneto-electric instruments which will be described under the next

head may be used

for this

purpose, the

iron bar or

bundle of wires being withdrawn from the helices. A of one of Helix and them Double Elecdescription (the
trotome)

245.

may properly be introduced in this connection. DOUBLE HELIX AND ELECTROTOME. In this

instrument, represented in fig. 96, the double helix a a is confined to the base-board by three brass bands. The
inner helix
is

composed of

several strands of large insimilar ends of these strands

sulated copper wire.

at

The

one extremity of the helix are connected with the Their other ends are soldered binding screw cup c.

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
to the

143

middle brass band, which

is

surmounted by a

Into this cup descends a copper wire attached to the wire w w, which by means of clockbrass

mercury cup
set
in

e.

work

motion by a concealed spring,

Fig. 96.

is

made

to

dip

its

ends alternately into the glass cups

G G

for

The cups being open at the botcontaining mercury. tom, the mercury is brought in connection with the outer
brass

bands, upon which they are fixed.

Both these

bands are connected with a binding screw cup c', correA second helix, sponding to c, but not seen in the cut.
consisting of about wire, encloses

two thousand

feet of fine insulated

is

the one just described, but

insulated

ends are soldered to the binding screw cups to which the handles, seen at H, are attached.
it
:

from

its

246.

The

cups c and

c'

being connected with the

galvanic battery, the current will pass through the inner

144
helix

DANIEL DAVIS,
whenever
;

J R.'s

MANUAL.

either

end of the wire

at

iv

dips into the

such a height in the mercury extremities of the wire shall not be imboth that cups mersed at the same time. By turning the milled head d
the spring
rapidly.
is

which should stand

wound up and
either
is

the wire

is

made

to vibrate

When

of the current
in the cup.

end leaves the mercury, the flow interrupted, and a bright spark is seen

If the handles be grasped with moistened

hands, strong shocks will be felt whenever the circuit is Introduce into the helix a brass tube, and the broken.

spark becomes small and the shock feeble be sawed open in the direction of its length,

if
it

the tube

no longer

produces these effects. 247. When an iron bar or a bundle of

is

soft iron wires

introduced into the helix, the brass tube being withdrawn, the brilliancy of the sparks and the intensity of

the shocks are greatly increased, the instrument being under these circumstances one of the most powerful be-

longing to the department of magneto-electricity. have seen that a battery current of con248.

We

siderable quantity

and low intensity can induce

either a

By substituting for quantity or an intensity current. the ribbon spiral through which the battery current is transmitted, a coil consisting of one thousand feet or
more of
fine insulated wire,

and connected with a battery

of a number of pairs, it will be found that an intensity current is able to induce secondaries of intensity in a
wire
coil,

and of quantity
circuit

in

a ribbon coil.

249.

The

shocks obtained

when

the

body

is

intro-

of a voltaic battery of a considerable number of pairs, without a coil, appear to be due

duced into the

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
to

145
itself.

secondary currents induced in

the

battery

During the uninterrupted circulation of the galvanic current through the body, little or no effect is perceived
but at the
cuit, a

moment of
is

shock

opening or closing the cirWhen the series is very experienced.

either

extensive, a dull pain is felt during the continuance of The primary current has sufficient intensity contact. to traverse the body, though not to give shocks, and

doubtless induces initial and terminal secondaries

it

when

commences and ceases

250.

to flow.
in

A
;

flat

spiral

being

connection with the batlittle

tery, let

a fine wire coil be placed at a

distance

above

it

shocks

may now be

obtained from the wire,

but their intensity diminishes in a rapid ratio as the distance between the coils is increased. With the ar-

rangement represented
or

in fig. 95,

shocks through the

is

tongue are readily obtained

when

the wire coil

a foot

and the distance may be still farther increased by using a longer ribbon coil or a more This furnishes a convenient mode of powerful battery.

two above the other

regulating the intensity of the shock at pleasure

the

same
other,

effect

is

produced when one

coil

lies

upon the

by sliding the wire coil from its central position more or less beyond the edge of the flat spiral. The
shocks are in any case much increased by wetting the hands, especially with salt water.

251.

The

idly as the wire coil

into

intensity of the shock also diminishes rapis raised from a horizontal position
;

an inclined one
its

and when

it

reaches a vertical
coil,

position,

edge resting on the ribbon

Similar

they are no

longer

felt.

phenomena

are presented

when

13

146
the

DANIEL DAVIS,
flat spiral

has a sufficiently large central opening to

allow the wire coil to pass within it ; no shocks being obtained when their axes are at right angles to each If the diameter of the wire coil be considerably other.
less

than that of the ring, and it be placed in a horizontal position within it, the shocks will be somewhat

stronger

when

it is

near the side than

when

in

the centre.

252.

The

electricity

interposition of any good conductor of between the fine wire coil and the one

connected with the battery will nearly neutralize the

shocks.

Exr. 43. The coils being arranged as in fig. 95, interpose a slip of wood or a plate of glass between A and W, and the shock will be the same as if air only intervened. This will be the case with
interpose a plate of metal, for instance, lead or zinc, one-tenth of an inch thick and as broad as the coils. The shock will be so much reduced as to

any non-conductor of electricity.

Now

be scarcely perceptible.
is also

The magnetizing power

of the current

lessened, in respect to hard steel, so that a sewing needle placed within a helix, as in Exp. 42, will be but feebly charged. certain thickness of metal is required to produce these effects,

as several sheets of tinfoil may be interposed without diminishing the shocks in any appreciable degree.

253.

The

interposition of a metallic

plate does not

of the secondary currents, but prevent the occurrence their causes intensity to be greatly reduced. merely That the quantity of the current is not affected may be shown connecting the ends of the upper coil, espe-

by

cially if

it

be a ribbon

coil instead of a wire one,

with a

galvanometer ; when whether the plate is interposed or not, provided the distance between the two coils is not altered except
;

the deflections will be the

same

the plate

is

of iron, when they are somewhat diminished.

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
tion of a radius, the cut extending to the centre,

147

If a slip be cut out of the interposed plate in the direcit

no

longer lessens the shocks.

EXP. 44. Instead of a metallic plate, interpose a flat spiral between the battery coil and the wire one. No diminution of
the shocks will be perceived. Now connect the cups of the interposed coil by a wire, and the intensity of the shocks will be even more reduced than in the last experiment. Whenever the

shocks are diminished, the brilliancy of the sparks given by the battery spiral will also be lessened to some extent

254. Secondary currents may also be obtained, without breaking the primary circuit, by altering the quantity of the battery current or the distance between the coils,
as in the following experiments.

EXP. 45. Connect a ribbon coil with the battery, and placo a second spiral of the same kind upon it, with its cups in connection with a galvanometer.

While

the current

is

flowing

steadily through the lower spiral, no secondary will be excited, and the needle of the galvanometer will be unaffected.
lift

Now

the zinc plate of the battery partly out of the liquid. The moment the plate begins to be raised, the needle moves in the

same
ever,

direction as if the circuit

is

were broken; the

deflection,

how-

not momentary as in that case, but continues during the movement of the plate. Then, without taking the zinc out of the The solution, which would break the circuit, depress it again.

galvanometer will now indicate a current in the opposite direction to the former one.

coil

EXP. 46. Similar currents are produced by raising the upper from the lower one, through which the galvanic current is

it

steadily flowing. As the coil recedes, a secondary flows through in the same direction as that of the battery current in the other spiral ; as it again approaches, a current in the reverse direction
is

induced.

laterally

from

Instead of raising the upper spiral, it may be moved its central position on the lower one, with the

same

result.

148

DANIEL DAVIS,

255. These currents produce a greater effect upon the galvanometer than those excited by closing and opening
the circuit, as they are not momentary, but last as long as the motion continues. The more rapid the movement

of the zinc plate or of the spiral, the more powerful are the secondary currents, as they depend upon the suddenness of the change, in the quantity of the primary current in one case, and in the distance between the
coils in the other.

They

are,

and are unable

256.

to afford shocks.

however, of low intensity, The interposition of

metallic plates or coils produces

no

effect

upon them.

253

is

252 and neutralizing action described in due to a secondary current excited in the inter-

The

posed metallic plate or spiral, which itself induces a in the opposite tertiary current in the wire coil, flowing
direction to the secondary induced in
it

by the battery

current,

and therefore retarding its development. is also induced in the battery coil, which current tertiary occasions the reduction in the spark and shock noticed
in

Exp. 40 and 44.

is

When

the

interposed plate
is

of

metal
in
it,

divided to
it

its

centre, no secondary
;

induced

and

exerts

no neutralizing action

the

same

is

the case with the ribbon spiral in Exp. 44, when its Similar phenomena are procups are disconnected. duced by the introduction of a metallic tube into a wire
helix, as described in
<>

246.

257. This tertiary current can be separated from

the secondary, and obtained

by

itself, in

the following

manner.
EXP. 47.

ribbon coil B,

fig.

97,

being
is

laid

upon the

coil

A,
its

through which the battery current

transmitted, connect

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.

149

cups with those of a third spiral C, of the same kind, removed to a little distance, so as to be beyond the influence of the current in

A.

The secondary

current induced in

is laid on C, strong shocks may be C, and if a fine wire coil obtained. If be raised up, the shocks will still be felt when it is at a considerable height above C.

will

now

flow through

EXP. 48. Place a fourth ribbon coil on C instead of the wire and a quantity current will be obtained, capable of affecting the galvanometer slightly, and of magnetizing a sewing needle placed in a helix of small internal diameter, such as that reprecoil,

sented in

fig.

94.

EXP.

49.

Substitute for the

coils.

flat spirals

and

in fig.

97

secondary intensity current will now be obtained, which will induce a tertiary of intensity in a third wire coil laid on the second, enabling it to afford strong shocks ; and

two

fine

wire

a tertiary of quantity in a ribbon

coil.

wire

258. If the second spiral B is alone replaced by a coil, little or no shock can be obtained from W,

the quantity of the secondary current furnished by the wire coil not being sufficient for the production of a powerful tertiary, unless it is passed through a conductor of

many

convolutions.

So, on the other hand, if

a fine wire coil be substituted for

only, no tertiary

is

induced by it, or at most a feeble one, the secondary current from B not having sufficient intensity to enable
it

to

overcome the resistance of the long wire. 13*

The

150

DANIEL DAVIS,
can be induced
at a

tertiary current, like the secondary,

distance

and has

its

intensity greatly reduced

interposition of metal

between the

flat

spiral

by the and the

wire

coil.

259. The tertiary currents may be conveniently obtained by causing the secondary from a ribbon spiral to flow through the inner helix of the instrument represented in fig. 96 or of almost any of the magneto-electric instruments to be described under the next head. Thus
if

the wires attached to B, in

fig.

97, are fixed in the

1 cups c and c of the Double Helix and Electrotome, strong shocks may be obtained from the tertiary current

induced

in the fine wire helix.

The
by

circuit

through the

inner coil should not be broken

the electrotome, as

the only interruption wanted is that in the battery curThe shocks will be increased by placing a bundle rent.

of iron wires within the helix, as the inductive action of the current will then be assisted by that of the electro-

magnet. 260. Tertiary currents, like secondaries, are induced both when the primary circuit is opened and when it is The initial and terminal tertiaries both flow in closed.
the opposite directions to the corresponding secondaries. In fact, each secondary must produce two tertiaries, one

when
but
in

it

commences, and another when

it

ceases to flow

consequence of the exceedingly short duration of the secondary itself, they cannot be separated as the
initial

and terminal secondaries can

is

and the current

obtained, whether initial or terminal, is only This accounts for the the difference between the two.
slight effect
it

which

produces upon the galvanometer, while

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.

151

capable of affording strong shocks. The two parts may differ very much in intensity, but being equal in quantity

would not
deflected

affect

cisely at the

same
the

the galvanometer, did they occur preinstant the needle, however, is first
:

the secondary, and as soon as it has moved a degree or two is arrested by the opposite wave due
to
its

by mencement of

momentary wave induced by the com-

cessation.

261.

The

effects

of the interpositions described in

in

252 and 253, may now be more

The

secondary induced

clearly explained. the interposed conductor, on

opening the primary

circuit, for instance, itself

induces

a tertiary in the wire coil at the instant of its commencement, which flows against the secondary induced in it

When the secondary in the the battery current. interposed body ceases, another tertiary is excited in the wire coil flowing in the same direction as the secondary.
by

The

total

since the

same quantity
its

amount of the current is added

beginning
in
;

will not
at its
its

be

altered,

subtracted at

but

ending as was intensity will be

consequence of the dimingreatly reduced, probably ished rapidity of its development.

262. CURRENTS OF HIGHER ORDERS.
It

has been

shown
in
its

that a secondary current, though only

duration,
It

momentary
ter-

can induce a

tertiary of considerable

energy.

might therefore be expected that the

a current of the fourth order ; this tiary would produce another, and so on ; and such is found to be the case.
It
is

influence of the secondary in the

only necessary to remove the tertiary out of the same manner as the
is

secondary

removed from

that

of the primary

(see

152

DANIEL DAVIS,
in

JR.'s

MANUAL.

Exp. 47)

order to obtain a current of the fourth order.

fifth

The
first

currents of the third, fourth and

orders

were

obtained by Prof. Henry, and two other orders have been since added. These currents progressively diminish in

energy, but the phenomena presented by them those of the tertiary. With a larger number of coils and a powerful battery, the series might
are similar to

doubtless be extended

much

farther.

263. In the following table the directions of the currents produced both at the beginning and ending of the
battery current are given, those which flow in the same direction as the primary being indicated by the sign +,

and those

in the opposite direction by the sign At the beginning. At

-f-

the ending.

Primary current,

-}-

Secondary current,
Tertiary current, Current of the fourth order, .... Current of the fifth order,
-|~

-j~

-{-

-|-

Current of the sixth order, .... Current of the seventh order, . .

-f-|-

If the induction at the ending of the battery current be regarded as opposite to that at the beginning, the second

column may commence with minus instead of

the second series will then alternate like the

plus,

and
be

first.

264. Induced currents of the different orders

obtained from
frictional

may

electricity,

though

in

conse-

quence of

its

insulation than

high intensity the conductors require better is necessary when they are used with

the galvanic battery.

The

flat spirals
if their

and wire

coils

may, however, be employed,

insulated

layers are carefully

by means of

shellac, or if covered with silk

instead of cotton.

INDUCTION OP ELECTRICITY.
EXP.
50.

153
with a

Place a fine wire coil over a ribbon

;

spiral,

plate of glass interposed a secondary shock may now be obtained from the wire when the charge of a Ley den jar is passed through

the spiral. instead of the

still

better
;

mode
if

is to

employ a second wire

coil,

flat spiral

the ends of one coil be held in the

hands, a strong shock will be felt at the moment of discharging the jar through the other. The secondary current flows in the

same

direction as the one

it

which induces

it;

as

passing

through the helix described in

it.

235,

may be shown by when it will

magnetize a sewing needle placed within

II.

BY THE INFLUENCE OF A MAGNET.

lic

265. Currents of electricity may be excited in metalwires by means of magnetic changes taking place in

their vicinity.

This
in

is

in fact the
II, sect. 2.

converse of the prinIt

ciple explained

chap.

was there shown

that a current of electricity passing in the vicinity of a bar of iron or steel produces a magnetic change in that
bar.

The branch

of science which treats of the devel-

opment of
Electricity.

electricity in this

way

is

called

Magneto-

netic changes

266. There are several modes in which these magmay be produced in the vicinity of the
in

wire

which the current of

electricity

is

to

be excited.

The movement

of a magnet near a wire, or of a wire near a magnet, is one method. The approach of a magnet to a bar of soft iron surrounded with wire, or in
general, a change in the relative position of the magnet and the bar, is a second. The passage of a galvanic

current round an iron bar

in this

wound with

wire

is

a third

case an induced current

may

be obtained either

from the wire conveying the primary current, or from a

154

DANIEL DAVIS,

J R.'s

MANUAL.

second wire also surrounding the iron ; but the current excited by the influence of the magnetized bar cannot

be separated from that which Is the

result of electro-

dynamic

induction, at least with the usual

arrangement

of the wires.

267. If the cups of the helix on stand, described in 120, be connected with a delicate galvanometer, and a bar magnet be introduced into the helix, as in fig. 98,
the needle will be deflected while the magnet is passing i Fig. 98. n? but will return to its former
position as soon as the s at rest within the coil.

magnet

is

On

draw-

ing the magnet out, the needle will be deflected in the opposite direction. By moving the magnet in

and out so as

to

keep time with

,the oscillations of the needle, they

Reverswill be greatly increased. ing the direction of the magnet so as to cause it to enter by the contrary pole, will reverse the indications of the If the magnet be carried through the galvanometer.
helix so as to bring
it

which

it

entered, the effect

as before.

out at the opposite end to that by is the same as if it had been

drawn out

No

current

is

excited while the

magnet and coil are both 268. Connect the cups of a

described in
<$>

at rest.
flat

spiral,

such as that

U
A

poles deflected in opposite directions as

less effect will

123, with the galvanometer; and pass a the centre, with one of its over it, towards magnet above and the other below. The needle will be
it

passes on and

off.

be produced by moving a bar magnet

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
in the direction
it

155

of a radius over the spiral, or by passing

coil

into the central opening.

269. Let the ends of the

of insulated wire A,

fig. 99, be connected with the gold leaf galvanoscope, descibed in 153. Then pass the ring down over one

Fig. 99.

^^^

of the poles, say the south pole, of a

magnet.

The

gold

leaf will be sensibly deflected. Take the

ring from

the

south

D
|

pole and pass it over the north pole. It

will

be found that
is

the gold leaf

flected the
I

de-

same way

by both these motions

of the ring, but in the

Thus opposite direction to what it was previously. it off of one and it over the drawing pole putting opposite pole produce deflections in the same direction, but
similar motions, such as putting
it

over either pole or

deflections.
<>

drawing

it

off of either, produce opposite

The

wire coil

is

the

same
soft

as that described in
iron within

126.

270. Place a bar of

stand,

the helix on

its fig. 98, cups being connected with the galvanometer as before. Then bring the opposite poles of

two bar magnets

iron.

in contact with the extremities of the

bar will suddenly be magnetized by inducand the needle will be deflected. It will, howtion,
ever, immediately return to
its

The

former position, the settled

156

DANIEL DAVIS,
On

JR.'s

MANUAL.

magnetic condition of the bar having no power to affect

withdrawing the magnetic poles, the bar loses its magnetism, and the needle is deflected in the opposite
it.

direction.

271.

By

and withdrawing them

to

bringing the poles in contact with the iron, alternately, in such a manner as

keep time with the vibrations of the needle, they may be greatly increased as before. If the two other
poles of the bar magnets touch each other so as to form a letter V, the inductive power is much increased. Then

by opening and

shutting the magnets as

if

joined

by a

hinge at the vertex, the bar within the helix

may be

magnetized at pleasure. 272. When an armature or any piece of soft iron is brought in contact with one or both of the poles of a magnet, it becomes itself magnetic by induction, and by
its

reaction adds to the

power of the magnet.

On

the

contrary, of the magnet.

when

it is

taken

away

it

diminishes the power

The approach and

departure of iron

therefore from the poles of a magnet alters its magnetic state and tends to induce a current of electricity in a coil

surrounding it, as may be shown experimentally thus. EXP. 51. Pass a wire coil, whose ends are connected with a
galvanometer, over one of the poles of a U magnet, as in fig. 99, and keep the magnet and coil stationary. The needle will now be deflected in one direction when an armature is applied to the poles, and in the opposite direction when it is removed.

273. When a galvanometer is used in these experiments, it must be placed at such a distance from the instrument where the magnetic movements and changes
are made, that the needle will not be deflected
influence but that

by any

which reaches

it

through the connect-

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.

157

With the gold leaf galvanoscope this preing wires. caution is not needed.
274. MAGNETO-ELECTRIC ARMATURE.

This instruform,

ment
with

consists of
fine insulated

an

armature of the

wound
;

wire and enclosed in a metallic case

the armature itself
is

Fig. 100.

not

a solid bar, but a bundle

of iron wires.
at

It is

seen

A,

in fig.

100, and a
it

sectional

view of

is

given separately.
section,

In the

B D

is

the ar-

mature, having several layers of wire wound on

each of

its

legs,

and con-

tained within the case

C,

from which

its

ends pro-

One end ject slightly. of the wire which envelops the armature is connected with the case, and also The other end is soldered to with the armature itself.
the brass cup E, which is attached to the exterior of the case, but is insulated from it by means of an ivory collar.

By

this

instrument the current of electricity produced

by a sudden change in the magnetic state of the armaLet ture may be rendered sensible by a strong shock.
the experimenter bring the ends of the armature in contact with the poles of a powerful
in the

compound

U magnet,
In
his left

manner represented
one
to

in

the .figure.

hand he holds a metallic handle H, from which

wires proceed
;

two

the cup

M,

attached to the

14

158
magnet

DANIEL DAVIS,

J R.'s
to the

MANUAL.

S,

and the other

cup E, upon the case

It of the armature, which he holds in his right hand. is not essential to have a cup fixed on the steel magnet,

as the

end of the wire

may

simply be pressed against

it.

apparatus being thus arranged, the experimenter suddenly separates the armature from the magnet

275. The

by

slipping

it

upwards or downwards from the

position

As the armature leaves the the figure. represented it loses the magnetism which had been induced magnet,
in

in

<> 110), and a current of electricity is in conin the wire coiled around it within the excited sequence This current passes from the cup E, connected case.

it

(see

with one end of the enclosed wire, round to the handle it then flows ; H, and thence to the cup through the

magnet

to the armature itself

which

is

connected with
is

the other end of the wire.

The

current

excited at

the very

moment of

separation, and passes from the

to the armature as a spark of inappreciable This but at the same time very perceptible. length, the metallic current induced passes only through primary conductors or through the short interval of air between

magnet

It is not sufficiently intense the armature and magnet. to produce the shock which occurs at the moment when

This shock is due to a secondary the spark passes. current of higher intensity induced by the primary current in the same wire, at the moment when the circuit
This secthrough the metallic conductors is broken. the from then current cup E, by the passes ondary
wire
this

H, through the body and back being the only circuit which is left

to the armature,
for its passage.
in

276.

When

the armature

is

first

brought

contact

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.

159

with the magnet, there is of course a change in the magnetic state of the former, and a current of electricity consequently induced in the wire surrounding it. This current passes through the metallic circuit which is comis

pleted at the same time, and induces a secondary current capable of giving a shock were it to pass through the

But as the metallic circuit remains complete, the secondary current passes through that in preference It is only therefore to the body of the experimenter.
body.

when

the circuit

is

broken at the same moment that the

primary current is excited, that the shock is obtained from the secondary current induced almost at the same
instant

by the primary, and which

is

absence of some other

277. If the wire

left for

HM

circuit, to pass

then obliged, in the through the body.

circuit is

be taken away, no

body on and

the primary induced current except through the If the armature be slipped of the experimenter.
off the

magnet under these circumstances, the

primary current will pass through the body so as to give a slight shock to the tongue or even to the hands. The

shock

will

be

felt

both

when

the armature

is

brought in

contact with and separated from the magnet, though the former will be much the stronger. This is probably

owing

to the

In proportion to the quickness of the magnetic change is the intensity of the induced current and the consequent shock.
it

magnetic magnet, than when

state of the

greater suddenness of the change in the armature when it first touches the

leaves

it.

278. If one of the wires of a galvanometer be connected with 'the cup E, and the other wire with the case of the armature, the needle will be deflected

160

DANIEL DAVIS,

J R.'s

MANUAL.

is

strongly in opposite directions whenever the armature brought in contact with or separated from the magIf one of the wires of the galvanometer be conand the other with the

net.

nected with the cup

cup

E, the same

result will ensue,

although

in

this

case

the current flows through the magnet, and has to pass as a spark when the armature and magnet are separated.

279.

MAGNETO-ELECTRIC MACHINE, FOR SHOCKS.

In this instrument a powerful compound magnet is mounted on a stand. Before its poles is the armature

A, resembling a

U armature,

although for convenience

Fig. 101.

It is a solid
last

the iron instead of being curved is bent at right angles. bar and not a bundle of iron wires as in the

described instrument.
is

armature
coils are

wound

Around each pole of this a coil of fine insulated wire ; the two

The connected so as to act as a single one. armature does not quite touch the magnetic poles, and
mounted on an
axis of rotation extending from the

is

post

P to

the central support of the magnet.

The upper

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
part of the post

161

is

made

to slide over the

lower part,

and by means of a screw can be fastened in any poIn this way the band connecting the two wheels sition.

may be

tightened at pleasure

by

increasing the distance

This arrangement also renders the instrument much more portable than it would otherwise be.

between them.

By

means of the multiplying wheel

W,

which

is

con-

nected by the band with a small wheel on the axis, the armature may be made to revolve rapidly, so that the

end of the armature which was one instant opposite to the north pole of the magnet, will be the next instant
opposite the south pole, and the one that was opposite the south magnetic pole will be opposite the north pole. rapid reversal of the magnetism of the armature thus

takes place, and electric currents are excited in the surOne extremity of the coil of wire is rounding wire.

connected with a ferrule or cylindrical piece of silver a on the axis of motion, but insulated from it by ivory.

The

other extremity

is

attached to the axis and thus

connected with the toothed wheel or breakpiece fixed on A silver wire b, flattened at the axis near the post P.
the bearing part, presses constantly against the ferrule a, and is connected under the base-board with the wire e,

which touches from time

its

to

time the teeth of the break-

revolution, thus closing and opening the piece during circuit of the coil in rapid succession.

280.
Electric

It

is

Armature

evident, on the principle of the Magnetolast described, that if two handles

held by an experimenter were connected, one with the ferrule and the other with the breakpiece, that a shock would be experienced whenever the metallic circuit of

14*

162
the coil

DANIEL DAVIS,
was broken.
It

JR.'s

MANUAL.
that at the

was shown

moment

when

the induced primary current was interrupted, a secondary current would pass through the body, if that
in a circuit

was included
This
is

between the ends of the wire.

accomplished here by connecting one of the binding screw cups C C with the wire b under the baseboard, and the other cup with the post P, which has
metallic connection with the axis and breakpiece.

The

body therefore will complete the circuit if interposed between the handles H H, and will receive a shock whenever the primary current is interrupted. A spark
is

seen
;

when
if

the wire e leaves each tooth of the breakis

piece

the wire

of iron, beautiful scintillations are

produced. 281. In the Magneto-Electric Armature the shock is obtained only when the armature separates from
absolute contact with the magnet, but
if

the primary
is

induced current

is

broken when an armature

moving

towards or away from a magnet, a shock will be felt, though it will be most powerful when the magnet and armature are nearest, as the magnetic action is then
greatest

between the two.

In this instrument the toothed

wheel breaks the circuit

possible

when

the armature

is

in

all

positions in reference to the magnet.

Yet a

shock

is

nearly at right angles to the poles.

is

always obtained, except when the armature is When the armature

made

to revolve rapidly

by means of the crank and

is

wheel

W,

the torrent of shocks which results

insup-

portable. handles are involuntarily contracted, so that

sible to loosen the hold or

The

muscles of the hands which grasp the

it is

impos-

escape from the

infliction.

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
SITIONS.

163

282. MAGNETO-ELECTRIC MACHINE, FOR DECOMPOIn the magneto-electric machine just described,
Fig. 102.

the induced currents flow in opposite directions during

*
in

.;

One pole of the the north of the magnet and armature, leaving pole the south induces approaching pole, electricity in one but it the south when direction, passes pole and again
each half revolution of the armature.
approaches the north pole,
it

induces a current in the

The principle of the machine now opposite direction. to be described is the same as the last. The modes
of connection are modified.
Instead of the cylinder
a, Dr. Page's pole-changer, <> 162, consisting of two semi-cylinders insulated from the axis, is substituted.

The two

extremities of the coil surrounding the armature

are soldered to these.

Two

flattened silver wires b b

press against the opposite sides of the pole-changer, and are connected under the base-board with the cups C.

These

are the only connections used in producing deThe effect compositions, the circuit not being broken.

164

DANIEL DAVIS,

of the pole-changer is to change the end of the coil which communicates with either cup every half revoluBut as the current itself flows in opposite direction.
tions in

the coil each half revolution, the result

is

that

one of the cups

negative.

is constantly positive and the other current flows between them, if they are connected, always in one direction, unless the revolution

The

of the armature

is

reversed.

enable this machine to afford strong shocks, one of the wires b b is also connected with the post P,

283.

To

and thereby with the

wire
is

axis

connected with the

at the top, in

and breakpiece. The other pillar p, which has a binding

to

screw

which a wire can be fastened

play against the breakpiece and break the circuit, as in All the effects produced the last described instrument.

with the other machine

this.

The

may be equally well shown with flow of the current in a constant direction
many
additional ex-

also allows of the performance of

periments.

284.
held

When

the metallic handles attached to

CC

are

in the

hands, the

arm connected with the negative

cup will be found to be most affected by the shocks. This is a physiological phenomenon, the current producing a greater effect upon the arm in which it flows
in the

direction of the ramification of the nerves, than

upon the one in which it ascends. The initial secondary is too feeble to afford shocks, so that only the The terminal secondary need be taken into account.
intensity of the terminal shock is however constantly varying, according to the position of the armature in
in the effect respect to the magnet, and the difference

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
upon the two arms is not so well marked of the instruments which will be described
as with

165

some

hereafter.

285. Slight shocks may be obtained from the primary

current, as in the case of the Magneto-Electric
ture,

Arma-

by grasping the metallic handles connected with the C. The wire which rests on the breakpiece must cups

be removed so that the

circuit

may

not be broken.

If

the cups be connected with those belonging to the inner coil of the Double Helix and Electrotome and (<> 245),
the central opening of that instrument be filled with iron wires, secondary shocks of considerable strength will be

obtained from the exterior helix whenever the armature

is

made

to revolve.

The

vibrating wire should be put

in

circuit. Bright sparks are also seen in the mercury cups. The sparks are conveniently shown by passing the primary current of the machine through the Contact Breaker, 229, the

motion to break the primary

wire

W W being made
When

to vibrate.

the primary magneto-electric current is made to pass through water in a constant direction, the water is resolved into its elements, and the gases hydro-

286.

gen and oxygen are given off separately, by the two If the direction of the wires which convey the current.
current alternates, the water
is still decomposed, but the be obtained cannot separately as both are given gases The other machine is able to off from each wire.

decompose water, though very

feebly, because the con-

nections are such that only the secondary current can be used.

287.
cups

Two

C, and

platinum wires being connected with the their ends immersed in water, a slender

166

DANIEL DAVIS,

JR.'s

MANUAL.

when

stream of gas will be seen to escape from each wire the armature is made to revolve. If the wires are

of iron or copper, the oxygen will unite with the one

connected with the positive cup to form oxide of iron or of copper, and hydrogen alone will be given off. Pla-

tinum wires are not attacked by the oxygen, and are

therefore best for conveying the current.
position of water
is

The decomdissolving in
it

greatly facilitated

by

some more

salt, as for

instance, Glauber's salt, or

what

is still

effectual,

acid to ten or fifteen of the water.

by the addition of one part of sulphuric These substances in-

crease

its conducting power. 288. Fig. 103 represents a Decomposing Cell mounted on a stand, and designed to Fig. 103.

be used with

this

machine.

Two

platinum wires connected with the and B on the stand pass cups

up

into the cell,

which

is

of glass.

glass tube may be inverted over these wires to collect any gas which is evolved ; it passes through

a cork

fitting

the

mouth of the
to

cell

with sufficient
the tube to be

tightness
filled

allow

with the liquid

by merely

inverting the instrument.

The

cell

being partly
water,

filled

with
tube

acidulated
full,

and

the

connect the cups A and wholly B with those of the machine. As

the wheel
i

is

turned, bubbles of

gas will be seen to

escape

from

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.

167

each wire, and to rise into the tube, displacing the liquid from it. When the tube is full, it may be removed and
the mixed gases exploded by holding flame.
its

mouth

to a

and having two glass tubes passed one of them through a cork so that may be inverted over each wire, as shown in the cut, where p p are the
289.

By

platinum wires, the gases

may be

obtained separately

oxygen only being collected in the tube placed over the The positive wire, and hydrogen alone in the other.
latter gas is twice that of the former, as indicated in the figure by the relative height of the liquid in the tubes and H, occupied respectively by the

volume of the

oxygen and hydrogen.

full,

On

removing the tubes when

the hydrogen will burn if a flame be applied, and the oxygen will increase the brilliancy of the combustion

of any ignited body put into it. 290. With a good machine, one cubic inch of the

mixed gases

will

be liberated

in

from

five to ten

minutes.
too great

If the conducting

power of the liquid be

made

the evolution of gas will be lessened. Strips of platinum foil, which are superior to wires in decomposing by a compound galvanic battery, do not answer so well with
the magneto-electric current, especially coiled upon the armature is fine.

when

the wire

291.

The

primary current

is

able to decompose va-

rious saline solutions.

purpose some porous be the portions of should between interposed partition in in the wires are order to prevent which placed, liquid

For

this

their too ready admixture.

performed

in the

Decomposing

These experiments may be Cell, fig. 103, by placing

168

DANIEL DAVIS,

J R.'s

MANUAL.

need not

a piece of unsized paper across it, between the wires ; it fit better inclosely the sides of the cell.

Fig. 104.

strument for the purpose is a glass tube bent into the form of the letter U, as shown in
fig.

104.

loosely crumpled piece of un-

sized paper, or of cotton cloth,

may be

thrust

into the bend of the tube as a partition, thus

dividing

it

into

two

cells.

tube being partly filled with a solution of some neutral salt to which has been added enough of

292.

The

the infusion of red cabbage to give it a blue color, let two platinum wires connected with the cups of the machine be immersed, one in each portion of the liquid.

When
will

the armature

is

made

to revolve, the

blue color

soon be changed containing the in the other, provided the and to green positive wire ; salt has an alkaline base. By reversing the motion of
the armature, the original color will be first restored in each leg of the tube, and then the opposite change will
occur.
If the solution be colored blue
it

to red in the cell

by the

infusion or

tincture of litmus,

will

become red

in the cell in

which

the acid
other.
is

developed, but will suffer no change in the When the yellow infusion of turmeric is used, it
is

turned brown by the alkali evolved in the negative cell, but is not affected by the acid in the other.
EXP. 52.

Let the tube contain a weak solution of Glauber's by the infusion of red cab;

salt (sulphate of soda), colored blue

bage. On transmitting the current, sulphuric acid will be liberated in one cell, changing the blue to red and soda in the other, changing it to green. Similar phenomena present themselves

with a large number of

are produced.

salts,

but in some cases different effects

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
EXP. 53.
If a solution of muriate of

169

ammonia, colored by some

vegetable infusion, be employed, chlorine gas will be given off from the positive wire ; this may be recognized by its peculiar odor and by the bleaching effect it produces upon the liquid in
the positive
cell,

which quickly becomes

colorless.

In this case

are set free in the negative cell, and muriatic acid and oxygen should have been liberated in the other. The chlorine appears therefore to be a secondary product, set

ammonia and hydrogen

free

by the combination of the hydrogen of the muriatic acid

54.

with oxygen, to form water.

Exr.

Let the tube be

filled

with a

weak

solution of hy-

driodate of potash, without any coloring liquid. By causing the armature to revolve, iodine will be abundantly liberated round

the positive wire ; this being slightly soluble gives a brown color to the liquid, but most of it remains in suspension, forming a

dense cloud.

If a few drops of a weak solution of starch had been previously added, an intense blue color will be developed. The hydriodate of potash is more easy of decomposition than any other salt even the current of a single galvanic pair will liberate iodine from it. EXP. 55. When a solution of sulphate of copper is employed, sulphuric acid and oxygen are set free in the positive cell, and
;

metallic copper is precipitated upon the negative wire. If the current is powerful, it is deposited as a slightly adherent black

but if of moderate strength, a thin coating is formed, possessing the proper color and appearance of the metal. In this case little or no hydrogen escapes from the coated wire,

powder

though oxygen is given off by the positive one. On reversing the current, the copper will be gradually dissolved from off the coated wire, and a similar deposit will occur on the other. No

oxygen escapes from the wire which

is

now

positive until its

coating has nearly disappeared. When the experiment is concluded, the deposited copper may be removed from the platinum

wires by a

little

diluted nitric acid.

If

mersed
as

in the solution, as

much copper will be

two copper wires be imdissolved off of one

is deposited upon the other. Sulphuric acid does not act upon copper in the cold unless aided in this way by an electric current. EXP. 56. Let the tube contain a diluted solution of muriate

15

170

DANIEL DAVIS,

of gold, the conducting wires being of platinum. The negative wire will soon become covered with a coating of gold, which increases in thickness as the current is continued. Other metals,
as for instance, silver, copper and brass, may be thus gilt ; the coating does not adhere very firmly unless the metallic surface on which it is to be deposited has been perfectly cleaned by acid.

The

positive wire should always be of platinum or gold.

The

ethereal solution of gold may be employed in this experiment. It is made by mixing ether with a strong solution of the muriate ; the ether containing the gold rises to the surface and may be

poured off from the acid.

293.
in the

Many

other metallic salts

may

be decomposed
In precipi-

same manner, and the metals

is

precipitated, but in

most cases the deposit no

of a black color.

tating metals, both wires

liquid,

may

be

in the
;

same portion of
tube

partition being required

in fact, if the

is of considerable length it will not be necessary in the The deposition of the metals from other experiments.

their solutions in these cases

depends upon the same

in the

principles which are concerned

electrotype pro-

cess to be described hereafter.

294.

The

galvanometer

is

strongly affected

by the

primary current.
sented in

Even a

large and heavy needle surin

rounded by a single wire, as

fig.

the instrument repre-

29,

may

readily be deflected.

sewing

needle or a piece of steel wire placed in the magnetizing If an iron wire helix 94), will be fully charged.
(fig,

be introduced
current.

into the helix,

its

ends will sustain a con-

siderable quantity of iron filings during the flow of the

295. When the extremities of the wire surrounding a small electro-magnet, such as is represented in fig. 53, are fixed in the cups C, it will be able to sustain a

weight of some ounces while the primary current

is

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
flowing.
five layers

171

If the electro-magnet be covered with four or

of

coils, the

wire being in a single length,

it

will

lift

several pounds.

296. The primary magneto-electric current resembles a galvanic current excited by a number of small pairs.
quantity and intensity are, however, both greatly influenced by the size and length of the wire enveloping the armature. short wire of large diameter gives a
Its

current of moderate intensity but of considerable quantity, and is therefore best for producing sparks, decom-

and magnetism. long and fine wire affords a current of small quantity and high intensity, and is most suitable for giving shocks.
positions

ELECTRIC MACHINE.

297. PAGE'S REVOLVING MAGNET, AS A MAGNETOThis instrument exhibits the magFig. 105.

neto-electric

machine

in

its

iron bar capable of revolving

most simple form. between the poles

A soft N S of

172
the

DANIEL DAVIS,

magnet

is

wound with

wire,

and

its

extremities

connected with the cylinders of a pole-changer fixed on Two silver springs pressing on this the axis of motion.

convey the induced current to the cups A and B. instrument has been described in <> 171.
298.

The

The cups

and

being connected with those

of a galvanometer with an astatic needle (<> 87), as represented in the figure, the needle will be powerfully deflected when the bar is made to rotate rapidly by

drawing the hand over the

oscillations of the needle,

axis.
in

By

reversing the

mo-

tion of the bar several times

it

correspondence with the may be made to revolve

rapidly.

With a

sufficiently delicate galvanometer,

any

of the electro-magnetic instruments in which motion is produced by the mutual action between a galvanic current and a steel magnet, may be made to afford

a magneto-electric current by producing the motion In all cases the current excited flows mechanically.
in the opposite direction to the galvanic current

which

produce the same motion. and B be connected with the 299. If the cups Helix and Electrotome, C' of the Double and C cups which shocks, may sometimes be felt slight secondary

would be required

to

in

the hands, will be obtained from the fine wire helix

iron bar, as in the figure.
filled

by rotating the

The

hollow

with iron wires, and wire be in so as to break the motion the vibrating put of the double helix should be
circuit rapidly.

been described, chanical motion

current
;

300. In the magneto-electric instruments which have steel magnets are employed, and meis

made

use of to excite the electrical

is

in those

which remain, the current

induced

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
by an electro-magnet whose magnetism
acquired and
lost.
is

173

alternately

instruments consist essentially of double helices containing bars or wires of soft iron.

The

magneto-electric current is thus obtained in conjunction with that excited by electro-dynamic induction,

The

and the combined current

in part such.

is

called a secondary, though

only 301. SEPARABLE HELICES.

resented in
fig.

This instrument
is

106.

The

external helix

is repof fine wire

Fig. 106.

from one

to three

thousand feet long.

It is

made wholly

separate from the interior helix and can be lifted directly off, as is shown in fig. 107, where a is the exterior coil,

and b the

interior one.

The

ends of

this helix are

en-

closed in two brass caps to which the extremities of the fine wire are attached, and from which proceed the binding screw cups

C
15*

and D.

The

inner helix, which

is

174

DANIEL DAVIS,

J R. S

MANUAL.
consists of three

fixed in a vertical position

on the stand,

or

more strands of coarse copper wire each about twenty107

-

five feet long.

The

similar extremities of

these wires are con-

nected

at

one end

with the cup A, and at the other with the

steel rasp

or break-

piece B. If one wire of a galvanic battery

be fixed

in the cup and the other be A,

Idrawn over the rasp, 'sparks will be seen ;

and

if

shocks will be

handles be connected with the cups C D, slight felt when the circuit is completed, and

The instrument thus strong ones when it is broken. resembles the double helix described in $ 245.
302. If a rod of
soft iron

be introduced into the centre

of the helix the spark is very much increased, brilliant scintillations are produced, and the shock when the circuit
is

broken becomes intolerable.

The
is

iron acquires

and

loses

magnetism whenever the

it.

circuit
in

made and broken

both of the
coil,

and induces a secondary current

coils

which surround

In the coarse wire

which

also

conveys the battery current, this appears in the increased In the fine wire coil it is felt sparks and scintillations.
in the violent

shock which

results.

303. Slight shocks

coil itself

may be

obtained from the inner

by connecting one of the handles with the cup

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
iron wires seen at

175

A, and the other with the rasp B. The bundle of d should be within the helix. The

shocks are somewhat stronger when one handle is in connection with the rasp and the other with the battery
wire which is drawn over it ; in this case the battery included in the circuit of the secondary current. 304. If the bundle of annealed iron wires seen at
is

be removed from the brass tube

soft iron

c,

and substituted

for the

rod, the spark

and shock are much increased.

into the helix, the spark

If the rod or bundle of wires be introduced gradually and shock increase as it enters.
intensity of the shock

The
ure,

may

also

be varied

at pleas-

by

altering the

number of

iron wires, the addition

If a glass of a single wire producing a manifest effect. iron in the the wires tube be slipped over helix, it will

not interfere with their inductive action on the surrounding coils.

But

if

a brass tube be passed over them,

be entirely suspended, as far as the If the tube be shock and the spark are concerned. their influence will be partially over them, slipped partly
their influence will

suspended. Here also is a means of regulating the shock with the same battery current.

is

The cause of the neutralizing action of the tube The magnet induces in the tube, thus explained. as well as in the two coils, a secondary current of
305.
electricity,

made

or broken.

which flows round it when the circuit is This secondary induces a tertiary
first

current in both the coils, which flows at the

in an opposite direction to the secondaries

instant
in

induced

the coils

by the magnet, and

therefore retards them.

is,

As

the secondary current in the tube

however, instan-

176

DANIEL DAVIS,
it

JR.'s

MANUAL.

taneous,

with

itself

when
its

induces another tertiary in the same direction The consequence is it ceases to flow.
is

that the quantity of the current in either helix

altered, but

not

intensity

is

ness of

its

development.
circuit in the

reduced, owing to the slowThis is always the effect of

any closed

neighborhood of an inducing
it.

magnet
wire,
it

or current, on other circuits near

306. If the cups of the fine wire coil be joined

will

by a

form a closed circuit around the magnet, and will impair the spark when the circuit of the coarse
is broken, though not to so great an extent the brass tube, since the latter offers a freer and

wire coil
as

The spark is shorter circuit for the induced current. but slightly lessened when shocks are taken from the fine wire coil, because the human body is too poor a
conductor to allow of the ready flow of the secondary
through
it.

metallic cylinder surrounding the helices

will neutralize the sparks

and shocks

as well as

an en-

closed tube.

307.

When

a bar of iron
is

is

placed in the centre of

in
it

the coil, a secondary

induced

as

in

the tube,
in the

which somewhat
coils.

retards the secondary currents

Hence
wires,

the greater shock obtained from a bun-

dle

of

where
this

this

secondary
is

current

cannot

circulate.

To

cause

probably added another,

the more sudden change in the magnetism of the wires, when the battery current ceases, from the neutralizing
influence of the similar poles of the wires on each other. 308. If the secondary current can be hindered from
circulating in the brass tube,
its retarding influence will be the tube be longitudinally divided

prevented.

Thus,

if

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
on one

177

side, it no longer diminishes the shock or spark. In the same manner if the bar of soft iron be sawed

through

to

its

centre,

longitudinally,

the

shock and

spark will
will

be increased.

If a soft iron tube be divided

in the helix, the

like the brass tube

and placed

shock

be

still

stronger, though

never so great as with the

wires.
coil

The two

brass caps at the ends of the fine wire

would exert a considerable neutralizing influence if they were not divided on one side, as is represented in
106.

fig.

The
this

ends of the caps are also cut through for

the

same reason.

instrument there are some peculiarities in the shock occasioned by the motion of the battery wire

309. In

over the rasp.

If

it is

moved
;

shocks are experienced arms are much convulsed

if
;

slowly, powerful, distinct the motion is quickened, the

if it is

and

drawn over

rapidly,

the succession of shocks becomes intolerably painful.

This however can be easily regulated. The shock from the secondary coil increases within certain limits in proportion to the length and fineness of the wire of which
it

is composed. There is, however, no advantage in employing a very long wire, unless the battery is powThe shock will also be lessened if a very fine erful. is

length be moderate. of the shock depends greatly upon strength the extent of the surface of contact between the hands

wire

used, except

its

310.

The

Thus, if two wires be fixed in the cups of the outer coil and grasped in the hands, the shocks will be slight in comparison with
those given by the handles, and still more so if the wires are held lightly in the fingers. These effects, as

and the metallic conductors.

178

DANIEL DAVIS,

JR.'s

MANUAL.

well as the increase of the shock by wetting the hands, are due to the comparatively low intensity of the seconit to be transmitted very conductors. With frictional elecimperfectly by poor tricity it is well known that no difference in the shock

dary current, which causes

is

thus occasioned.

311.

When

very small, an
limited extent

the quantity of the secondary current is imperfect conductor or a surface of

able to convey the whole of it, be not very high ; in which case intensity the sensation and muscular contractions produced by it

may be

even

if

its

will not be increased, but often lessened, by any farther increase of the conducting power. Thus, if the shocks are received by placing the hands in two vessels of

water connected with the cups of the outer

coil,

and the

current be rather feeble, it will produce the strongest sensation when the ends of the fingers only are immersed.

When
small
;

the current

is

powerful, the shock

is

intolerable,

whether the surface of contact with the water be large or

in the latter case
it
it

extends to a

less distance

up

the arms, though

may be

felt

very strongly in the fingers.

intensity
circuit

312.
without
several
their

The shocks have sufficient much diminution through a

to

pass

formed by

hands are moistened.

to manifest

persons with their hands joined, especially if Different individuals will

be found

remarkable differences
;

in regard to

susceptibility to

the shocks

some being but

slightly

affected, perhaps feeling the shocks only in the

hands or

arms

while others will

feel

them

as far as the shoulders

or across the breast,

and

will experience strong

muscu-

lar contractions in the arms.

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
313.
the

179

The

difference in

the strength of the shock in

two arms, which has been described in the case of the Magneto-Electric Machine (see <> 284), is exhibited

more

succession of shocks

helices, as a rapid obtained of very nearly the same intensity. Suppose the handle connected with the positive cup of the exterior helix to be held in the right hand, and the one connected with the negative
satisfactorily

by the separable

may be

cup

in the left

hand.

The

left

hand and arm

will then

experience the strongest sensations and be the most In determining the positive or negative convulsed. character of the cups, regard should be had only to the
it being found that the initial secondary, whether induced by means of a voltaic battery

terminal secondary current,

or a

permanent

steel

magnet, produces comparatively

feeble physiological effects, and consequently need not, in this case, be taken into account. This singular dif-

ference in the intensity of the shocks is regarded as a purely physiological phenomenon, the greatest effect

both as respects sensation and muscular contractions

being produced by the electric current when it proceeds in the direction of the ramification of the nerves.

vessels

314. If the ends of the secondary wire are put into of water, a peculiar shock may be taken by

make

putting the fingers or hands into the vessels, so as to a communication between them through the body.
If both wires be put into a trough, at
apart,

some distance

and two
in

water
felt.

fingers of the operator be placed in the a line between the two wires, a shock will be

Here the current

to

prefers

body

that through the water

a passage through the which intervenes be-

180

DANIEL DAVIS,
fingers.

J R.'s

MANUAL.

conducting power of the water than that of the human body by the may be made better addition of a sufficient quantity of common salt in which

tween the

The

case

little

be placed no shock

If the fingers or no shock can be perceived. at right angles to the line between the wires,

The trough should not be of will be felt. of some conductor of electricity. but metal, poor 315. If a delicate galvanometer be connected with
the ends of the fine wire
in opposite directions
circuit
is

coil, the

needle will be deflected

far

when the battery The same effect is proclosed and opened. duced when the brass tube is slipped over the iron wires.
and equally
this case,

In

though the shock may have been prevented,

still

the induced current

evidently passes.

316.

When

flat coil

resented at

in fig. 95,

is

of fine wire, such as that reppassed over the interior helix

the shocks will be (the exterior one being removed), found to be strongest when the coil surrounds the middle of the helix, and to decline considerably in strength as

Now either raised or depressed from this position. the magnetism of the enclosed iron wires, which induces the principal part of the current, manifests itself chiefly
it is
it at the ends of the bundle might therefore have been expected that the flat coil would give the strongest shock when surrounding one of these ends. The shocks
;

from the exterior helix are also lessened when

the inner helix.

it is

raised

from the stand so as to enclose only the upper part of 317. This instrument
is

convenient for illustrating

some of the most important principles of magneto-electric and electro-dynamic induction, in consequence of

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.

181

the facility with which the powers and uses of its several The observations parts can be separately exhibited.

which have been made with regard to this instrument apply equally well to the two following, which are modifications of
it.

318. SEPARABLE HELICES AND ELECTROTOME.

the instrument represented in
is

In

fig.

108, the inner helix

connected with an Electrotome or Contact Breaker,

w
Tj

Fig. 108.

similar to that described in

<>

229, fixed on the same

rasp.

stand, in

addition

to the

steel

There
;

are

two

cups nected through

and

for the battery

wires

these are con-

the electrotorne with the

is

inner coil.

When

the electrotome
its

made

to vibrate, the

curved

wire dips

ends alternately into the cups of mercury, and rapidly breaks the circuit. One end of the coarse wire coil is also connected with the steel rasp, so that

16

182
this

DANIEL DAVIS,
may be
is

J R.'s

MANUAL.
when
the

used as

in

the last instrument,

current

At

is

pass through the electrotome. seen the end of the bundle of wires, and at
to

not

made

the brass tube, which

may be

slipped over them at

pleasure.

319. This instrument, and others resembling it in being provided with a mechanical contrivance for breaking the battery circuit,
battery, although
its

used with a very small effects are of course most striking

If a voltaic pair, consisting of a

may be

with a powerful one.

silver dollar

and a piece of zinc of the same size be used, and the helix be filled with soft iron wires, the
shock
is

quite severe.

320.

When

the circuit

is

broken at the surface of the

spark
is

mercury, an intensely
cury

brilliant

seen, and the mer-

is consumed or deflagrated, passing off in a white vapor. If the quantity of mercury be properly adjusted, the sparks occur alternately in the two cups, and in such little rapid succession as to appear simultaneous.

water or

poured upon the surface of the mercury diminishes the brilliancy of the sparks, but increases the intensity of the shocks.
oil

321. These sparks are of so short duration that moving objects appear stationary

by

their

light.

One

of

Page's Revolving Armatures, although rotating many hundred times a minute, appears at rest when viewed and where the sparks succeed each other in this way
;

rapidly,
light

it

falls

appears to leap from place to place as their on it. Many optical illusions of this kind

may be
their

observed, as in moving the fingers rapidly, when number seems increased, or rapidly turning over

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
the leaves of a book,

183

when they seem

to

leap in the

same manner

as the armature.

322. If the ends of the secondary wire be separated from each other at the same moment that the battery
broken, a spark will be seen from the passage beautiful light is produced of the induced current.
circuit
is

prepared charcoal points are attached to the ends of the secondary wire and held almost in contact.
if

3*23.

Water may be decomposed by connecting

fine

the

ends of the

wire coil with an instrument for that

purpose, having very small platinum wires guarded with These are preglass, as originally used by Wollaston. pared by inserting the wires into capillary glass tubes,

which are heated

till

the glass melts

and adheres

to their

The platinum ends so as to cover them completely. are then the Or exposed by filing away glass. points the wires may be thickly coated with sealing-wax which
is

afterwards to be removed in the same

It
is

way from

their

of course only necessary to coat those points. parts of the wires intended to be immersed in the fluid.

324.

The

extremities of the platinum wires, while

is going on, appear in a dark room, one constantly and brightly, and the other intermittingly and feebly luminous. If the apparatus for decomposition

the decomposition

is

removed out of the noise of the electrotome, rapid

heard
in

discharges are

the water,

producing

sharp

ticking sounds, audible at the distance of eighty or

one

hundred

feet,

and synchronous with the ruptures of the

voltaic circuit.
initial

Decomposition is effected both by the and terminal secondary currents, that is to say, by the currents induced both on completing and on

184

DANIEL DAVIS,

J R.'s

MANUAL.

breaking the battery circuit

but the ticking noise and ; the discharges in the water, rapid sparks accompanying are produced only by the terminal secondary current.

Both

gases,

quantities at

hydrogen and oxygen, are given off in small each wire. The secondary current of the

magneto-electric machine presents the same with the guarded points.

phenomena
connected

325.
with
its

A Leyden jar,
inside coating

the knob of which

is

by a continuous

wire,

may be

slight shocks be rapidly received from it, by bringing the knob in contact with one of the cups of the outer helix, and grasping with the two hands a handle respectively the outer coating of the jar and

feebly charged, and

connected with the other cup.

is

A gold
its

leaf electroscope
fixed

readily affected

by touching

cap with a wire

If the contact, either cup of the exterior helix. which should only be momentary, is made at the instant
in

of the rupture of the primary

of a condenser.

circuit, the

gold leaves

will exhibit a considerable divergence without the aid

touched

for a

Or the knob of moment with the

Leyden

jar
it

may be
will

wire,

when

be

found capable of diverging the The wire gold leaves and of giving a slight shock. must be well insulated from the hand in which it is held,
to retain a feeble charge,

or the electricity will be conveyed lation be obtained.

off,

and no accumu-

326. If the cups of the large Thermo-Electric Battery be connected with A and D, and the vibrating (fig. 15)
wire be put in motion, faint sparks will be seen in the mercury cups, attended by audible snaps and strong shocks may be obtained by grasping the handles
;

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.

185

attached to the fine wire coil, especially if both heat and cold are applied to the battery. single thermo-electric and of or of German silver and bismuth, antimony pair a shock to the brass, will give slight tongue when heated

by a

spirit

lamp

it

will

be more perceptible

when

the

ends of two wires fixed in the cups are made to touch the tongue than with a more extended surface of contact.

This

is

probably due to the small quantity of the in-

duced current, as has been mentioned in <>311. These sparks and shocks are, of course, not strictly thermoelectric but magneto-electric.

327.

When

a bar of iron
is

is

contained within a horizon-

represented in fig. 96, where the circuit can be rapidly broken, and a small key or some nails are applied to one end of the bar, notwithstanding its
tal helix,

such as

magnetic attraction
circuit
is

is

intermitted every time the voltaic

it being almost instantaneously do not cease to be sustained. This exrenewed, they

interrupted, yet,

periment succeeds best when the iron bar is enclosed in a brass tube previously to being introduced into the
helix, the closed circuits of the tube tending to prolong
its

magnetism. 328. If an iron tube of

sufficient

diameter to admit

long helix of fine wire within it be itself passed within a coil of coarse wire, no shocks can be obtained from the
divided longitudinally on one side, to prevent the flow of a current in its substance which might neutralize that of the fine
is

enclosed helix, even

when

the tube

It has been stated in Exp. 27, that a galvanic current passed through a coarse wire helix, enclosed in an iron tube, induces no magnetism in it.

wire.

16*

186

DANIEL DAVIS,

J R.'s

MANUAL.

329. SEPARABLE HELICES AND REVOLVING ARMA-

TURE.

Another form of the separable helices

Fig. 109.

is

rep-

resented in

fig.

109.

When

connected with the cups

through the coarse wire

battery wires are and C, the current flows

the

coil,

and

also

through Page's

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.

187

Revolving Armature, which is attached to the stand. This is a modified form of the instrument described in
<

182.

The

armature revolves rapidly, and breaks the

circuit

each half revolution.

The

rasp

R R

is

also

connected with one end of the battery coil, so that if the battery wire be removed from the cup C and drawn
over the rasp, the current will be interrupted and scinIn this instrument and those tillations produced.

which immediately
the circuit
is

follow, the apparatus for breaking

The

a very interesting feature. motions are readily produced by the smallest batself-acting,

tery ordinarily

employed

for these purposes.

330. With a battery of even moderate power, the shocks may be made to follow each other with exceeding rapidity.

When their strength is lessened considerably by removing nearly all the iron wires from the centre of the helices, it will be found that with this

rapid succession instead of distinct shocks a peculiar sensation of numbness is experienced, extending a greater or less distance up the arms, and attended by
loss

of power over the muscles as far as it reaches. 331. The shocks are never so powerful with this

instrument as with the one last described, supposing the

length of the coils to be the same ; because the battery current is obliged to maintain the motion of the armature This as well as to traverse a circuit of greater length.
reduction, which
is

not however very considerable, may-

be avoided by uniting the cup B with one of the binding screw cups of the Contact Breaker ( 229), and fixing
one of the battery wires instrument and the other
332.
in

the remaining cup of that

in the

cup A.

When

the cups

S S

are united

by a

wire, the

188

DANIEL DAVIS,

speed of the revolving armature is altered to some extent, in consequence of the prevention of the secondary current which would otherwise be excited in the inner
helix,

and which prolongs the magnetism of the

after the

breaking of the circuit. It will depend magnet upon the position and pressure of the springs upon the

breakpiece whether the motion by this circumstance.

is

accelerated or retarded

333. PAGE'S REVOLVING

ARMATURE FOR SHOCKS.

The

instrument represented in fig. 110 consists of a electro-magnet wound with a coil of fine wire for shocks,

in addition to the coarse wire coil for the battery current.

Fig. 110.

This
case

is

enclosed in a cylindrical brass

resting on a

wooden
is

base.

The

iron of the electro-magnet

not a solid

bar but a bundle of wires

its ; poles pass the up through upper board, and an armature is fitted to revolve above

the cups c c are connected with the battery, the current

them.

When

circulates through the inner coil,

and

passes through the springs which are seen in the figure bearing on the breakpiece.

The

fine

wire coil

is

connected

with the cups seen at S, from which shocks obtained by handles as usual.

may

be

334. It might be expected that the brass cylinder C would exert a neutralizing action upon the shocks, as it is not divided longitudinally. But it is found that a me-

magnet casing which thus entirely envelops a cannot act as a closed circuit, because each magnetic
tallic

pole tends to induce a current in

it

in

the opposite

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
direction
to that

189
;

which the other pole would excite

and consequently the secondaries of the

coils are not in

the least impaired by this arrangement. 335. If one of the battery wires is brought firmly in contact with one of the small pillars in which the silver
springs are fastened, and the other put into one of the

cups c c, so that the electro-magnet may be charged without the circuit being interrupted by the revolution of the armature, the fine wire coil will afford shocks
perceptible to the tongue when the armature is made to revolve by drawing the finger over the axis. These shocks are due to the disturbance in the magnetic state

of the electro-magnet by the approach and recession of the armature. They are very slight, because the inner
coil affords

a closed circuit for a secondary current whose neutralizing influence reduces the intensity of the one excited in the outer coil.

336.

When

an armature

is

brought suddenly up to

the poles of a charged electro-magnet, an electric current is excited in its wires flowing against the battery
current

When
to the

it

is

same

direction as that

withdrawn, a current flows in the from the battery. The phenomeclass as those described in
<>

na belong

same

272.

The same

by bringing up magnet or a second electro-magnet, if the attracting When the repelling poles are presented to each other.
poles are presented, the two currents excited

effects

are produced

a steel

by

their

approach and recession flow

those just described.

in the reverse

directions to

337.

It

rents excited

has been mentioned in $ 204 that these curby motion present some of the most formi-

dable obstacles to the employment of electro-magnetism

190

DANIEL DAVIS,
The

JR.'s

MANUAL.

as a mechanical power.

independent motion of an

electro-magnetic machine lessens the magnetizing power of the battery in proportion to its velocity, because the
currents thus excited in the wires flow against the galvanic current ; while the application of mechanical

power to drive the machine against its own motion assists the battery current in producing magnetism.
338. PAGE'S COMPOUND
In
fig.

MAGNET AND ELECTROTOME.

is

Ilia

double helix

to the base-board

by two

brass bands.
is

seen attached horizontally In the centre a

fixed.

bundle of

soft iron wires

permanently
are

There
for

Fig. 111.

two

cups

the
at

battery

wires

one end of the

:

stand
is

one of these

connected with

the

band
the

which
glass

sustains

cup

for contain-

To the second cup is soldered one end ing mercury. of the coarse wire coil, the other extremity of which is
connected with the band upon which the brass cup B, bent wire also intended to hold mercury, is fixed. two on a horizontal axis supported by pillars,

W, moving
dips
its

To the oppoends into the two mercury cups. of the axis is attached a curved piece of iron the P, the lower extremity of which approaches nearly iron of wires. bundle enclosed the end of
site side

339.

When

the connections are

made with

the bat-

and the inner will traverse the wire tery, the current helix, causing the iron wires to become magnetic. They
will

now

attract the

end of the

iron rod

whose mo-

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
tion raises the bent wire out of the

191

and breaks the

circuit.

of the iron wires, and P then falls back by wire

mercury in the cup This destroys the magnetism ceases to be attracted. The
its

own

cuit

is

renewed.

thin slip of brass

weight, and the ciris soldered to the

extremity of P, to prevent it from being retained by the electro-magnet after the rupture of the circuit.

340. In

this

manner

a rapid vibration of the wire

is

produced, and brilliant sparks and deflagration of the mercury take place in the cup C. The proper balance

of the vibrating apparatus

is

ensured by means of a

brass ball screwing on a bent wire above the axis. The ends of the fine wire coil are connected with the other

two cups on the stand, one of which whence shocks may be taken.

is

seen at A,

341. DISGUISED HELIX, FOR SPARKS AND SHOCKS.

This consists of a metallic cylinder, fig. 112, enclosing a double helix and bundle of iron wires. It is divided
Fig. 112.
Fig. 113. into three bands, insulated

from each other by rings of At each end there ivory.

is

attached

a circular rasp of steel to the metallic

nearest

Dband

it. Fig. 113 a section of the represents is the bundle instrument:

of wires,

B the battery coil,

U C the secondary coil, and D D the insulating rings of

ivory.

The

similar strands

of the battery coil are connected at one end with the

192

DANIEL DAVIS,
I.

J R.'s

MANUAL.
end with the

rasp fixed to the band rasp and band

also

K, and

at the other

One

connected at

extremity of the fine wire coil is with the band I, and of course

The other through the battery coil with the band K. is soldered to the insulated band J. extremity
342. If

now
fig.

the instrument be grasped

band, as in

by the middle and one end 112, being rested on the

from the other pole of a voltaic battery, the wire pole be drawn over the rasp, the circuit in the helix
will

cession,

be alternately completed and broken in rapid sucand brilliant scintillations will be seen. So long

as the operator confines his

c either of the\>uter bands,

hand

to the central

band he

will feel nothing, but if his fingers touch at the

same time

he will receive a strong shock the If the wire hand from fine wire coil. the through ^ is not insulated from the right hand by being wound

with cotton, shocks will be felt in the arms other hand touches only the middle band.
USE.

when

the

343. MAGNETO-ELECTRIC APPARATUS FOR MEDICAL

The

instrument most convenient, perhaps, for this

Fig. 114.

It consists of a purpose is that represented in fig. 114. double helix into which a bundle of iron wires can be

inserted.

The

inner helix

is

composed of two or more

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.

193

Their similar strands of coarse insulated copper wire. terminations at one end of the coil are soldered to a
binding screw cup standing singly near one extremity of the base-board ; their other ends are connected with

both of the brass bands which confine the double helix

to the stand,

and by means of these with the

steel rasp

fixed

above

it.

The

outer helix

is

completely insulated

from the other, and consists of fine insulated copper or iron wire. Its ends are connected with two binding

screw cups

at

one extremity of the stand.

for

In the figure,

two metallic handles

shocks are seen at H, connected

by wires with these cups.

344. The galvanic battery represented in the cut is the small cylindrical battery ( 23), which is to be charged with a solution of blue vitriol, as directed in
21.

This

will

keep

in

minutes at a time.

When

good action for fifteen or thirty a more enduring power is

wanted,

converted into a sustaining battery This will maintain a steady for several in succession. The ends of the current days
it

may be

as described in

-241.

connecting wires should be kept clean and bright. 345. The battery being charged, unite one of its cups by means of a copper wire, with the cup belongThen draw over the steel rasp ing to the inner coil.

W, whose end is fixed in the remaining of the If the hollow of the helix is filled battery. cup with iron wires, bright sparks will be seen as the wire leaves each tooth of the rasp, and strong shocks will
another wire

be

felt

by grasping one of the handles seen

at

H in

each

hand.

the iron wires are withdrawn, the spark becomes faint and the shock feeble. These effects are

When

produced by secondary currents excited 17

in the

coils in

consequence of the alternate closing and opening of the

circuit of the galvanic current in the inner helix,

movement of
346.

the wire

W over the rasp

by the

see

<>

236, 302.

The

strength of the shock

may

be regulated at
wires which

the number of pleasure by varying

iron

are placed within the helix, or the distance which the The addition of a single bundle is allowed to enter it.

wire produces a very perceptible increase in the shock, The especially when only a few are already within. intensity of the shock may be considerably increased by
wetting the hands or other parts to which the handles It may, on the are applied, especially with salt water. in some degree by diminishing the lessened be contrary,
extent of contact between the handles and the surface

of the body. If, however, the current is powerful and too the contact slight, a disagreeable burning sensation will be experienced at the part touched by the metal.

347. The shocks may be passed through any portion of the body by placing the handles so as to include that their intenof the secondary current part in the path is greater when the handles are near each other. sity
;

The

influence does not extend

beyond the

direct course

of the current unless the shocks are severe.

When,

however, one of the handles is placed directly over a the shock will be large and tolerably superficial nerve, felt not only in the parts intervening between the handles, but through those to which the ramifications of the nerve are distributed. Thus, if one handle be held in

the right hand

the

left

and the other pressed upon the inside of arm over the median nerve, the sensation will
to the

be experienced even

by convulsive motions of their muscles.

ends of the fingers, attended This is unques

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.

195

tionably a physiological phenomenon, and not a consequence of the flow of the current below the position of

the handle.

The

difference in

the
in

intensity

of the
ob-

shock

in the

two arms, described

it

313,

may be

served with

this instrument.
is

348.

When

inconvenient to break the circuit

mechanically, some self-acting interruptor may be added to the arrangement last described. In fig. 115, Page's

Revolving Armature

(<>

182), which

is

probably the

Fig. 115.

best instrument for the purpose, is seen in connection The galvanic current is transwith the Double Helix.

mitted through the two instruments in succession, by uniting one of the battery cups with one of those belonging to the Revolving Armature, whose other cup is

The cup
349.

connected with a cup b surmounting the Double Helix. a on the stand is to be connected with the

other plate of the battery.

A
in

convenient form of the sustaining battery

the figure.

is

shown

The copper

vessel

C, which

is

196

DANIEL DAVIS,

J R.'s

MANUAL.
on one
side

single cylinder provided with a bottom, has

a projecting mouth communicating by a number of perforations with the interior of the cylinder. This is

designed to hold solid sulphate of copper for the purpose of keeping the solution saturated. The zinc cylinder is surmounted by two binding screw cups Z Z its internal
;

surface

painted or varnished, to protect it from the action of the solution. Between the zinc and copper
is

plates

is

management of
described in the solution

a cylinder of leather closed at the bottom. The this battery is the same as of the one

241. The zinc plate might remain in several days at a time without the battery

materially declining in power, but it is better to remove it wKen not in actual use, as it would be needlessly cor-

roded

if

350.
the
cut,

kept constantly immersed. When the connections are

the

made

as

shown

in

breaking the shocks will consequently succeed each other very rapidIn the figure, the handles are seen applied to the ly.

armature will rotate with great speed, The circuit twice in each revolution.

arm

for the

between them.
cotton cloth
the skin,
if

purpose of confining the shock to the parts single thickness of wetted linen or

interposed between the metal and without desired, producing much diminution in the shock.

may be

351. If the apparatus

at a time, the

is

in use for half

an hour only

battery represented in fig. 114 is better a When very powerful than sustaining one. adapted shocks are wanted, the Separable Helices (fig. 106)

may
cal

be employed with a
battery

medium

size or large cylindri-

(23),

instead of the
fig.

Double Helix; the

Revolving Armature, seen in

115, can be connected

INDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY.
with the inner
coil.

197

The
is is

shocks are stronger

steel

when one

of the battery wires when the armature

drawn over the

rasp than included in the circuit. The

galvanic battery may be dispensed with altogether by employing the Magneto-Electric Machine represented
in fig.

101

the shock
is

is

regulated by the speed of the

armature, but

never very powerful.

III.

BY THE INFLUENCE OF THE EARTH.

352. Currents of electricity may be induced by the influence of terrestrial magnetism, but in consequence of the feebleness of the action it is not easy to render it

by the aid of wire coils alone. Deflections may, however, be obtained by connecting with a very delicate galvanometer a helix of coarse wire, such as is represensible

sented in
its

fig.

48, or a

flat

spiral, fig,

49, and having placed

it.

axis in the line of the dip, suddenly inverting

very evident effect may be produced by employing the instrument represented in fig. 116. It A Fig. 116. consists of a small rod of soft

353.

iron

wound with

wire,

and

fitted to

revolve on a horizon-

tal axis, which is provided with a pole-changer. Upon the segments of the pole-

changer press two wires connected with the cups cc. The instrument is the same as that
described in
this
<>

purpose

it is

178, though for an advantage

iron.

to

have several layers of wire wound upon the 17*

198
354.

DANIEL DAVIS,
The

J R.'s

MANUAL.

that the current

instrument being placed in such a direction may be reversed when the bar

AB

arrives at the line of the dip, connect the cups c c with those of a delicate galvanometer. on causing the

Now

bar to revolve by hand

the iron will

in

one

direction,

each end of

alternately a north and a south has been as 205, and a current of explained in pole, direction whose electricity, changes twice in each revo-

become

the surrounding wire. The two currents are turned into one direction by the polechanger, and the needle of the galvanometer will be
lution, will

be induced

in

strongly

and

steadily

deflected.

By

reversing

the

motion of the bar, a deflection in the opposite direction With this instrument, the current is will be obtained.
slightly

augmented by the feeble one excited

in

the

wire coil by the direct magneto-electric induction of the

earth.

355. In

this

and

all

other cases where electricity pro-

duces motion, and motion reciprocally electricity, the motion must be the reverse of that which would be

produced by a galvanic current flowing

direction, in
tion to

in

a certain
direc-

order to cause a current

;

in

the

same

be induced

the

same motion

as that

produced

by the battery current

and heat (see

exciting an opposite current. similar reciprocal relation exists in the case of electricity

60), and of electricity and magnetism.

THE ELECTROTYPE PROCESS.

356.

It

has been stated in Exps. 55 and 56, that

metallic solutions"
electric current,

may be decomposed by the magnetoand the metals deposited on the negative

The same
;

the precipitation of of the the on negative plate sustaining battery copper When the deposited sheet 243. has been noticed in

wire with their proper characters. produced by the galvanic current

effect

is

of copper

stripped off, it is found to have copied with accuracy every scratch and irregularity on the surface
is

of the battery plate. 357. The idea of applying this fact to practical purposes appears to have occurred nearly at the same time
to Prof. Jacobi, of St. Petersburgh,

and

to

Mr. Spencer,
in

of Liverpool.

Jacobi's

first

results

were published

1838, and Mr. Spencer's the following year, but he had made some experiments as early as 1837. The
has been applied principal uses to which the process are the copying of medals, engraved copper plates,
the name of electrotypes plaster casts, &c., in copper is given to the copies thus obtained, and sometimes the
:

The Electrotype. process or art itself is called simply This mode of working the metals promises to be of
though full success has as yet been attained with but a few of them.
to the arts,

some value

200
358.

DANIEL DAVIS,
The
readiest
is

JR.'s

MANUAL.
a copy of a
fusible metal,

coin or medal

to

mode of obtaining make a cast of it in the

pound
:

which

consists of eight ounces of bismuth, five of tin,

to the
this

and three of lead

alloy melts at or

near the temperature of boiling water. little of it being melted in a clean iron-ladle, is poured on a flat
board, and the oxide skimmed from

Then
upon

the medal,
stick,

end of a
it.

its surface by a card. which may be fixed with wax to the is to be suddenly and forcibly pressed

By

one or two

trials

mould may be made,

presenting a perfect reverse of one face of the medal. clean copper wire is then soldered to the 359.

projecting edge of the

mould by heating

it

in

a lamp

near one end, on which a little rosin should be put. When the wire is hot enough to melt the fusible metal,
it is

its end pressed on the which adhere it. The will to back of the mould mould, and any other part which is not intended to receive a

removed from the flame and

deposit are to be varnished once or twice with a solution This will dry in a of shellac or sealing-wax in alcohol.

few minutes, and the mould is then ready for the solution. 360. A piece of thick rolled zinc may be soldered to
the other end of the wire, which
is

bent

in

such a man-

ner as to allow the mould to be immersed in a saturated

by some porous from a weak solution of sulphate of soda, in partition which the zinc is placed so as to be opposite the face
solution of sulphate of copper, separated

of the mould.
saturated

The

solution of blue vitriol

in
it

must be kept

by suspending some of the salt.

a muslin bag containing

THE ELECTROTYPE PROCESS.

361.
to the

20 1

better

mode
is

is

to connect the wire attached

mould with the zinc

battery such as

plate of a small sustaining described in <>241 or 349. With

is

the copper plate of the battery

copper which

is

to

be immersed with the mould

vitriol

connected a piece of in an

acidulated solution of blue

contained in a glass or

No partition is used, well-glazed earthenware vessel. but the piece of copper and the mould must not be
allowed to touch each other.

They

should both be
in

connected with the battery, and the copper placed

the solution, before the mould
is

introduced

in this

way

the chemical action, which would otherwise be exerted

on the

fusible metal, is prevented, and the deposition of copper commences immediately. Any air bubbles which adhere to the mould must be dispersed.

362.

The

solution

one of blue

vitriol

is prepared by diluting a saturated with one half or one third of its bulk

of a mixture of one part of sulphuric acid with eight of As the copper is deposited on the water by measure.

mould, an equal quantity

plate, so

is

dissolved off of the immersed

the original strength of the solution is maintained except for the loss of water by evaporation.
that

The

wire which connects the piece of copper with the battery must be defended from the solution in the same

manner

as the
off.

back of the mould, or

it

will

soon be

dissolved

363. During the solution of the positive plate a considerable quantity of black matter is left, which would
injure the

copy

if

allowed to

fall

on the mould.

It is

therefore best to place both in

a vertical position, the face of the mould being opposite the piece of copper.

202

DANIEL DAVIS,
solution

JR.'s

MANUAL.

The
is

must be

stirred

upper and lower parts of equal strength.

entirely dissolved
thick, a

pccasionally to keep its If the copper

before the deposit is sufficiently piece may be soldered to the wire.364. When the process is going on well, the deposited

new

metal will be of a very light copper color. The rapidity of the deposition depends greatly upon the temperature the process proceeds much faster in warm weather than
;

in

cold,

and

still

more so

if

the solution be kept hot.

thickness of one tenth of an inch

tjiree

days to a week for

is

its

formation,

may require from when artificial

heat

not used.

When

a sufficient thickness has been

copy may generally be removed from the mould without difficulty, care being taken to cut away any copper which embraces the mould at the edges.
attained, the

365.
rate

The

and

cast will be found to be a perfectly accusharp copy of the original ; its surface is usually
it

of a bright copper color, but sometimes

brilliant

presents a
it

silvery lustre.

If

it

is

discolored,

may be

cleansed by immersion for a few moments in nitric acid and then washes with water. It may be bronzed by

brushing
its

it

over with

black

lead

removal from the solution, and

immediately upon having heated it

moderately over a clear fire, rubbing it smartly with a brush, the slightest moisture being used at the same time, in .order to remove the black lead.

mould may be formed by placing the medal 366. or coin itself in the solution and depositing copper upon fine copper wire should be passed round the rim it.

to

connect

it

with the wire attached to the zinc plate of

the battery

and as one face only can be advantageously

THE ELECTROTYPE PROCESS.

203

copied at a time, the other side should be coated with wax or varnish. The deposit is apt to adhere very firmly, sometimes so much so that its removal is impossible.

This may be avoided by covering the medal with melted wax, and while warm wiping off the wax Or advantage may be as far as possible with a cloth.
air

taken of the very thin film of

to the atmosphere,

which adheres

to bodies

exposed by not placing the medal in the solution until the connections have been made with
the battery, and the copper plate introduced. This film is soon removed by immersion in the liquid; and immediately

by strong

nitric acid, or a solution

of potash, or
a wire sol-

by the application of heat. 367. The mould thus obtained

dered to
it

may have

and be placed
;

in

the solution like the fusible

metal one

but after being heated by the soldering, and particularly if cleaned by nitric acid, it should be exposed to the atmosphere for twenty-four hours to gain a
;

film of air, or

be treated with wax

so easy to

lilfcfe

the.

original

medal.

take a copy,' by; ^he fusible that a valuable white metal, by wax, &c., /itigS&kshould never be trusted in the solution.
It
is

solution of

368. Every ounce of copper deposite^^eCjtiires:the somewhat more than an ound^of zinc from

the zinc plate of the battery.

Five or

six ..electrotypes

may be made

expense, by. arranging in succession several vessels, each containing a mould and a copper plate connected by a wire with
the mould in the next one.
the moulds should
all

at once, without increasing this

The plates of copper and be nearly of the same size, and

less-

he solution should contain

blue

vitriol

and more

204

DANIEL DAVIS,

JR.'s

MANUAL.

sulphuric acid than directed in <> 362, particularly if the When the moulds series extend beyond two or three.
are small, glass tumblers form the most convenient vesIn this way several ounces of copper are obtained

sels.

with but a slight increase

for

in the quantity of blue vitriol the working battery, and a little more correquired rosion of the zinc plate.

An engraved copper plate may be copied by an taking impression on clean and bright sheet lead with or if the plate is small, it may be a powerful press
369.
;

Or a pressed by hand on the melted fusible metal. made by depositing copper on the plate must be taken to prevent adhesion both
mould
mould,
to

the original, and of the copy to the

366 and 367. The duplicate thus obtained will furnish engravings which cannot be distinguished from those printed from the original plate,
as directed in

however elaborate
ship

the'

design and delicate the

workman-

may

be.

370.
is

An

engraving printed from an electrotype plate

in'

given, as ^Sjxecmifen of the art, in the frontispiece to

this

Manual,
plate.

company with one from

the original

copper

No

difference can be detected

between

the impressions except that arising from the greater or in the work, as occurs in different less

quaiiti^^&k'left

This appears engravings printed from a single plate. to be the most important application of the art yet made, as in cases where a large number of impressions are
required,

two or more plates have been obliged

to

be

engraved, while now it is only necessary to engrave one, which will not be injured in the slightest degree by

THE ELECTROTYPE PROCESS.

205

Steel plates may be copied by taking copies from it. or fusible of lead means metal, but they must not themselves be placed in the solution.

371.

Wood

cuts
in

may be copied by
the fusible metal
;

from the blocks

in the

this

taking impressions has been done

present work where it was desirable to introduce a single instrument in one figure and afterwards to show Thus fig. 63 is printit in connection with some other.

ed from an electrotype taken from the block of fig. 99. This is not, however, an important application, as the
blocks

may
like

can easily be stereotyped. The electrotypes thus be obtained either with the design in relief,,

wood blocks, or in intaglio, like copper plates. 372. Moulds are obtained from plaster medallions by placing them in hot water with the face upwards until
the water (which should not be deep enough to reach the face) has thoroughly penetrated the plaster in every The cast part ; but none should remain on the surface.

being then removed and a slip of paper wrapped round the rim, melted white wax is immediately poured into the cup thus formed. Any air bubbles which are seen

must be dispersed. The wax will be completely cold and hard in two or three hours, when it may be taken off of the cast with perfect facility, if the latter has been
wetted
sufficiently.

The

medallion will not be injured

discolored.

by the process except perhaps

373.
It is

now

necessary to render the surface of the

wax mould
it

a conductor of electricity.

This

is

done by

a coating of good black lead, which should be giving rubbed over its face with a soft brush until it acquires a shining black appearance ; a very thin film is sufficient.

18

A copper wire is then to be heated in a lamp, and its end pressed upon the edge of the mould, when it will become imbedded in the wax. Communication between
the wire and the face of the mould
is

to

be ensured by

rubbing a little black lead on the parts around the wire. Great differences exist between one sample and another

Perof plumbago, some being very poor conductors. haps the best test of good black lead is its caking together and adhering when pressed between the thumb

and

ringer.

374.

The mould when

the solution, care being

thus prepared may be put into taken to remove air bubbles.

The

deposit

commences upon the wire and extends

It is better gradually over the black leaded portions. that the copper connected with the copper plate of the battery and placed in the solution should be a wire

rather than a large piece, until the deposit has extended

some distance over the black lead. When the copy is taken from the mould its surface will usually be found discolored, though if the layer of black lead was thin it may be perfectly bright. The mould may be employed
coating of black lead is given to it; the fusible metal moulds can also be used several times if
again,
if a

new

uninjured. 375 Seals

They

may be copied by a very simple process. are to be covered with a thin film of black lead
If this does not adhere

rubbed on with a hard brush.

readily, the seal

may

be very slightly wet with alcohol,

wire is care being taken not to roughen the surface. the seal then melted into the sealing-wax and placed in The operation is similar in all respects to the solution.
that required for the white

wax

moulds.

THE ELECTROTYPE PROCESS.

376.
;

207

deposited in three different states as a black, spongy or pulverulent mass, or in a crystalline form, or lastly, as a ductile and malleable
plate.

The copper may be

The

black deposit
is

is

obtained

when
in

of electricity
the solution.
as

too great in relation

to the

the quantity strength of

This can be remedied

several

ways

by using a weaker charge for the battery, or by increasing the proportion of blue vitriol and lessening that Or the mould of the sulphuric acid in the solution.

may be removed

to a greater distance

plate of copper, or diminished.

lastly, the size of this plate

from the opposed may be

crystalline deposit is obtained when the of electricity is too small in proportion to the quantity In this case, the crystals are strength of the solution.

377.

The

minute and the copper

electricity

is

very

brittle.

The

quantity of

which passes through the

solution

may be

in-

creased by adopting the opposite measures to those just indicated for avoiding the black deposit.

378. Another variety of the crystalline deposit occurs when the quantity of electricity is large, and at the same
time the solution
is

very strong and but slightly acidu-

lated, especially if the

mould

is

small and the opposed

copper plate of considerable size. The deposited metal is then very hard and is composed of large crystals.
379. For most purposes the metal
ductile and malleable state.
is

wanted

in

To

effect this,

both of the

It is better extremes above indicated must be avoided. hard and elastic somewhat that the metal should be

When the current rather than very soft and flexible. is of proper strength, the outer surface of the deposit

208

DANIEL DAVIS,
if

J R.'s

MANUAL.
a

remains nearly smooth until

thickness,

it

attains

considerable

the solution
stirring
is
it

is

kept of uniform strength

throughout by
flexible

up occasionally.

The

soft,

when

is maintained of such a power that hyon the point of evolution from the negative plate or mould ; if bubbles of the gas are seen to rise from it, the current is too strong, and the deposit will

deposit a current
is

obtained in

the greatest perfection

drogen

just

partake more or less of the spongy character.

380.

When

the copper plate which

is

is

opposed

to the

coated with wax, in which lines are drawn reaching the metal, it will be etched by the acid, and may afterwards be printed from like a plate
in

mould

the solution

etched in the usual way by nitric acid. The sulphuric acid dissolves the copper just in proportion to the quantity

be of the same
parallel to
it

of electricity passing. The negative plate should size as the positive one, and be placed
in the solution.
:

381. The action which takes place is as follows the sulphate of copper and the water of the solution are both decomposed ; sulphuric acid and oxygen are deter-

mined towards the plate connected with the positive pole of the battery, and oxide of copper and hydrogen
towards the other.

The oxygen and

the acid combine

with the positive copper plate, again forming blue vitriol ; while at the negative plate, the hydrogen forms water with the oxygen of the oxide of copper, and the pure metal is deposited.

382.
lated

them

precipitation of the other metals is reguthe same laws, but it is more difficult to obtain by in a useful state. Those which it is most impor-

The

THE ELECTROTYPE PROCESS.

tant to be able to

209

work

in this

way

are gold, silver, and

platinum.

The

solutions of all the noble

metals are

good conductors of electricity, and very easily decomposed hence there is a great tendency to the evolution
;

of hydrogen and the formation of a black deposit. 383. battery consisting of three or four pairs of

plates of small size and very weakly charged is best adapted for the noble metals, as the current should be

of considerable intensity but small quantity.

We

have

seen in Exp. 56 that gold is readily deposited with its proper characters by the magneto-electric current. The face of a medal may be made of gold or silver

by depositing a
afterwards

thin layer of either of these metals,

and

filling up the back with copper ; but the face of the mould must be itself of gold or silver. more

important application with a thin and permanent coating of the noble ones. 384. Silver, copper, and brass may be gilt by employing a very dilute solution of the nitro-muriate of The article should be previously cleaned by gold. diluted nitric acid or by a solution of potash, and after

is

to

cover the oxidizable metals

washing in water, immediately connected with the zinc end of the battery series and placed in the solution. Its
last thing needed to complete the circuit, or the gold will not adhere firmly. The smoother and larger its surface, the more favorably the

immersion must be the

deposit will take place upon

platinum wire

is

to

A very fine gold or it. be used as a positive pole, being

depth
the
in

immersed

to

a greater or less

the solution.

Whenever during
18*

the

process

deposit

becomes

210

DANIEL DAVIS,

JR.'s

MANUAL.

blackened, the negative plate should be taken out and rubbed with a little whiting.

385.

When

the surface

is

completely covered with

gold, the strength of the solution may be increased. The coating can be made of any desired thickness, and

may

be limited to any portion of the article, by covering the remaining parts with wax, or varnishing them. Silver spoons may be gilded, after being cleaned as above,
pressing a wire connected with the zinc pole of the battery upon the handle by a small forceps and then immersing the rest of the spoon in the solution. In

by

gilding capper, the point only of the positive wire must be immersed, and the solution must be very weak, or

the deposited gold will be of a red color, in consequence of the solution of some of the copper.

may be deposited on copper by employthe sulphate or acetate of silver, but it a solution of ing is difficult to prevent the formation of the black powder.
386. Silver

The

article

should be rubbed with whiting before being

placed

in the solution,
fine silver

and frequently during the process.

wire is used as a positive pole. very 387. Platinum may be thrown down on silver, copin nitro-muriatic acid, but the per, &cc., from its solution

The solution must be very weak, process is difficult. and the object to be coated smooth and well cleansed by potash. The positive pole should be a fine platinum
wire.
article

Any powder which may

is

be deposited on the
it

removed

by rubbing

whiting.

The

coating thus

occasionally with obtained has almost pre-

cisely the color of polished steel.

INDEX.
Ampere's Rotating Battery, Animal electricity, Arch of flame between charcoal
"
"
-

----.*;'',
>;-

Section.

points,
'

revolution
"'

of,

Armature,
" "

-,~ '$1*^and magnet, action between, * .,-,7

-

,:

Magneto-Electric, <1 Artificial magnets, ^ ,-'V** Astatic needles, Attraction of currents, shown by frictional electricity, Attractions and repulsions of currents, ..-.s* ^t.r;-^
;

'--' '-'--"-.

148 61 32 167 9 110 274

<.

.,

"

"

Aurora borealis
-

affects

magnetic poles, magnetic needle,

:

82 219 213-222 62-64 103

81,
_
-

Bar magnet, Barlow's Revolving Spur- Wheel,

Batteries,

'.^; "'.i
'

',

\-

."

>
"
'

J ','

" "

compound
single,

galvanic, thermo-electric,

,*;.

^ -.''..!:;

how

Battery, cylindrical galvanic, "

sustaining, Black lead, used in the electrotype process,

"

magnetic,

------------8
/,

i:

connected,

j^ r:i

156 30-33 " 53-58 29 ^.. 20

--

241-243,349 373
;i
-

17 Calorimotors, 44 Carbon, kind used in thermo-electric experiments, 32 Charcoal points, arch of flame between, 'w'- 358-368 Coins and medals, mode of copying, -V. Cold produced by galvanic current, 59, 60 . ; . 7 .tWtKM ^ Compound bar magnet, " 8 horse-shoe magnet, " '.- 338 Magnet and Electrotome, Page's, - 4i 25 'e^ --"> /" .-.\' Conducting power of metals,
"''

..-.

.,

Connecting wires, Contact Breaker,

"'*

#&& -> *j
-:

'-^S-rw :w
:

Z^wiiib* ;s*^

:-

*-e;

25,35 229

INDEX.
Section.

Copper, deposited in three different states,

"
'

plates,

how

copied,
-

Cylindrical battery,

-----"~^(
"""""'-

"*-

" : ."

376-379

-369,370
.<

-20
-

130 288 Decomposition produced by Magneto-Electric Machine, 286-293 Deflection of galvanometer needle, 46 _ _ _ Difference of shock in the arms, 284,313 94 Dip of the magnetic needle, 92,93 Dipping needle, " " deflected by electric current, 77 Directive tendency of magnet, defined, 69 341 --,.'Disguised Helix, for sparks and shocks, ~ " -'" . Double 343 " '129 Page's, J " " and Electrotome, .245 " " 348 Revolving Armature, 175-177 Revolving Magnet, 160 Spur-Wheel, Thermo-Electric Revolving Arch, 203 " 155 Vibrating Magic Circle,
la Rive's

De

Ring,
Cell,

>*-

--

-,

"

Decomposing

-----V
f

'"'

252-254 205-208 78,79 currents, mutual attractions and repulsions of, 213-219 61 Electricity, animal, frictional or mechanical, 12 14-35 galvanic or voltaic, induced by movement of armature, 272, 336 " " " " 267 magnet near a wire, " " " flat " spiral, 268 " wire near a magnet, 269 " 270, 271 temporary magnetism of iron, " " the magnetism of the earth, 352, 353 " obtained from steam, 13 15 Electrodes, ^, fgj&jjj& 220 Electro-Dynamic Revolving Ring, 210-224 Electro-Dynamics and Electro-Statics, phenomena of, " ]34 Magnet, attracts its armature at a little distance, " " * 188 \ compound, " in frame, 133 " retains its power while armature is applied, 133 " " sustains iron' when magnetism is lost, 327 " with three poles, 135 " 116 Magnetic induction, definition of,
:

Earth, induction of electricity by the " " magnetism by the Electric current, tangential action of the "

- >i
-

*h
'

-----------

----;

INDEX.
Electro-Magnetic Seasons Machine, - " "- '.Magnets, "
i;

213
Section.

v:^i>

^f.

~,

~ ^
-

r>

""r'*;
.

"'*-

Prof. Henry's,

.^/r'-.j;.:-

S '-;"
-

174 131 132

Electro-Magnetism as a motive power,

" "
definition of,

.'iav
-

-T

204, 337 1
-

Electrotype medals, " " bronzed and cleansed, " " several made at once, " " time required for making, " " with gold or silver faces, origin of the, " process, nature of the

.-?-

^ -

.,';-

358-368 365 "- 368 364 %' 383

P??^copied,

-356,357
381
369, 870
<.*
t

Engraved copper
"
steel

plates,
^

how

Etching by the galvanic battery, Explanations and Definitions,

-.

g^J
-'
.

rn
; .

'

-...-.

.?
.

.'~ ;

'.;

.\*
;

;<

.-

T '.-

370 380 1-11

117 240 123 124 115 1^ 358

Filings sustained by wire conveying a current, Flat coil of fine wire,

"
Spiral, " exerts slight

.----,
-

'*

'~

;--

;te

magnetizing power on outside,

:

Fracture of magnets,
Frictional electricity, Fusible metal, used in the electrotype process,

-/ ;*-. V"' *'

Galvanic batteries, cylindrical,

" "
" " "

20,
s

directions for using, exciting liquid used in,

'

23 21,22
21

'-

compound,
sustaining,
-

"
'

current produces heat and cold,

"

30-33 241-243,349 59, 60

.

14 17-19 380 278, 294 234, 305 88 86 87 " 83-88 Galvanometers, "." :;; -^ rl-'f 45 German silver, composition of 384, 385 Gilding by the electrotype process, 325 Gold leaf Electroscope affected by magneto-electricity, " 153 Galvanoscope,
direction

quantity and intensity of, etching, Galvanometer deflected by magneto-electric current, " " secondary current, " measures quantity but not intensity, Upright, " with astatic needle,
^

" "

"

of,

-._.--

... ... ----...

'v*
'*
.

Heating of metallic wires by electricity, Heliacal Ring or Magic Circle,

24-28 126-18 Helix, exerts no perceptible magnetizing power on outside, 122

-

214
.

INDEX.
.

Section-

Helix, Magnetizing, " on

stand,

.--j^ifi.r
-

264 263 Induction of a current on itself, 225-233 " -'-' 3 electricity, " 3 magnetism, " secondaries at a distance, 250 Inductive action of magnet not affected by interposed bodies, 114 " 4 Initial and terminal secondaries, 236 " 260 tertiaries, -. " 239 secondary of lower intensity than terminal, Instruments for illustrating the magnetism of the earth, 99, 101 Instrument for showing the mutual action of currents, 214 60 production of cold and heat, 17, 18 Intensity and quantity in electricity, 106 \i va Iron, cause of its being attracted by a magnet, " 117 filings, arrangement of round wire conveying current, " " " " the poles of a magnet, 73, 74 " increases *i-r,V. 302, 304 sparks and shocks, " small 65 piece of, scarcely attracted by magnet, " wires superior to bar in increasing sparks and shocks, 304,307
-

Horizontal Revolving Armatures, ..^'l Horse-shoe magnet, ;$.,-, Ehduced currents from frictional electricity,

...
-

....
-

.^--::

^
:

.-.i.,

,-ii.
;,'[

.>
-

j^,,.'
-

r l.

.-

y
-

.--.-

235 120 185 8

"

table of

'

...
t

, :

Leyden

Line of no

jar charged with magneto-electricity, .:r *n variation,

-

*"-'
-

Loadstones,

Magic
"

Circle or Heliacal Ring,

artificial,

Magnet,
" " " " " "
"
bar,

natural,

horse-shoe or U, --

permanent, ;-;... revolving by the earth's action, " round a conducting wire,
"
its

A ---.--.--2 .... ... ------'

...
-

'^.V. '.>-->,;,

325 95 2

/ ;Jit

126-128

-w/ **i
-

-n^'--".
-

2 7
8

,-

"

2 6 178 140
141

own
'

Magnetic attractions and repulsions,

'

" "
"

62-65 -~ m* . 74 curves, ***' -*"< "& '"'*^" <-' '*-^ 10 needle, " '-'- ". '* >''+ half brass, 80 ,-' \-'*'&'' 104 observations, - ;*-' 5 -rv^Jpoles,
",

axis, r
]

-,
f:
'"'-;-'-'

"s-

---

-m

'

'

--

.-

'

"

of the earth,
4

.:.'{..

.,>

-95,102
-

toys,

wnp

v^'rb^^"

-:+., ->;-,

:-,;"---

66

INDEX.
Magnetism,
" "
"
* definition of -A^'-^' of the earth, theories concerning, -r -r, induction of " by the earth,
;

0.

215
Section.
-

4
-

96,
.

97

207 295 234 Magnetism, induction of, by the secondary currents, " 218 probably due to electric currents, " modes of communicating, 108,208 " " by electro-magnets, 136, 137 " 138, 209 removing, 235 Magnetizing Helix, 343-351 Magneto-Electric Apparatus for medical use, " 274 ,Armature, " 266 current, different modes of exciting, " " 296 quantity and intensity of, " Machine for decompositions, 282 " 279 shocks,
" "
aided,

"

205, 206
-

how

magneto-electric current,

...
.

Magneto-Electricity, definition

of,
-

Magnets, fracture

115 " modes of charging, 108,208 " " " 136, 137 by an electro-magnet, Marsh's Vibrating Wire, 150 Medals copied by the electrotype process, - ;.;'-; 358-368 Medical use, apparatus for, 343-351 Metallic solutions decomposed by magneto-electricity, 292, 293 382 Metals, precipitation of by galvanism, Motions produced by attraction of armature, 182-193 " changing poles of electro-magnet, 168-191 " " 139-167 magnets and conductors,
of,

--.".-

Natural magnets, Needle, astatic, " dipping,"

"
floating,

1
.,.

T
-

..--_-,
,

,,r ^.

- .^ t

_
-

-.-

",?

"

horizontal magnetic,

;t< f;-'..
;

.-.n
-%

*'.
-~.

magnetic,

CErsted's experiment, 75 Optical illusions, transient duration of electric light, 158, 170, 321 289 Oxygen and hydrogen obtained separately from water,

-------

2 81,82 92,93 67 90,91

10

;/-

<,-..,_-

Page's Compound Magnet and Electrotome,

" " "

"--'
'

Double Helix,
"

-V.

\u

H-

Reciprocating Engine, Revolving Armature,

"

*-./,-..
-

V< i

V'.-.
-

for shocks,

:."-'''-

338 129 It9 182 333

'

216
" " "

^
" "

INDEX.
* ..-Section.

Page's Revolving Magnet,

171

as a magneto-electric machine,
-

Ring, Rotating Multiplier, Percussion, development of magnetism by Permanent magnets, Plaster casts copied by the electrotype,

297 162

----__6
-

165 207,208

Platinating by the electrotype process, V ..>*!*fc Plating by the electrotype, Platinum, a poor conductor of electricity, Pole-changer, Dr. Page's, J, ffc Poles of a galvanic battery, " * magnet, " " " situated near its extremities, " of the v*.
-

:*.

372-374 3c7 386 25 162 14, 15 4, 5 113

magnetic,

earth,

-95,102

26 Primary magneto-electric current, effects produced by, 285-295 11, 89 Properties of the magnet, little known till recently, 17, 18 Quantity and intensity in electricity, of the magneto-electric current, 296 " " " thermo-electric current, 52

Powder Cup,

'_'*

.*

192 223 167 f 182 V Revolving Armature, * for shocks, 333 * 145 ,-.- . -, - ~ Cylinder, 9j 161 Disc, -' <. -- 164 Rectangle, " 162 Ring, " -''----. .^ --- >' 166 and Magnet, " " 220 Electro-dynamic, 156 Spur-Wheel, -Wire Frame, 143 *'-' rvz- '-.tfi ;' ** 168 Ritchie's Revolving Magnet, . 68 w; Rolling Armature, *% 148 Rotating Battery. " '-". -. :- ./172 Bell Engine, 165 Multiplier, Rule for determining polarity produced by straight current, 119 " " " " current in helix, 121
:

Reciprocating Bell Engine, Repulsion of successive portions of current, Revolution of arch of electric flame, ^L

.'-

'

,,

----......
-

-i

'

....

'

decomposed by the Magneto-Electric Machine, Seals copied by the electrotype,

Salts

----.-'

291, 292

Secondary currents,
"
"

-"

from a primary intensity current,

375 234-256 248

INDEX.
Secondary currents from wire helices, " " induced at a distance,

217
Section.

244 250 in different positions of coils, 251 -..-. produced by motion, 254,255 301 Separable Helices, " " and Electrotome, 318 " i . 329 Revolving Armature, Shock from galvanic battery due to a secondary current, 249 w303 primary coil, '^^L " " magneto-electric current, 277, 285 Shock given to several persons at once, 312 " strength of, depends upon extent of contact, 310, 311 regulated, 250,251,304,346 " 316 strongest from coil surrounding middle of helix, " cannot be obtained from helix in an iron tube, 328 " difference of in arms, 284,313 " from secondary of fine wire coil, 238 " 347 passed through any part of the body, Shocks produce numbness when very rapid, 330 " 335 produced by movement of armature, " 'taken from water, 314 "-**? <' 1|| 386 Silvering by the electrotype process, Spark from long wire and helix, 225, 226 " " 322 secondary helix, " and shock from flat 228, 231 spiral, " fine wire coil, with compound battery, 232 " " " 233 long wires and spirals, cause of, " Thermo-Electric Battery, 326 " " " wire coils increased by iron, 302, 304 reduction of ^:,252,233,304-308 " " why reduced, 256, 261, 305, 306
-

" "

"

1 ''-

'

;'..'

StarPlate, _'-;-> ;<__.%*; Sturgeon's Revolving Disc, Successive induction of magnetism,

_
-

161 112

Sustaining Battery,
"
" "

241, 349
in,

action within, precipitation of copper

-

242 243

Tangential action of electric current, Terminal secondary of higher intensity than

Tertiary currents,

"1

initial,

" " .obtained from wire helices, Thermo-Electric Arch rotating between poles of
Batteries, "

"

sparks and shocks from, -;combinations,

;

78,79 239 257-260 259 magnet, 200 53-58 326

i,;! -

43-51

19

218

INDEX.
Section.

Thermo-Electric combinations, table of, " current, cause of,

"

w
-

"

.
;.

"
" "

" " " "

direction

of,

37,

47 39 42

excited in a single metal, quantity and intensity of, reversed in some cases,
-

Revolving Arch,
"
"

*"-'
^
-

on

magnet,
-

Wire Frames,
Thermo-Electricity, discovery
of,

38 52 48-51 194 - 197 199 36

;

S' ^.^"w4 8 magnet, "*;? -j^v- ". -,-b-> ^ Upright Reciprocating Engine, 190,191
%

Variation of the magnetic needle, "

Vibrating Magic Circle,

Wire,
Voltaic batteries, " Gas Pistol, "
electricity,

-----------.
, -.

,'.'..

'J$

^ '\

how

found,

l;

!-'. -.

n '">
-

'y^;.;:

98 100 154 150 20-34 27 14-35

Water decomposed by the magneto-electric " "

current,
-

323, 324
-

Magneto-Electric Machine,
bodies,
"

White wax used in the electrotype process, Wire conveying current does not attract light
"
for

Wood

conveying electric currents, cuts copied by the electrotype,

,

^
-

r
:

286-290 372 224 35 371

.

Armature,

;^

^,

,>

HI

DANIEL DAVIS,
MANUFACTURES AND KEEPS FOR SALE

JE,

Instruments

GALVANISM, ELECTRO-DYNAMICS, MAGNETISM,

to illustrate the Principles of ELECTRO- MAGNET ISM, MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY, THERMO-ELECTRICITY.

IrCp- IMPROVED MEDICAL APPARATUS. ELECTROTYPE APPARATUS MADE TO ORDER.

Figure.*
1.

Price.
-

2. 3.
4.
5. 6.

$3 to Compound Horse-shoe Magnet, .75 to Magnetic Needle on brass stand, Rod for collecting Electricity from the Steam Engine,
-

Case of Bar Magnets, Horse-shoe or U Magnet,

..-

from $2.50 to
-

5.00
.50

.....
medium,
-

. -

.12i to

Plates of zinc

ments,
7. 8.

Cylindrical Battery,

9. 10.

Voltaic Gas Pistol, Galvanic Battery, 25 pairs of double plates, Galvanic Battery, 10') pairs of double plates,
-

Powder Cup,

......... ........ ......

and copper
-

10.00 1.00 5.00

.75 7.00

for elementary experismall, $2,

$5,

.25 to

large,

from .25 to .50 from 1.50 to 3.00 $20 to 25.00

-

85.00

12. 13. 14.

15.

16. 17. 19.

20. 21. 24, 27. 29. 30.

31. 33.

Thermo-Electric pairs, of various metals, from .12J to .50 Galvanometers, for Thermo-Electric and other experiments, 3 to 8.00 Thermo-Electric Battery, 10 pairs, 1. to 2.00 " " " 60 large plates, $15. to 25.00 cold l>y Apparatus for the production of heat and the galvanic current, V -A- "3.00 Bar Magtiet and Magnetic Needle, 1.00 .12 Oblong and circular pieces of iron, for Exp. 5, Set of Magnetic Toys, swans, ships, fishes, (fee., 2.00 $3 to 5.00 Rolling Armature and Magnet, Bar Magnet and iron bar, 1.25 Iron Pilings, for experiments, .25 per box,
-

Astatic Needle, on

stand,

Galvanometer, '*

for CErsted's

Upright Dipping Needle,

on tripod stand, with leveling screws, Galvanometer, on tripod stand, -

34;
35. 37.

with universal joint, 3 to - 3 to bar magnet within it, Instrument, for explainins ~ variation and theory of magnetism, 4 to Terrestrial Globe, with coil, needle, &c., -

..... ..... ..... ...... .....

,

from

to

experiments,

3.50 to
-

-from 5

to

Terrestrial Globe, with

2.00 5,00 6.00 6.00 6.00 5.00 8.00

49. 50. 61. 52. 53. 64. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 69. 70.
71. 72. 73. 74. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84.

Flat Spiral, Heliacal Ring

"

and Armatures, " "

......
-

./'

:.

.
-

:,

Price. 1.50 to 10.00 2.50 to 3.00

ball

and socket

la Rive's Ring; Small Electro-Magnets, in frame, Electro-Magnet, " " with three poles, " foi charging magnets,
-

De

joints,

$5

to

8.00 1-00
1.50

.50 to

$5, $10,
-

and 33,00
3.00 1.50 6.00 6.00 8.00 6.00 8.00

from .75 to

brass frame, round conducting wire, r Magnet revolving " " " its own axis, from $5 to Double Revolving Wire Frame,brass stand,leveling screws, " "
-:r
; :

"

"

Magnet

Double Vibrating Magic Circle, Barlow's Revolving Spur- Wheel Page's Revolving Ring, Rectangle Revolving " Ring and Magnet " see 168, Ritchie's Revolving " " . , Page's Rotating Bell Engine, Electro-.tlagnetic Seasons Machine, Double Revolving Magnet,
revolving by the Earth's action.
-

** 5 to Rotating Batteries on steel magnet, Marsli's Vibrating "Wire, without magnet, 1 50, with magnet, Gold leaf Gal vanoscope, brass stand, 4 to 4 to Vibrating Magic Circle,
-

Cylinders,

5 to

500
6.00 6.00 7.00 5.00 6.00 6.00 10.00 6.00 6.00 12.00 15.00 10.00 5.00 4.00 6.00 12.00 20.00 15.00 20.00 2.00 4.00 8,00 5^00 5.00 2.00 .50 4.00 8.00 8.00 3.00 8.00 25.00 10.00 9.00 12.00 30.00 35.00 5.00 1.00 9.00 18.00 25.00 20.00 6.00 12.00 8.00 12.00

.....
-

5 to

3.50 to ff0 5 to

5 lo

8 to
.

Page's Revolving Armature, do. Armatures, Horizontal Page's Reciprocating Engine, do. do. Upright
do.

.... ....
"
-

-.,

4 to 5 to 10 to 12 to 6 to

3 to
3 to

...

4 to
10 to 10 to

do.

do.

85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 91.

92. 93. 94.

IS to Reciprocating Bell Engine, Thermo-Electric Revolving Arch, l.SOto " " " " on U magnet, 3 to 5 to Double Thermo-Electric Wire Frames, Thermo-Electric Arch rotating between poles of U magnet, 3 to " Double 4 to Revolving Arch, Bar of soft iron anil small Magnetic Needle, 1 to

round base,

....

Movable Wires, for showing attraction and Electro-Dynamic Revolving Ring,

Electrotome,
or (.'ontact Breaker,
-

Steel Bar, iinmagnelized,

repulsion,
-

95. 96. 97. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 103. 109. 110. 111. 112. 114. 115.

Magnetizing Helix, for induced currents, 5 to Flat Spiral and rasp, Double Helix and Electrotome, $20 to Fine Wire Spiral, 8 to Gold Leaf Galvanoscope, with magnet and coil, Magneto-Electric Armature, without magnet. $6, with do., Machine for shocks, ** ff " from $30 to for decompositions,
-

....

...

.25 to 3 to 5 to 5 to

"

U Tube
"

Decomposing
for

Cell,

Page's Revolving Magnet and Galvanometer, Helices, with handles for shocks, Separable " Helices and Electrotome,
-

decompositions,

........ .......
-

3 to .50to

6 to Disguised Helix for sparKs and shocks, from $10 to Magneto-Electric Apparatus for medical use. Magneto-Electric Apparatus for medical use, with 15.00 Page's Revolving Armature, Fusible metal, for the electrotype, per Ib. .65
-

" and Revolving Armature, Page's Revolving Armature for shocks, " Compound Magnet and Electrotome,

$12 to 20 to
15 to 5 to

8 to

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