Linux Fundamentals: Paul Cobbaut
Linux Fundamentals: Paul Cobbaut
Paul Cobbaut
Linux Fundamentals
Paul Cobbaut lt-1.0 Published Mon Feb 14 01:00:31 2011
Abstract
This book is meant to be used in an instructor-led training. For self-study, the intent is to read this book next to a working Linux computer so you can immediately do every subject, practicing each command. This book is aimed at novice Linux system administrators (and might be interesting and useful for home users that want to know a bit more about their Linux system). However, this book is not meant as an introduction to Linux desktop applications like text editors, browsers, mail clients, multimedia or office applications. More information and free .pdf available at http://linux-training.be . Feel free to contact the authors: Paul Cobbaut: [email protected], http://www.linkedin.com/in/cobbaut Contributors to the Linux Training project are: Serge van Ginderachter: [email protected], build scripts; infrastructure setup; minor stuff Hendrik De Vloed: [email protected], buildheader.pl script We'd also like to thank our reviewers: Wouter Verhelst: [email protected], http://grep.be Geert Goossens: [email protected], http://www.linkedin.com/in/geertgoossens Elie De Brauwer: [email protected], http://www.de-brauwer.be Christophe Vandeplas: [email protected], http://christophe.vandeplas.com Bert Desmet: [email protected], http://bdesmet.be Rich Yonts: [email protected],
Copyright 2007-2011 Netsec BVBA, Paul Cobbaut Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled 'GNU Free Documentation License'.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction to Unix and Linux ...................................................................... 1 1.1. Unix History ............................................................................................ 1 1.2. Licensing .................................................................................................. 3 1.3. Current Distributions ............................................................................... 4 1.4. Certification .............................................................................................. 9 1.5. Discovering the classroom ..................................................................... 10 2. Getting help ..................................................................................................... 11 2.1. man pages .............................................................................................. 11 2.2. online help ............................................................................................. 13 3. Working with directories ............................................................................... 15 3.1. working with directories ........................................................................ 15 3.2. practice : working with directories ........................................................ 21 3.3. solution : working with directories ........................................................ 22 4. Working with files .......................................................................................... 24 4.1. working with files .................................................................................. 24 4.2. practice : working with files .................................................................. 30 4.3. solution : working with files .................................................................. 31 5. Working with filecontents .............................................................................. 33 5.1. file contents ............................................................................................ 33 5.2. practice : file contents ............................................................................ 37 5.3. solution : file contents ............................................................................ 38 6. The Linux file system tree ............................................................................. 39 6.1. file system tree ....................................................................................... 39 6.2. practice : file system tree ....................................................................... 51 6.3. solution : file system tree ....................................................................... 53 7. Introduction to the shell ................................................................................. 55 7.1. introduction to the shell ......................................................................... 55 7.2. practice: introduction to the shell .......................................................... 60 7.3. solution: introduction to the shell .......................................................... 61 8. Shell control operators ................................................................................... 63 8.1. control operators .................................................................................... 63 8.2. practice: control operators ..................................................................... 66 8.3. solution: control operators ..................................................................... 67 9. Shell variables ................................................................................................. 68 9.1. shell variables ........................................................................................ 68 9.2. practice: shell variables .......................................................................... 73 9.3. solution: shell variables ......................................................................... 74 10. Shell arguments ............................................................................................. 76 10.1. shell arguments .................................................................................... 76 10.2. practice: shell arguments ..................................................................... 79 10.3. solution: shell arguments ..................................................................... 80 11. Shell history ................................................................................................... 81 11.1. shell history .......................................................................................... 81 12. Shell globbing ................................................................................................ 84 12.1. file globbing ......................................................................................... 84 12.2. practice : shell globbing, options and history ...................................... 87
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Linux Fundamentals 12.3. solution: shell globbing, options and history ....................................... 89 Shell I/O redirection ..................................................................................... 91 13.1. shell i/o redirection .............................................................................. 91 13.2. practice : i/o redirection ....................................................................... 95 13.3. solution : i/o redirection ....................................................................... 96 Pipes and filters ............................................................................................. 97 14.1. pipes ..................................................................................................... 97 14.2. filters .................................................................................................... 98 14.3. some pipeline examples ..................................................................... 105 14.4. practice : pipes and filters .................................................................. 107 14.5. solution : pipes and filters .................................................................. 108 Basic Unix tools ........................................................................................... 110 15.1. common tools ..................................................................................... 110 15.2. compression tools ............................................................................... 113 15.3. practice : basic Unix tools .................................................................. 115 15.4. solution : basic Unix tools ................................................................. 116 Introduction to vi ........................................................................................ 118 16.1. about vi(m) ......................................................................................... 118 16.2. introduction to using vi(m) ................................................................ 118 16.3. practice : vi(m) ................................................................................... 125 16.4. solution : vi(m) ................................................................................... 126 Understanding scripts ................................................................................. 127 17.1. introduction to scripting ..................................................................... 127 17.2. practice : introduction to scripting ..................................................... 130 17.3. solution : introduction to scripting ..................................................... 131 17.4. scripting tests and loops ..................................................................... 132 17.5. practice : scripting tests and loops ..................................................... 135 17.6. solution : scripting tests and loops ..................................................... 136 17.7. parameters and options ...................................................................... 138 17.8. practice : parameters and options ....................................................... 142 17.9. solution : parameters and options ...................................................... 143 17.10. more scripting .................................................................................. 144 17.11. practice : more scripting ................................................................... 147 17.12. solution : more scripting .................................................................. 148 Introduction to users .................................................................................. 150 18.1. identify yourself ................................................................................. 150 18.2. users ................................................................................................... 152 18.3. passwords ........................................................................................... 154 18.4. home directories ................................................................................. 159 18.5. user shell ............................................................................................ 160 18.6. switch users with su ........................................................................... 161 18.7. run a program as another user ........................................................... 162 18.8. practice: users ..................................................................................... 164 18.9. solution: users .................................................................................... 165 18.10. shell environment ............................................................................. 167 Introduction to groups ............................................................................... 170 19.1. about groups ....................................................................................... 170 19.2. groupadd ............................................................................................. 170
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
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Linux Fundamentals 19.3. /etc/group ............................................................................................ 170 19.4. usermod .............................................................................................. 171 19.5. groupmod ........................................................................................... 171 19.6. groupdel .............................................................................................. 171 19.7. groups ................................................................................................. 172 19.8. gpasswd .............................................................................................. 172 19.9. vigr ..................................................................................................... 173 19.10. practice: groups ................................................................................ 174 19.11. solution: groups ................................................................................ 175 20. Standard file permissions ........................................................................... 176 20.1. file ownership ..................................................................................... 176 20.2. list of special files .............................................................................. 177 20.3. permissions ......................................................................................... 177 20.4. practice: standard file permissions ..................................................... 182 20.5. solution: standard file permissions ..................................................... 183 21. Advanced file permissions .......................................................................... 185 21.1. sticky and setgid bits ......................................................................... 185 21.2. practice: sticky, setuid and setgid bits ............................................... 188 21.3. solution: sticky, setuid and setgid bits ............................................... 189 22. Access control lists ...................................................................................... 191 22.1. access control lists ............................................................................. 191 23. File links ....................................................................................................... 194 23.1. inodes ................................................................................................. 194 23.2. about directories ................................................................................. 195 23.3. hard links ........................................................................................... 196 23.4. symbolic links .................................................................................... 197 23.5. removing links ................................................................................... 197 23.6. practice : links .................................................................................... 198 23.7. solution : links .................................................................................... 199 24. Introduction to Processes ........................................................................... 200 24.1. terminology ........................................................................................ 200 24.2. basic process management ................................................................. 201 24.3. signalling processes ............................................................................ 205 24.4. practice : basic process management ................................................. 208 24.5. solution : basic process management ................................................. 209 A. Keyboard settings ......................................................................................... 211 A.1. About Keyboard Layout ..................................................................... 211 A.2. X Keyboard Layout ............................................................................ 211 A.3. Shell Keyboard Layout ....................................................................... 211 B. Hardware Settings ........................................................................................ 213 B.1. buses .................................................................................................... 213 B.2. interrupts .............................................................................................. 214 B.3. io ports ................................................................................................. 215 B.4. dma ...................................................................................................... 216 C. GNU FDL ...................................................................................................... 217 Index .................................................................................................................... 224
List of Tables
1.1. Early Unix Timeline ........................................................................................ 1 1.2. Eighties Unix Timeline .................................................................................... 2 1.3. Current BSD Timeline ..................................................................................... 2 16.1. getting to command mode ......................................................................... 118 16.2. switch to insert mode ................................................................................. 119 16.3. replace and delete ...................................................................................... 119 16.4. undo and repeat .......................................................................................... 119 16.5. cut, copy and paste a line .......................................................................... 120 16.6. cut, copy and paste lines ............................................................................ 120 16.7. start and end of line ................................................................................... 120 16.8. join two lines ............................................................................................. 121 16.9. words .......................................................................................................... 121 16.10. save and exit vi ........................................................................................ 121 16.11. searching .................................................................................................. 122 16.12. replace ...................................................................................................... 122 16.13. read files and input .................................................................................. 122 16.14. text buffers ............................................................................................... 123 16.15. multiple files ............................................................................................ 123 16.16. abbreviations ............................................................................................ 123 18.1. Debian User Environment .......................................................................... 169 18.2. Red Hat User Environment ........................................................................ 169 20.1. Unix special files ....................................................................................... 177 20.2. standard Unix file permissions .................................................................. 178 20.3. Unix file permissions position ................................................................... 178 20.4. Octal permissions ....................................................................................... 180
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Introduction to Unix and Linux Microsoft Windows NT to take big chunks of server market share in the early nineties. The table below shows the evolution of a united Unix into several Unixes in the eighties. Table 1.2. Eighties Unix Timeline 1983 1984 4.1BSD SunOS1.0 System V System V III + V HP-UX 1985 1986 1987 1988 4.3BSD 4.3BSD SunOS3.2 NeXTSTEP SystemVr4 AIX Solaris UnixWare 1989 1990 1991 1992
BSD Net/2
Introduction to Unix and Linux bash) are among the most popular on many Unix-like systems. The official kernel of this project is GNU/Hurd, but you can hardly call that kernel a finished product.
1.1.5. Linux
Where GNU/Hurd failed, the Linux kernel succeeded! In 1991 a Finnish student named Linus Torvalds started writing his own operating system for his intel 80386 computer. In January 1992, Linus decided to release Linux under the GNU GPL. Thanks to this, thousands of developers are now working on the Linux kernel. Linus Torvalds is in charge of the kernel developers. Contrary to popular belief, they are not all volunteers. Today big companies like Red Hat, Novell, IBM, Intel, SGI, Oracle, Montavista, Google, HP, NetApp, Cisco, Fujitsu, Broadcom, and others are actively paying developers to work on the Linux kernel. According to the Linux Foundation "over 3700 individual developers from over 200 different companies have contributed to the kernel between 2005 and april 2008". 1057 developers from 186 different companies contributed code to make kernel version 2.6.23 into 2.6.24.
1.2. Licensing
1.2.1. Proprietary
Some flavors of Unix, like HP-UX, IBM AIX, and Sun Solaris 9 are delivered in binary form after purchase. You are not authorized to install or use these without paying a licensing fee. You are not authorized to distribute these copies to other people and you are not authorized to look at or change the closed source code of the operating system. This software is usually protected by copyright, patents, and extensive software licensing.
1.2.2. BSD
BSD style licenses are close to the public domain. They essentially state that you can copy the software, but you have to leave the copyright notice that refers to BSD. This license gives a lot of freedom but offers few protection to someone copying and selling your work.
Introduction to Unix and Linux Free is to be understood as in freedom of speech, not to be confused with free as in not having to pay for your free beer. In other words, or even better, in other languages free software translates to vrije software (Dutch) or Logiciel Libre (French) whereas the free from free beer translates to gratis. Briefly explained, the GPL allows you to copy software, the GPL allows you to distribute (sell or give away) that software, and the GPL grants you the right to read and change the source code. But the person receiving or buying the software from you has the same rights. And should you decide to distribute modified versions of GPL software, then you are obligated to put the same license on the modifications (and provide the source code of your modifications).
1.2.4. Others...
There are many other licenses on software. You should read and understand them before using any software.
paul@RHELv4u4:~$ cat /etc/redhat-release Red Hat Enterprise Linux AS release 4 (Nahant Update 4) serge@venusia:~$ cat /etc/debian_version lenny/sid
The /etc/lsb-release file can be found on distributions that follow the Linux Standard Base. Other variations to these files are /etc/slackware-version, /etc/SuSE-release, /etc/gentoo-release and /etc/mandrake-release.
serge@venusia:~$ cat /etc/lsb-release DISTRIB_ID=Ubuntu DISTRIB_RELEASE=8.04 DISTRIB_CODENAME=hardy DISTRIB_DESCRIPTION="Ubuntu 8.04.1"
Red Hat
Redhat has been a company since 1993. They distribute Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) to companies and manage the Fedora project. RHEL is probably the most popular Linux-based distro on servers. Fedora is a very popular and user friendly Linux-based distro, aimed towards home users. The company makes a profit of around one hundred million dollars a year selling support contracts. Red Hat contributes a lot to the Linux kernel and other free software projects. Red Hat Linux Red Hat Linux was distributed from 1994 until 2003. It was one of the oldest common Linux distributions. Red Hat Linux was the first distro to use the rpm package format. Many other distros are originally derived from Red Hat Linux. The company Red Hat, Inc. decided to split Red Hat Linux into Fedora and Red Hat Enterprise Linux. Fedora Fedora is sponsored by Red Hat which is aimed toward home users. There is no official support from Red Hat. Every six to eight months, there is a new version of Fedora. Fedora usually has more recent versions of kernel and applications than RHEL. Fedora 9 was released May 2008. Red Hat Enterprise Linux 4 Since 2005 Red Hat has distributed four different RHEL4 variants. RHEL AS is for mission-critical computer systems. RHEL ES is for small to mid-range servers. RHEL WS is for technical power user desktops and critical design. Red Hat Desktop is for multiple deployments of single user desktops. Red Hat does not give an 5
Introduction to Unix and Linux explanation for the meaning of AS, ES and WS, but it might be Advanced Server, Entry-level Server, and Workstation. Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5 Red Hat Enterprise Linux version 5 has been available since March 2007. One of the notable new features is the inclusion of Xen. Xen is a free virtual machine application that allows NetBSD and Linux to serve as host for guest operating systems. Besides virtualization, RHEL 5 also has better SELinux support, clustering, network storage and smart card integration. CentOS and Unbreakable Linux Both CentOS and Oracle's Unbreakable Linux are directly derived from RHEL, but all references to Red Hat trademarks are removed. Companies are allowed to do this (GPL), and are hoping to make a profit selling support (without having the cost of developing and maintaining their own distribution). Red Hat is not really worried about this since they develop a lot on Linux and thus can offer much better support. The Oracle offering is still very recent, so let's wait and see how many organizations will buy a complete solution from Oracle.
Ubuntu
Ubuntu is a rather new distribution, based on Debian, and funded by South African developer and billionaire astronaut Mark Shuttleworth. Ubuntu is giving away free (as in beer and speech) CDs with Ubuntu, Linux for Human Beings. Many people consider Ubuntu to be the most user friendly Linux distribution. The company behind Ubuntu is Canonical which intends to make a profit of selling support soon. Ubuntu is probably the most popular Unix-like distribution on personal desktops. Image copied from xkcd.com.
Novell Suse
A couple of years ago, Novell bought the German company Suse. They are seen as the main competitor to Red Hat with their SLES (Suse Linux Enterprise Server) and 6
Introduction to Unix and Linux SLED (Suse Linux Enterprise Desktop) versions of Suse Linux. Similar to Fedora, Novell hosts the OpenSUSE project as a testbed for upcoming SLED and SLES releases. Novell has signed a very controversial deal with Microsoft. Some high-profile open source developers have left the company because of this agreement and many people from the open source community are actively advocating to abandon Novell completely.
Debian
Debian is one of the most secure Linux distros. It is known to be stable and reliable. The Debian people also have a strong focus towards freedom. You will not find patented technologies or non-free software in the standard Debian repositories. A lot of distributions (Ubuntu, Knoppix, ...) are derived from the Debian codebase. Debian has aptitude, which is considered the best package management system.
Mandriva
Mandriva is the unification of the Brazilian distro Conectiva with the French distro Mandrake. They are considered a user friendly distro with support from the French government.
NetBSD
NetBSD development started around the same time (1993) as FreeBSD. NetBSD aims for maximum portability and thus runs on many architectures. NetBSD is often used in embedded devices.
OpenBSD
Co-founder Theo De Raadt from NetBSD founded the OpenBSD project in 1994. OpenBSD aims for maximum security. Over the past ten years, only two 7
Introduction to Unix and Linux vulnerabilities have been found in the default install of OpenBSD. All source code is thoroughly checked. OpenBSD runs on sixteen different architectures and is commonly used for firewalls and IDS. The OpenBSD people also bring us OpenSSH.
1.3.5. Solaris
Solaris 8 and Solaris 9
All Sun Solaris releases before Solaris 10 are proprietary binary only, just like IBM AIX and HP-UX.
Solaris 10
Solaris 10 is the officially supported Sun distribution. It is a free (as in beer) download. Sun releases binary patches and updates. Sun would like a community built around the Solaris kernel, similar to the Linux community. Sun released the Solaris kernel under the CDDL, a license similar to the GPL, hoping this will happen.
1.4. Certification
1.4.1. LPI: Linux Professional Institute
LPIC Level 1
This is the junior level certification. You need to pass exams 101 and 102 to achieve LPIC 1 certification. To pass level one, you will need Linux command line, user management, backup and restore, installation, networking, and basic system administration skills.
LPIC Level 2
This is the advanced level certification. You need to be LPIC 1 certified and pass exams 201 and 202 to achieve LPIC 2 certification. To pass level two, you will need to be able to administer medium sized Linux networks, including Samba, mail, news, proxy, firewall, web, and ftp servers.
LPIC Level 3
This is the senior level certification. It contains one core exam (301) which tests advanced skills mainly about ldap. To achieve this level you also need LPIC Level 2 and pass a specialty exam (302 or 303). Exam 302 mainly focuses on Samba, and 303 on advanced security. More info on http://www.lpi.org.
Ubuntu
When you are LPIC Level 1 certified, you can take a LPI Ubuntu exam (199) and become Ubuntu certified.
1.4.3. MySQL
There are two tracks for MySQL certification; Certified MySQL 5.0 Developer (CMDEV) and Certified MySQL 5.0 DBA (CMDBA). The CMDEV is focused 9
Introduction to Unix and Linux towards database application developers, and the CMDBA towards database administrators. Both tracks require two exams each. The MySQL cluster DBA certification requires CMDBA certification and passing the CMCDBA exam.
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Getting help
logger (1) - a shell command interface to the syslog(3) ... syslog-facility (8) - Setup and remove LOCALx facility for sysklogd syslog.conf (5) - syslogd(8) configuration file syslogd (8) - Linux system logging utilities. syslogd-listfiles (8) - list system logfiles
2.1.5. whatis
To see just the description of a manual page, use whatis followed by a string.
paul@u810:~$ whatis route route (8) - show / manipulate the IP routing table
2.1.6. whereis
The location of a manpage can be revealed with whereis.
paul@laika:~$ whereis -m whois whois: /usr/share/man/man1/whois.1.gz
Getting help
2.1.10. mandb
Should you be convinced that a man page exists, but you can't access it, then try running mandb.
root@laika:~# mandb 0 man subdirectories contained newer manual pages. 0 manual pages were added. 0 stray cats were added. 0 old database entries were purged.
Search only pages from the .be TLD (or substitute .be for any other Top Level Domain). You can also use "country:be" to search only pages from Belgium (based on ip rather than TLD).
Getting help
2.2.2. Wikipedia
Wikipedia is a web-based, free-content encyclopedia. Its growth over the past two years has been astonishing. You have a good chance of finding a clear explanation by typing your search term behind http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ like this example shows.
2.2.5. Ubuntu
Help for every Ubuntu release is available at https://help.ubuntu.com. Ubuntu also has video of how to perform tasks on Ubuntu at http://screencasts.ubuntu.com.
2.2.6. www.linux-training.be
This book is available for free in .pdf format. Download it at http://www.linuxtraining.be and learn more about Linux fundamentals, system administration, networking, storage, security and more.
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3.1.1. pwd
The you are here sign can be displayed with the pwd command (Print Working Directory). Go ahead, try it: Open a command line interface (like gnome-terminal, konsole, xterm, or a tty) and type pwd. The tool displays your current directory.
paul@laika:~$ pwd /home/paul
3.1.2. cd
You can change your current directory with the cd command (Change Directory).
paul@laika$ paul@laika$ /etc paul@laika$ paul@laika$ /bin paul@laika$ paul@laika$ /home/paul cd /etc pwd cd /bin pwd cd /home/paul/ pwd
cd ~
You can pull off a trick with cd. Just typing cd without a target directory, will put you in your home directory. Typing cd ~ has the same effect.
paul@laika$ cd /etc
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cd ..
To go to the parent directory (the one just above your current directory in the directory tree), type cd .. .
paul@laika$ pwd /usr/share/games paul@laika$ cd .. paul@laika$ pwd /usr/share paul@laika$ cd .. paul@laika$ cd .. paul@laika$ pwd /
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When inside /home, you have to type cd paul instead of cd /paul to enter the subdirectory paul of the current directory /home.
paul@laika$ pwd /home paul@laika$ cd /paul bash: cd: /paul: No such file or directory paul@laika$ cd paul paul@laika$ pwd /home/paul
In case your current directory is the root directory, then both cd /home and cd home will get you in the /home directory.
paul@laika$ paul@laika$ / paul@laika$ paul@laika$ /home paul@laika$ paul@laika$ / paul@laika$ paul@laika$ /home cd / pwd cd home pwd cd / pwd cd /home pwd
This was the last screenshot with pwd statements. From now on, the current directory will often be displayed in the prompt. Later in this book we will explain how the shell variable $PS1 can be configured to show this.
3.1.5. ls
You can list the contents of a directory with ls. 17
httpd.conf
stuff
summer.txt
ls -a
A frequently used option with ls is -a to show all files. Showing all files means including the hidden files. When a filename on a Unix file system starts with a dot, it is considered a hidden file and it doesn't show up in regular file listings.
paul@pasha:~$ ls allfiles.txt dmesg.txt httpd.conf stuff summer.txt paul@pasha:~$ ls -a . allfiles.txt .bash_profile dmesg.txt .lesshst .. .bash_history .bashrc httpd.conf .ssh paul@pasha:~$
stuff summer.txt
ls -l
Many times you will be using options with ls to display the contents of the directory in different formats or to display different parts of the directory. Typing just ls gives you a list of files in the directory. Typing ls -l (that is a letter L, not the number 1) gives you a long listing (more information on the contents).
paul@pasha:~$ ls -l total 23992 -rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 24506857 2006-03-30 22:53 allfiles.txt -rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 14744 2006-09-27 11:45 dmesg.txt -rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 8189 2006-03-31 14:01 httpd.conf drwxr-xr-x 2 paul paul 4096 2007-01-08 12:22 stuff -rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 0 2006-03-30 22:45 summer.txt
ls -lh
Another frequently used ls option is -h. It shows the numbers (file sizes) in a more human readable format. Also shown below is some variation in the way you can give the options to ls. We will explain the details of the output later in this book.
paul@pasha:~$ ls -l -h total 24M -rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 24M 2006-03-30 22:53 allfiles.txt -rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 15K 2006-09-27 11:45 dmesg.txt -rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 8.0K 2006-03-31 14:01 httpd.conf drwxr-xr-x 2 paul paul 4.0K 2007-01-08 12:22 stuff -rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 0 2006-03-30 22:45 summer.txt paul@pasha:~$ ls -lh total 24M -rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 24M 2006-03-30 22:53 allfiles.txt -rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 15K 2006-09-27 11:45 dmesg.txt
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3.1.6. mkdir
Walking around the Unix file tree is fun, but it is even more fun to create your own directories with mkdir. You have to give at least one parameter to mkdir, the name of the new directory to be created. Think before you type a leading / .
paul@laika:~$ mkdir MyDir paul@laika:~$ cd MyDir paul@laika:~/MyDir$ ls -al total 8 drwxr-xr-x 2 paul paul 4096 2007-01-10 21:13 . drwxr-xr-x 39 paul paul 4096 2007-01-10 21:13 .. paul@laika:~/MyDir$ mkdir stuff paul@laika:~/MyDir$ mkdir otherstuff paul@laika:~/MyDir$ ls -l total 8 drwxr-xr-x 2 paul paul 4096 2007-01-10 21:14 otherstuff drwxr-xr-x 2 paul paul 4096 2007-01-10 21:14 stuff paul@laika:~/MyDir$
mkdir -p
When given the option -p, then mkdir will create parent directories as needed.
paul@laika:~$ paul@laika:~$ MySubdir2 paul@laika:~$ ThreeDeep paul@laika:~$ mkdir -p MyDir2/MySubdir2/ThreeDeep ls MyDir2 ls MyDir2/MySubdir2 ls MyDir2/MySubdir2/ThreeDeep/
3.1.7. rmdir
When a directory is empty, you can use rmdir to remove the directory. 19
paul@laika:~/MyDir$ rmdir otherstuff paul@laika:~/MyDir$ ls stuff paul@laika:~/MyDir$ cd .. paul@laika:~$ rmdir MyDir rmdir: MyDir/: Directory not empty paul@laika:~$ rmdir MyDir/stuff paul@laika:~$ rmdir MyDir
rmdir -p
And similar to the mkdir -p option, you can also use rmdir to recursively remove directories.
paul@laika:~$ mkdir -p dir/subdir/subdir2 paul@laika:~$ rmdir -p dir/subdir/subdir2 paul@laika:~$
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3. Now change to your home directory using only three key presses.
cd (and the enter key)
10. Stay where you are, and list the contents of /bin and /sbin.
ls /bin /sbin
12. List all the files (including hidden files) in your home directory.
ls -al ~
15. Change to the /etc directory, stay here and create a directory newdir in your home directory. 22
16. Create in one command the directories ~/dir1/dir2/dir3 (dir3 is a subdirectory from dir2, and dir2 is a subdirectory from dir1 ).
mkdir -p ~/dir1/dir2/dir3
18. If time permits (or if you are waiting for other students to finish this practice), use and understand pushd and popd. Use the man page of bash to find information about pushd, popd and dirs.
man bash
The Bash shell has two built-in commands called pushd and popd. Both commands work with a common stack of previous directories. Pushd adds a directory to the stack and changes to a new current directory, popd removes a directory from the stack and sets the current directory.
paul@laika:/etc$ cd /bin paul@laika:/bin$ pushd /lib /lib /bin paul@laika:/lib$ pushd /proc /proc /lib /bin paul@laika:/proc$ paul@laika:/proc$ popd /lib /bin paul@laika:/lib$ paul@laika:/lib$ paul@laika:/lib$ popd /bin paul@laika:/bin$
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4.1.2. file
The file utility determines the file type. Linux does not use extensions to determine the file type. Your editor does not care whether a file ends in .TXT or .DOC. As a system administrator, you should use the file command to determine the file type. Here are some examples on a typical Linux system.
paul@laika:~$ file pic33.png pic33.png: PNG image data, 3840 x 1200, 8-bit/color RGBA, non-interlaced paul@laika:~$ file /etc/passwd /etc/passwd: ASCII text paul@laika:~$ file HelloWorld.c HelloWorld.c: ASCII C program text
Here's another example of the file utility. It shows different type of binaries on different architectures.
# Solaris 9 on Intel bash-2.05$ file /bin/date /bin/date: ELF 32-bit LSB executable 80386 Version 1, dynamically \ linked, stripped
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# Ubuntu Linux on AMD64 paul@laika:~$ file /bin/date /bin/date: ELF 64-bit LSB executable, AMD x86-64, version 1 (SYSV), for\ GNU/Linux 2.6.0, dynamically linked (uses shared libs), for GNU/Linux \ 2.6.0, stripped # Debian Sarge on SPARC paul@pasha:~$ file /bin/date /bin/date: ELF 32-bit MSB executable, SPARC, version 1 (SYSV), for GNU/\ Linux 2.4.1, dynamically linked (uses shared libs), for GNU/Linux 2.4.1\ , stripped # AIX on RS/6000 serena@AIX7 /home/serena$ file /bin/date /bin/date: executable (RISC System/6000) or object module
The file command uses a magic file that contains patterns to recognize filetypes. The magic file is located in /usr/share/file/magic. Type man 5 magic for more information.
4.1.3. touch
One easy way to create a file is with touch. (We will see many other ways for creating files later in this book.)
paul@laika:~/test$ touch paul@laika:~/test$ touch paul@laika:~/test$ touch paul@laika:~/test$ ls -l total 0 -rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 0 -rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 0 -rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 0 file1 file2 file555
touch -t
Of course, touch can do more than just create files. Can you determine what by looking at the next screenshot? If not, check the manual for touch.
paul@laika:~/test$ touch paul@laika:~/test$ touch paul@laika:~/test$ ls -l total 0 -rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 0 -rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 0 -t 200505050000 SinkoDeMayo -t 130207111630 BigBattle
4.1.4. rm
When you no longer need a file, use rm to remove it. Unlike some graphical user interfaces, the command line in general does not have a waste bin or trashcan to 25
Working with files recover files. When you use rm to remove a file, the file is gone. Therefore, be careful when removing files!
paul@laika:~/test$ ls BigBattle SinkoDeMayo paul@laika:~/test$ rm BigBattle paul@laika:~/test$ ls SinkoDeMayo
rm -i
To prevent yourself from accidentally removing a file, you can type rm -i.
paul@laika:~/Linux$ touch brel.txt paul@laika:~/Linux$ rm -i brel.txt rm: remove regular empty file `brel.txt'? y paul@laika:~/Linux$
rm -rf
By default, rm will not remove non-empty directories. However rm accepts several options that will allow you to remove any directory. The rm -rf statement is famous because it will erase anything (providing that you have the permissions to do so). When you are logged on as root, be very careful with rm -rf (the f means force and the r means recursive) since being root implies that permissions don't apply to you, so you can literally erase your entire file system by accident.
paul@laika:~$ ls test SinkoDeMayo paul@laika:~$ rm test rm: cannot remove `test': Is a directory paul@laika:~$ rm -rf test paul@laika:~$ ls test ls: test: No such file or directory
4.1.5. cp
To copy a file, use cp with a source and a target argument. If the target is a directory, then the source files are copied to that target directory.
paul@laika:~/test$ paul@laika:~/test$ FileA paul@laika:~/test$ paul@laika:~/test$ FileA FileB paul@laika:~/test$ paul@laika:~/test$ touch FileA ls cp FileA FileB ls mkdir MyDir ls
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cp -r
To copy complete directories, use cp -r (the -r option forces recursive copying of all files in all subdirectories).
paul@laika:~/test$ ls FileA FileB MyDir paul@laika:~/test$ ls MyDir/ FileA paul@laika:~/test$ cp -r MyDir MyDirB paul@laika:~/test$ ls FileA FileB MyDir MyDirB paul@laika:~/test$ ls MyDirB FileA
cp -i
To prevent cp from overwriting existing files, use the -i (for interactive) option.
paul@laika:~/test$ cp fire water paul@laika:~/test$ cp -i fire water cp: overwrite `water'? no paul@laika:~/test$
cp -p
To preserve permissions and time stamps from source files, use cp -p.
paul@laika:~/perms$ cp file* cp paul@laika:~/perms$ cp -p file* cpp paul@laika:~/perms$ ll * -rwx------ 1 paul paul 0 2008-08-25 13:26 file33 -rwxr-x--- 1 paul paul 0 2008-08-25 13:26 file42 cp: total 0 -rwx------ 1 paul paul 0 2008-08-25 13:34 file33 -rwxr-x--- 1 paul paul 0 2008-08-25 13:34 file42
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cpp: total 0 -rwx------ 1 paul paul 0 2008-08-25 13:26 file33 -rwxr-x--- 1 paul paul 0 2008-08-25 13:26 file42
4.1.6. mv
Use mv to rename a file or to move the file to another directory.
paul@laika:~/test$ paul@laika:~/test$ file100 paul@laika:~/test$ paul@laika:~/test$ ABC.txt paul@laika:~/test$ touch file100 ls mv file100 ABC.txt ls
When you need to rename only one file then mv is the preferred command to use.
4.1.7. rename
The rename command can also be used but it has a more complex syntax to enable renaming of many files at once. Below are two examples, the first switches all occurrences of txt to png for all filenames ending in .txt. The second example switches all occurrences of uppercase ABC in lowercase abc for all filenames ending in .png . The following syntax will work on debian and ubuntu (prior to Ubuntu 7.10).
paul@laika:~/test$ 123.txt ABC.txt paul@laika:~/test$ paul@laika:~/test$ 123.png ABC.png paul@laika:~/test$ paul@laika:~/test$ 123.png abc.png paul@laika:~/test$ ls rename 's/txt/png/' *.txt ls rename 's/ABC/abc/' *.png ls
On Red Hat Enterprise Linux (and many other Linux distributions like Ubuntu 8.04), the syntax of rename is a bit different. The first example below renames all *.conf files replacing any occurrence of conf with bak. The second example renames all (*) files replacing one with ONE.
[paul@RHEL4a test]$ one.conf two.conf [paul@RHEL4a test]$ [paul@RHEL4a test]$ one.bak two.bak [paul@RHEL4a test]$ [paul@RHEL4a test]$ ONE.bak two.bak ls rename conf bak *.conf ls rename one ONE * ls
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3a. Download wolf.jpg and book.pdf from http://www.linux-training.be (wget http:// linux-training.be/files/studentfiles/wolf.jpg and wget http://linux-training.be/files/ books/LinuxFun.pdf)
wget http://linux-training.be/files/studentfiles/wolf.jpg wget http://linux-training.be/files/studentfiles/wolf.png wget http://linux-training.be/files/books/LinuxFun.pdf
9. Create a directory called ~/testbackup and copy all files from ~/touched in it.
mkdir ~/testbackup ; cp -r ~/touched ~/testbackup/
10. Use one command to remove the directory ~/testbackup and all files in it.
rm -rf ~/testbackup
11. Create a directory ~/etcbackup and copy all *.conf files from /etc in it. Did you include all subdirectories of /etc ? 31
12. Use rename to rename all *.conf files to *.backup . (if you have more than one distro available, try it on all!)
On RHEL: touch 1.conf 2.conf ; rename conf backup *.conf On Debian: touch 1.conf 2.conf ; rename 's/conf/backup/' *.conf
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The head command can also display the first n lines of a file.
paul@laika:~$ head -4 /etc/passwd root:x:0:0:root:/root:/bin/bash daemon:x:1:1:daemon:/usr/sbin:/bin/sh bin:x:2:2:bin:/bin:/bin/sh sys:x:3:3:sys:/dev:/bin/sh
5.1.2. tail
Similar to head, the tail command will display the last ten lines of a file.
paul@laika:~$ tail /etc/services vboxd 20012/udp
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You can give tail the number of lines you want to see.
$ tail -3 count.txt six seven eight
The tail command has other useful options, some of which we will use some of them during this course.
5.1.3. cat
The cat command is one of the most universal tools. All it does is copy standard input to standard output. In combination with the shell this can be very powerful and diverse. Some examples will give a glimpse into the possibilities. The first example is simple, you can use cat to display a file on the screen. If the file is longer than the screen, it will scroll to the end.
paul@laika:~$ cat /etc/resolv.conf nameserver 194.7.1.4 paul@laika:~$
concatenate
cat is short for concatenate. One of the basic uses of cat is to concatenate files into a bigger (or complete) file.
paul@laika:~$ paul@laika:~$ paul@laika:~$ paul@laika:~$ one two three paul@laika:~$ echo one > part1 echo two > part2 echo three > part3 cat part1 part2 part3
create files
You can use cat to create files with one or more lines of text. Type the command as shown in the screenshot below. Then type one or more lines, finishing each line with 34
Working with filecontents the enter key. After the last line, type and hold the Control (Ctrl) key and press d. The Ctrl d key combination will send an EOF (End of File) to the running process ending the cat command.
paul@laika:~/test$ cat > winter.txt It is very cold today! paul@laika:~/test$ cat winter.txt It is very cold today! paul@laika:~/test$
You can choose this end marker for cat with << as is shown in this screenshot.
paul@laika:~/test$ cat > hot.txt <<stop > It is hot today! > Yes it is summer. > stop paul@laika:~/test$ cat hot.txt It is hot today! Yes it is summer. paul@laika:~/test$
copy files
In the third example you will see that cat can be used to copy files. We will explain in detail what happens here in the bash shell chapter.
paul@laika:~/test$ cat winter.txt It is very cold today! paul@laika:~/test$ cat winter.txt > cold.txt paul@laika:~/test$ cat cold.txt It is very cold today! paul@laika:~/test$
5.1.4. tac
Just one example will show you the purpose of tac (as the opposite of cat).
paul@laika:~/test$ cat count one two three four paul@laika:~/test$ tac count four three two one paul@laika:~/test$
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5.1.6. strings
With the strings command you can display readable ascii strings found in (binary) files. This example locates the ls binary then displays readable strings in the binary file (output is truncated).
paul@laika:~$ which ls /bin/ls paul@laika:~$ strings /bin/ls /lib/ld-linux.so.2 librt.so.1 __gmon_start__ _Jv_RegisterClasses clock_gettime libacl.so.1 ...
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4. Use cp to make a backup of this file to cnt.txt. 5. Use cat to make a backup of this file to catcnt.txt 6. Display catcnt.txt, but with all lines in reverse order (the last line first). 7. Use more to display /var/log/messages. 8. Display the readable character strings from the /usr/bin/passwd command. 9. Use ls to find the biggest file in /etc.
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3. Use cat to create a file named count.txt that looks like this:
One Two Three Four Five
6. Display catcnt.txt, but with all lines in reverse order (the last line first).
tac catcnt.txt
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proc root
sbin selinux
srv sys
tftpboot tmp
usr var
/bin binaries
The /bin directory contains binaries for use by all users. According to the FHS the /bin directory should contain /bin/cat and /bin/date (among others). You will find a bin subdirectory in many other directories. Binaries are sometimes called executables. In the screenshot below you see common Unix/Linux commands like cat, cp, cpio, date, dd, echo, grep, and so on. Many of these will be covered in this book.
paul@laika:~$ ls /bin archdetect egrep autopartition false bash fgconsole bunzip2 fgrep bzcat fuser bzcmp fusermount bzdiff get_mountoptions bzegrep grep bzexe gunzip bzfgrep gzexe bzgrep gzip bzip2 hostname bzip2recover hw-detect bzless ip bzmore kbd_mode cat kill ...
mt mt-gnu mv nano nc nc.traditional netcat netstat ntfs-3g ntfs-3g.probe parted_devices parted_server partman partman-commit perform_recipe pidof
setupcon sh sh.distrib sleep stralign stty su sync sysfs tailf tar tempfile touch true ulockmgr umount
# # SATA or SCSI # paul@laika:~$ ls /dev/sd* /dev/sda /dev/sda1 /dev/sda2 # # IDE or ATAPI # paul@barry:~$ ls /dev/hd* /dev/hda /dev/hda1 /dev/hda2
/dev/sda3
/dev/sdb
/dev/sdb1
/dev/sdb2
/dev/hdb
/dev/hdb1
/dev/hdb2
/dev/hdc
Besides representing physical hardware, some device files are special. These special devices can be very useful. /dev/tty and /dev/pts For example, /dev/tty1 represents a terminal or console attached to the system. (Don't break your head on the exact terminology of 'terminal' or 'console', what we mean here is a command line interface.) When typing commands in a terminal that is part of a graphical interface like Gnome or KDE, then your terminal will be represented as /dev/pts/1 (1 can be another number). /dev/null On Linux you will find other special devices such as /dev/null which can be considered a black hole; it has unlimited storage, but nothing can be retrieved from it. Technically speaking, anything written to /dev/null will be discarded. /dev/null can be useful to discard unwanted output from commands. /dev/null is not a good location to store your backups ;-).
/etc/scrollkeeper.conf /etc/sysctl.conf /etc/syslog.conf /etc/ucf.conf /etc/uniconf.conf /etc/updatedb.conf /etc/usplash.conf /etc/uswsusp.conf /etc/vnc.conf /etc/wodim.conf /etc/wvdial.conf
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/etc/X11/ The graphical display (aka X Window System or just X) is driven by software from the X.org foundation. The configuration file for your graphical display is /etc/X11/ xorg.conf.
/etc/skel/ The skeleton directory /etc/skel is copied to the home directory of a newly created user. It usually contains hidden files like a .bashrc script.
/etc/sysconfig/ This directory, which is not mentioned in the FHS, contains a lot of Red Hat Enterprise Linux configuration files. We will discuss some of them in greater detail. The screenshot below is the /etc/sysconfig directory from RHELv4u4 with everything installed.
paul@RHELv4u4:~$ ls /etc/sysconfig/ apmd firstboot irda apm-scripts grub irqbalance authconfig hidd keyboard autofs httpd kudzu bluetooth hwconf lm_sensors clock i18n mouse console init mouse.B crond installinfo named desktop ipmi netdump diskdump iptables netdump_id_dsa dund iptables-cfg netdump_id_dsa.p paul@RHELv4u4:~$
network networking ntpd openib.conf pand pcmcia pgsql prelink rawdevices rhn samba
saslauthd selinux spamassassin squid syslog sys-config-sec sys-config-users sys-logviewer tux vncservers xinetd
The file /etc/sysconfig/firstboot tells the Red Hat Setup Agent not to run at boot time. If you want to run the Red Hat Setup Agent at the next reboot, then simply remove this file, and run chkconfig --level 5 firstboot on. The Red Hat Setup Agent allows you to install the latest updates, create a user account, join the Red Hat Network and more. It will then create the /etc/sysconfig/firstboot file again.
paul@RHELv4u4:~$ cat /etc/sysconfig/firstboot RUN_FIRSTBOOT=NO
The /etc/sysconfig/harddisks file contains some parameters to tune the hard disks. The file explains itself. You can see hardware detected by kudzu in /etc/sysconfig/hwconf. Kudzu is software from Red Hat for automatic discovery and configuration of hardware. 42
The Linux file system tree The keyboard type and keymap table are set in the /etc/sysconfig/keyboard file. For more console keyboard information, check the manual pages of keymaps(5), dumpkeys(1), loadkeys(1) and the directory /lib/kbd/keymaps/.
root@RHELv4u4:/etc/sysconfig# cat keyboard KEYBOARDTYPE="pc" KEYTABLE="us"
paul
tom
Besides giving every user (or every project or group) a location to store personal files, the home directory of a user also serves as a location to store the user profile. A typical Unix user profile contains many hidden files (files whose filename starts with a dot). The hidden files of the Unix user profiles contain settings specific for that user.
paul@pasha:~$ ls -d /home/paul/.* /home/paul/. /home/paul/.bash_profile /home/paul/.. /home/paul/.bashrc /home/paul/.bash_history /home/paul/.lesshst
/initrd
This empty directory is used as a mount point by Red Hat Enterprise Linux during boot time. Do not remove this directory, doing so causes a kernel panic during the next boot.
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The Linux file system tree /lib/modules Typically, the kernel loads kernel modules from /lib/modules/$kernel-version. This directory is discussed in detail in the Linux kernel chapter. /lib32 and /lib64 We currently are in a transition between 32-bit and 64-bit systems. Therefore, you may encounter directories named /lib32 and /lib64 which clarify the register size used during compilation time of the libraries. My current 64-bit laptop has some older 32bit binaries and libraries for compatibility with legacy applications. This screenshot uses the file utility to demonstrate the difference.
paul@laika:~$ file /lib32/libc-2.5.so /lib32/libc-2.5.so: ELF 32-bit LSB shared object, Intel 80386, \ version 1 (SYSV), for GNU/Linux 2.6.0, stripped paul@laika:~$ file /lib64/libcap.so.1.10 /lib64/libcap.so.1.10: ELF 64-bit LSB shared object, AMD x86-64, \ version 1 (SYSV), stripped
The ELF (Executable and Linkable Format) is used in almost every Unix-like operating system since System V.
The Linux file system tree wp, putting binaries in /opt/wp/bin and manpages in /opt/wp/man. Little, if any, of the default software which comes along with the distributions will be installed in /opt.
When listing the /proc directory, you will see many numbers (on any Unix), and some interesting files (on Linux)
mul@laika:~$ ls /proc 1 2339 4724 5418 10175 2523 4729 5421 10211 2783 4741 5658 10239 2975 4873 5661 141 29775 4874 5665 15045 29792 4878 5927 1519 2997 4879 6 1548 3 4881 6032 1551 30228 4882 6033 1554 3069 5 6145 1557 31422 5073 6298 1606 3149 5147 6414 180 31507 5203 6418 181 3189 5206 6419 182 3193 5228 6420 18898 3246 5272 6421 19799 3248 5291 6422 19803 3253 5294 6423 19804 3372 5356 6424 1987 4 5370 6425 1989 42 5379 6426 2 45 5380 6430 20845 4542 5412 6450 221 46 5414 6551 2338 4704 5416 6568
6587 6596 6599 6638 6652 6719 6736 6737 6755 6762 6774 6816 6991 6993 6996 7157 7163 7164 7171 7175 7188 7189 7191 7192 7199
7201 7204 7206 7214 7216 7218 7223 7224 7227 7260 7267 7275 7282 7298 7319 7330 7345 7513 7525 7529 9964 acpi asound buddyinfo bus
cmdline cpuinfo crypto devices diskstats dma driver execdomains fb filesystems fs ide interrupts iomem ioports irq kallsyms kcore key-users kmsg loadavg locks meminfo misc modules
mounts mtrr net pagetypeinfo partitions sched_debug scsi self slabinfo stat swaps sys sysrq-trigger sysvipc timer_list timer_stats tty uptime version version_signature vmcore vmnet vmstat zoneinfo
Let's investigate the file properties inside /proc. Looking at the date and time will display the current date and time showing the files are constantly updated (a view on the kernel).
paul@RHELv4u4:~$ date Mon Jan 29 18:06:32 EST 2007 paul@RHELv4u4:~$ ls -al /proc/cpuinfo -r--r--r-- 1 root root 0 Jan 29 18:06 /proc/cpuinfo paul@RHELv4u4:~$ paul@RHELv4u4:~$ ...time passes... paul@RHELv4u4:~$ paul@RHELv4u4:~$ date Mon Jan 29 18:10:00 EST 2007
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Most files in /proc are 0 bytes, yet they contain data--sometimes a lot of data. You can see this by executing cat on files like /proc/cpuinfo, which contains information about the CPU.
paul@RHELv4u4:~$ file /proc/cpuinfo /proc/cpuinfo: empty paul@RHELv4u4:~$ cat /proc/cpuinfo processor : 0 vendor_id : AuthenticAMD cpu family : 15 model : 43 model name : AMD Athlon(tm) 64 X2 Dual Core Processor 4600+ stepping : 1 cpu MHz : 2398.628 cache size : 512 KB fdiv_bug : no hlt_bug : no f00f_bug : no coma_bug : no fpu : yes fpu_exception : yes cpuid level : 1 wp : yes flags : fpu vme de pse tsc msr pae mce cx8 apic mtrr pge... bogomips : 4803.54
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Most of the files in /proc are read only, some require root privileges, some files are writable, and many files in /proc/sys are writable. Let's discuss some of the files in / proc. /proc/filesystems The /proc/filesystems file displays a list of supported file systems. When you mount a file system without explicitly defining one, then mount will first try to probe / etc/filesystems and then probe /proc/filesystems for all the filesystems without the nodev label. If /etc/filesystems ends with a line containing only an asterisk (*) then both files are probed.
paul@RHELv4u4:~$ cat /proc/filesystems nodev sysfs nodev rootfs nodev bdev nodev proc nodev sockfs nodev binfmt_misc nodev usbfs nodev usbdevfs nodev futexfs nodev tmpfs nodev pipefs nodev eventpollfs nodev devpts ext2 nodev ramfs nodev hugetlbfs iso9660 nodev relayfs nodev mqueue nodev selinuxfs ext3 nodev rpc_pipefs nodev vmware-hgfs nodev autofs paul@RHELv4u4:~$
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timer i8042 parport0 rtc acpi i8042 libata libata yenta eth0 libata, ohci1394 ehci_hcd:usb1, uhci_hcd:usb2 saa7133[0], saa7133[0] nvidia
/proc/kcore The physical memory is represented in /proc/kcore. Do not try to cat this file, instead use a debugger. The size of /proc/kcore is the same as your physical memory, plus four bytes.
paul@laika:~$ ls -lh /proc/kcore -r-------- 1 root root 2.0G 2007-01-30 08:57 /proc/kcore paul@laika:~$
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platform
pnp
scsi
serio
usb
/sys/class: firmware i2c-adapter input misc netlink printer scsi_device tty graphics i2c-dev mem net pci_bus raw scsi_host usb /sys/devices: pci0000:00 platform /sys/firmware: acpi /sys/module: ac dm_mirror autofs4 dm_mod battery dm_snapshot button dm_zero
system
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50
dd will copy one times (count=1) a block of size 100 bytes (bs=100) from the file / dev/zero to ~/test/zeroes.txt. Can you describe the functionality of /dev/zero ? 4. Now issue the following command:
dd if=/dev/random of=random.txt count=1 bs=100 ; od random.txt
dd will copy one times (count=1) a block of size 100 bytes (bs=100) from the file / dev/random to ~/test/random.txt. Can you describe the functionality of /dev/random ? 5. Issue the following two commands, and look at the first character of each output line.
ls -l /dev/sd* /dev/hd* ls -l /dev/tty* /dev/input/mou*
The first ls will show block(b) devices, the second ls shows character(c) devices. Can you tell the difference between block and character devices ? 6. Use cat to display /etc/hosts and /etc/resolv.conf. What is your idea about the purpose of these files ? 7. Are there any files in /etc/skel/ ? Check also for hidden files. 8. Display /proc/cpuinfo. On what architecture is your Linux running ? 9. Display /proc/interrupts. What is the size of this file ? Where is this file stored ? 10. Can you enter the /root directory ? Are there (hidden) files ? 11. Are ifconfig, fdisk, parted, shutdown and grub-install present in /sbin ? Why are these binaries in /sbin and not in /bin ? 12. Is /var/log a file or a directory ? What about /var/spool ? 13. Open two command prompts (Ctrl-Shift-T in gnome-terminal) or terminals (CtrlAlt-F1, Ctrl-Alt-F2, ...) and issue the who am i in both. Then try to echo a word from one terminal to the other. 51
The Linux file system tree 14. Read the man page of random and explain the difference between /dev/random and /dev/urandom.
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dd will copy one times (count=1) a block of size 100 bytes (bs=100) from the file / dev/zero to ~/test/zeroes.txt. Can you describe the functionality of /dev/zero ? /dev/zero is a Linux special device. It can be considered a source of zeroes. You cannot send something to /dev/zero, but you can read zeroes from it. 4. Now issue the following command:
dd if=/dev/random of=random.txt count=1 bs=100 ; od random.txt
dd will copy one times (count=1) a block of size 100 bytes (bs=100) from the file / dev/random to ~/test/random.txt. Can you describe the functionality of /dev/random ? /dev/random acts as a random number generator on your Linux machine. 5. Issue the following two commands, and look at the first character of each output line.
ls -l /dev/sd* /dev/hd* ls -l /dev/tty* /dev/input/mou*
The first ls will show block(b) devices, the second ls shows character(c) devices. Can you tell the difference between block and character devices ? Block devices are always written to (or read from) in blocks. For hard disks, blocks of 512 bytes are common. Character devices act as a stream of characters (or bytes). Mouse and keyboard are typical character devices. 6. Use cat to display /etc/hosts and /etc/resolv.conf. What is your idea about the purpose of these files ? 53
7. Are there any files in /etc/skel/ ? Check also for hidden files.
Issue "ls -al /etc/skel/". Yes, there should be hidden files there.
9. Display /proc/interrupts. What is the size of this file ? Where is this file stored ? The size is zero, yet the file contains data. It is not stored anywhere because /proc is a virtual file system that allows you to talk with the kernel. (If you answered "stored in RAM-memory, that is also correct...). 10. Can you enter the /root directory ? Are there (hidden) files ?
Try "cd /root". Yes there are (hidden) files there.
11. Are ifconfig, fdisk, parted, shutdown and grub-install present in /sbin ? Why are these binaries in /sbin and not in /bin ?
Because those files are only meant for system administrators.
13. Open two command prompts (Ctrl-Shift-T in gnome-terminal) or terminals (CtrlAlt-F1, Ctrl-Alt-F2, ...) and issue the who am i in both. Then try to echo a word from one terminal to the other.
tty-terminal: echo Hello > /dev/tty1 pts-terminal: echo Hello > /dev/pts/1
14. Read the man page of random and explain the difference between /dev/random and /dev/urandom.
man 4 random
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7.1.3. type
To find out whether a command given to the shell will be executed as an external command or as a built-in command, use the type command.
paul@laika:~$ type cd cd is a shell builtin paul@laika:~$ type cat cat is /bin/cat
You can also use this command to show you whether the command is aliased or not.
paul@laika:~$ type ls ls is aliased to `ls --color=auto'
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7.1.5. which
The which command will search for binaries in the PATH environment variable. (Variables will be explained later.) In the screenshot below, it is determined that cd is built-in, and ls, cp, rm, mv, mkdir, pwd, and which are external commands.
[root@RHEL4b ~]# which cp ls mv rm cd mkdir pwd which /bin/cp /bin/ls /bin/mv /bin/rm /usr/bin/which: no cd in (/usr/kerberos/sbin:/usr/kerberos/bin:... /bin/mkdir /bin/pwd /usr/bin/which
7.1.6. alias
create an alias
The shell allows you to create aliases. Aliases are often used to create an easier to remember name for an existing command or to easily supply parameters.
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ cat count.txt one two three [paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ alias dog=tac [paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ dog count.txt three two one
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abbreviate commands
An alias can also be useful to abbreviate an existing command.
paul@laika:~$ alias ll='ls -lh --color=auto' paul@laika:~$ alias c='clear' paul@laika:~$
default options
Aliases can be used to supply commands with default options. The example below shows how to set the -i option default when typing rm.
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ rm: remove regular [paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ [paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ ls: winter.txt: No [paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ [paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ [paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ rm: remove regular [paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ rm -i winter.txt file `winter.txt'? no rm winter.txt ls winter.txt such file or directory touch winter.txt alias rm='rm -i' rm winter.txt empty file `winter.txt'? no
Some distributions enable default aliases to protect users from accidentally erasing files ('rm -i', 'mv -i', 'cp -i')
viewing aliases
You can provide one or more aliases as arguments to the alias command to get their definitions. Providing no arguments gives a complete list of current aliases.
paul@laika:~$ alias c ll alias c='clear' alias ll='ls -lh --color=auto'
unalias
You can undo an alias with the unalias command.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ /bin/rm [paul@RHEL4b ~]$ [paul@RHEL4b ~]$ alias rm='rm -i' /bin/rm [paul@RHEL4b ~]$ [paul@RHEL4b ~]$ /bin/rm which rm alias rm='rm -i' which rm
unalias rm which rm
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7.1.7. echo
This book frequently uses the echo command to demonstrate shell features. The echo command echoes the input that it receives.
paul@laika:~$ echo Burtonville Burtonville paul@laika:~$ echo Smurfs are blue Smurfs are blue
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To list all the set options for your shell, use echo $-. The noclobber (or -C) option will be explained later in this book (in the I/O redirection chapter).
[paul@RHEL4b himBH [paul@RHEL4b [paul@RHEL4b himuBCH [paul@RHEL4b [paul@RHEL4b himBH [paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo $~]$ set -C ; set -u ~]$ echo $~]$ set +C ; set +u ~]$ echo $~]$
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60
3. Read the man page of rm, make sure you understand the -i option of rm. Create and remove a file to test the -i option.
man rm touch testfile rm -i testfile
4. Execute: alias rm='rm -i' . Test your alias with a test file. Does this work as expected ?
touch testfile rm testfile (should ask for confirmation)
12. What is the location of the cat and the passwd commands ? 61
The echo command will be interpreted by the shell as the built-in echo command. The /bin/echo command will make the shell execute the echo binary located in the /bin directory. 14. Explain the difference between the following commands:
echo Hello echo -n Hello
The -n option of the echo command will prevent echo from echoing a trailing newline. echo Hello will echo six characters in total, echo -n hello only echoes five characters. The -n option might not work in the Korn shell.
62
~]$
sleep 20
The technical explanation of what happens in this case is explained in the chapter about processes. 63
Another example of the same logical AND principle. This example starts with a working cd followed by ls, then a non-working cd which is not followed by ls.
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ cd gen && ls file1 file3 File55 fileab FileAB fileabc file2 File4 FileA Fileab fileab2 [paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ cd gen && ls -bash: cd: gen: No such file or directory [paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$
paul@laika:~/test$ rm file1 && echo It worked! || echo It failed! It worked! paul@laika:~/test$ rm file1 && echo It worked! || echo It failed! rm: cannot remove `file1': No such file or directory It failed! paul@laika:~/test$
65
66
8. Use echo to display "Hello World with strange' characters \ * [ } ~ \\ ." (including all quotes)
echo \"Hello World with strange\' characters \\ \* \[ \} \~ \\\\ \. \" or echo \""Hello World with strange' characters \ * [ } ~ \\ . "\"
10. Echo it worked when touch test42 works, and echo it failed when the touch failed. All on one command line as a normal user (not root). Test this line in your home directory and in /bin/ .
paul@deb503:~$ cd ; touch test42 && echo it worked || echo it failed it worked paul@deb503:~$ cd /bin; touch test42 && echo it worked || echo it failed touch: cannot touch `test42': Permission denied it failed
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9.1.3. $PS1
The $PS1 variable determines your shell prompt. You can use backslash escaped special characters like \u for the username or \w for the working directory. The bash manual has a complete reference. 68
Shell variables In this example we change the value of $PS1 a couple of times.
paul@deb503:~$ PS1=prompt prompt promptPS1='prompt ' prompt prompt PS1='> ' > > PS1='\u@\h$ ' paul@deb503$ paul@deb503$ PS1='\u@\h:\W$' paul@deb503:~$
9.1.4. $PATH
The $PATH variable is very important, it determines where the shell is looking for commands to execute (unless the command is built-in). The shell will not look in the current directory for commands to execute! (Looking for executables in the current directory provided an easy way to crack DOS computers). If you want the shell to look in the current directory, then add a . to your path.
[[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo $PATH /usr/kerberos/bin:/usr/local/bin:/bin:/usr/bin: [paul@RHEL4b ~]$ PATH=$PATH:. [paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo $PATH /usr/kerberos/bin:/usr/local/bin:/bin:/usr/bin:. [paul@RHEL4b ~]$
Your path might be different when using su instead of su - because the latter will take on the environment of the target user. The root user will have some sbin directories added to the PATH variable.
[paul@RHEL3 ~]$ su Password: [root@RHEL3 paul]# echo $PATH /usr/local/bin:/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin [root@RHEL3 paul]# exit [paul@RHEL3 ~]$ su Password: [root@RHEL3 ~]# echo $PATH /usr/local/sbin:/usr/local/bin:/sbin:/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin: [root@RHEL3 ~]#
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Shell variables
0 paul@laika:~/test$ rm file1 ; echo $? rm: cannot remove `file1': No such file or directory 1
There is, however, the nounset shell attribute that you can use to generate an error when a variable does not exist.
paul@laika:~$ set -u paul@laika:~$ echo $Myvar bash: Myvar: unbound variable paul@laika:~$ set +u paul@laika:~$ echo $Myvar paul@laika:~$
In the bash shell set -u is identical to set -o nounset and likewise set +u is identical to set +o nounset.
9.1.8. set
You can use the set command to display a list of environment variables. On Ubuntu and Debian systems, the set command will also list shell functions after the shell variables. Use set | more to see the variables then.
9.1.9. unset
Use the unset command to remove a variable from your shell environment. 70
Shell variables
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ MyVar=8472 [paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo $MyVar;unset MyVar;echo $MyVar 8472 [paul@RHEL4b ~]$
9.1.10. env
The env command without options will display a list of exported variables. But env can also be used to start a clean shell (a shell without any inherited environment). The env -i command clears the environment for the subshell. Notice in this screenshot that bash will set the $SHELL variable on startup.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ bash -c 'echo $SHELL $HOME $USER' /bin/bash /home/paul paul [paul@RHEL4b ~]$ env -i bash -c 'echo $SHELL $HOME $USER' /bin/bash [paul@RHEL4b ~]$
You can also use the env command to set the $LANG, or any other, variable for just one instance of bash with one command. The example below uses this to show the influence of the $LANG variable on file globbing (see the chapter on shell file globbing).
[paul@RHEL4b test]$ env LANG=C bash -c 'ls File[a-z]' Filea Fileb [paul@RHEL4b test]$ env LANG=en_US.UTF-8 bash -c 'ls File[a-z]' Filea FileA Fileb FileB [paul@RHEL4b test]$
But it will not export to the parent shell (previous screenshot continued).
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ export var5=five
71
Shell variables
[paul@RHEL4b four five [paul@RHEL4b exit [paul@RHEL4b three four [paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo $var3 $var4 $var5 ~]$ exit ~]$ echo $var3 $var4 $var5 ~]$
The bash shell will replace variables with their value in double quoted lines, but not in single quoted lines.
paul@laika:~$ city=Burtonville paul@laika:~$ echo "We are in $city today." We are in Burtonville today. paul@laika:~$ echo 'We are in $city today.' We are in $city today.
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Shell variables
73
Shell variables
You will notice that set displays all variables, whereas env does not. 6. Destroy your variable.
unset MyVar
7. Find the list of shell options in the man page of bash. What is the difference between "set -u" and "set -o nounset" ? read the manual of bash (man bash), search for nounset -- both mean the same thing. 8. Create two variables, and export one of them.
var1=1; export var2=2
10. Create a variable, give it the value 'Dumb', create another variable with value 'do'. Use echo and the two variables to echo Dumbledore.
varx=Dumb; vary=do echo ${varx}le${vary}re solution by Yves from Dexia : echo $varx'le'$vary're' solution by Erwin from Telenet : echo "$varx"le"$vary"re
11. Activate nounset in your shell. Test that it shows an error message when using non-existing variables.
set -u
74
Shell variables
set -o nounset
Both these lines have the same effect (read the manual of bash, search for nounset). 12. Deactivate nounset.
set +u set +o nounset
13. Find the list of backslash escaped characters in the manual of bash. Add the time to your PS1 prompt.
PS1='\t \u@\h$ '
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The echo command will display each argument it receives from the shell. The echo command will also add a new whitespace between the arguments it received. It is important for troubleshooting any script to know that the shell cuts your command line in distinct arguments.
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Shell arguments
The only difference between single and double quotes is the parsing of shell variables. You can already see the difference in this screenshot.
paul@laika:~$ echo 'My user is $USER' My user is $USER paul@laika:~$ echo "My user is $USER" My user is paul
~]$ echo -e "A line with \ta tab" a tab ~]$ echo -e 'A line with \ta tab' a tab ~]$
The echo command can generate more than white spaces, tabs and newlines. Look in the man page for a list of options (and remember that echo may be both built-in and external).
Shell arguments
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ echo $var1 [paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ echo $(var1=5;echo $var1) 5 [paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ echo $var1 [paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$
You can embed a shell in an embedded shell, this is called nested embedding of shells. This screenshot shows an embedded shell inside an embedded shell.
paul@deb503:~$ A=shell paul@deb503:~$ echo $C$B$A $(B=sub;echo $C$B$A; echo $(A=sub;echo $C$B$A)) shell subshell subsub
78
Shell arguments
4. Use one echo command to display three words on three lines. 5. Execute cd /var and ls in an embedded shell. 6. Create the variable embvar in an embedded shell and echo it. Does the variable exist in your current shell now ? 7. Explain what "set -x" does. Can this be useful ? 8. Given the following screenshot, add exactly four characters to that command line so that the total output is FirstMiddleLast.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo First Middle Last First; echo Middle; echo Last
9. Display a long listing (ls -l) of the passwd command using the which command inside back ticks.
79
Shell arguments
2. Complete the following command (do not use spaces) to display exactly the following output:
4+4 10+14 =8 =24
The echo command is only needed to show the result of the ls command. Omitting will result in the shell trying to execute the first file as a command. 6. Create the variable embvar in an embedded shell and echo it. Does the variable exist in your current shell now ?
$(embvar=emb;echo $embvar) ; echo $embvar (the last echo fails). $embvar does not exist in your current shell
8. Given the following screenshot, add exactly four characters to that command line so that the total output is FirstMiddleLast.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo First Middle Last First; echo Middle; echo Last
9. Display a long listing (ls -l) of the passwd command using the which command inside back ticks.
ls -l `which passwd`
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The $HISTFILE (defaults to .sh_history in the home directory) and $HISTSIZE variables are also used by the Korn shell (ksh).
$ set | grep -i hist HISTSIZE=5000
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Shell history
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$
You can also use bang followed by one or more characters, bash will then repeat the last command that started with those characters. But this can be very dangerous, you have to be certain that the last command in your current shell history that starts with those characters is the command you wish to execute.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ ls file4 file4 [paul@RHEL4b ~]$ !ls ls file4 file4
You can also use a colon followed by a regular expression to manipulate the previous command.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ !ls:s/4/5 ls file5 file5
The history command can also receive a value indicating the number of the most recent history lines to display.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ history 4 422 ls file4 423 ls file4 424 ls file5 425 history 4 [paul@RHEL4b ~]$
Repeating with r can be combined with the line numbers given by the history command, or with the first few letters of the command.
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Shell history
$ r e echo world world $ cd /etc $ r cd /etc $
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fileab
Fileab
FileAB
fileabc
FileA
fileab
Fileab
FileAB
fileabc
84
Shell globbing
fileabc
You can also exclude characters from a list between square brackets with the exclamation mark !. And you are allowed to make combinations of these wild cards.
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ file1 file2 file3 [paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ fileab [paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ file1 file2 file3 [paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ fileab [paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ ls File4 File55 FileA ls file[a5][!Z] ls file[!5]* fileab fileabc ls file[!5]?
fileab
Fileab
FileAB
fileabc
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Shell globbing
86
Shell globbing
Shell globbing 21. Open more than one console (press Ctrl-shift-t in gnome terminal) with the same user account. When is command history written to the history file ? 22. Issue the date command. Now display the date in YYYY/MM/DD format. 23. Issue the cal command. Display a calendar of 1582 and 1752. Notice anything special ?
88
Shell globbing
2. Create files file1 file10 file11 file2 File2 File3 file33 fileAB filea fileA fileAAA file( file 2 (the last one has 6 characters including a space)
touch touch touch touch file1 file10 file11 file2 File2 File3 file33 fileAB filea fileA fileAAA "file(" "file 2"
5. List (with ls) all files starting with file and ending in a number.
ls file*[0-9]
6. List (with ls) all files starting with file and ending with a letter
ls file*[a-z]
7. List (with ls) all files starting with File and having a digit as fifth character.
ls File[0-9]*
8. List (with ls) all files starting with File and having a digit as fifth character and nothing else.
ls File[0-9]
9. List (with ls) all files starting with a letter and ending in a number.
ls [a-z]*[0-9]
10. List (with ls) all files that have exactly five characters.
ls ?????
11. List (with ls) all files that start with f or F and end with 3 or A.
ls [fF]*[3A]
12. List (with ls) all files that start with f have i or R as second character and end in a number.
ls f[iR]*[0-9]
13. List all files that do not start with the letter F. 89
Shell globbing
ls [!F]*
16. Write a command line that executes 'rm file55'. Your command line should print 'success' if file55 is removed, and print 'failed' if there was a problem.
rm file55 && echo success || echo failed
17. You receive information that one of your servers was cracked, the cracker probably replaced the ls command. You know that the echo command is safe to use. Can echo replace ls ? How can you list the files in the current directory with echo ?
echo *
18. The cd command is also compromised, can echo be used to list files in other directories ? Explain how this works (list the contents of /etc and /bin without ls).
echo /etc/* # the shell expands the directory for you echo /bin/*
20. Make sure bash remembers the last 5000 commands you typed.
HISTSIZE=5000
21. Open more than one console (press Ctrl-shift-t in gnome terminal) with the same user account. When is command history written to the history file ?
when you type exit
22. Issue the date command. Now display the date in YYYY/MM/DD format.
date +%Y/%m/%d
23. Issue the cal command. Display a calendar of 1582 and 1752. Notice anything special ?
cal 1582
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Let me repeat myself here: While scanning the line, the shell will see the > sign and will clear the file! This means that even when the command fails, the file will be cleared!
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ cat winter.txt It is cold today! [paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ zcho It is cold today! > winter.txt -bash: zcho: command not found [paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ cat winter.txt [paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$
Note that the > notation is in fact the abbreviation of 1> (stdout being referred to as stream 1. 91
13.1.3. noclobber
Erasing a file while using > can be prevented by setting the noclobber option.
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ It is cold today! [paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ [paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ -bash: winter.txt: [paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ [paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ cat winter.txt set -o noclobber echo It is cold today! > winter.txt cannot overwrite existing file set +o noclobber
13.1.6. 2>&1
To redirect both stdout and stderr to the same file, use 2>&1.
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Note that the order of redirections is significant. For example, the command
ls > dirlist 2>&1
directs both standard output (file descriptor 1) and standard error (file descriptor 2) to the file dirlist, while the command
ls 2>&1 > dirlist
directs only the standard output to file dirlist, because the standard error was made a copy of the standard output before the standard output was redirected to dirlist.
And what is the quickest way to clear a file when the noclobber option is set ?
>|bar
This Tower Of Hanoi like construction uses a temporary stream 3, to be able to swap stdout (1) and stderr (2). The following is an example of how to filter out all lines in the stderr stream, containing $uninterestingerror.
$command 3>&1 1>&2 2>&3 | grep -v $error 3>&1 1>&2 2>&3
But in this example, it can be done in a much shorter way, by using a pipe on STDERR:
/usr/bin/$somecommand |& grep -v $uninterestingerror
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4. When listing all shell options, which character represents the noclobber option ?
echo $- (noclobber is visible as C)
6. Make sure you have two shells open on the same computer. Create an empty tailing.txt file. Then type tail -f tailing.txt. Use the second shell to append a line of text to that file. Verify that the first shell displays this line.
paul@deb503:~$ > tailing.txt paul@deb503:~$ tail -f tailing.txt hello world in the other shell: paul@deb503:~$ echo hello >> tailing.txt paul@deb503:~$ echo world >> tailing.txt
7. Create a file that contains the names of five people. Use cat and output redirection to create the file and use a here document to end the input.
paul@deb503:~$ cat > tennis.txt << ace > Justine Henin > Venus Williams > Serena Williams > Martina Hingis > Kim Clijsters > ace paul@deb503:~$ cat tennis.txt Justine Henin Venus Williams Serena Williams Martina Hingis Kim Clijsters paul@deb503:~$
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14.1. pipes
14.1.1. about pipes
One of the most powerful advantages of Linux is the use of pipes. A pipe takes stdout from the previous command and sends it as stdin to the next command. All commands in a pipe run simultaneously.
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14.2. filters
14.2.1. about filters
Tools that are written to be used with a pipe are often called filters. These filters are very small programs (or tools) that do one specific thing very efficiently. They can be used as building blocks for solutions.
14.2.3. tee
Writing long pipes in Unix is fun, but sometimes you might want intermediate results. This is were tee comes in handy. The tee filter puts stdin on stdout and also into a file. So tee is almost the same as cat, except that it has two identical outputs.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ tac count.txt | tee temp.txt | tac one two three four five [paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ cat temp.txt five four three two one [paul@RHEL4b pipes]$
14.2.4. grep
The grep filter is famous among Unix users. The most common use of grep is to filter lines of text containing (or not containing) a certain string.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ cat tennis.txt Amelie Mauresmo, Fra Kim Clijsters, BEL
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One of the most useful options of grep is grep -i which filters in a case insensitive way.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ grep Bel tennis.txt Justine Henin, Bel [paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ grep -i Bel tennis.txt Kim Clijsters, BEL Justine Henin, Bel [paul@RHEL4b pipes]$
Another very useful option is grep -v which outputs lines not matching the string.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ grep -v Fra tennis.txt Kim Clijsters, BEL Justine Henin, Bel Serena Williams, usa Venus Williams, USA [paul@RHEL4b pipes]$
And of course, both options can be combined to filter all lines not containing a case insensitive string.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ grep -vi usa tennis.txt Amelie Mauresmo, Fra Kim Clijsters, BEL Justine Henin, Bel [paul@RHEL4b pipes]$
With grep -A1 one line after the result is also displayed.
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ grep -A1 Henin tennis.txt Justine Henin, Bel Serena Williams, usa
With grep -B1 one line before the result is also displayed.
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ grep -B1 Henin tennis.txt Kim Clijsters, BEL
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With grep -C1 (context) one line before and one after are also displayed. All three options (A,B, and C) can display any number of lines (using e.g. A2, B4 or C20).
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ grep -C1 Henin tennis.txt Kim Clijsters, BEL Justine Henin, Bel Serena Williams, usa
14.2.5. cut
The cut filter can select columns from files, depending on a delimiter or a count of bytes. The screenshot below uses cut to filter for the username and userid in the /etc/ passwd file. It uses the colon as a delimiter, and selects fields 1 and 3.
[[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ cut -d: -f1,3 /etc/passwd | tail -4 Figo:510 Pfaff:511 Harry:516 Hermione:517 [paul@RHEL4b pipes]$
When using a space as the delimiter for cut, you have to quote the space.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ cut -d" " -f1 tennis.txt Amelie Kim Justine Serena Venus [paul@RHEL4b pipes]$
This example uses cut to display the second to the seventh character of /etc/passwd.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ cut -c2-7 /etc/passwd | tail -4 igo:x: faff:x arry:x ermion [paul@RHEL4b pipes]$
14.2.6. tr
You can translate characters with tr. The screenshot shows the translation of all occurrences of e to E.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ cat tennis.txt | tr 'e' 'E'
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The tr -s filter can also be used to squeeze multiple occurrences of a character to one.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ cat spaces.txt one two three four five six [paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ cat spaces.txt | tr -s ' ' one two three four five six [paul@RHEL4b pipes]$
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ cat tennis.txt | tr -d e Amli Maursmo, Fra Kim Clijstrs, BEL Justin Hnin, Bl Srna Williams, usa Vnus Williams, USA
14.2.7. wc
Counting words, lines and characters is easy with wc.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ wc 5 15 100 tennis.txt [paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ wc 5 tennis.txt [paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ wc 15 tennis.txt [paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ wc 100 tennis.txt [paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ tennis.txt -l tennis.txt -w tennis.txt -c tennis.txt
14.2.8. sort
The sort filter will default to an alphabetical sort.
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ cat music.txt Queen Brel Led Zeppelin Abba paul@deb503:~/pipes$ sort music.txt Abba Brel Led Zeppelin Queen
But the sort filter has many options to tweak its usage. This example shows sorting different columns (column 1 or column 2).
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ sort -k1 country.txt Belgium, Brussels, 10 France, Paris, 60 Germany, Berlin, 100 Iran, Teheran, 70 Italy, Rome, 50 [paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ sort -k2 country.txt Germany, Berlin, 100 Belgium, Brussels, 10 France, Paris, 60 Italy, Rome, 50 Iran, Teheran, 70
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Pipes and filters The screenshot below shows the difference between an alphabetical sort and a numerical sort (both on the third column).
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ sort -k3 country.txt Belgium, Brussels, 10 Germany, Berlin, 100 Italy, Rome, 50 France, Paris, 60 Iran, Teheran, 70 [paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ sort -n -k3 country.txt Belgium, Brussels, 10 Italy, Rome, 50 France, Paris, 60 Iran, Teheran, 70 Germany, Berlin, 100
14.2.9. uniq
With uniq you can remove duplicates from a sorted list.
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ cat music.txt Queen Brel Queen Abba paul@deb503:~/pipes$ sort music.txt Abba Brel Queen Queen paul@deb503:~/pipes$ sort music.txt |uniq Abba Brel Queen
14.2.10. comm
Comparing streams (or files) can be done with the comm. By default comm will output three columns. In this example, Abba, Cure and Queen are in both lists, Bowie and Sweet are only in the first file, Turner is only in the second.
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ cat > list1.txt Abba Bowie
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The output of comm can be easier to read when outputting only a single column. The digits point out which output columns should not be displayed.
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ comm -12 list1.txt list2.txt Abba Cure Queen paul@deb503:~/pipes$ comm -13 list1.txt list2.txt Turner paul@deb503:~/pipes$ comm -23 list1.txt list2.txt Bowie Sweet
14.2.11. od
European humans like to work with ascii characters, but computers store files in bytes. The example below creates a simple file, and then uses od to show the contents of the file in hexadecimal bytes, in octal bytes and in ascii (or backslashed) characters.
paul@laika:~/test$ cat > text.txt abcdefg 1234567 paul@laika:~/test$ od -t x1 text.txt 0000000 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 0a 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 0a 0000020 paul@laika:~/test$ od -b text.txt 0000000 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 012 061 062 063 064 065 066 067 012 0000020 paul@laika:~/test$ od -c text.txt 0000000 a b c d e f g \n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 \n 0000020 paul@laika:~/test$
14.2.12. sed
The stream editor sed can perform editing functions in the stream, using regular expressions. 104
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ echo level5 | sed 's/5/42/' level42 paul@deb503:~/pipes$ echo level5 | sed 's/level/jump/' jump5
Add g for global replacements (all occurrences of the string per line).
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ echo level5 level7 | sed 's/level/jump/' jump5 level7 paul@deb503:~/pipes$ echo level5 level7 | sed 's/level/jump/g' jump5 jump7
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Display a sorted list of logged on users, but every user only once.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ who | cut -d' ' -f1 | sort | uniq Harry paul root
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3. Make a list of all files in /etc that contain the string samba.
ls /etc | grep samba
4. Make a sorted list of all files in /etc that contain the case insensitive string samba.
ls /etc | grep -i samba | sort
5. Look at the output of /sbin/ifconfig. Write a line that displays only ip address and the subnet mask.
/sbin/ifconfig | head -2 | grep 'inet ' | tr -s ' ' | cut -d' ' -f3,5
7. Write a line that receives a textfile, and outputs all words on a separate line.
paul@deb503:~$ cat text2 it is very cold today without the sun paul@deb503:~$ cat text2 | tr ' ' '\n' it is very cold today without the sun
8. Write a spell checker on the command line. (There might be a dictionary in /usr/ share/dict/ .)
paul@rhel ~$ echo "The zun is shining today" > text paul@rhel ~$ cat > DICT is shining sun the today
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paul@rhel ~$ cat text | tr 'A-Z ' 'a-z\n' | sort | uniq | comm -23 - DICT zun
You could also add the solution from question number 6 to remove non-letters, and tr -s ' ' to remove redundant spaces.
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Find all files of the entire system and put the list in allfiles.txt
find / > allfiles.txt
Find files that end in .conf in the current directory (and all subdirs).
find . -name "*.conf"
Find files of type file (not directory, pipe or etc.) that end in .conf.
find . -type f -name "*.conf"
Find can also execute another command on every file found. This example will look for *.odf files and copy them to /backup/.
find /data -name "*.odf" -exec cp {} /backup/ \;
Find can also execute, after your confirmation, another command on every file found. This example will remove *.odf files if you approve of it for every file found.
find /data -name "*.odf" -ok rm {} \;
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15.1.2. locate
The locate tool is very different from find in that it uses an index to locate files. This is a lot faster than traversing all the directories, but it also means that it is always outdated. If the index does not exist yet, then you have to create it (as root on Red Hat Enterprise Linux) with the updatedb command.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ locate Samba warning: locate: could not open database: /var/lib/slocate/slocate.db:... warning: You need to run the 'updatedb' command (as root) to create th... Please have a look at /etc/updatedb.conf to enable the daily cron job. [paul@RHEL4b ~]$ updatedb fatal error: updatedb: You are not authorized to create a default sloc... [paul@RHEL4b ~]$ su Password: [root@RHEL4b ~]# updatedb [root@RHEL4b ~]#
Most Linux distributions will schedule the updatedb to run once every day.
15.1.3. date
The date command can display the date, time, timezone and more.
paul@rhel55 ~$ date Sat Apr 17 12:44:30 CEST 2010
A date string can be customized to display the format of your choice. Check the man page for more options.
paul@rhel55 ~$ date +'%A %d-%m-%Y' Saturday 17-04-2010
Time on any Unix is calculated in number of seconds since 1969 (the first second being the first second of the first of January 1970). Use date +%s to display Unix time in seconds.
paul@rhel55 ~$ date +%s 1271501080
15.1.4. cal
The cal command displays the current month, with the current day highlighted.
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15.1.5. sleep
The sleep command is sometimes used in scripts to wait a number of seconds. This example shows a five second sleep.
paul@rhel55 ~$ sleep 5 paul@rhel55 ~$
15.1.6. time
The time command can display how long it takes to execute a command. The date command takes only a little time.
paul@rhel55 ~$ time date Sat Apr 17 13:08:27 CEST 2010 real user sys 0m0.014s 0m0.008s 0m0.006s
The sleep 5 command takes five real seconds to execute, but consumes little cpu time.
paul@rhel55 ~$ time sleep 5 real user sys 0m5.018s 0m0.005s 0m0.011s
This bzip2 command compresses a file and uses a lot of cpu time.
paul@rhel55 ~$ time bzip2 text.txt
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2. Explain the difference between these two statements. Will they both work when there are 200 .odf files in /data ? How about when there are 2 million .odf files ?
find /data -name "*.odf" > data_odf.txt find /data/*.odf > data_odf.txt
3. Write a find command that finds all files created after January 30th 2010. 4. Write a find command that finds all *.odf files created in September 2009. 5. Count the number of *.conf files in /etc and all its subdirs. 6. Two commands that do the same thing: copy *.odf files to /backup/ . What would be a reason to replace the first command with the second ? Again, this is an important question.
cp -r /data/*.odf /backup/ find /data -name "*.odf" -exec cp {} /backup/ \;
7. Create a file called loctest.txt. Can you find this file with locate ? Why not ? How do you make locate find this file ? 8. Use find and -exec to rename all .htm files to .html.
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When *.txt is quoted then the shell will not touch it. The find tool will look in the /data for all files ending in .txt. When *.txt is not quoted then the shell might expand this (when one or more files that ends in .txt exist in the current directory). The find might show a different result, or can result in a syntax error. 2. Explain the difference between these two statements. Will they both work when there are 200 .odf files in /data ? How about when there are 2 million .odf files ?
find /data -name "*.odf" > data_odf.txt find /data/*.odf > data_odf.txt
The first find will output all .odf filenames in /data and all subdirectories. The shell will redirect this to a file. The second find will output all files named .odf in /data and will also output all files that exist in directories named *.odf (in /data). With two million files the command line would be expanded beyond the maximum that the shell can accept. The last part of the command line would be lost. 3. Write a find command that finds all files created after January 30th 2010.
touch -t 201001302359 marker_date find . -type f -newer marker_date There is another solution : find . -type f -newerat "20100130 23:59:59"
4. Write a find command that finds all *.odf files created in September 2009.
touch -t 200908312359 marker_start touch -t 200910010000 marker_end find . -type f -name "*.odf" -newer marker_start ! -newer marker_end
The exclamation mark ! -newer can be read as not newer. 5. Count the number of *.conf files in /etc and all its subdirs.
find /etc -type f -name '*.conf' | wc -l
6. Two commands that do the same thing: copy *.odf files to /backup/ . What would be a reason to replace the first command with the second ? Again, this is an important question.
cp -r /data/*.odf /backup/
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The first might fail when there are too many files to fit on one command line. 7. Create a file called loctest.txt. Can you find this file with locate ? Why not ? How do you make locate find this file ? You cannot locate this with locate because it is not yet in the index.
updatedb
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Introduction to vi Table 16.2. switch to insert mode command action a A i I o O start typing after the current character start typing at the end of the current line start typing before the current character start typing at the start of the current line start typing on a new line after the current line start typing on a new line before the current line
Introduction to vi Table 16.5. cut, copy and paste a line command action dd yy p P cut the current line (yank yank) copy the current line paste after the current line paste before the current line
Introduction to vi Table 16.8. join two lines command action J yyp ddp join two lines duplicate a line switch two lines
16.2.9. words (w b)
When in command mode, w will jump to the next word and b will move to the previous word. w and b can also be combined with d and y to copy and cut words (dw db yw yb). Table 16.9. words command action w b 3w dw yw 5yb 7dw forward one word back one word forward three words delete one word yank (copy) one word yank five words back delete seven words
The last one is a bit special. With :w! vi will try to chmod the file to get write permission (this works when you are the owner) and will chmod it back when the 121
Introduction to vi write succeeds. This should always work when you are root (and the file system is writable).
16.2.11. Searching (/ ?)
When in command mode typing / will allow you to search in vi for strings (can be a regular expression). Typing /foo will do a forward search for the string foo and typing ?bar will do a backward search for bar. Table 16.11. searching command /string ?string n /^string /string$ /br[aeio]l /\<he\> action forward search for string backward search for string go to next occurrence of search string forward search string at beginning of line forward search string at end of line search for bral brel bril and brol search for the word he (and not for here or the)
Introduction to vi
16.2.16. abbreviations
With :ab you can put abbreviations in vi. Use :una to undo the abbreviation. Table 16.16. abbreviations command :ab str long string :una str action abbreviate str to be 'long string' un-abbreviate str
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You can set these options (and much more) in ~/.vimrc for vim or in ~/.exrc for standard vi.
paul@barry:~$ cat ~/.vimrc set number set tabstop=8 set textwidth=78 map <F6> :set number!<bar>set number?<CR> paul@barry:~$
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2. What 3 key combination in command mode will duplicate the current line.
yyp
3. What 3 key combination in command mode will switch two lines' place (line five becomes line six and line six becomes line five).
ddp
4. What 2 key combination in command mode will switch a character's place with the next one.
xp
5. vi can understand macro's. A macro can be recorded with q followed by the name of the macro. So qa will record the macro named a. Pressing q again will end the recording. You can recall the macro with @ followed by the name of the macro. Try this example: i 1 'Escape Key' qa yyp 'Ctrl a' q 5@a (Ctrl a will increase the number with one). 6. Copy /etc/passwd to your ~/passwd. Open the last one in vi and press Ctrl v. Use the arrow keys to select a Visual Block, you can copy this with y or delete it with d. Try pasting it.
cp /etc/passwd ~ vi passwd (press Ctrl-V)
7. What does dwwP do when you are at the beginning of a word in a sentence ? dwwP can switch the current word with the next word.
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After creating this simple script in vi or with echo, you'll have to chmod +x hello_world to make it executable. And unless you add the scripts directory to your path, you'll have to type the path to the script for the shell to be able to find it.
[paul@RHEL4a ~]$ echo echo Hello World > hello_world [paul@RHEL4a ~]$ chmod +x hello_world [paul@RHEL4a ~]$ ./hello_world Hello World
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[paul@RHEL4a ~]$
17.1.3. she-bang
Let's expand our example a little further by putting #!/bin/bash on the first line of the script. The #! is called a she-bang (sometimes called sha-bang), where the shebang is the first two characters of the script.
#!/bin/bash echo Hello World
You can never be sure which shell a user is running. A script that works flawlessly in bash might not work in ksh, csh, or dash. To instruct a shell to run your script in a certain shell, you can start your script with a she-bang followed by the shell it is supposed to run in. This script will run in a bash shell.
#!/bin/bash echo -n hello echo A bash subshell `echo -n hello`
This script will run in a Korn shell (unless /bin/ksh is a hard link to /bin/bash). The /etc/shells file contains a list of shells on your system.
#!/bin/ksh echo -n hello echo a Korn subshell `echo -n hello`
17.1.4. comment
Let's expand our example a little further by adding comment lines.
#!/bin/bash # # Hello World Script # echo Hello World
17.1.5. variables
Here is a simple example of a variable inside a script.
#!/bin/bash # # simple variable in script # var1=4 echo var1 = $var1
Scripts can contain variables, but since scripts are run in their own shell, the variables do not survive the end of the script.
[paul@RHEL4a ~]$ echo $var1
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[paul@RHEL4a ~]$ ./vars var1 = 4 [paul@RHEL4a ~]$ echo $var1 [paul@RHEL4a ~]$
Any arguments after the -- are treated as filenames and arguments. An argument of - is equivalent to --.
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Note that while first.bash will technically work as a Korn shell script, the name ending in .bash is confusing. 4. Create a script that defines two variables, and outputs their value.
$ cat second.bash #!/bin/bash var33=300 var42=400 echo $var33 $var42
5. The previous script does not influence your current shell (the variables do not exist outside of the script). Now run the script so that it influences your current shell.
source second.bash
7. Comment your scripts so that you know what they are doing.
$ cat second.bash #!/bin/bash # script to test variables and sourcing # define two variables var33=300 var42=400 # output the value of these variables echo $var33 $var42
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The test command returns 1 if the test fails. And as you see in the next screenshot, test returns 0 when a test succeeds.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ test 56 -gt 55 ; echo $? 0 [paul@RHEL4b ~]$
If you prefer true and false, then write the test like this.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ test 56 -gt 55 && echo true || echo false true [paul@RHEL4b ~]$ test 6 -gt 55 && echo true || echo false false
The test command can also be written as square brackets, the screenshot below is identical to the one above.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ [ 56 -gt 55 ] && echo true || echo false true [paul@RHEL4b ~]$ [ 6 -gt 55 ] && echo true || echo false false
Below are some example tests. Take a look at man test to see more options for tests.
[ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ -d foo ] '/etc' = $PWD ] $1 != 'secret' ] 55 -lt $bar ] $foo -ge 1000 ] "abc" < $bar ] -f foo ] -r bar ] foo -nt bar ] -o nounset ] Does the directory foo exist ? Is the string /etc equal to the variable $PWD ? Is the first parameter different from secret ? Is 55 less than the value of $bar ? Is the value of $foo greater or equal to 1000 ? Does abc sort before the value of $bar ? Is foo a regular file ? Is bar a readable file ? Is file foo newer than file bar ? Is the shell option nounset set ?
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This for loop use file globbing (from the shell expansion). Putting the instruction on the command line has identical functionality.
kahlan@solexp11$ ls count.ksh go.ksh kahlan@solexp11$ for file in *.ksh ; do cp $file $file.backup ; done kahlan@solexp11$ ls count.ksh count.ksh.backup go.ksh go.ksh.backup
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let i--; done
Endless loops can be made with while true or while : , where the colon is the equivalent of no operation in the Korn and bash shells.
#!/bin/ksh # endless loop while : do echo hello sleep 1 done
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5. Write a script that counts the number of files ending in .txt in the current directory.
#!/bin/bash let i=0 for file in *.txt do let i++ done echo "There are $i files ending in .txt"
6. Wrap an if statement around the script so it is also correct when there are zero files ending in .txt.
#!/bin/bash ls *.txt > /dev/null 2>&1 if [ $? -ne 0 ]
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then echo "There are 0 files ending in .txt" else let i=0 for file in *.txt do let i++ done echo "There are $i files ending in .txt" fi
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echo You gave me $1 shift done
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#!/bin/ksh while getopts ":afz" option; do case $option in a) echo received -a ;; f) echo received -f ;; z) echo received -z ;; *) echo "invalid option -$OPTARG" ;; esac done
You can also check for options that need an argument, as this example shows.
kahlan@solexp11$ cat argoptions.ksh #!/bin/ksh while getopts ":af:z" option; do case $option in a) echo received -a ;; f) echo received -f with $OPTARG ;; z) echo received -z ;; :) echo "option -$OPTARG needs an argument" ;; *) echo "invalid option -$OPTARG" ;; esac done
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received -a received -f with hello received -z kahlan@solexp11$ ./argoptions.ksh -zaf 42 received -z received -a received -f with 42 kahlan@solexp11$ ./argoptions.ksh -zf received -z option -f needs an argument
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2. Write a script that receives two parameters (two filenames) and outputs whether those files exist.
#!/bin/bash if [ -f $1 ] then echo $1 exists! else echo $1 not found! fi if [ -f $2 ] then echo $2 exists! else echo $2 not found! fi
3. Write a script that asks for a filename. Verify existance of the file, then verify that you own the file, and whether it is writable. If not, then make it writable. 4. Make a configuration file for the previous script. Put a logging switch in the config file, logging means writing detailed output of everything the script does to a log file in /tmp.
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17.10.2. (( ))
The (( )) allows for evaluation of numerical expressions.
paul@deb503:~/test42$ true paul@deb503:~/test42$ false paul@deb503:~/test42$ paul@deb503:~/test42$ true paul@deb503:~/test42$ true paul@deb503:~/test42$ paul@deb503:~/test42$ false (( 42 > 33 )) && echo true || echo false (( 42 > 1201 )) && echo true || echo false var42=42 (( 42 == var42 )) && echo true || echo false (( 42 == $var42 )) && echo true || echo false var42=33 (( 42 == var42 )) && echo true || echo false
17.10.3. let
The let built-in shell function instructs the shell to perform an evaluation of arithmetic expressions. It will return 0 unless the last arithmetic expression evaluates to 0.
[paul@RHEL4b 7 [paul@RHEL4b 20 [paul@RHEL4b 18 [paul@RHEL4b 30 ~]$ let x="3 + 4" ; echo $x ~]$ let x="10 + 100/10" ; echo $x ~]$ let x="10-2+100/10" ; echo $x ~]$ let x="10*2+100/10" ; echo $x
Understanding scripts
[paul@RHEL4b 255 [paul@RHEL4b 192 [paul@RHEL4b 168 [paul@RHEL4b 56 [paul@RHEL4b 63 [paul@RHEL4b 192
~]$ let x="0xFF" ; echo $x ~]$ let x="0xC0" ; echo $x ~]$ let x="0xA8" ; echo $x ~]$ let x="8#70" ; echo $x ~]$ let x="8#77" ; echo $x ~]$ let x="16#c0" ; echo $x
There is a difference between assigning a variable directly, or using let to evaluate the arithmetic expressions (even if it is just assigning a value).
kahlan@solexp11$ kahlan@solexp11$ 15 017 0x0f kahlan@solexp11$ kahlan@solexp11$ 15 15 15 dec=15 ; oct=017 ; hex=0x0f echo $dec $oct $hex let dec=15 ; let oct=017 ; let hex=0x0f echo $dec $oct $hex
17.10.4. case
You can sometimes simplify nested if statements with a case construct.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ ./help What animal did you see ? lion You better start running fast! [paul@RHEL4b ~]$ ./help What animal did you see ? dog Don't worry, give it a cookie. [paul@RHEL4b ~]$ cat help #!/bin/bash # # Wild Animals Helpdesk Advice # echo -n "What animal did you see ? " read animal case $animal in "lion" | "tiger") echo "You better start running fast!" ;; "cat") echo "Let that mouse go..." ;; "dog") echo "Don't worry, give it a cookie." ;; "chicken" | "goose" | "duck" ) echo "Eggs for breakfast!" ;; "liger") echo "Approach and say 'Ah you big fluffy kitty...'." ;; "babelfish") echo "Did it fall out your ear ?" ;;
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*) echo "You discovered an unknown animal, name it!" ;; esac [paul@RHEL4b ~]$
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2. Improve the previous script to test that the numbers are between 1 and 100, exit with an error if necessary. 3. Improve the previous script to congratulate the user if the sum equals the product. 4. Write a script with a case insensitive case statement, using the shopt nocasematch option. The nocasematch option is reset to the value it had before the scripts started. 5. If time permits (or if you are waiting for other students to finish this practice), take a look at linux system scripts in /etc/init.d and /etc/rc.d and try to understand them. Where does execution of a script start in /etc/init.d/samba ? There are also some hidden scripts in ~, we will discuss them later.
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#!/bin/bash echo -n "Enter a number : " read n1 echo -n "Enter another number : " read n2 let sum="$n1+$n2" let pro="$n1*$n2" echo -e "Sum\t: $n1 + $n2 = $sum" echo -e "Product\t: $n1 * $n2 = $pro"
2. Improve the previous script to test that the numbers are between 1 and 100, exit with an error if necessary.
echo -n "Enter a number between 1 and 100 : " read n1 if [ $n1 -lt 1 -o $n1 -gt 100 ] then echo Wrong number... exit 1 fi
3. Improve the previous script to congratulate the user if the sum equals the product.
if [ $sum -eq $pro ] then echo Congratulations $sum == $pro fi
4. Write a script with a case insensitive case statement, using the shopt nocasematch option. The nocasematch option is reset to the value it had before the scripts started.
#!/bin/bash # # Wild Animals Case Insensitive Helpdesk Advice # if shopt -q nocasematch; then nocase=yes; else nocase=no; shopt -s nocasematch; fi echo -n "What animal did you see ? " read animal
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case $animal in "lion" | "tiger") echo "You better start running fast!" ;; "cat") echo "Let that mouse go..." ;; "dog") echo "Don't worry, give it a cookie." ;; "chicken" | "goose" | "duck" ) echo "Eggs for breakfast!" ;; "liger") echo "Approach and say 'Ah you big fluffy kitty.'" ;; "babelfish") echo "Did it fall out your ear ?" ;; *) echo "You discovered an unknown animal, name it!" ;; esac if [ nocase = yes ] ; then shopt -s nocasematch; else shopt -u nocasematch; fi
5. If time permits (or if you are waiting for other students to finish this practice), take a look at linux system scripts in /etc/init.d and /etc/rc.d and try to understand them. Where does execution of a script start in /etc/init.d/samba ? There are also some hidden scripts in ~, we will discuss them later.
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18.1.2. who
The who command will give you information about who is logged on the system.
[paul@RHEL5 ~]$ who root tty1 sandra pts/0 paul pts/1
18.1.3. who am i
With who am i the who command will display only the line pointing to your current session.
[paul@RHEL5 ~]$ who am i paul pts/1 2008-06-24 16:23 (192.168.1.34)
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18.1.4. w
The w command shows you who is logged on and what they are doing.
$ w 05:13:36 up 3 min, 4 users, load average: 0.48, 0.72, 0.33 USER TTY FROM LOGIN@ IDLE JCPU PCPU WHAT root tty1 05:11 2.00s 0.32s 0.27s find / -name shad inge pts/0 192.168.1.33 05:12 0.00s 0.02s 0.02s -ksh laura pts/1 192.168.1.34 05:12 46.00s 0.03s 0.03s -bash paul pts/2 192.168.1.34 05:13 25.00s 0.07s 0.04s top
18.1.5. id
The id command will give you your user id, primary group id, and a list of the groups that you belong to.
root@laika:~# id uid=0(root) gid=0(root) groups=0(root) root@laika:~# su - brel brel@laika:~$ id uid=1001(brel) gid=1001(brel) groups=1001(brel),1008(chanson),11578(wolf)
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18.2. users
18.2.1. user management
User management on any Unix can be done in three complimentary ways. You can use the graphical tools provided by your distribution. These tools have a look and feel that depends on the distribution. If you are a novice linux user on your home system, then use the graphical tool that is provided by your distribution. This will make sure that you do not run into problems. Another option is to use command line tools like useradd, usermod, gpasswd, passwd and others. Server administrators are likely to use these tools, since they are familiar and very similar accross many different distributions. This chapter will focus on these command line tools. A third and rather extremist way is to edit the local configuration files directly using vi (or vipw/vigr). Do not attempt this as a novice on production systems!
18.2.2. /etc/passwd
The local user database on Linux (and on most Unixes) is /etc/passwd.
[root@RHEL5 ~]# tail /etc/passwd inge:x:518:524:art dealer:/home/inge:/bin/ksh ann:x:519:525:flute player:/home/ann:/bin/bash frederik:x:520:526:rubius poet:/home/frederik:/bin/bash steven:x:521:527:roman emperor:/home/steven:/bin/bash pascale:x:522:528:artist:/home/pascale:/bin/ksh geert:x:524:530:kernel developer:/home/geert:/bin/bash wim:x:525:531:master damuti:/home/wim:/bin/bash sandra:x:526:532:radish stresser:/home/sandra:/bin/bash annelies:x:527:533:sword fighter:/home/annelies:/bin/bash laura:x:528:534:art dealer:/home/laura:/bin/ksh
As you can see, this file contains seven columns separated by a colon. The columns contain the username, an x, the user id, the primary group id, a description, the name of the home directory, and the login shell.
18.2.3. root
The root user also called the superuser is the most powerful account on your Linux system. This user can do almost anything, including the creation of other users. The root user always has userid 0 (regardless of the name of the account).
[root@RHEL5 ~]# head -1 /etc/passwd root:x:0:0:root:/root:/bin/bash
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18.2.4. useradd
You can add users with the useradd command. The example below shows how to add a user named yanina (last parameter) and at the same time forcing the creation of the home directory (-m), setting the name of the home directory (-d), and setting a description (-c).
[root@RHEL5 ~]# useradd -m -d /home/yanina -c "yanina wickmayer" yanina [root@RHEL5 ~]# tail -1 /etc/passwd yanina:x:529:529:yanina wickmayer:/home/yanina:/bin/bash
The user named yanina received userid 529 and primary group id 529.
18.2.5. /etc/default/useradd
Both Red Hat Enterprise Linux and Debian/Ubuntu have a file called /etc/default/ useradd that contains some default user options. Besides using cat to display this file, you can also use useradd -D.
[root@RHEL4 ~]# useradd -D GROUP=100 HOME=/home INACTIVE=-1 EXPIRE= SHELL=/bin/bash SKEL=/etc/skel
18.2.6. userdel
You can delete the user yanina with userdel. The -r option of userdel will also remove the home directory.
[root@RHEL5 ~]# userdel -r yanina
18.2.7. usermod
You can modify the properties of a user with the usermod command. This example uses usermod to change the description of the user harry.
[root@RHEL4 ~]# tail -1 /etc/passwd harry:x:516:520:harry potter:/home/harry:/bin/bash [root@RHEL4 ~]# usermod -c 'wizard' harry [root@RHEL4 ~]# tail -1 /etc/passwd harry:x:516:520:wizard:/home/harry:/bin/bash
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18.3. passwords
18.3.1. passwd
Passwords of users can be set with the passwd command. Users will have to provide their old password before twice entering the new one.
[harry@RHEL4 ~]$ passwd Changing password for user harry. Changing password for harry (current) UNIX password: New UNIX password: BAD PASSWORD: it's WAY too short New UNIX password: Retype new UNIX password: passwd: all authentication tokens updated successfully. [harry@RHEL4 ~]$
As you can see, the passwd tool will do some basic verification to prevent users from using too simple passwords. The root user does not have to follow these rules (there will be a warning though). The root user also does not have to provide the old password before entering the new password twice.
18.3.2. /etc/shadow
User passwords are encrypted and kept in /etc/shadow. The /etc/shadow file is read only and can only be read by root. We will see in the file permissions section how it is possible for users to change their password. For now, you will have to know that users can change their password with the /usr/bin/passwd command.
[root@RHEL5 ~]# tail /etc/shadow inge:$1$yWMSimOV$YsYvcVKqByFVYLKnU3ncd0:14054:0:99999:7::: ann:!!:14054:0:99999:7::: frederik:!!:14054:0:99999:7::: steven:!!:14054:0:99999:7::: pascale:!!:14054:0:99999:7::: geert:!!:14054:0:99999:7::: wim:!!:14054:0:99999:7::: sandra:!!:14054:0:99999:7::: annelies:!!:14054:0:99999:7::: laura:$1$Tvby1Kpa$lL.WzgobujUS3LClIRmdv1:14054:0:99999:7:::
The /etc/shadow file contains nine colon separated columns. The nine fields contain (from left to right) the user name, the encrypted password (note that only inge and laura have an encrypted password), the day the password was last changed (day 1 is January 1, 1970), number of days the password must be left unchanged, password expiry day, warning number of days before password expiry, number of days after expiry before disabling the account, and the day the account was disabled (again, since 1970). The last field has no meaning yet. 154
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Introduction to users This little program can be compiled with gcc like this.
[paul@laika ~]$ gcc MyCrypt.c -o MyCrypt -lcrypt
To use it, we need to give two parameters to MyCript. The first is the unencrypted password, the second is the salt. The salt is used to perturb the encryption algorithm in one of 4096 different ways. This variation prevents two users with the same password from having the same entry in /etc/shadow.
paul@laika:~$ 12L4FoTS3/k9U paul@laika:~$ 01Y.yPnlQ6R.Y paul@laika:~$ 330asFUbzgVeg paul@laika:~$ 42XFxoT4R75gk ./MyCrypt stargate 12 ./MyCrypt stargate 01 ./MyCrypt stargate 33 ./MyCrypt stargate 42
Did you notice that the first two characters of the password are the salt ? The standard output of the crypt function is using the DES algorithm which is old and can be cracked in minutes. A better method is to use MD5 passwords which can be recognized by a salt starting with $1$.
paul@laika:~$ ./MyCrypt stargate $1$12$xUIQ4116Us.Q5Osc2Khbm1 paul@laika:~$ ./MyCrypt stargate $1$01$yNs8brjp4b4TEw.v9/IlJ/ paul@laika:~$ ./MyCrypt stargate $1$33$tLh/Ldy2wskdKAJR.Ph4M0 paul@laika:~$ ./MyCrypt stargate $1$42$Hb3nvP0KwHSQ7fQmIlY7R. '$1$12' '$1$01' '$1$33' '$1$42'
The MD5 salt can be up to eight characters long. The salt is displayed in /etc/shadow between the second and third $, so never use the password as the salt!
paul@laika:~$ ./MyCrypt stargate '$1$stargate' $1$stargate$qqxoLqiSVNvGr5ybMxEVM1
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[root@RHEL4 ~]# grep -i pass /etc/login.defs # Password aging controls: # PASS_MAX_DAYS Maximum number of days a password may be used. # PASS_MIN_DAYS Minimum number of days allowed between password changes. # PASS_MIN_LEN Minimum acceptable password length. # PASS_WARN_AGE Number of days warning given before a password expires. PASS_MAX_DAYS 99999 PASS_MIN_DAYS 0 PASS_MIN_LEN 5 PASS_WARN_AGE 7
chage
The chage command can be used to set an expiration date for a user account (-E), set a mimimum (-m) and maximum (-M) password age, a password expiration date, and set the number of warning days before the password expiration date. Much of this functionality is also available from the passwd command. The -l option of chage will list these settings for a user.
[root@RHEL4 ~]# chage -l harry Minimum: 0 Maximum: 99999 Warning: 7 Inactive: -1 Last Change: Jul 23, 2007 Password Expires: Never Password Inactive: Never Account Expires: Never [root@RHEL4 ~]#
The root user (and users with sudo rights on su) still will be able to su to harry (because the password is not needed here). Also note that harry will still be able to login if he has set up passwordless ssh!
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[root@RHEL4 ~]# su - harry [harry@RHEL4 ~]$
You can unlock the account again with usermod -U. Watch out for tiny differences in the command line options of passwd, usermod, and useradd on different distributions! Verify the local files when using features like "disabling, suspending, or locking" users and passwords!
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18.4.2. /etc/skel/
When using useradd with the -m option, the /etc/skel/ directory is copied to the newly created home directory. The /etc/skel/ directory contains some (usually hidden) files that contain profile settings and default values for applications. In this way /etc/skel/ serves as a default home directory and as a default user profile.
[root@RHEL5 ~]# ls total 48 drwxr-xr-x 2 root drwxr-xr-x 97 root -rw-r--r-- 1 root -rw-r--r-- 1 root -rw-r--r-- 1 root -la /etc/skel/ root 4096 Apr 1 00:11 . root 12288 Jun 24 15:36 .. root 24 Jul 12 2006 .bash_logout root 176 Jul 12 2006 .bash_profile root 124 Jul 12 2006 .bashrc
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You can use the usermod command to change the shell for a user.
[root@RHEL5 ~]# usermod -s /bin/bash laura [root@RHEL5 ~]# tail -1 /etc/passwd laura:x:528:534:art dealer:/home/laura:/bin/bash
18.5.2. chsh
Users can change their login shell with the chsh command. First, user harry obtains a list of available shells (he could also have done a cat /etc/shells) and then changes his login shell to the Korn shell (/bin/ksh). At the next login, harry will default into ksh instead of bash.
[harry@RHEL4 ~]$ chsh -l /bin/sh /bin/bash /sbin/nologin /bin/ash /bin/bsh /bin/ksh /usr/bin/ksh /usr/bin/pdksh /bin/tcsh /bin/csh /bin/zsh [harry@RHEL4 ~]$ chsh -s /bin/ksh Changing shell for harry. Password: Shell changed. [harry@RHEL4 ~]$
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18.6.2. su to root
Yes you can alsu su to become root, when you know the root password.
[harry@RHEL4b paul]$ su root Password: [root@RHEL4b paul]#
18.6.3. su as root
Uness you are logged in as root, running a shell as another user requires that you know the password of that user. The root user can become any user without knowing the user's password.
[root@RHEL4b paul]# su serena [serena@RHEL4b paul]$
18.6.4. su - $username
By default, the su command maintains the same shell environment. To become another user and also get the target user's environment, issue the su - command followed by the target username.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ su - harry Password: [harry@RHEL4b ~]$
18.6.5. su When no username is provided to su or su -, the command will assume root is the target.
[harry@RHEL4b ~]$ su Password: [root@RHEL4b ~]#
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paul@laika:~$ ls -l `which sudo` -rwsr-xr-x 2 root root 107872 2008-05-15 02:41 /usr/bin/sudo paul@laika:~$
18.7.3. visudo
Check the man page of visudo before playing with the /etc/sudoers file.
18.7.4. sudo su
On some linux systems like Ubuntu and Kubuntu, the root user does not have a password set. This means that it is not possible to login as root (extra security). To perform tasks as root, the first user is given all sudo rights via the /etc/sudoers. In fact all users that are members of the admin group can use sudo to run all commands as root.
root@laika:~# grep admin /etc/sudoers # Members of the admin group may gain root privileges %admin ALL=(ALL) ALL
The end result of this is that the user can type sudo su - and become root without having to enter the root password. The sudo command does require you to enter your own password. Thus the password prompt in the screenshot below is for sudo, not for su.
paul@laika:~$ sudo su Password: root@laika:~#
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2. Create a user called kornuser, give him the Korn shell (/bin/ksh) as his default shell. Log on with this user (on a command line or in a tty).
useradd -s /bin/ksh kornuser ; passwd kornuser
3. Create a user named einstime without home directory, give him /bin/date as his default logon shell. What happens when you log on with this user ? Can you think of a useful real world example for changing a user's login shell to an application ?
useradd -s /bin/date einstime ; passwd einstime
It can be useful when users need to access only one application on the server. Just logging on opens the application for them, and closing the application automatically logs them off. 4. Try the commands who, whoami, who am i, w, id, echo $USER $UID .
who ; whoami ; who am i ; w ; id ; echo $USER $UID
5b. Use passwd -d to disable the serena password. Verify the serena line in /etc/ shadow before and after disabling.
grep serena /etc/shadow; passwd -d serena ; grep serena /etc/shadow
5c. What is the difference between locking a user account and disabling a user account's password ? Locking will prevent the user from logging on to the system with his password (by putting a ! in front of the password in /etc/shadow). Disbling with passwd will erase the password from /etc/shadow. 6. As root change the password of einstime to stargate.
Log on as root and type: passwd einstime
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Introduction to users 8. Make sure every new user needs to change his password every 10 days.
For an existing user: chage -M 10 serena For all new users: vi /etc/login.defs (and change PASS_MAX_DAYS to 10)
10a. Set the password of two separate users to stargate. Look at the encrypted stargate's in /etc/shadow and explain. If you used passwd, then the salt will be different for the two encrypted passwords. 10b. Take a backup as root of /etc/shadow. Use vi to copy an encrypted stargate to another user. Can this other user now log on with stargate as a password ?
Yes.
11. Put a file in the skeleton directory and check whether it is copied to user's home directory. When is the skeleton directory copied ?
When you create a user account with a new home directory.
12. Why use vipw instead of vi ? What could be the problem when using vi or vim ?
vipw will give a warning when someone else is already using that file.
13. Use chsh to list all shells, and compare to cat /etc/shells. Change your login shell to the Korn shell, log out and back in. Now change back to bash.
On Red Hat Enterprise Linux: chsh -l On Debian/Ubuntu: cat /etc/shells
15. How can you see whether the password of user harry is locked or unlocked ? Give a solution with grep and a solution with passwd.
grep harry /etc/shadow passwd -S harry
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18.10.1. /etc/profile
Both the bash and the ksh shell will verify the existence of /etc/profile and execute it if it exists. When reading this script, you might notice (at least on Debian Lenny and on Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5) that it builds the PATH environment variable. The script might also change the PS1 variable, set the HOSTNAME and execute even more scripts like /etc/inputrc You can use this script to set aliases and variables for every user on the system.
18.10.2. ~/.bash_profile
When this file exists in the users home directory, then bash will execute it. On Debian Linux it does not exist by default. RHEL5 uses a brief ~/.bash_profile where it checks for the existence of ~/.bashrc and then executes it. It also adds $HOME/bin to the $PATH variable.
[serena@rhel53 ~]$ cat .bash_profile # .bash_profile # Get the aliases and functions if [ -f ~/.bashrc ]; then . ~/.bashrc fi # User specific environment and startup programs PATH=$PATH:$HOME/bin export PATH
18.10.3. ~/.bash_login
When .bash_profile does not exist, then bash will check for ~/.bash_login and execute it. Neither Debian nor Red Hat have this file by default. 167
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18.10.4. ~/.profile
When neither ~/.bash_profile and ~/.bash_login exist, then bash will verify the existence of ~/.profile and execute it. This file does not exist by default on Red Hat. On Debian this script can execute ~/.bashrc and will add $HOME/bin to the $PATH variable.
serena@deb503:~$ tail -12 .profile # if running bash if [ -n "$BASH_VERSION" ]; then # include .bashrc if it exists if [ -f "$HOME/.bashrc" ]; then . "$HOME/.bashrc" fi fi # set PATH so it includes user's private bin if it exists if [ -d "$HOME/bin" ] ; then PATH="$HOME/bin:$PATH" fi
18.10.5. ~/.bashrc
As seen in the previous points, the ~/.bashrc script might be executed by other scripts. Let us take a look at what it does by default. Red Hat uses a very simple ~/.bashrc, checking for /etc/bashrc and executing it. It also leaves room for custom aliases and functions.
[serena@rhel53 ~]$ more .bashrc # .bashrc # Source global definitions if [ -f /etc/bashrc ]; then . /etc/bashrc fi # User specific aliases and functions
On Debian this script is quite a bit longer and configures $PS1, some history variables and a number af active and inactive aliases.
serena@deb503:~$ ls -l .bashrc -rw-r--r-- 1 serena serena 3116 2008-05-12 21:02 .bashrc
18.10.6. ~/.bash_logout
When exiting bash, it can execute ~/.bash_logout. Debian and Red Hat both use this opportunity to clear the screen. 168
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serena@deb503:~$ cat .bash_logout # ~/.bash_logout: executed by bash(1) when login shell exits. # when leaving the console clear the screen to increase privacy if [ "$SHLVL" = 1 ]; then [ -x /usr/bin/clear_console ] && /usr/bin/clear_console -q fi
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19.2. groupadd
Groups can be created with the groupadd command. The example below shows the creation of five (empty) groups.
root@laika:~# root@laika:~# root@laika:~# root@laika:~# root@laika:~# groupadd groupadd groupadd groupadd groupadd tennis football snooker formula1 salsa
19.3. /etc/group
Users can be a member of several groups. Group membership is defined by the /etc/ group file.
root@laika:~# tail -5 /etc/group
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tennis:x:1006: football:x:1007: snooker:x:1008: formula1:x:1009: salsa:x:1010: root@laika:~#
The first field is the group's name. The second field is the group's (encrypted) password (can be empty). The third field is the group identification or GID. The fourth field is the list of members, these groups have no members.
19.4. usermod
Group membership can be modified with the useradd or usermod command.
root@laika:~# usermod -a -G tennis inge root@laika:~# usermod -a -G tennis katrien root@laika:~# usermod -a -G salsa katrien root@laika:~# usermod -a -G snooker sandra root@laika:~# usermod -a -G formula1 annelies root@laika:~# tail -5 /etc/group tennis:x:1006:inge,katrien football:x:1007: snooker:x:1008:sandra formula1:x:1009:annelies salsa:x:1010:katrien root@laika:~#
Be careful when using usermod to add users to groups. By default, the usermod command will remove the user from every group of which he is a member if the group is not listed in the command! Using the -a (append) switch prevents this behaviour.
19.5. groupmod
You can change the group name with the groupmod command.
root@laika:~# groupmod -n darts snooker root@laika:~# tail -5 /etc/group tennis:x:1006:inge,katrien football:x:1007: formula1:x:1009:annelies salsa:x:1010:katrien darts:x:1008:sandra
19.6. groupdel
You can permanently remove a group with the groupdel command.
root@laika:~# groupdel tennis
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root@laika:~#
19.7. groups
A user can type the groups command to see a list of groups where the user belongs to.
[harry@RHEL4b ~]$ groups harry sports [harry@RHEL4b ~]$
19.8. gpasswd
You can delegate control of group membership to another user with the gpasswd command. In the example below we delegate permissions to add and remove group members to serena for the sports group. Then we su to serena and add harry to the sports group.
[root@RHEL4b ~]# gpasswd -A serena sports [root@RHEL4b ~]# su - serena [serena@RHEL4b ~]$ id harry uid=516(harry) gid=520(harry) groups=520(harry) [serena@RHEL4b ~]$ gpasswd -a harry sports Adding user harry to group sports [serena@RHEL4b ~]$ id harry uid=516(harry) gid=520(harry) groups=520(harry),522(sports) [serena@RHEL4b ~]$ tail -1 /etc/group sports:x:522:serena,venus,harry [serena@RHEL4b ~]$
Group administrators do not have to be a member of the group. They can remove themselves from a group, but this does not influence their ability to add or remove members.
[serena@RHEL4b ~]$ gpasswd -d serena sports Removing user serena from group sports [serena@RHEL4b ~]$ exit
To remove all group administrators from a group, use the gpasswd command to set an empty administrators list.
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[root@RHEL4b ~]# gpasswd -A "" sports
19.9. vigr
Similar to vipw, the vigr command can be used to manually edit the /etc/group file, since it will do proper locking of the file. Only experienced senior administrators should use vi or vigr to manage groups.
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6. Make someone responsible for managing group membership of foot and sports. Test that it works.
gpasswd -A (to make manager) gpasswd -a (to add member)
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7 5 5 7
User paul owns three files, two of those are also owned by the group paul; data.odt is owned by the group proj. The root user owns the file stuff.txt, as does the group root.
20.1.2. chgrp
You can change the group owner of a file using the chgrp command.
root@laika:/home/paul# root@laika:/home/paul# -rw-r--r-- 1 root root root@laika:/home/paul# root@laika:/home/paul# -rw-r--r-- 1 root paul touch FileForPaul ls -l FileForPaul 0 2008-08-06 14:11 FileForPaul chgrp paul FileForPaul ls -l FileForPaul 0 2008-08-06 14:11 FileForPaul
20.1.3. chown
The user owner of a file can be changed with chown command. 176
ls -l FileForPaul 0 2008-08-06 14:11 FileForPaul chown paul FileForPaul ls -l FileForPaul 0 2008-08-06 14:11 FileForPaul
You can also use chown to change both the user owner and the group owner.
root@laika:/home/paul# ls -l FileForPaul -rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 0 2008-08-06 14:11 FileForPaul root@laika:/home/paul# chown root:project42 FileForPaul root@laika:/home/paul# ls -l FileForPaul -rw-r--r-- 1 root project42 0 2008-08-06 14:11 FileForPaul
20.3. permissions
20.3.1. rwx
The nine characters following the file type denote the permissions in three triplets. A permission can be r for read access, w for write access, and x for execute. You need the r permission to list (ls) the contents of a directory. You need the x permission to enter (cd) a directory. You need the w permission to create files in or remove files from a directory. 177
Standard file permissions Table 20.2. standard Unix file permissions permission r (read) w (write) x (execute) on a file read file contents (cat) change file contents (vi) execute the file on a directory read directory contents (ls) create files in (touch) enter the directory (cd)
Below is a table describing the function of all ten characters. Table 20.3. Unix file permissions position position 1 2-4 5-7 8-10 characters rwx r-x r-function this is a regular file permissions for the user owner permissions for the group owner permissions for others
When you are the user owner of a file, then the user owner permissions apply to you. The rest of the permissions have no influence on your access to the file. When you belong to the group that is the group owner of a file, then the group owner permissions apply to you. The rest of the permissions have no influence on your access to the file. When you are not the user owner of a file and you do not belong to the group owner, then the others permissions apply to you. The rest of the permissions have no influence on your access to the file.
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To summarize, the first rwx triplet represents the permissions for the user owner. The second triplet corresponds to the group owner; it specifies permissions for all members of that group. The third triplet defines permissions for all other users that are not the user owner and are not a member of the group owner.
paul@laika:~/perms$ chmod u=rw permissions.txt paul@laika:~/perms$ ls -l permissions.txt -rw--wx-wx 1 paul paul 0 2007-02-07 22:34 permissions.txt
This makes 777 equal to rwxrwxrwx and by the same logic, 654 mean rw-r-xr-- . The chmod command will accept these numbers.
paul@laika:~/perms$ chmod 777 permissions.txt paul@laika:~/perms$ ls -l permissions.txt -rwxrwxrwx 1 paul paul 0 2007-02-07 22:34 permissions.txt paul@laika:~/perms$ chmod 664 permissions.txt paul@laika:~/perms$ ls -l permissions.txt -rw-rw-r-- 1 paul paul 0 2007-02-07 22:34 permissions.txt paul@laika:~/perms$ chmod 750 permissions.txt paul@laika:~/perms$ ls -l permissions.txt -rwxr-x--- 1 paul paul 0 2007-02-07 22:34 permissions.txt
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20.3.6. umask
When creating a file or directory, a set of default permissions are applied. These default permissions are determined by the umask. The umask specifies permissions that you do not want set on by default. You can display the umask with the umask command.
[Harry@RHEL4b 0002 [Harry@RHEL4b [Harry@RHEL4b -rw-rw-r-- 1 [Harry@RHEL4b ~]$ umask ~]$ touch test ~]$ ls -l test Harry Harry 0 Jul 24 06:03 test ~]$
As you can also see, the file is also not executable by default. This is a general security feature among Unixes; newly created files are never executable by default. You have to explicitly do a chmod +x to make a file executable. This also means that the 1 bit in the umask has no meaning--a umask of 0022 is the same as 0033.
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2. Copy a file owned by root from /etc/ to your permissions dir, who owns this file now ?
cp /etc/hosts ~/permissions/
The copy is owned by you. 3. As root, create a file in the users ~/permissions directory.
(become root)# touch /home/username/permissions/rootfile
The file created by root is owned by root. 5. Change the ownership of all files in ~/permissions to yourself.
chown user ~/permissions/*
You cannot become owner of the file that belongs to root. 6. Make sure you have all rights to these files, and others can only read.
chmod 644 (on files) chmod 755 (on directories)
7. With chmod, is 770 the same as rwxrwx--- ? yes 8. With chmod, is 664 the same as r-xr-xr-- ? No 9. With chmod, is 400 the same as r-------- ? yes 10. With chmod, is 734 the same as rwxr-xr-- ? no 11a. Display the umask in octal and in symbolic form.
umask ; umask -S
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Standard file permissions 11b. Set the umask to 077, but use the symbolic format to set it. Verify that this works.
umask -S u=rwx,go=
12. Create a file as root, give only read to others. Can a normal user read this file ? Test writing to this file with vi.
(become root) # echo hello > /home/username/root.txt # chmod 744 /home/username/root.txt (become user) vi ~/root.txt
13a. Create a file as normal user, give only read to others. Can another normal user read this file ? Test writing to this file with vi.
echo hello > file ; chmod 744 file
Yes, others can read this file 13b. Can root read this file ? Can root write to this file with vi ? Yes, root can read and write to this file. Permissions do not apply to root. 14. Create a directory that belongs to a group, where every member of that group can read and write to files, and create files. Make sure that people can only delete their own files.
mkdir /home/project42 ; groupadd project42 chgrp project42 /home/project42 ; chmod 775 /home/project42
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The sticky bit can also be set with octal permissions, it is binary 1 in the first of four triplets.
root@RHELv4u4:~# chmod 1775 /project55/ root@RHELv4u4:~# ls -ld /project55 drwxrwxr-t 2 root root 4096 Feb 7 17:38 /project55 root@RHELv4u4:~#
You will typically find the sticky bit on the /tmp directory.
root@barry:~# ls -ld /tmp drwxrwxrwt 6 root root 4096 2009-06-04 19:02 /tmp
Advanced file permissions this example shows, even though root does not belong to the group proj55, the files created by root in /project55 will belong to proj55 since the setgid is set.
root@RHELv4u4:~# groupadd proj55 root@RHELv4u4:~# chown root:proj55 /project55/ root@RHELv4u4:~# chmod 2775 /project55/ root@RHELv4u4:~# touch /project55/fromroot.txt root@RHELv4u4:~# ls -ld /project55/ drwxrwsr-x 2 root proj55 4096 Feb 7 17:45 /project55/ root@RHELv4u4:~# ls -l /project55/ total 4 -rw-r--r-- 1 root proj55 0 Feb 7 17:45 fromroot.txt root@RHELv4u4:~#
You can use the find command to find all setgid directories.
paul@laika:~$ find / -type d -perm -2000 2> /dev/null /var/log/mysql /var/log/news /var/local ...
Changing your password requires an update of this file, so how can normal non-root users do this? Let's take a look at the permissions on the /usr/bin/passwd.
root@RHELv4u4:~# ls -l /usr/bin/passwd -r-s--x--x 1 root root 21200 Jun 17 2005 /usr/bin/passwd
When running the passwd program, you are executing it with root credentials. You can use the find command to find all setuid programs.
paul@laika:~$ find /usr/bin -type f -perm -04000 /usr/bin/arping /usr/bin/kgrantpty
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In most cases, setting the setuid bit on executables is sufficient. Setting the setgid bit will result in these programs to run with the credentials of their group owner.
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1b. Members of the sports group should be able to create files in this directory.
chmod 770 /home/sports
1c. All files created in this directory should be group-owned by the sports group.
chmod 2770 /home/sports
1d. Users should be able to delete only their own user-owned files.
chmod +t /home/sports
1e. Test that this works! Log in with different users (group members and others and root), create files and watch the permissions. Try changing and deleting files... 2. Verify the permissions on /usr/bin/passwd. Remove the setuid, then try changing your password as a normal user. Reset the permissions back and try again.
root@deb503:~# ls -l /usr/bin/passwd -rwsr-xr-x 1 root root 31704 2009-11-14 15:41 /usr/bin/passwd root@deb503:~# chmod 755 /usr/bin/passwd root@deb503:~# ls -l /usr/bin/passwd -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 31704 2009-11-14 15:41 /usr/bin/passwd
3. If time permits (or if you are waiting for other students to finish this practice), read about file attributes in the man page of chattr and lsattr. Try setting the i attribute on a file and test that it works.
paul@laika:~$ sudo su [sudo] password for paul: root@laika:~# mkdir attr root@laika:~# cd attr/ root@laika:~/attr# touch file42 root@laika:~/attr# lsattr ------------------ ./file42 root@laika:~/attr# chattr +i file42
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0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
22.1.2. getfacl
Reading acls can be done with /usr/bin/getfacl. This screenshot shows how to read the acl of file33 with getfacl.
paul@laika:~/test$ getfacl file33 # file: file33 # owner: paul # group: paul user::rwgroup::r-mask::rwx other::r--
22.1.3. setfacl
Writing or changing acls can be done with /usr/bin/setfacl. These screenshots show how to change the acl of file33 with setfacl. First we add user sandra with octal permission 7 to the acl.
paul@laika:~/test$ setfacl -m u:sandra:7 file33
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Access control lists Then we add the group tennis with octal permission 6 to the acl of the same file.
paul@laika:~/test$ setfacl -m g:tennis:6 file33
Note that omitting the u or g when defining the acl for an account will default it to a user account.
Access control lists You can prevent the calculation by using the --no-mask switch.
paul@laika:~/test$ setfacl --no-mask -m u:sandra:7 file33 paul@laika:~/test$ getfacl file33 # file: file33 # owner: paul # group: paul user::rwuser:sandra:rwx #effective:rwgroup::r-mask::rwother::r--
22.1.7. eiciel
Desktop users might want to use eiciel to manage acls with a graphical tool.
You will need to install eiciel and nautilus-actions to have an extra tab in nautilus to manage acls.
paul@laika:~$ sudo aptitude install eiciel nautilus-actions
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23.1. inodes
To understand links in a file system, you first have to understand what an inode is.
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File links In the df -i screenshot above you can see the inode usage for several mounted file systems. You don't see numbers for /dev/sdb5 because it is a fat file system.
These three files were created one after the other and got three different inodes (the first column). All the information you see with this ls command resides in the inode, except for the filename (which is contained in the directory).
summer nights.
The data that is displayed by the cat command is not in the inode, but somewhere else on the disk. The inode contains a pointer to that data.
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File links
paul@RHELv4u4:~/test$ total 32 817262 drwxrwxr-x 2 800768 drwx------ 16 817266 -rw-rw-r-1 817270 -rw-rw-r-1 817268 -rw-rw-r-1 paul@RHELv4u4:~/test$ ls -ali paul paul paul paul paul paul 4096 Feb paul 4096 Feb paul 0 Feb paul 92 Feb paul 0 Feb 5 5 5 5 5 15:42 15:42 15:38 15:42 15:38 . .. file1 file2 file3
23.2.2. . and ..
You can see five names, and the mapping to their five inodes. The dot . is a mapping to itself, and the dotdot .. is a mapping to the parent directory. The three other names are mappings to different inodes.
Both files have the same inode, so they will always have the same permissions and the same owner. Both files will have the same content. Actually, both files are equal now, meaning you can safely remove the original file, the hardlinked file will remain. The inode contains a counter, counting the number of hard links to itself. When the counter drops to zero, then the inode is emptied.
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File links
Permissions on a symbolic link have no meaning, since the permissions of the target apply. Hard links are limited to their own partition (because they point to an inode), symbolic links can link anywhere (other file systems, even networked).
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3. Display the inode numbers of these three files, the hard links should have the same inode.
ls -li winter.txt summer.txt hlwinter.txt
5. Everything about a file is in the inode, except two things : name them! The name of the file is in a directory, and the contents is somewhere on the disk. 6. Create a symbolic link to summer.txt called slsummer.txt.
ln -s summer.txt slsummer.txt
7. Find all files with inode number 2. What does this information tell you ? It tells you there is more than one inode table (one for every formatted partition + virtual file systems) 8. Look at the directories /etc/init.d/ /etc/rc.d/ /etc/rc3.d/ ... do you see the links ?
ls -l /etc/init.d ls -l /etc/rc.d ls -l /etc/rc3.d
10. Use find to look in your home directory for regular files that do not(!) have one hard link.
find ~ ! -links 1 -type f
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24.1. terminology
24.1.1. process
A process is compiled source code that is currently running on the system.
24.1.2. PID
All processes have a process id or PID.
24.1.3. PPID
Every process has a parent process (with a PPID). The child process is often started by the parent process.
24.1.4. init
The init process always has process ID 1. The init process is started by the kernel itself so technically it does not have a parent process. init serves as a foster parent for orphaned processes.
24.1.5. kill
When a process stops running, the process dies, when you want a process to die, you kill it.
24.1.6. daemon
Processes that start at system startup and keep running forever are called daemon processes or daemons. These daemons never die. 200
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24.1.7. zombie
When a process is killed, but it still shows up on the system, then the process is referred to as zombie. You cannot kill zombies, because they are already dead.
24.2.2. pidof
You can find all process id's by name using the pidof command.
root@rhel53 ~# pidof mingetty 2819 2798 2797 2796 2795 2794
Typing exit will end the current process and brings us back to our original values for $$ and $PPID.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo $$ $PPID 4812 4224 [paul@RHEL4b ~]$ exit exit [paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo $$ $PPID
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4224 4223 [paul@RHEL4b ~]$
24.2.5. exec
With the exec command, you can execute a process without forking a new process. In the following screenshot a Korn shell (ksh) is started and is being replaced with a bash shell using the exec command. The pid of the bash shell is the same as the pid of the Korn shell. Exiting the child bash shell will get me back to the parent bash, not to the Korn shell (which does not exist anymore).
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ 4224 [paul@RHEL4b ~]$ $ echo $$ $PPID 5343 4224 $ exec bash [paul@RHEL4b ~]$ 5343 4224 [paul@RHEL4b ~]$ exit [paul@RHEL4b ~]$ 4224 echo $$ # PID of bash ksh # PID of ksh and bash echo $$ $PPID # PID of bash and bash exit echo $$
24.2.6. ps
One of the most common tools on Linux to look at processes is ps. The following screenshot shows the parent child relationship between three bash processes.
[paul@RHEL4b 4224 4223 [paul@RHEL4b [paul@RHEL4b 4866 4224 [paul@RHEL4b [paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo $$ $PPID ~]$ bash ~]$ echo $$ $PPID ~]$ bash ~]$ echo $$ $PPID
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4884 4866 [paul@RHEL4b PID TTY 4223 ? 4224 pts/0 4866 pts/0 4884 pts/0 4902 pts/0 [paul@RHEL4b exit [paul@RHEL4b PID TTY 4223 ? 4224 pts/0 4866 pts/0 4903 pts/0 [paul@RHEL4b exit [paul@RHEL4b PID TTY 4223 ? 4224 pts/0 4904 pts/0 [paul@RHEL4b
~]$ ps fx STAT TIME COMMAND S 0:01 sshd: paul@pts/0 Ss 0:00 \_ -bash S 0:00 \_ bash S 0:00 \_ bash R+ 0:00 \_ ps fx ~]$ exit ~]$ ps fx STAT TIME COMMAND S 0:01 sshd: paul@pts/0 Ss 0:00 \_ -bash S 0:00 \_ bash R+ 0:00 \_ ps fx ~]$ exit ~]$ ps fx STAT TIME COMMAND S 0:01 sshd: paul@pts/0 Ss 0:00 \_ -bash R+ 0:00 \_ ps fx ~]$
On Linux, ps fax is often used. On Solaris ps -ef (which also works on Linux) is common. Here is a partial output from ps fax.
[paul@RHEL4a ~]$ ps fax PID TTY STAT TIME COMMAND 1 ? S 0:00 init [5] ... 3713 5042 5044 5045 5077 ? ? ? pts/1 pts/1 Ss Ss S Ss R+ 0:00 /usr/sbin/sshd 0:00 \_ sshd: paul [priv] 0:00 \_ sshd: paul@pts/1 0:00 \_ -bash 0:00 \_ ps fax
24.2.7. pgrep
Similar to the ps -C, you can also use pgrep to search for a process by its command name.
[paul@RHEL5 ~]$ sleep 1000 & [1] 32558 [paul@RHEL5 ~]$ pgrep sleep 32558 [paul@RHEL5 ~]$ ps -C sleep PID TTY TIME CMD 32558 pts/3 00:00:00 sleep
You can also list the command name of the process with pgrep.
paul@laika:~$ pgrep -l sleep
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9661 sleep
24.2.8. top
Another popular tool on Linux is top. The top tool can order processes according to cpu usage or other properties. You can also kill processes from within top. Press h inside top for help. In case of trouble, top is often the first tool to fire up, since it also provides you memory and swap space information.
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It is up to the developer of the process to decide whether the process can do this running, or whether it needs to stop and start. It is up to the user to read the documentation of the program. 205
Introduction to Processes
24.3.6. killall
The killall command will also default to sending a signal 15 to the processes. This command and its SysV counterpart killall5 can by used when shutting down the system. This screenshot shows how Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5.3 uses killall5 when halting the system.
root@rhel53 ~# grep killall /etc/init.d/halt action $"Sending all processes the TERM signal..." /sbin/killall5 -15 action $"Sending all processes the KILL signal..." /sbin/killall5 -9
24.3.7. pkill
You can use the pkill command to kill a process by its command name.
[paul@RHEL5 ~]$ sleep 1000 & [1] 30203 [paul@RHEL5 ~]$ pkill sleep [1]+ Terminated [paul@RHEL5 ~]$
sleep 1000
24.3.8. top
Inside top the k key allows you to select a signal and pid to kill. Below is a partial screenshot of the line just below the summary in top after pressing k. 206
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207
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4. Using your terminal name from above, use ps to find all processes associated with your terminal.
oot@rhel53 ~# ps fax | grep pts/0 2941 ? S 0:00 \_ sshd: paul@pts/0 2942 pts/0 Ss 0:00 \_ -bash 2972 pts/0 S 0:00 \_ su 2973 pts/0 S 0:00 \_ -bash 3808 pts/0 R+ 0:00 \_ ps fax 3809 pts/0 R+ 0:00 \_ grep pts/0
or also
root@rhel53 ~# ps -ef paul 2941 2939 paul 2942 2941 root 2972 2942 root 2973 2972 root 3816 2973 root 3817 2973 | 0 0 0 0 0 0 grep pts/0 17:44 ? 17:44 pts/0 17:45 pts/0 17:45 pts/0 21:25 pts/0 21:25 pts/0
echo $$ should display same number as the one you found 6. What is the parent process id of your shell ?
2972 in the screenshot above, probably different for you
in this example the PPID is from the su - command, but when inside gnome then for example gnome-terminal can be the parent process 7. Start two instances of the sleep 3342 in background. 209
Introduction to Processes
sleep 3342 & sleep 3342 &
9. Display only those two sleep processes in top. Then quit top.
top -p pidx,pidy (replace pidx pidy with the actual numbers)
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[paul@RHEL5 ~]$ grep -i xkb /etc/X11/xorg.conf Option "XkbModel" "pc105" Option "XkbLayout" "us"
When in Gnome or KDE or any other graphical environment, look in the graphical menu in preferences, there will be a keyboard section to choose your layout. Use the graphical menu instead of editing xorg.conf.
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Keyboard settings
[paul@RHEL5 ~]$ ls -l /lib/kbd/keymaps/ total 52 drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Apr 1 00:14 drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Apr 1 00:14 drwxr-xr-x 8 root root 4096 Apr 1 00:14 drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Apr 1 00:14 drwxr-xr-x 4 root root 4096 Apr 1 00:14 lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 3 Apr 1 00:14 drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Apr 1 00:14
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B.1.2. /proc/bus
To list the buses recognized by the Linux kernel on your computer, look at the contents of the /proc/bus/ directory (screenshot from Ubuntu 7.04 and RHEL4u4 below).
root@laika:~# ls /proc/bus/ input pccard pci usb
Can you guess which of these two screenshots was taken on a laptop ?
B.1.3. /usr/sbin/lsusb
To list all the usb devices connected to your system, you could read the contents of /proc/bus/usb/devices (if it exists) or you could use the more readable output of lsusb, which is executed here on a SPARC system with Ubuntu.
root@shaka:~# lsusb Bus 001 Device 002: ID 0430:0100 Sun Microsystems, Inc. 3-button Mouse Bus 001 Device 003: ID 0430:0005 Sun Microsystems, Inc. Type 6 Keyboard Bus 001 Device 001: ID 04b0:0136 Nikon Corp. Coolpix 7900 (storage) root@shaka:~#
B.1.4. /var/lib/usbutils/usb.ids
The /var/lib/usbutils/usb.ids file contains a gzipped list of all known usb devices. 213
Hardware Settings
paul@barry:~$ zmore /var/lib/usbutils/usb.ids | head ------> /var/lib/usbutils/usb.ids <-----# # List of USB ID's # # Maintained by Vojtech Pavlik <[email protected]> # If you have any new entries, send them to the maintainer. # The latest version can be obtained from # http://www.linux-usb.org/usb.ids # # $Id: usb.ids,v 1.225 2006/07/13 04:18:02 dbrownell Exp $
B.1.5. /usr/sbin/lspci
To get a list of all pci devices connected, you could take a look at /proc/bus/pci or run lspci (partial output below).
paul@laika:~$ lspci ... 00:06.0 FireWire (IEEE 1394): Texas Instruments TSB43AB22/A IEEE-139... 00:08.0 Ethernet controller: Realtek Semiconductor Co., Ltd. RTL-816... 00:09.0 Multimedia controller: Philips Semiconductors SAA7133/SAA713... 00:0a.0 Network controller: RaLink RT2500 802.11g Cardbus/mini-PCI 00:0f.0 RAID bus controller: VIA Technologies, Inc. VIA VT6420 SATA ... 00:0f.1 IDE interface: VIA Technologies, Inc. VT82C586A/B/VT82C686/A... 00:10.0 USB Controller: VIA Technologies, Inc. VT82xxxxx UHCI USB 1.... 00:10.1 USB Controller: VIA Technologies, Inc. VT82xxxxx UHCI USB 1.... ...
B.2. interrupts
B.2.1. about interrupts
An interrupt request or IRQ is a request from a device to the CPU. A device raises an interrupt when it requires the attention of the CPU (could be because the device has data ready to be read by the CPU). Since the introduction of pci, irq's can be shared among devices. Interrupt 0 is always reserved for the timer, interrupt 1 for the keyboard. IRQ 2 is used as a channel for IRQ's 8 to 15, and thus is the same as IRQ 9.
B.2.2. /proc/interrupts
You can see a listing of interrupts on your system in /proc/interrupts.
paul@laika:~$ cat /proc/interrupts
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Hardware Settings
CPU0 0: 1320048 1: 10224 7: 0 8: 2 10: 3062 12: 131 15: 47073 18: 0 19: 31056 20: 19042 21: 44052 22: 188352 23: 632444 24: 1585 CPU1 555 7 0 1 21 2 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
IO-APIC-edge IO-APIC-edge IO-APIC-edge IO-APIC-edge IO-APIC-fasteoi IO-APIC-edge IO-APIC-edge IO-APIC-fasteoi IO-APIC-fasteoi IO-APIC-fasteoi IO-APIC-fasteoi IO-APIC-fasteoi IO-APIC-fasteoi IO-APIC-fasteoi
timer i8042 parport0 rtc acpi i8042 ide1 yenta libata, ohci1394 eth0 uhci_hcd:usb1, uhci_hcd:usb2,... ra0 nvidia VIA82XX-MODEM, VIA8237
B.2.3. dmesg
You can also use dmesg to find irq's allocated at boot time.
paul@laika:~$ dmesg | grep "irq 1[45]" [ 28.930069] ata3: PATA max UDMA/133 cmd 0x1f0 ctl 0x3f6 bmdma 0x2090 irq 14 [ 28.930071] ata4: PATA max UDMA/133 cmd 0x170 ctl 0x376 bmdma 0x2098 irq 15
B.3. io ports
B.3.1. about io ports
Communication in the other direction, from CPU to device, happens through IO ports. The CPU writes data or control codes to the IO port of the device. But this is not only a one way communication, the CPU can also use a device's IO port to read status information about the device. Unlike interrupts, ports cannot be shared!
B.3.2. /proc/ioports
You can see a listing of your system's IO ports via /proc/ioports.
[root@RHEL4b ~]# cat /proc/ioports 0000-001f : dma1 0020-0021 : pic1 0040-0043 : timer0 0050-0053 : timer1 0060-006f : keyboard 0070-0077 : rtc 0080-008f : dma page reg 00a0-00a1 : pic2 00c0-00df : dma2 00f0-00ff : fpu 0170-0177 : ide1 02f8-02ff : serial ...
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B.4. dma
B.4.1. about dma
A device that needs a lot of data, interrupts and ports can pose a heavy load on the cpu. With dma or Direct Memory Access a device can gain (temporary) access to a specific range of the ram memory.
B.4.2. /proc/dma
Looking at /proc/dma might not give you the information that you want, since it only contains currently assigned dma channels for isa devices.
root@laika:~# cat /proc/dma 1: parport0 4: cascade
pci devices that are using dma are not listed in /proc/dma, in this case dmesg can be useful. The screenshot below shows that during boot the parallel port received dma channel 1, and the Infrared port received dma channel 3.
root@laika:~# dmesg | egrep -C 1 'dma 1|dma 3' [ 20.576000] parport: PnPBIOS parport detected. [ 20.580000] parport0: PC-style at 0x378 (0x778), irq 7, dma 1... [ 20.764000] irda_init() -[ 21.204000] pnp: Device 00:0b activated. [ 21.204000] nsc_ircc_pnp_probe() : From PnP, found firbase 0x2F8... [ 21.204000] nsc-ircc, chip->init
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you may not add another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit permission from the previous publisher that added the old one. The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License give permission to use their names for publicity for or to assert or imply endorsement of any Modified Version. 5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS You may combine the Document with other documents released under this License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers. The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but different contents, make the title of each such section unique by adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number. Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work. In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled "History" in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled "History"; likewise combine any sections Entitled "Acknowledgements", and any sections Entitled "Dedications". You must delete all sections Entitled "Endorsements". 6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents released under this License, and replace the individual copies of this License in the various documents with a single copy that is included in the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects. You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this License into the extracted document, and follow this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document. 7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called an "aggregate" if the copyright resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights of the compilation's users beyond what the individual works permit. When the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves derivative works of the Document. If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed on covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole aggregate.
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8. TRANSLATION Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4. Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special permission from their copyright holders, but you may include translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a translation of this License, and all the license notices in the Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include the original English version of this License and the original versions of those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement between the translation and the original version of this License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will prevail. If a section in the Document is Entitled "Acknowledgements", "Dedications", or "History", the requirement (section 4) to Preserve its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the actual title. 9. TERMINATION You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except as expressly provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute it is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License. However, if you cease all violation of this License, then your license from a particular copyright holder is reinstated (a) provisionally, unless and until the copyright holder explicitly and finally terminates your license, and (b) permanently, if the copyright holder fails to notify you of the violation by some reasonable means prior to 60 days after the cessation. Moreover, your license from a particular copyright holder is reinstated permanently if the copyright holder notifies you of the violation by some reasonable means, this is the first time you have received notice of violation of this License (for any work) from that copyright holder, and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after your receipt of the notice. Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate the licenses of parties who have received copies or rights from you under this License. If your rights have been terminated and not permanently reinstated, receipt of a copy of some or all of the same material does not give you any rights to use it. 10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/. Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this License "or any later version" applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document specifies
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that a proxy can decide which future versions of this License can be used, that proxy's public statement of acceptance of a version permanently authorizes you to choose that version for the Document. 11. RELICENSING "Massive Multiauthor Collaboration Site" (or "MMC Site") means any World Wide Web server that publishes copyrightable works and also provides prominent facilities for anybody to edit those works. A public wiki that anybody can edit is an example of such a server. A "Massive Multiauthor Collaboration" (or "MMC") contained in the site means any set of copyrightable works thus published on the MMC site. "CC-BY-SA" means the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 license published by Creative Commons Corporation, a not-for-profit corporation with a principal place of business in San Francisco, California, as well as future copyleft versions of that license published by that same organization. "Incorporate" means to publish or republish a Document, in whole or in part, as part of another Document. An MMC is "eligible for relicensing" if it is licensed under this License, and if all works that were first published under this License somewhere other than this MMC, and subsequently incorporated in whole or in part into the MMC, (1) had no cover texts or invariant sections, and (2) were thus incorporated prior to November 1, 2008. The operator of an MMC Site may republish an MMC contained in the site under CC-BY-SA on the same site at any time before August 1, 2009, provided the MMC is eligible for relicensing.
223
Index
Symbols
;, 63 !, 81, 85 !!, 81 ? (file globbing), 84 /, 39 /bin, 40, 55 /bin/bash, 55, 167 /bin/csh, 55 /bin/dash, 55 /bin/ksh, 55, 167 /bin/rm, 57 /bin/sh, 55 /boot, 40 /boot/grub, 40 /boot/grub/grub.conf, 40 /boot/grub/menu.lst, 40 /dev, 40 /dev/null, 41, 92 /dev/pts/1, 41 /dev/random, 53 /dev/tty1, 41 /dev/urandom, 52, 54 /dev/zero, 53 /etc, 41 /etc/bashrc, 168 /etc/debian-version, 4 /etc/default/useradd, 153 /etc/filesystems, 47 /etc/fstab, 191 /etc/gentoo-release, 5 /etc/group, 170, 176 /etc/gshadow, 172 /etc/hosts, 54 /etc/inputrc, 167 /etc/login.defs, 156 /etc/lsb-release, 5 /etc/mandriva-release, 5 /etc/passwd, 152, 160, 176 /etc/profile, 167 /etc/redhat-release, 4 /etc/resolv.conf, 54 /etc/shadow, 154, 186 /etc/shells, 128, 160 /etc/skel, 42, 159
/etc/slackware-version, 5 /etc/sudoers, 162, 163 /etc/SuSE-release, 5 /etc/sysconfig, 42 /etc/sysconfig/firstboot, 42 /etc/sysconfig/harddisks, 42 /etc/sysconfig/hwconf, 42 /etc/sysconfig/keyboard, 43 /etc/X11/xorg.conf, 42 /home, 43 /lib, 43 /lib/kbd/keymaps/, 43 /lib/modules, 44 /lib32, 44 /lib64, 44 /media, 44 /mnt, 44 /opt, 44 /proc, 45 /proc/bus, 213 /proc/bus/pci, 214 /proc/bus/usb/devices, 213 /proc/cpuinfo, 46 /proc/dma, 216 /proc/filesystems, 47 /proc/interrupts, 47, 214 /proc/ioports, 215 /proc/kcore, 48 /proc/swaps, 48 /proc/sys, 47 /root, 49 /sbin, 49, 55 /srv, 49 /sys, 49 /tmp, 50 /usr, 50 /usr/bin/getfacl, 191 /usr/bin/passwd, 186 /usr/bin/setfacl, 191 /var, 50 /var/cache, 50 /var/lib/rpm, 50 /var/lib/usbutils/usb.ids, 213 /var/log, 50 /var/run, 50 /var/spool, 50 /var/spool/up2date, 50 /var/tmp, 50
224
Index ., 196 .., 196 .bash_login, 167 .bash_logout, 168 .bash_profile, 167 .bashrc, 167, 168 .exrc, 124 .vimrc, 124 `(backtick), 78 '(single quote), 78 [, 85 $? (shell variables), 69 $ (shell variables), 68 $$, 201 $HISTFILE, 81 $HISTFILESIZE, 81 $HISTSIZE, 81 $LANG, 86 $PATH, 56, 69 $PPID, 201 * (file globbing), 84 \, 65 &, 63 &&, 64 #!/bin/bash, 128 >, 91 >>, 92 >|, 92 |, 97 ||, 64 1>, 92 2>, 92 2>&1, 92 777, 180
B
backticks, 78 bash, 3 Belenix, 8 Bourne again shell, 55 BSD, 2 BSD Net/2, 2 bunzip2, 114 bus, 213 bzcat, 114 bzip2, 113, 114 bzmore, 114
C
cal, 111 Canonical, 6 case sensitive, 24 cat, 98 cat(1), 34 cd, 15 cd -, 16 cd .., 16 cd ~, 15 CentOS, 6 chage(1), 157 chgrp(1), 176 chkconfig, 42 chmod, 180 chmod(1), 121, 179 chmod +x, 127, 181 chown(1), 176 chsh(1), 160 CMDBA, 10 CMDEV, 9 comm(1), 103 command line scan, 58 command mode(vi), 118 cp(1), 26, 27 cpu, 213 crypt, 155 Ctrl D, 35 current directory, 15 cut(1), 100
A
absolute and relative paths, 16 access control list, 191 acl, 193 acls, 191 agp, 213 AIX, 8 alias(bash), 56, 57 apropos, 11 aptitude, 8 aptitude(1), 7
D
daemon, 200 date, 111 debian, 6 225
Index Debian, 8 Dennis Ritchie, 1 devfs, 49 df -i, 194 directory, 195 distributions, 4 dma, 216 dmesg(1), 215, 216 Douglas McIlroy, 1 dumpkeys(1), 43 GPL, 3 grep(1), 98 grep -i, 99 grep -v, 99 groupadd(1), 170 groupdel(1), 171 groupmod(1), 171 groups(1), 172 gunzip(1), 113 gzip, 113 gzip(1), 113
E
echo(1), 58, 77, 201 echo $-, 59 eiciel, 193 ELF, 44 embedding(shell), 78 env(1), 71, 71 environment variable, 68 EOF, 93 exec, 202 executables, 40 export, 71
H
hard link, 196 head(1), 33 hidden files, 18 history, 81 HP-UX, 8 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/, 14 http://screencasts.ubuntu.com, 14 http://www.linux-training.be, 14 http://www.pathname.com/fhs/, 39 http://www.redhat.com/docs/manuals/, 14 http://www.tldp.org, 14 http://xkcd.com, 6, 162 https://help.ubuntu.com, 14
F
Fedora, 5, 5, 5 FHS, 39 file(1), 24, 44 file globbing, 84 file ownership, 176 Filesystem Hierarchy Standard, 39 filters, 98 find(1), 110, 186, 186, 196 FireWire, 49 fork, 202 for loop (bash), 133 FreeBSD, 2, 7 freedom of speech, 4
I
id(1), 151 IEEE 1394, 49 if then else (bash), 133 init, 200 inode, 194, 196 inode table, 194 insert mode(vi), 118 interrupt, 214 IO Ports, 215 IRQ, 214 isa, 213
G
gcc, 2 gcc(1), 156 getfacl, 191 GID, 171 glob(7), 84 GNU/Hurd, 3 GNU/Solaris, 8 GNU Project, 2 gpasswd, 172
K
Ken Thompson, 1 keymaps(5), 43 kill(1), 200, 205, 205 killall(1), 206 Korn Shell, 160 kudzu, 42
226
Index
L
less(1), 36 let, 144 Linus Torvalds, 3 ln, 197 ln(1), 196 loadkeys(1), 43 locate(1), 111 logical AND, 64 logical OR, 64 Logiciel Libre, 4 LPIC 1 Certification, 9 LPIC 2 Certification, 9 ls, 178, 194 ls(1), 17, 195, 195 ls -l, 18 lspci, 214 lsusb, 213
P
package manager, 4 parent directory, 16 passwd(1), 154, 154, 155, 186 pc-card, 213 pci, 213 pci-express, 213 pcmcia, 213 pgrep(1), 203 PID, 200 pidof(1), 201 pipe, 97 pkill(1), 206 popd, 23 PPID, 200 primary group, 153 process, 200 process id, 200 ps, 202 ps -ef, 203 ps fax, 203 pushd, 23 pwd, 15
M
MacOSX, 8 magic(5), 25 man, 11 man(1), 12 mandb(1), 13 man hier, 39 man -k, 11 man man, 12 Mark Shuttleworth, 6 mkdir, 19 mkdir -p, 19 more(1), 36 Multics, 1 mv(1), 28
R
random number generator, 53 read, 139 Red Hat, Inc., 5 Red Hat Desktop, 5 Red Hat Enterprise Linux, 5, 5 Red Hat Network, 50 Red Hat Update Agent, 50 rename(1), 28 repository, 4 RHCE, 9 RHEL AS, 5 RHEL ES, 5 RHEL WS, 5 Richard Stallman, 2 rm(1), 25, 197 rmdir, 19 rm -rf, 26 root, 152, 162 root directory, 39 rpm, 5
N
NetBSD, 2, 7 Nexenta, 8 noclobber, 92 nodev, 47 nounset(shell), 70 Novell, 6 Novell Certified Linux Professional, 10
O
od(1), 104 OpenBSD, 2, 7 OpenSSH, 8
227
Index RPM, 50 top(1), 204 touch(1), 25 tr, 101 tr(1), 100 Tru64, 8 type(shell), 55
S
set, 59 set(shell), 70 set +x, 58 setfacl, 191 setgid, 185, 186 setuid, 162, 186, 186 set -x, 58 shell, 167 shell comment, 65 shell escaping, 65 shell expansion, 58, 76 shopt, 141 SIGHUP, 205 SIGTERM, 206 skeleton, 42 sleep, 112 soft link, 197 Solaris, 8 sort(1), 102 stderr, 91 stdin, 91, 97, 98 stdout, 91, 97, 98 sticky bit, 185 strings(1), 36 su -, 69 su(1), 161, 161 sudo, 162 sudo(1), 163 sudo su -, 163 SunOS, 8 Sun Solaris, 8 Suse, 6 swap partition(s), 48 symbolic link, 197 sysfs, 49
U
Ubuntu, 4, 6, 8 Ubuntu, Linux for Human Beings, 6 umask(1), 181 unalias(bash), 57 Unbreakable Linux, 6 UNICS, 1 uniq(1), 103 Unix, 1, 2 unset, 59 unset(shell), 70 until loop (bash), 134 updatedb(1), 111 usb, 49, 213 useradd, 153, 159 useradd(1), 155, 159 useradd -D, 153 userdel(1), 153 usermod, 171 usermod(1), 153, 157, 158
V
vi(1), 118 vigr(1), 173 vim(1), 118 vimtutor(1), 118 vipw(1), 158 visudo(1), 163 vrije software, 4
W
w(1), 151 wc(1), 102 whatis(1), 12 whereis(1), 12 which(1), 56 while loop (bash), 133 who(1), 150 who am i, 150 whoami(1), 150 wild cards, 85
T
tab key, 17 tac(1), 35 tail(1), 33 tee(1), 98 test, 132 Theo De Raadt, 7 time, 112 top, 206
228
Index
X
X, 42 Xen, 6 X Window System, 42
Z
zcat, 113 zmore, 113 zombie, 201
229