Aircraft Performance

Module 5
Where are we?

1 : Introduction to aircraft performance, atmosphere

2 : Aerodynamics, air data measurements
3 : Weights / CG, engine performance, level flight
4 : Turning flight, flight envelope
5 : Climb and descent performance
6 : Cruise and endurance
7 : Payload-range, cost index
8 : Take-off performance
9 : Take-off performance
10 : Enroute and landing performance
11 : Wet and contaminated runways
12 : Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design

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Climb and descent performance
Climb
 Introduction
 Balance of forces
 Rate of climb
 Lift during climb
 Climb gradient
 Maximum rate of climb
 Enroute climb speeds
 Acceleration factor
 Climb ceiling
 Calculation of time, distance and fuel to climb
 Certified climb performance data

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Climb and descent performance
Climb - Introduction
 In straight and level flight, T = D

 If T > D, aircraft will accelerate and / or climb

 Two flight regimes where climb performance is important

• Obstacle clearance – operations close to the ground
• Enroute – rate at which cruise conditions are achieved

 Climb performance must be derived in terms of climb angle or

climb gradient for take-off or go-around climbout
• Climb gradient (tangent of the climb angle) is used as the
reference to establish climb performance

 For enroute performance, rate of climb is used as the reference

to establish climb performance

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Climb and descent performance
Climb – Balance of Forces

W/g (dVg/dt)
γ
 Summation of forces along flight path
T - D - W sin γ - (W/g) dVg/dt = 0
 Summation of forces normal to flight path
L + (W/g) dγ/dt V – W cos γ = 0
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Climb and descent performance
Climb – Rate of Climb
From summation of forces along flight path:
sin γ = (T-D)/W – (1/g) dVg/dt

Rate of climb is defined as

r/c = dh/dt = V sin γ
r/c = V(T-D)/W – (V/g) dVg/dt
Geometric rate of climb, not pressure rate of climb

dVg/dt can be written as (dVg/dh)(dh/dt) and substituted in

previous equation
r/c = dh/dt = V(T-D)/W – (V/g) (dVg/dh)(dh/dt)
dh/dt (1 + (V/g)(dVg/dh)) = V(T-D)/W
r/c = dh/dt = [V(T-D)/W] / [1 + (V/g)(dVg/dh)]

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Climb and descent performance
Climb – Rate of Climb (Cont’d)
The dimensionless term (V/g)(dVg/dh) is known as the
acceleration factor AF
r/c = [V(T-D)/W] / (1 + AF)
AF will be defined later for different types of climb profiles

In summary:
When the aircraft is climbing at constant ground speed (no accel.):
r/cunaccelerated = V(T-D)/W

When the aircraft is climbing and accelerating at the same time:

r/caccelerated = V(T-D)/W – (V/g) dVg/dt or
r/caccelerated = [V(T-D)/W] / (1 + AF)

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Climb and descent performance
Climb – Lift during Climb
 Balance of forces normal to flight path leads to
L – W cos γ = - (W/g) dγ/dt V

 (W/g) dγ/dt V is the centrifugal acceleration due to changing the

flight path at a rate dγ/dt
• dγ/dt is nearly zero at any point in the climb
• dγ/dt is assumed to be equal to zero during climb

 Balance of forces can be written as

L = W cos γ

 Lift during climb is less than W

• Drag during climb is lower than drag for level flight

 cos γ is essentially equal to 1 for most conditions on commercial

airplanes and we can assume that L = W
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Climb and descent performance
Climb – Climb Gradient

 Climb gradient is defined as the tangent of the climb angle

• Climb gradient = tan γ

 For small climb angles, tan γ = sin γ

• Climb gradient = sin γ = (r/c) / V

 If γ is expressed in radians, γ = sin γ

Climb gradient = γ = (T-D)/W - (1/g) dVg/dt
γ = (T/W – CD/CL) - (1/g) dVg/dt
γ = (T/W – CD/CL)/(1 + AF)

 Maximum γ occurs at Vx when excess thrust (T-D) is maximum

• Speed typically slightly lower than VMD
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Climb and descent performance
 Climb – Climb Gradient (Cont’d)
 Climb gradient is normally expressed as a percentage
• Example: tan γ = γ = 0.05 is equivalent to a gradient of 5 %
• A gradient of 5 % means that the aircraft climbs by 5 ft for every 100
ft traveled horizontally

 If winds are present, the geometric climb gradient will be different

from the value of γ calculated with the previous equations
∀ γ geometric = r/c / Vg = γ (V/Vg) = γ (V/(V-Vwind))
Where Vwind is the wind speed (headwind is positive)
Note : r/c is not affected by wind

 Acceleration and climb gradient can be traded

γ no acceleration = (T-D)/W (referred to as total climb gradient available)
γ with acceleration = (T-D)/W - (1/g) dVg/dt
Example : γno acceleration = 5% can be traded for level flight acceleration of 0.05
g
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Climb and descent performance
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Climb and descent performance
Climb – Maximum Rate of Climb
 For a given weight and altitude condition, maximum rate of climb
is obtained at the speed VY where V(T-D) is greatest

• The speed for maximum rate of climb is slightly higher than the
speed for maximum excess thrust (T-D)

 The true airspeed V for maximum rate of climb increases with

altitude

• The aircraft must accelerate along the flight path to maintain

the maximum rate of climb

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Climb and descent performance
Climb – Enroute climb speeds
 In practice, it is desirable to choose an easily flown climb speed

 Speed schedule independent of weight and temperature

 Constant calibrated airspeed at low and medium altitudes

 Climb at constant Mach number at higher altitudes where

compressibility effects have a more important effect on climb
performance

 Example of a climb speed schedule : 250 KCAS / M 0.70

 Transition from climb at constant CAS to climb at constant Mach is at a

fixed altitude for a given CAS / M climb speed schedule

• Altitude defined as the transition altitude

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Climb and descent performance
 Climb – Enroute climb speeds (Cont’d)
 Operational considerations

• Aircraft speed is limited to 250 KCAS at altitudes up to 10,000 ft

(operational regulation)

• Operational requirements normally dictate a climb speed greater than

250 kts above 10,000 ft

- Large jet aircraft typically use higher speeds

- ATC may not provide clearance to aircraft that use lower speeds

• Aircraft is normally accelerated from 250 KCAS to a higher climb

speed at 10,000 ft and the higher climb speed is maintained until
Mach reaches the climb Mach value

- Example : Climb speed schedule of 250 kts / 290 kts / M 0.74

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Climb and descent performance
 Climb – Enroute climb speeds (Cont’d)

 Manufacturers typically define various climb speed schedules in order

to meet operational needs

 Low speed climb speed schedule (e.g. 250 kts / M0.70) to minimize
fuel burn and maximize range capability

• Also referred to long range climb speed schedule

 High speed climb schedule (e.g. 250 kts / 320 kts / M 0.77) to minimize
flight time

 Normal speed climb schedule (e.g. 250 / 290 / M0.74) provides a

compromise between fuel saving and flight time

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Climb and descent performance
 Climb – Enroute climb speeds (Cont’d)
 Best r/c is achieved at a speed close to constant calibrated airspeed at
altitudes up to about 30,000 ft and at a speed close to constant Mach
at altitudes above 30,000 ft

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Climb and descent performance
 Climb – Acceleration factor

 Acceleration factor (V/g)(dVg/dh) changes significantly during the

climb

Transition alt.

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Climb and descent performance
 Climb – Acceleration factor (Cont’d)

 When the acceleration factor (V/g)(dV/dh) is to be determined, the

incremental altitude, dh, is a change in true altitude and not pressure
altitude

 Since all performance data and performance calculations are based on

pressure altitude, any pressure altitude increment can be corrected to
obtain the true altitude increment
∀ ∆h = ∆hp (T/Tstd)
where :
T is the absolute average temperature over ∆hp
Tstd is the absolute average temperature over ∆hp under ISA
conditions
• It must be noted that the same concept applies when geometric rate
of climb is converted in pressure rate of climb (rate of change of
pressure altitude with time)
r/c pressure = r/c (Tstd/T)
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Climb and descent performance
Climb – Acceleration factor (Cont’d)

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Climb and descent performance
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Climb and descent performance
Climb – Climb Ceiling
 Climb ceiling is the lowest pressure altitude at which the rate of climb
reaches a defined value

• 300 ft/min is typically used by airlines

• Other values such as 100 f/min or 500 ft/min are sometimes used
• Note that a fixed r/c can sometimes be achieved at two different
pressure altitudes

 Why is the ceiling based on a fixed r/c capability?

• Want to reach cruise altitude within a reasonable time

• Want to have some excess thrust in order to be able to accelerate
to cruise speed once the cruise altitude is reached

 Example of climb ceiling chart is presented on the next slide

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Climb and descent performance
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Climb and descent performance
Climb – Calculation of Time, Distance, and Fuel

 Manufacturers provide climb time, climb distance and climb fuel

data
 Time, distance and fuel data is used for flight planning purposes
 Data presented as a function of initial climb weight

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Climb and descent performance
Climb – Calculation of Time, Distance, and Fuel (Cont’d)
 Calculation of time, distance and fuel to climb is calculated using
a step by step integration process using a time increment basis
or a pressure altitude increment basis

 Integration on a pressure altitude basis is more convenient and

is described on the next slide

 Calculations are made for given values of

• Climb speed schedule
• Initial climb weight
• Deviation from ISA
• Engine bleed extraction

 Climb thrust (T) and Fuel Flow (Wf) data is obtained from the
engine manufacturer

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Climb and descent performance
Climb – Calculation of Time, Distance, and Fuel (Cont’d)
 Select hp1 and hp2
• hpavg = (hp1 + hp2)/2
∀ ∆hp = hp2 - hp1
∀ ∆htrue = ∆hp (T/Tstd)
• Wavg (at hpavg) is assumed
• V, T, D and AF are evaluated at hpavg
• r/cavg = [V(T-D)/Wavg] / (1 + AF)
∀ ∆t = t2 – t1 = ∆htrue / r/cavg
• t2 = t1 + ∆t
• ∆dist = V ∆t
• d2 = d1 + ∆dist
• Wfavg (Wf at hpavg) is evaluated from engine data
• ∆fuel = Wfavg ∆t
• fuel2 = fuel1 + ∆fuel
• W2 = W1 - ∆fuel
Climb and descent performance
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 Climb – Calculation of Time, Distance, and Fuel (Cont’d)
• Notes on the calculation process
• Once the fuel burn ∆fuel has been calculated, the average weight
assumed for that step may be validated. Errors of up to 20 lb will not
significantly affect the results

• The size of ∆hp selected is a function of the rate of climb and is usually
in 1,000 ft increments or less

• Altitudes where there are discontinuities in the rate of climb must be

used as discrete points for calculation (i.e. ∆hp must be selected such
that hp2 = altitude with the discontinuity)

• If a level acceleration segment is included in the climb profile, a similar

approach is used for the acceleration segment with the exception that:
• Integration is based on a step in speed
• Acceleration is calculated (instead of r/c) at the average speed

• If winds are present, r/c is not affected but the distance increments
must be be calculated with the ground speed Vg (∆dist = Vg ∆t)

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Climb and descent performance
Climb – Certified Climb Performance Data

 Items covered in previous pages fell in the category of

operational performance, i.e. not certified performance

 Certified Climb Performance data will be reviewed in another

module and will include :

Take-off weight limited by climb requirements (WAT limits)

Take-off weight limited by obstacle clearance considerations
Improved take-off climb
Engine-out enroute climb performance (driftdown)
Landing weight limited by climb requirements (WAT limits)

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Climb and descent performance
Descent
 Introduction
 Rate of descent
 Descent speed schedules
 Cabin pressurization considerations
 Emergency descent
 Gliding flight

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Climb and descent performance
 Descent - Introduction
 Descent analysis is analogous to climb analysis except that
appropriate sign corrections are required

 The methodology used for climb time, distance and fuel can also
be used for descent time, distance and fuel

 Descents are normally carried out with engines at idle

• Net thrust is very low and sometimes negative

 General considerations
• Minimum glide angle descents are flown at the speed for the
best L/D, and that speed increases with weight
• Maximum rate of descent is obtained at maximum speeds and
with maximum use of available drag devices
• For a given Mach / CAS descent speed schedule, heavier
aircraft have lower rates of descent and lighter aircraft have
higher rates of descent

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Climb and descent performance
Descent – Rate of Descent

 Rate of descent (r/d) is calculated as follows:

r/d =- (dh/dt) = V(D-T)/W + (V/g) dVg/dt

r/d = [V(D-T)/W] / [1 + (V/g)(dVg/dh)]
r/d = [V(D-T)/W] / [1 + AF]

 Descent gradient γd

γ d = (r/d)/V = (D-T)/W + (1/g) dVg/dt

γd = [(D-T)/W] / [1 + (V/g)(dVg/dh)]

γd = [(D-T)/W] / [1 + AF]

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Climb and descent performance
Descent – Descent Speed Schedules
 Same approach as for climb speeds

 Fixed Mach number at higher altitudes

 Fixed CAS at medium and lower altitudes

 Manufacturer may provide descent data for more than one

descent speed schedule in order to enhance operational
flexibility

 Restriction of 250 KCAS at altitudes below 10,000 ft

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Climb and descent performance
Descent – Cabin Pressurization Considerations
 Cabin pressure altitude is typically equal to 8,000 ft when the aircraft is
at the maximum certified altitude
 During descent, cabin pressure altitude will be increased progressively
 A maximum rate of change of cabin pressure equivalent to a rate of
descent of 300 ft/min at sea level is normally selected for passenger
comfort
• Rate of change of pressure = 22.9 (lb/ft2)/min
 For a descent from the maximum certified altitude to 1,500 ft, the time
required for the cabin altitude to reduce from 8,000 ft to 1,500 ft
pressure altitude is calculated as follows
• Pressure for cabin at 8000 ft = 1572 lb/ft2
• Pressure at 1,500 ft = 2,004.5 lb/ft2
• Minimum descent time = (2004.5 – 1,572) / 22.9 = 18.9 minutes
 An idle descent may sometimes result in smaller descent time
• Partial power may have to be used during the initial part of the
descent to increase descent time

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Climb and descent performance
Descent – Cabin Pressurization Considerations

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Climb and descent performance
Descent – Emergency Descent
 May be carried out when it is necessary to descend to a lower
altitude very quickly

• Loss of cabin pressurization for example

 Typically carried at Vmo/Mmo with idle thrust and spoilers

extended

• Minimum thrust
• High drag
• High speed

 Very high descent rates can be achieved

• r/d can reach 10-15,000 ft/min

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Climb and descent performance
 Descent – Gliding flight
 Gliding flight can be analyzed by setting T = 0 in the descent equations
γd = (r/d)/V = D/W + (1/g) dVg/dt
γd = (D/W) / [1 + (V/g)(dVg/dh)]

γd = (CD/CL) / [1 + AF]

 Descent gradient is minimized during flight at maximum L/D or at VMD

 For an aircraft with a drag polar defined as CD = CDO + KCL2 :

• CD/CL = CD0/CL+ KCL

• d (CD/CL)/ dCL = -CD0/CL2+ K = 0 at maximum L/D
• CL = (CD0/K)0.5 results in minimum descent gradient

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Climb and descent performance
Descent – Gliding flight (Cont’d)
 Rate of descent (r/d) is calculated as follows:
r/d =- (dh/dt) = VD/W + (V/g) dVg/dt
r/d = (VD/W) / [1 + (V/g)(dVg/dh)]
r/d = (V CD/CL) / [1 + AF]

 Rate of descent is minimized when V CD/CL is minimized

• From CL = W / (0.5 ρ V2 S) → V = (W/(0.5 ρ S CL))0.5
• For a given weight and altitude, V is proportional to 1/CL0.5
• R/D is minimized when CD/CL1.5 is minimized

 For an aircraft with a drag polar defined as CD = CDO + KCL2 :

• CD/CL1.5= CD0/CL1.5+ KCL0.5

• d (CD/CL1.5)/ dCL = -1.5CD0/CL2.5+ 0.5 KCL-0.5= 0
• CL = (3 CD0/K)0.5 results in minimum rate of descent
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Climb and descent performance