International Practical Science Guide

advice and activities for primary and secondary science in the classroom

International Practical Science Guide:

advice and activities for primary and secondary science in the classroom

Edited by: Silvia Newton

Published by : The Association for Science Education and University of Cambridge International Examinations Printed by: Piggot Black Bear, Cambridge.

ISBN: 0 86357 410 6 (ISBN: 978 0 86357 411 5) The Association for Science Education and

University of Cambridge International Examinations, 2006 Authorisation is granted by the Publishers for items from the International Practical Science Guide to be reproduced for personal use or for the use of specific individuals within the purchasing institution. Permission is needed to copy or reproduce for any other purpose and requests should be addressed to: University of Cambridge International Examinations 1 Hills Road Cambridge CB1 2EU United Kingdom

International Practical Science Guide

Contributors:
Nigerian writing team: Thomas Iroegbu, Temisan Ige, Etim Ekpe, Tayo Owopetu co-ordinated by Ben Akpan. Lynne Symonds (ASE) Dr. Rosemin Najmudin (ASE) Dr Rick Nelms (CIE) Silvia Newton (ASE)

Design and typesetting by Deanna Melchior (ASE)

Acknowledgements
This guide represents the efforts of many people. The Association for Science Education (ASE) and University of Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) are grateful to all of the contributors. The editor is grateful to Jane Hanrott (ASE) and Deanna Melchior (ASE) for their support and help in producing the guide and Peter Borrows, John Tranter and Ralph Whitcher of ASE Safeguards Committee for their time, helpful advice and comments.

International Practical Science Guide

Contents
1 Introduction 1.1 1.2 2 Why teach science, and why teach it practically? How to use this booklet 2 2

Health and safety 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Risk assessment Eye protection Safety screens Safe working Some possible hazards Batteries and cells 3 4 5 5 6 8

Improvisation 3.1 3.2 3.3 Laboratory work when there is no laboratory Heating Apparatus 9 10 11

Solutions and recipes 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 Stock solutions Prepared solutions Storage of solutions Making up solutions Precise versus imprecise concentrations Serial dilution Percent and weight per volume solutions Standard solutions Bench reagents Diluting concentrated solutions Other useful chemicals 15 15 15 15 16 16 17 18 18 18 20

Some useful and fun experiments 5.1 5.2 5.3 Biology Chemistry Physics 21 26 30 35 37

6 7

Index Appendices

International Practical Science Guide

1.0

Introduction

This guide has been co-developed by the Association for Science Education (ASE) and the University of Cambridge International Examinations (CIE). ASE is the UK's largest subject teaching association providing advice, support, resources, training and events for all involved in science education for ages 3 -19 both nationally and across the world. It is self-funded and, as a body representing more than 17,000 members provides a voice for teachers and technicians in arenas of influence worldwide. CIE is the worlds largest provider of international qualifications for 14 -19 year olds. CIE offers a broad range of qualifications, created for an international audience. These qualifications include Cambridge IGCSE and International A/AS Level. CIE qualifications are taken in 150 countries and are recognised by universities, educational providers and employers across the world. CIE identified the need for guidance for teachers and laboratory technicians on setting up and carrying out practical work. In many countries practical work is restricted due to lack of equipment, lack of expertise or other factors. Feedback from teachers shows that practical work is the most demanding part of the science curriculum. This is especially the case in those schools that have limited laboratory resources. Despite this, practical activities are one of the most rewarding parts of science for teachers and students. The purpose of this guide is to encourage the increased use of practical work from primary through to the end of secondary schooling. As ASE and CIE believe that much can be done without expensive equipment, the guide has been written specifically for schools with limited science resources. It gives advice on preparing and equipping a basic laboratory cheaply, safely and effectively. The content of the guide was drawn up in consultation with a focus group conducted by the African branch of the Commonwealth Association for Science, Technology and Maths Educators (CASTME) with participants from India, Nigeria and Ghana. The group identified the key issues of concern in setting up and conducting science practicals. ASE has written and edited the material with contributions from CIE, drawing on extensive experience of science education in the UK and abroad. We hope that the end result meets teachers needs and helps to increase confidence in conducting practical science. We hope that those using this guide will recognise that it is simply a starting point. We would like to produce a further edition, using contributions from users. If you have ideas that you feel would be useful to others, please e-mail them to: [email protected]

International Practical Science Guide

1.1
n

Why teach science, and why teach it practically?

Science practical work is interesting and engages children and students, thus providing motivation and stimulation that improves progress in science and across the curriculum. Practical work is an effective way of learning and reinforcing theoretical concepts in science. Teachers who make effective use of practical work and experiments often find that students learn better. Through practical work, teaching is enhanced and becomes more interesting both for the learner and the teacher. Science learning, to be of maximum value, includes observing, asking questions about why things happen in the way they do, and evaluating. Learners should be encouraged to plan, measure, record, look for patterns, voice and debate their findings and ideas, and all these can be enhanced through experimentation. Much of what we know about science has been discovered by people doing practical work and so practical work underpins science education at every level. Hand-eye co-ordination, instruction-sequence-following and recording skills are developed by even the most basic practical work. Science does not have to use expensive or complex resources. It can be taught in the simplest fashion using empty tins, spirit burners, a few test tubes, plastic drink bottles and materials from home. Cooking food and washing dirt off clothes are everyday examples of science in action, examples to which all learners can relate. Much of science may become lost on young people if they cannot see how science applies to their lives. Practical work can be carried out using very small amounts of those materials that are more expensive, so they can be made to last for several years or shared between several schools. Using everyday materials published sources of ideas and a little common sense means that even non-specialist teachers can approach science practical work without being uneasy that they might accidentally cause danger to their students. In summary, scientific practical work can be fun for both students and teachers and results in a deeper understanding of science than theoretical lessons alone.

1.2

How to use this booklet

This guide is intended to act as a prompt for the teacher to start developing their own ideas and resources, and as a source of inspiration. Appendices 3 8 includes examples of Cambridge IGCSE / O Level practical lesson plans, technician guides and student worksheets for lessons with a clear practical focus.

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2.0

Health and safety during science experiments

In order to make science practical work healthy, safe and exciting, students need to be taught to work safely. You should always do a risk assessment before carrying out any experimental work. You also need to take account of the Health and Safety legislation of the country as the rules vary from country to country.

2.1

Risk assessment

Much of this is common sense and about protecting all the people in the classroom. Before any practical work is done, you should carry out a simple risk assessment of the material, equipment and processes used, so that any hazardous situation can be dealt with efficiently and effectively. In some parts of the world, risk assessments need to be written down to satisfy local law. This is good practice anywhere, so that other teachers and school managers can see that you have thought carefully about the potential risks and hazards inherent in the work you are proposing to do with students. A risk assessment simply involves a careful examination of what could cause harm to people and deciding whether sufficient precautions are in place or whether more needs to be done to prevent harm. The aim of risk assessment is to reduce the risks to an acceptably low level. A hazard is anything with the potential to cause harm. Hazards will therefore include many chemicals, electricity at high currents, some micro-organisms and tools that may cause personal injury. Hazards are identified by symbols that have definite meanings. Corrosive: Burns and destroys living tissues, including eyes and skin on contact. e.g. sulfuric acid CORROSIVE FLAMMABLE Flammable: Catches fire easily. e.g. petrol

Harmful: Similar to toxic and can enter the body in the same way, but much larger doses are needed to cause harm. HARMFUL Irritant: Can cause reddening or blistering of the skin. e.g. bleach TOXIC

Toxic: Can cause death if inhaled, swallowed or taken in through the skin. e.g. cyanide

International Practical Science Guide

Risk is s the likelihood ke hood that a hazard w will in n fact cause harm harm. There are two e elements ements to r risk: sk 1. 1 2. 2 How likely ke y it t is s that someth something ng w will go wrong? How ser serious ous wou would d it t be if f someth something ng goes wrong? For examp example, e how many peop people em might ght be affected and the nature of the their r injuries? n ur es?

Risk R sk assessment involves nvo ves answer answering ng these two quest questions ons and then dec deciding d ng what control measures, if f any any, are necessary to reduce the r risk. sk The sort of quest questions ons that shou should d be included nc uded in n such a r risk sk assessment are are:
n

What information nformat on is s ava available ab e (on the packag packaging, ng in n books books, cata catalogues ogues and on the web) about the potent potential a r risks sks and hazards assoc associated ated w with th mater materials a s and equ equipment pment you intend ntend to use? e.g. e g can cause irritation rr tat on or is sf flammable. ammab e What are the potent potential a r risks sks and hazards assoc associated ated w with th so solutions? ut ons? The raw mater materials as used to make up the so solution ut on shou should da also so be cons considered dered ( (in n re relation at on to the teacher and any techn technician) c an) as we well as the so solution ut on at its ts f final na concentrat concentration on ( (in n re relation at on to the teacher and students) students). Has it t been cons considered dered whether there is s a way of do doing ng the pract practical ca that reduces the chance that an acc accident dent w will occur? e e.g. g rep replacing ac ng M Millons on s reagent (conta (contains ns mercury sa salts ts very tox toxic c)w with th b biuret uret so solution ut on (so (solution ut on of copper su sulfate fate and sod sodium um hydrox hydroxide de wh which ch is s an irritant) rr tant) when test testing ng for the presence of prote protein. n What w will be done to m minimise n m se the r risk sk of acc accidents dents occurr occurring? ng? e e.g. g avo avoiding d ng the use of flames f ames when ethano ethanol (a (alcohol) coho ) is s in n use use, or us using ng a p pipette pette f filler er (not the mouth) to suck up acid ac d from a stock bott bottle. e What w will be done to m minimise n m se the sever severity ty of the damage caused by any acc accident dent that might m ght occur? e e.g. g us using ng eye protect protection on dur during ng pract practical ca work involving nvo v ng irritant rr tant or corros corrosive ve liquids; qu ds keep keeping ng some c clean ean water ava available ab e in n the lab ab to irrigate rr gate the eyes of someone who has rece received ved a sp splash ash of ac acidic d c or a alkaline ka ne mater material a or enzyme so solution. ut on

2.2

Eye protection

Protective Protect ve spectac spectacles, es gogg goggles es or face sh shields e ds shou should d be worn whenever the r risk sk assessment points po nts to a r risk sk of damage to the eyes or face face. For examp example, e when heat heating ng chem chemicals ca s or hand handling ng chemicals chem ca s c classed assed as hazardous ( (i.e. e corros corrosive, ve irritant, rr tant harmfu harmful etc etc.). )

International Practical Science Guide

2.3

Safety screens

You may be able to rig up a portable safety screen made of polycarbonate or acrylic so that simple experiments can be performed safely.

2.4

Safe working

There are a variety of science processes that have the potential to cause harm if they are not carried out safely. For example, heating ethanol over a naked flame makes a fire very likely, whereas heating it in a hot water bath makes a fire much less likely. You can demonstrate how to work safely and students can then practise the technique themselves. Some processes depend on using equipment such as pipette fillers and hot plates, which you will need to find or improvise (see chapter 3).

Some processes that could be practised: 2.4.1 Heating solids

n n n n

eye protection should be worn at all times the burner should be on a flat surface all books, materials and chemicals should be moved away from the heat source test-tubes being heated should be pointed away from the user and anyone else, and shaken gently to prevent the contents shooting out any hot objects must be placed on a heatproof mat, so students do not burn the work surface or themselves by touching it

2.4.2 Heating liquids in a test-tube

n n n

the test tube should never be more than a quarter full it should be held at an angle of about 45o or less to the horizontal bumping can be avoided by adding some broken pieces of pot before heating

International Practical Science Guide

2.4.3 Heating flammable liquids (e.g. ethanol, alcohol, acetone or methylated spirit)
n n n

flammable liquids should never be heated directly by a naked flame use an electric kettle or a pan on a stove to provide very hot water the beaker or basin used as a water bath can be lagged with felt or cotton wool so the water retains heat for longer the water should make contact with the evaporating basin if the extraction (for example chlorophyll from plant material) or dissolving is not complete when the water in the beaker has become too cool, replace it with more hot water
flammable liquid flammable liquid

n n

very hot water lagging (cotton wool, felt or carpet)

table top

table top

2.4.4 Filling of pipettes

Mouth pipetting should be avoided. Use pipette fillers (see Chapter 3 for improvised pipette filler).

2.4.5 Smelling gases

Students should be shown how to smell gases safely.
n n n

the test-tube of gas should be held so it points away from the face warn students not to take deep breaths use the hand to waft the fumes towards the nose, and smell gently

2.5

Some possible hazards

2.5.1 Concentrated solutions

Concentrated solutions are sometimes required for experiments. Concentrated acids and alkalis are corrosive, therefore when handling these chemicals it is advisable to wear protective glasses. To make a dilute solution, always add acid to water, never water to acid.

CORROSIVE

When diluting concentrated ammonia or concentrated hydrochloric acid, work in a fume cupboard or well ventilated room, so that any fumes are diffused and exposure is reduced.

International Practical Science Guide

2.5.2 Carcinogenic (potentially cancer-causing) chemicals

Some laboratory chemicals and reagents have recently been suspected to have carcinogenic properties. Some of these chemicals may be found in schools, especially in countries recipient of donated equipment and substances, which may have been sitting in different classrooms for many years previously. Such chemicals include: 1,2-dibromoethane (ethylene dibromide) aromatic amines (some) and their salts: naphthalene-1-amine (1-naphthylamine), naphthalene-2-amine (2- naphthylamine), biphenyl-4,4-diamine (benzidine) and all other amino-substituted biphenyls azo dyes (some) benzene carbon disulfide chloroethene (vinyl chloride) chromium (VI) compounds hydrazine salts lead ethanoate (lead acetate) methanal (formaldehyde) nickel sulfate and carbonate nickel (II) compounds potassium bromate phenylamine salts of hydrazine tetracarbonylnickel (0) (nickel carbonyl) tetrachloromethane (carbon tetrachloride) trichloroethane (chloroform) zinc chromate (VI) Ammonium dichromate (VI) should be heated in a working fume cupboard as the decomposition may be incomplete, giving air-borne carcinogenic particles. If a fume cupboard is not available, heat in a test tube with a loose plug of mineral wool to trap the particles.

2.5.3 Asbestos
Mats, gauzes for heating, fire blankets etc. which are made of asbestos are considered to be carcinogenic. Ceramic mats or platinised ceramic wool can be used in place of asbestos mats. Instead of asbestos fire blankets, glass fibre blankets are preferred. Protect desks with materials such as metal, ceramic, wooden or thick fire-proof plastic or glass mats or sand trays or flat rocks that will not split with heat such as slate or pumice. Instead of asbestoscentered wire gauze, use mild or stainless steel gauzes with or without ceramic centres.

International Practical Science Guide

2.6

Batteries and cells

Strictly, a battery is a number of cells connected together. However, the term battery is commonly used for both cells and batteries. For most work with low voltage d.c., disposable zinc-carbon cells can be used. These can leak if left for long periods, and the leaking chemicals are corrosive. Alkaline manganese cells may be useful because they have a much longer shelf life and lower internal resistance, but they can overheat and vent if short-circuited. Never attempt to recharge ordinary (non-rechargeable) cells; they may explode. If you use rechargeable cells, e.g. Nicad (nickel-cadmium) or NiMH (nickel metal hydride), it is important to use a charger which is designed for them. Avoid high capacity rechargeable cells as they can produce very high currents if short-circuited. Sealed rechargeable cells can explode during charging if they are recharged at too high a current. Nicad cells should ideally be discharged before being charged to avoid loss of capacity. Do not mix brands of cells when using or charging them. Do not use or charge new cells with old ones. Car batteries (lead/acid batteries) are unsuitable for pupils to use as power supplies in circuit experiments. The batteries contain sulfuric acid which is corrosive and would cause injury if spilled onto the skin or splashed into the eye. If a connector short-circuits the battery (which is quite likely when pupils connect their circuits), the wire could glow red hot and cause burns and fire. Car batteries require regular topping up with distilled water. When they are charged, they produce hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen can form an explosive mixture with oxygen or air. Do not charge in a confined space and ensure good ventilation. Keep flames, cigarettes etc. away. Make and break connections to terminals with the power off.

International Practical Science Guide

3.0

Improvisation

Science teaching can be thought to be expensive and difficult if concepts can not always be demonstrated to students. Where resources are limited or not available, you can use other ways of teaching and improvise with whatever material is available locally. The difference between improvised and standard science equipment is that improvisation uses inexpensive materials (commonly and easily available) from the local environment in place of more expensive apparatus. The item produced must work as intended and meet a basic teaching need. Local production of apparatus from local materials on a commercial scale can form an important source of import substitution.

3.1

Laboratory work when there is no laboratory

One of the difficult issues with teaching science under basic conditions is the aspect of safety and large classes. You need to learn to be innovative, but stay safe. Divide the class into smaller groups and allow some students to copy a diagram, make notes or write up a plan whilst you demonstrate to smaller groups. The school should be encouraged to use one or more of its classrooms as a room for the teaching of science only. This will allow you to place a poster of safety rules permanently on the wall or at least in that classroom. Appendix 1 shows an example of such rules, which could be modified to suit local circumstances. Where this is not possible you will need to be more organised. With a bit of thought, forward planning and organisation, it should be possible to carry out most of the practical ideas in this booklet. You might want to follow the example of a fellow teacher: What I did each evening was organise each practical into an individual box or in a tray. Boxes and trays were stored in a locked place. In my school we have a shed where all the science equipment and chemicals are stored, so practical boxes were also kept here. Where there is no classroom for science, thought is needed about finding a suitable surface to work on, as well as how realistic it is to do experimental work. Some key points for consideration are listed below, plus suggestions how to overcome the problems raised. Electricity: In most classrooms there is at least one electric socket or outlet which can be used for small lamps and other equipment. Where there is no such outlet, it may be possible to borrow a small generator for work where mains electricity is essential. For d.c. electricity use disposable batteries, variable power packs, or lead-acid batteries (see chapter 2.6). Fire and safety: Buckets of water with ladles and a sand bucket for putting out fires should always be provided for dealing with spillages and other accidents safely. Heating: Heat-proof mats made of hardboard or other flameproof insulating materials can be placed over classroom desks; portable gas cookers or burners can be used to provide heat as long as these are safe and care is taken not to knock them over. Waste disposal: Provide empty buckets for collecting waste to be disposed of after the lesson.

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Water: Ideally Water dea y the room used as a laboratory aboratory shou should d have a s sink nk w with th at least east a co cold d tap and dra drain, n but water can instead nstead be prov provided ded in n buckets buckets. Buckets can a also so be prov provided ded for waste water water, to be d disposed sposed of after the lesson. esson D Distilled st ed or de deionised on sed water can be produced us using ng a homemade st still or an ion on exchange co column. umn In n many p places, aces tap water is s soft enough for most experimental exper menta work work. Bott Bottled ed water produced from desa desalination nat on p plants, ants or other methods that do not m mineralise nera se the water water, can be bought at the local oca market or shop shop. Whether a laboratory aboratory or c classroom assroom is s used for sc science ence pract practical ca work work, at the end of each lesson, esson all chem a chemicals ca s shou should d be c cleared eared away to the their r norma normal p place ace of storage storage. Any sp spillage age that has not already a ready been dea dealt tw with th must be w wiped ped up up, so that the students and teachers who come to use the room afterwards are not put at any r risk. sk

3.2

Heating

Students en enjoy oy exper experiments ments involving nvo v ng heat heating, ng but these can be hazardous hazardous. Care must be taken when heat heating ng near a w window ndow ( (in n case of draughts) when there is s no g glass ass or if fw windows ndows are open open.

3.2.1 Simple fuel burner

Simple S mp e fue fuel burners can be made us using ng empty jam am jars ars or su suitable tab e g glass ass bott bottles es w with th meta metal lids. ds The fue fuel can be e either ther paraff paraffin n or kerosene (but not petro petrol or gaso gasoline). ne) Note: Kerosene produces a lot Note ot of soot soot. Make a ho hole e in n the cover of the jar ar w with th a b big g na nail, just ust large arge enough for w wick ck to pass through through. Cut a sma small p piece ece of f flexible ex b e meta metal sheet and fo fold d it t so that the w wick ck can just ust pass through it. t F Fix x it t through the ho hole e in n the lid. d Pass the w wick ck through the meta metal tube in n the lid d and let et it td dip p into nto the fue fuel. The fue fuel level eve shou should d be kept more than ha half f fu full. The vo volume ume of fue fuel can be reduced by part partially a yf filling ng the bott bottle ew with th cotton woo wool or sand sand.
cotton str ng w ck meta tube expans on ho e

cotton woo or sand g ass ar f ammab e qu d

Spirit Sp r t burners shou should d not be kept in nac classroom assroom a all day as the sp spirit r t evaporates and the room may f fill w with th a f flammable ammab e vapour vapour. Such burners shou should d be f filled ed just ust before they are requ required, red preferably preferab y outs outside de or in n a room or location ocat on away from the c classroom, assroom where there are no naked flames. f ames Once they are f finished n shed w with, th they shou should d be removed and empt emptied ed in n a safe location. ocat on Unlike Un ke most laboratory aboratory chem chemicals, ca s wh which ch may have been contam contaminated nated and so shou should d not be put back in n the stock bott bottle, e the sp spirit r t can be kept for future use use.

3.2.2

Traditional oil lamp

As simple mp e burner can be made by d dipping pp ng a t tightly ght y wound cotton woo wool w wick ck into nto some lard ard or oil in o n a sma small t tin n or on a meta metal lid. d The f flame ame is s sooty but it t can prov provide de heat s simply mp y and cheap cheaply. y
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3.2.3 Camping stoves

These provide a much hotter flame than a normal Bunsen burner. They should be regularly checked for leaks since gas can accumulate and cause unexpected explosions. If they are knocked over, liquid gas may flow out, causing a very large, yellow flame.

3.2.4 3.3

Old domestic or commercial electric cookers can be used if one of the hotplates still works.

Apparatus

3.3.1 Beakers
Use any locally available containers such as tins, jam jars, plastic milk and soft drink bottles cut to size. Disposable plastic cups can be used for most acids and alkalis. They may, however, dissolve in some organic solvents. Metal containers cannot be used for reactive chemicals such as acids. Glass containers can be used for all chemical reactions. Ordinary glass containers will tolerate mildly exothermic reactions, but should not be heated to high temperatures, as the glass may crack. A small number of genuine heat-tolerant glass beakers can be kept for use only in experiments where no other container can be used. Any unmarked container that is used as a beaker may need to be calibrated. This is done using a measuring cylinder to add regular known quantities of water, say 0.5 cm3 amounts, to the container. A scale can be marked using a thin line of permanent marker.

3.3.2 Circles
To draw a circle, tie a string around a pencil. A circle is drawn by holding the free end of the string and the pencil is pulled taut and moved in a circle.

3.3.3 Clamps and stands

There are many possibilities. Stiff, strong wire is flexible, but taut enough to hold, for example, a metal crucible or other container. The other end of the wire can be held in place using a branch held in place in a tin or glass container full of damp soil or sand.

branch

wire loop support damp sand

3.3.4 Crucibles
You can use metal bottle tops. Warm these directly on a cooking stove or over a gas flame so that the internal plastic softens and can be pulled out using, for example, a bicycle spoke or small knife. Be careful of fumes if the plastic starts to burn. The crucible can be held securely by a strong, rigid wire holder, made by twisting one end of the wire into a loop with the correct diameter needed to hold the crucible. The other end of the wire can be inserted into a cork, taped, or covered with flour dough (which is then dried) or any

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other material that does not conduct heat.

bottle cap (metal)

twisted wire holder

cork

For heating substances requiring a larger container, use the lids of tins or the base cut from a metal tin which has had the edges filed to ensure that they are not sharp.

3.3.5 Dessicator
A simple, cheap dessicator for storing hygroscopic chemicals (those that pick up water from the air) can be made from a large plastic container with an airtight lid. Put silica gel crystals or packets at the bottom and store the bottles with the lids tightly closed.

3.3.6 Electrical experiments

Use whatever is available locally to make bulb holders, circuit boards and electrical circuits. A simple circuit board is made by nailing nails onto a square wooden board to which wires, bulbs and batteries can be attached. Strong wire can be used to hold bulbs etc. in place. Rubber bands are useful for holding wires in place over the batteries. A switch is made by cutting the wire and baring both ends, so that students can touch them together to complete the circuit.

3.3.7 Funnels and filtering

Students can be asked to design various options, e.g. made from the tops of plastic bottles or metal, foil or other plastic. For filter paper, experiment with different locally available paper and cloth.

3.3.8 Insect collection

n

suck here

Sweep net
plastic tubing

Make sweep nets using old mosquito net, sewn into a bag, and held in place using a bent metal clothes hanger, thick metal wire or strips of stick around which the netting is sewn.
suck here gauze covering
n

Pooters

plastic tubing

gauze covering end of tube

Pooters can be improvised using plastic bottles and straws. These are used to suck up small insects without harming them or risking getting the insect in the mouth.

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3.3.9 Measuring
n

Current, voltage

Ammeters and voltmeters from educational suppliers are often expensive, but test multimeters can do as good a job and can be relatively cheap from the local hardware or electrical store.
n

Length

Students are given different lengths of string. These can be marked at 0.5 cm and 1.0 cm divisions with coloured permanent markers or by simply tying knots at 1 cm intervals. For smaller intervals such as 1 mm, a sheet of graph paper can be cut into strips to give a set of temporary rulers. If only one sheet is available, it may be possible to copy this (retaining the original for future use) on a photocopier, fax machine or through a scanner. It may also be possible, through a local internet cafe, to download images that can be improvised as rulers.
n

Small quantities of liquids

For dispensing small quantities of liquids, disposable plastic syringes can make a cheap and accurate alternative to expensive glassware and are less likely to break. Do not be tempted to use old syringes from hospitals, etc. These can be dangerously contaminated. Drops of liquid can be transferred by placing a finger over the top of the open end of a tube (glass, plastic or paper straw) when the other end is immersed in the liquid and then lifting the finger to release a drop.

3.3.10 Metre ruler

Graduate long, thin, straight pieces of wood. Standard measurements can also be painted on the walls such as 30 cm and metre rulers. Students can use these as a standard measuring device against which lengths of string can be cut.

3.3.11 pH indicators
If litmus or universal indicator is not cheaply available, indicators can be made from plant dyes. For example, extracts can be made from red cabbage or flowers with red or blue petals. The extracts are blue in alkaline conditions and red in acidic conditions.

3.3.12 Pipette fillers

n n

clip

Use a syringe (ii) Use a hollow rubber ball (e.g. squash/tennis) with two rubber tubes glued into holes cut into the ball, and clips or elastic bands to make it possible to seal each tube.

rubber tubing hollow rubber ball

rubber tubing

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3.3.13 Scales
Lids of tins (Ovaltine, Bournvita, Milo etc.) are washed and cleaned with sand paper. Punch 3 holes at equal spacing along the edge of the lids. Use thread or string through the holes to support the scale pan on the beam of a balance. Make up different weights by mixing ball bearings into concrete balls or by embedding ball bearings into plasticine balls.

3.3.14 Spatulas
Use spoons or shape them from foil or thin metal sheets. A simple spatula is made using strips of wood or metal about 10 - 20 cm long, 0.5 1 cm wide and 1 2 mm thick. Similarly, plastic drinking straws can be cut open near one end and opened out to make a little flat spoon or spatula.

3.3.15 Stoppers
Save old corks and bottle stoppers. Cork is easy to shape and cut. Whenever connecting to tubing, use grease so the tube passes easily through the hole. This also helps to seal the hole to stop gases escaping.

3.3.16 Timers
n

Two containers sitting on top of each other. The top container has a tiny hole through which water or dry sand drips slowly into the bottom container which is graduated. Funnel containing water or dry sand dripping into a graduated container. Mark a straight candle at regular intervals using a pen or by grooving small nicks using a knife and burn it as a timer.

n n

3.3.17 Tubing
Drinking straws, ballpoint pen barrels, polystyrene tubes, rubber and glass can all be used as tubing. When buying glass tubing, if possible buy different widths for different purposes. Glass tubing can be bent by heating gently and bending in the direction required. Bendy drinking straws are very widely available, and can be used as improvised delivery tubes for various experiments, such as collecting gases under water, as long as the straw does not get very hot, when it will melt. Tubing can be held by boring a hole in a cork or a rubber bung. Always rub grease around tubing to insert it easily into holes, allow movement and to fit the tube tightly into the hole.

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4.0

Solutions and recipes

The following is not intended to cover all possible solutions, but gives some useful tips and guidance.

4.1

Stock solutions

A stock solution is a solution whose concentration is known. A stock solution should be chemically stable, so that it does not change with storage. It can be diluted as required to give solutions of lower concentration for use in the laboratory. Keeping suitable quantities of stock solution can save time during term in making up solutions, as they only need dilution.

4.2

Prepared solutions

If only small volumes of solutions are required e.g. indicators, then, if they are available in small quantities, this may be the best way to buy them, rather than having large amounts of pure solid or liquid that will need to be stored for years. This is because substances are not always very stable and their activity or constituents may change significantly as time goes by. Many materials consist of solutions in volatile solvents such as water, ethanol or propanone that will evaporate even through a closed stopper. If kept for many years, this will affect the concentration of the dissolved solutes. If the material is toxic or has other harmful attributes, having a large quantity in storage increases the severity of an accident.

4.3

Storage of solutions

When you get a new bottle of chemical, write the date on it with a permanent marker so you will know which is the oldest bottle as this is the one that needs to be used first. Plastic bottles (polyethene or polypropene) with screw tops are a convenient way to store stock or diluted solutions. They are unbreakable and lighter than glass. Plastic bottles should always be used for alkalis, which dissolve glass. All bottles should be clearly and legibly labelled in waterproof ink with the correct name, concentration and hazard symbols relevant to the solution. Incorrect or illegible labelling is a major problem in schools and a major safety hazard. The concentration is important and serious accidents can happen if concentrated solutions are used instead of dilute ones. Always read the label twice and check that the concentration and the name are correct.

4.4

Making up solutions

One of the tasks that every science teacher or technician has to do is to make up solutions reagents, standard solutions, indicators, test solutions, etc. This can be time consuming. One possible solution is to make up batches of solutions at the start of term sufficient to meet most of the expected need. Stock solutions can readily be diluted as required. However this only helps if there is a safe, cool place to store the reagents. The key steps in making up a solution from a pure solid (or liquid) are:
n n

weighing (or measuring) out the correct amount of pure solid (or liquid) transferring this without loss to a volumetric flask or a measuring cylinder (For solutions which are highly exothermic, when solutes are mixed with a solvent, small amounts of solute are added slowly to a large amount of solvent.)

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n n

diluting the solution correctly to the mark with solvent dissolving fully and thorough mixing of the solution

When solutions are prepared, their concentration is normally quoted in either grams per litre of solution or moles per litre or dm3 (mol dm-3) of solution. 1 litre is the same as 1000 cm3 or 1dm3. Remember: when making up solutions, careful weighing and measurement is of no use if you do not mix the final solution thoroughly to ensure homogeneity so that the substance dissolves thoroughly and uniformly throughout the liquid.

4.5

Precise versus imprecise concentrations

You need to know when to make up solutions approximately and when they need to be precise, for example during practical exams or at A level and above. It is not worth spending time and effort making up solutions if the required task does not require such precise concentrations. Generally, less precision is needed for solutions such as bench reagents, test solutions, indicators etc. When making up bench reagents the stock solution can be measured out with a measuring cylinder. For analytical solutions it should be measured out using a pipette if the concentration of the stock solution is known precisely.

4.6

Serial dilution

You may need several concentrations of the same solution, for example 1 mol dm-3, 0.1 mol dm-3 and 0.01 mol dm-3. There are two ways to achieve a 1 to 100 dilution. It can be done in one step adding 1 part solution to 99 parts water or by making a 1 to 10 dilution twice in a row, using the first solution made as the "stock" for the second solution. Since measuring small volumes of solution is prone to error, performing a series of dilutions in order to gradually reduce the concentration of the solution from that of the stock solution is a faster and more accurate method. Examples
n

To make solutions of 0.1 mol dm-3 and 0.01 mol dm-3 from a 1 mol dm-3 stock solution i.e. to dilute a solution 10x and 100x: Take 1 cm3 of 1 mol dm-3 stock solution and mix it with 9 cm3 water. This solution is now 0.1 mol dm-3. Take 1 cm3 of the 0.1mol dm-3 solution that you just made and put that into 9 cm3 of water. This is now a 0.01 mol dm-3 solution. Take 1 cm3 of the 0.01mol dm-3 solution that you just made and put that into 9 cm3 of water. This is now a 0.001 mol dm-3 solution.
stock solution

1. 2. 3.

water

1.0

0.1

0.01

0.001

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To make solutions of 1.0 mol dm-3 and 0.5 mol dm-3 from a 2 mol dm-3 stock solution i.e. to dilute a solution to half or quarter strength: Take 5 cm3 of 2 mol dm-3 stock solution and mix it with 5 cm3 water. This is now a 1.0 mol dm-3 solution. Take 5 cm3 of the 1.0 mol dm-3 solution that you just made and put that into 5 cm3 of water. This is now a 0.5 mol dm-3 solution.
stock solution

1. 2.

water
2 1 0.5

4.7

Percent solutions and weight/volume solutions

Many reagents are mixed as percent concentrations (parts per hundred). When working with a dry chemical it is mixed as dry mass (g) per volume where the number of g per 100 cm3 = percent concentration.
n

A 10% solution is equal to 10 g solute dissolved in 80 cm3 solvent and then made up to 100 cm3 with solvent. For a 3 % solution, you would dissolve 3 g of the substance in 80 cm3 solvent and then make up to100 cm3 with solvent.

In biology, solutions and suspensions may be expressed in %. This is normally % w/v, which means percentage, weight / volume. The mass of solute is the weight.
n

To make up a 1 % w/v starch suspension, 1 g of starch is stirred into 80 cm3 of boiling water and then made up to 100 cm3 with water. To make up a 5 % yeast suspension, 5 g of yeast is mixed into 80 cm3 of water and then made up to 100 cm3 with water. To make up a 0.1 % trypsin solution, 0.1 g of trypsin is dissolved in 80 cm3 of water and made up to 100 cm3 with water.

When using liquid reagents the percent concentration is based upon volume per volume, i.e. the cm3 per 100 cm3.
n

To make 70 % ethanol you would mix 70 cm3 of 100 % ethanol with 30 cm3 water.

Hydrogen peroxide concentrations are commonly expressed as vol or else in %. To ensure that concentrations are correctly calculated, 20 volume (20 vol) hydrogen peroxide solution is a 6 % w/v solution, and is also approximately 1.8 mol dm-3. Note This solution should be kept in a darkened container in a dark cupboard as it decomposes very easily. Beware possible build up of pressure if this happens.

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4.8
n

Standard solutions
To make a standard solution: Calculate the relative molecular mass of the compound involved. The relative molecular mass may be found in textbooks or on the side of the bottle with the product information. It can be calculated from the formula of the compound using the relative atomic mass of each of the atoms that make it up. Work out how many moles of compound are needed and what volume of solution is required. Accurately weigh out the mass of solid needed. Dissolve this amount in a suitable solvent. Make the solution up to the desired volume with solvent.

A standard solution is a solution of known concentration. 1.

2. 3. 4. 5.

Example: to make a 1mol dm-3 (1M) solution of sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 The relative atomic mass of Na = 23 , C = 12, O = 16 so the relative molecular mass of Na2CO3 is: (23 x 2) + 12 + (16 x 3) = 46 + 12 + 48 = 106 So put 106 g sodium carbonate into a measuring cylinder and make up to 1000 cm3 with water.

4.9

Bench reagents

Bench reagents are the dilute acids, alkalis, metal salts, water-soluble organics that are routinely used in the laboratory for tests, simple reactions and preparations. These are used diluted (between 0.1 mol dm-3 and 0.5 mol dm-3) so that they are less harmful than their concentrated equivalents. As they do not need to be made up precisely, they can be made up using a toppan balance (to +/- 0.1g for solids) and a beaker, rather than in a volumetric flask, thus saving time. The substance is weighed, placed in a beaker, distilled water (if available, otherwise use cooled boiled water) is added in small quantities, and stirred until the final volume is reached. If you have bottles larger than a litre, you can use a measuring cylinder to mark exactly where on the bottle 1.0 litre of liquid would reach.

4.10 Diluting concentrated solutions

It is a good precaution when diluting or dissolving any substance to add it to excess water rather than add water to the concentrated substance, in case there is an exothermic reaction. If heat is liberated use cold water and allow the solution to cool before making up to the mark.

Diluting concentrated acids

To dilute concentrated acids you need to know the approximate concentration (molarity) of the acid (each one is different!). This information is usually found on the bottle. When diluting concentrated acids always add the acid to an excess of cold water. T his precaution is essential for concentrated sulfuric acid, which reacts violently with water liberating heat. The container can be cooled by standing it in cold water.

SAFETY
Concentrated acids are very corrosive and must be handled with care.

Eye protection is essential

Wipe the outside of bottles carefully after pouring to remove any acid drips.

CORROSIVE

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The following table gives the molarities of some concentrated acids and volumes to use for preparation of approximately 1 mol dm-3 or 1M bench reagents.
Acid Formula Relative Molecular Mass Molarity of concentrated acid / mol dm-3 Volume for 1000 cm3 1 mol dm-3 solution

Hydrochloric acid, (aq) HCl Nitric acid, (aq) HNO3 Sulfuric acid, (aq) H2SO4 Ethanoic or acetic acid, (aq) CH3COOH

36.5 63 98 60

11.3 15.8 18.4 17.5

88.5 62.3 54.35 57.1

Examples: n For a litre of 1 mol dm-3 solution of hydrochloric acid, HCl measure out 88.5 cm3 of concentrated hydrochloric acid. Pour this into 700 cm3 distilled water and then make up to 1000 cm3 (1 dm3) with water. n For only 100 cm3 of 1 mol dm-3 acid, take 8.8 cm3 of concentrated HCl and make up to 100 cm3 with water. n 354 cm3 (4 x 88.5) concentrated HCl diluted to 1000 cm3 (1 dm3) would give ~4 mol dm-3 HCl and so on.

Diluting concentrated alkalis

n

Sodium hydroxide

SAFETY
Sodium hydroxide pellets or concentrated solutions of NaOH are very corrosive.

Solutions of sodium hydroxide can be made by dissolving NaOH pellets in water. The reaction with water is vigorous and exothermic. Do not add water directly to NaOH pellets. Add the pellets to excess cold water in a large beaker and mix to dissolve. Allow the solution to cool mark.
n

Eye Protection is essential.

Even dilute solutions can do serious damage to the eye. Handle the pellets with tweezers, forceps or a spatula.

CORROSIVE

The mass of one mole of NaOH in grams = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40 g Thus a 1 mol dm-3 (1M) solution contains 40 g in 1000 cm3 (1 dm3).

It is easier to dilute a stock solution than make it up fresh each time, so make up 4 mol dm-3 or 6 mol dm-3 NaOH and dilute as required. This solution can be used to top up reagent bottles or to make up more dilute solutions. NaOH pellets and solutions go 'off' when standing in air as they absorb CO2 from the air and the pellets also absorb water. If the bottle has been opened the pellets tend to stick together and can be hard to dislodge. It is a good idea to keep opened bottles in a desiccator (see chapter 3). For analytical work NaOH solutions must be freshly made up. Try to keep bottles as full as possible to avoid contamination from the air.
n

Ammonia
Relative Molarity of concentrated solution molecular mass / mol dm-3 17 18.3 Volume for 1000 cm3 1 mol dm-3 solution 54.6

Ammonia Ammonia

Formula NH 3

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4.11 Other useful chemicals

Water in this section refers to distilled water if available. Otherwise used boiled and filtered water.
Chemical Copper sulfate Potassium hydroxide Potassium iodide Silver nitrate Sodium carbonate Sodium chloride Sodium hydroxide Volume / cm3 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 Concentration / mol dm-3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 Mass / g 16.0 5.6 16.6 17.0 10.6 5.8 4.0

Note: You may not need 1000 cm3 of solution. To make smaller volumes with the same concentration, reduce the volume and mass in proportion, e.g. half the relative molecular mass in half the volume of water, or 1/10th the relative molecular mass in 100 cm3 of water. Remember that the smaller the mass measured, the more inaccurate that measurement may be. This will affect the concentration when small volumes at low concentration are required. Under these circumstances it may be better to prepare solutions at a higher concentration than required, and then dilute using serial dilution. To change the concentration of the solution that is being prepared, either decrease or increase the mass of solute or volume of solvent.
n

Benedicts solution (test for reducing sugar)

Benedicts is a safer alternative to Fehlings as it doesnt contain sodium hydroxide. 1. Make solution A by dissolving 173 g of sodium citrate and 100 g of anhydrous sodium carbonate [irritant] in 800 cm3 warm water and leave to cool. Filter if a precipitate forms. 2. Make solution B by dissolving 17.3 g of copper (II) sulfate in 100 cm3 of water. 3. Mix solutions A and B and make up to 1000 cm3 with water.
n

1. 2. 3.
n

Biuret solution (test for protein) Dissolve 1.5 g of copper (II) sulfate [harmful, harmful to the environment] in 500 cm3 of water. Make 0.1 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution as described above. Mix equal volumes of the two solutions when needed. Iodine solution (test for starch) Dissolve 2 g of potassium iodide in 300 cm3 of water. Dissolve 1 g of finely divided iodine crystals [harmful] in the potassium iodide solution. This may require repeated shaking for up to 24 hours. Lime water Mix 10 g of calcium hydroxide with 1 dm3 of warm distilled or boiled water. Mix thoroughly and allow to settle. Pour off the clear liquid which is lime water and store in a stoppered bottle to prevent carbon dioxide in air reacting with it.

1. 2.
n

1. 2. 3.

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5.0

Some useful and fun experiments

All of the following experiments should be tried and tested before using in the classroom. If in doubt, do not try in front of the students. Remember to do a risk assessment before carrying out any experiments. See chapter 2 for advice on safe working practices.

5. 1 Biology
5.1.1 Photosynthesis

The equation for photosynthesis: Carbon dioxide + water + light energy

n

starch + oxygen

Test for starch Place a leaf or part of a leaf from a plant into a beaker of boiling water for about 10 seconds to soften it and stop any reactions. Put the leaf into a test tube of alcohol and stand it in a water bath for 5-10 minutes to remove the green chlorophyll. Wash the leaf in hot water to soften it. Cover leaf with iodine solution.

1.

SAFETY
Alcohol is highly flammable.
Keep alcohol away from all flames. Warm the tube containing FLAMMABLE alcohol in a beaker of hot water. (see chapter 2.4.2)

2.

3. 4.

The areas in the leaf containing starch turn blue/black.

n

Need for chlorophyl Take a leaf from a variegated plant (one which has green and non-green areas where it has no chlorophyll). Draw the leaf and label the coloured and non-coloured areas. Test the leaf for starch.

1. 2.

The areas on the leaf which containing chlorophyll turn blue/black showing the presence of starch is only made where chlorophyl is present.
n

Need for light Cover some of the leaves of a healthy potted plant with dark paper or foil for a few days. Test a uncovered leaf and a covered leaf for starch.

1. 2.

The leaf left in the dark will not contain starch showing that photosynthesis does not take place in the dark.

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Need for carbon dioxide Place a dish containing sodium hydroxide pellets (to absorb carbon dioxide) beside a potted plant inside a plastic bag.
plant plastic bag dish with sodium hydroxide

1.

SAFETY
Handle the NaOH pellets with tweezers or forceps. Be careful not to let the alkali touch the leaves or yourself.

CORROSIVE

Place another similar plant inside a plastic bag with a dish containing saturated sodium hydrogen carbonate. (If this is not available then do not cover the plant with a plastic bag.) 2. 3. Leave both plants for a few days in good light. Test a leaf from each plant for starch and compare the results.

The leaf from the plant with the sodium hydroxide has no starch in it, showing no photosynthesis has occurred, as photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide.
n

Effect of different wavelengths of light Collect different coloured bottles, for example, clear, green and brown plastic bottles. Cut off the bottom half of each bottle. Grow some small seeds such as peas or beans in small pots in a rich compost soil. Place a similar sized bottle top over each pot. Leave the plants or two weeks near the window or outside. Dont forget to water the plants. Test leaves from each plant to find out if starch has been produced.

1. 2. 3.

5.1.2
n

How water travels in plants

Students can be shown a variety of root hairs, for example, on carrot, onion, pea or bean seedlings. Place some small seedlings in water coloured red or yellow using food dye or turmeric for about 1 hour. Cut sections of the plant root and stem and observe under a hand lens. Only part of the stem is stained. These are the xylem vessels which carry water from the roots throughout the plant.

5.1.3 Observing diffusion

n n

Using a spatula, forceps or tweezers, drop a crystal of potassium manganate [harmful] into a glass jar or beaker full of water. Pipette a drop of ink into the water at the base of a container.

Observe what happens. Coloured particles spread out until they are equally distributed through the liquid. Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
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5.1.4 Observing osmosis

Osmosis is the movement of water molecules across a semi-permeable or partially permeable membrane from an area of high solute (e.g. salt or sucrose) concentration (and lower water concentration) to where the solute is in lower concentration.
n

Measuring osmosis Cut a peeled potato, yam or similar into pieces 3 cm x 1 cm x 1 cm. Place one piece into a dish of water, another into a dish containing strong salt or sucrose solution. Leave for 30 minutes. Remove the pieces of potato and measure the length of each.

1. 2. 3.

The piece in water should feel hard and be slightly longer than 3 cm, as water is drawn into the cells by osmosis. The piece in salt solution should feel soft and have become slightly shorter or remain the same length, as water is lost from the cells by osmosis. This investigation can be extended by using different concentrations of salt or sucrose solution and measuring the change in length. Pieces that remain unchanged in length are in a solution of the same osmotic pressure (isotonic) as that of cell sap.
n

Observing osmosis

Use strips of cucumber or chilli (or other locally available plant with a skin or waxy coating). Put strips in water and different concentrations of salt or sucrose solution and observe which way they curl. The skin prevents the cells on one side of the strip from stretching. If strips curl towards the skin / waxy side, they are taking in water. If strips curl away from the skin / waxy side they are losing water. If strips remain unchanged then they are in a solution of the same concentration (isotonic) as the concentration of the cell sap.

5.1.5

Food tests

Students can test a variety of local fresh and dried foods for the following nutrients: fat, protein, starch and reducing sugar.
n

Test for fats Rub the food sample onto a piece of paper. If present, the fat will make a translucent stain on the paper. Test for proteins (Biuret test) If the food sample is not in a liquid form, mash it up and add a little water to make a suspension. Add four drops of 0.1 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution [irritant] to the sample. Add an equal number of drops of copper (ll) sulfate solution and shake. A purple colour is seen if protein is present. Test for starch Add a few drops of iodine solution to the food sample. It turns blue-black colour if starch is present.

1.

1. 2. 3.

1.

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Test for reducing sugars (Benedicts test) If the food sample is not in a liquid form, mash it up and add a little water to make a suspension. Place about 2 cm3 of the sample into a test tube and add an equal volume of Benedicts solution. Warm in hot water bath for five minutes. There is no need to heat test tubes directly, placing the test tubes in very hot water for a few minutes will give a colour change. (see 2.4.3) A yellow / green / orange or brown precipitate develops if reducing sugar is present.

1. 2. 3.

Students can compare the amount of reducing sugar in different foods (fruits and vegetables) by carrying out the above test on equal sized pieces (1 cm3). To get an idea of the actual concentration of reducing sugar present, students should first prepare a set of standard colours to compare. This is done by carrying out Benedicts test on known concentrations of glucose solution, for example, 1 g/100 cm3, 0.5 g / 100 cm3 , 0.1 g / 100 cm3.

5.1.6 Investigating yeast respiration

The test tube or jar containing the yeast and sugar mixture can be placed in cold, warm and hot water to compare the difference in the rate of respiration. The bubbles of gas coming out of the mixture can be counted for 10 to 30 minutes to compare the rates.
rubber or plastic tubing

yeast in sugar solution

water

The bubbles can also be passed through lime water to show that when the yeast is respiring carbon dioxide is being produced.

5.1.7 Enzymes
n

Amylase is an enzyme which breaks down starch, turning it into maltose.

Amylase can be purchased commercially. Warning: some people develop sensitivity to commercial amylase. Once sensitised an individual may have an allergic reaction to small doses. A safer alternative is for students to use their own saliva (by holding a small amount of water in the mouth for a few minutes and then spitting it into a beaker). Because saliva can spread infections such as colds and sore throats, proper hygiene must be observed. Students should use only their own saliva samples and be responsible for cleaning up their own equipment. After use, students should place all equipment contaminated with saliva directly into freshly prepared bleach for at least 15 minutes. The glassware should be washed with hot water and detergent. Tables etc should be wiped with disinfectant and hands washed.

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Amylase can also be obtained from an extract of germinating beans. Germinate 40 or 50 beans such as mung beans or similar. When the roots are 2-3 cm long, grind the beans up in 100 cm3 of water and sieve the mixture. The cloudy solution obtained contains amylase. Students can carry out a variety of investigations into the conditions needed for enzymes to work. 1. 2. 3. 4. Place drops of iodine on a white tile for testing the reacting drops of mixture. iodine solution Each test tube should contain the same volume and concentration of enzyme. white Add an equal volume of 0.5 % starch suspension to each tile test tube. At regular intervals, remove a drop of the reacting mixture and test with iodine solution. Initially the iodine solution will turn black, but if the amylase breaks down the starch, the iodine solution will remain unchanged. Effect of pH Set up three test tubes of 0.5 % starch suspension. The control test tube should be pH 7. Add a few drops of 0.4 mol dm-3 dilute acid for acidic conditions. Add a few drops of 0.4 mol dm -3 dilute alkali [irritant] for alkaline conditions.
control
n

1. 2.

pH 3

pH 8

Effect of temperature Students can investigate the effects of cool, warm and hot conditions. One sample of saliva can be boiled, to show that heating denatures enzymes.

Catalase Students could compare the amount of catalase present in different fruits and vegetables. Catalase breaks down hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen. If fresh stocks of hydrogen peroxide are available, a 2 vol solution can be used. If stocks have been in the laboratory for some time, use a 5 vol solution. The amount of oxygen gas produced can be measured by counting the bubbles of gas evolved using apparatus similar to that used in yeast respiration in 5.1.6.

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5.2

Chemistry

5.2.1 Burning
n

Observing burning Light a candle on a flat surface. Watch it carefully. Write down all you can see about the wax, the wick and the flame. Are there any smells? What colours are seen in the flame? Now put the candle out in as many ways as you can. Can it be put out without blowing or touching it? Write a sentence about the candle using the words melt and solidify.

1.

2. 3.

Ask students to observe and record what happens when a match is burnt. Ask the students What would you do if there was a fire in the classroom, in the school, at home, or in your neighbourhood? Students can draw up a list of Fire Precautions for their class and / or school. The factors needed to help a candle burn Use three different sized glass containers. Find the volume of each container by putting water into the container and measuring the volume of water. This is equal to the volume of air inside the container. Time how long each candle burns in the different volumes of air. Heating substances Examples of substances that can be heated are: salt solution, copper foil, zinc oxide, water, copper (II) sulfate, iron wool, wood. Note: beware salt solution spits as it nears dryness.

1. 2.
n

Chemical or physical changes

Ask students which of the following activities makes a new substance:

n n n n n n n

Striking a match Frying an egg Eating an egg Heating a metal pan Burning a candle Heating water until it boils Compare different fuels e.g. candel, animal fat, ethanol, meths This can be done by placing the fuel in a small crucible below a test tube) containing a known volume of water and finding the temperature rise per gram of fuel.

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5.2.2

Chromatography

separating colours
test tube

Experiment with a variety of dyes such as ink, local food colourings, plant extracts (dyes) and solvents such as water, ethanol. The paper source for separating the individual colours in the dye will also need to be found through trial and error if filter paper is unavailable.

strip of filter paper, folded over the top

solvent

spot of substance to be separated

5.2.3

Density of different types of water

Collect samples from a local well, tap, river, pond or sea water. An equal volume of each can be left to dry in glass or evaporating dishes. A floatometer can be made. This is a piece of plasticine or dough dried around a match so that the match floats in the liquid. The match is marked and the depth at which the floatometer sinks in the different liquids can be noted, giving an idea of different densities.
match

dried clay dough or plasticene

5.2.4 Investigating materials

n

Properties

Provide a range of materials such as newspaper, card, plastic, leaves, grass, cloth, pieces of leather. Students can find the best material for travellers to make a temporary home by investigating various properties, for example, water-proof, conductivity (heat insulation - keeping hot water warm), hardwearing etc.
n

Solubility

Use common and locally available materials such as soap, sugar, salt, sand, maize meal, flour, iron filings, oil, rice powder, washing soda, chalk / limestone (calcium carbonate), egg shell, washing soda, etc. Students can test the substances in cold and warm water, dilute (less than 0.4 mol dm-3) sodium hydroxide and dilute (less than 0.4 mol dm-3) hydrochloric acid. Students decide how they know the material has dissolved (hint use small amounts and stir after each addition).

5.2.5

Rates of reaction

Calcium carbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid. Students are given calcium carbonate (marble chips) in different forms powder, small pieces and large pieces. The same mass of different sized calcium carbonate is reacted with a fixed volume of dilute hydrochloric acid. (Use concentrations less than 2 mol dm-3.) Students can be asked how they will measure the rate of reaction, e.g time to dissolve, rate of gas production (counting bubbles), loss of mass over time are all good ideas and they may come up with others. Students can also find out if the concentration of acid or the temperature makes a difference to the reaction rate.

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5.2.6 Testing different soaps

n

Test locally available soaps and detergents on pieces of cloth containing stains such as tea, grass, soil and colour from fruit juice such as orange. The soap can be compared in cold and warm water, with stirring or left untouched. Each cloth must be the same size and contain equal amount of stain. Stain the cloth and dry before the lesson. Put 10 cm3 water in a test-tube. Find how many drops of liquid or spatulas, if solid, of locally available soaps or detergent are needed to form a lather which lasts for 1 minute. Shake the test tube after each addition of soap.

5.2.7 Comparing everyday acids and alkalis

n n

Find the pH of different household chemicals, e.g. soap, vinegar, water, etc. Ask the students to design an experiment to clean up an acid spill. How would they decide which household chemical is best for cleaning up an acid such as vinegar which may have spilled on a desk?

5.2.8 Rusting
n

What makes iron rust? Place iron nails or iron wool in tap water, salt water and heated water. (If water is boiled, dissolved oxygen is removed from the water. The iron can be placed in the heated water and a layer of oil added slowly to the top of the water to prevent oxygen re-entering the water as it cools).

1.

oil nail

air

tap water

salt water

boiled water

2.
n

Leave for a few days for best results. How can iron be prevented from rusting?

Students can try painting, or covering the metal with oil in order to find the best method.

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5.2.9 Making and testing gases

n

Oxygen

Mix manganese (IV) oxide (the black paste inside dry batteries, although care must be taken in extracting it!) with hydrogen peroxide and collect the gas that comes off in test tubes. Close these with a bung. If manganese oxide is not available, crushed potato or liver can be used to break down the hydrogen peroxide. (see enzymes 5.1.7)
gas

water reaction mixture

plastic or glass container

Test for oxygen: A glowing splint or strip of wood should re-light.

n

Hydrogen

Use the same apparatus as for making oxygen. Add small pieces of magnesium to dilute hydrochloric acid and collect the gas coming off in test tubes. Close these with a bung. Test for hydrogen: Hold a lit splint or wooden stick to the mouth of the test tube. An audible pop will be heard.
n

Carbon Dioxide

Use the same apparatus as for making oxygen. Add chalk or egg shells and an acid and collect the gas coming off in test tubes. Close these with a bung. Test for carbon dioxide: It turns lime water cloudy. If you bubble a lot of carbon dioxide through lime water it goes clear again.

5.2.10 Separating mixtures

Students can be asked how they can separate different mixtures. For example:
n n n

juice from sugar cane after the sugar has been pounded (sieve through a cloth) water and oil (they are immiscible, so the liquid on top can be poured off) alcohol and water or water from salt water as in desalination (distillation for liquids with different boiling points)

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5.3

Physics

5.3.1 A model racing car

Provide students with a range of materials such as cotton reels, tin cans (beware sharp edges), elastic bands, mouse traps, old springs, washers, candle stubs, straws, beads, card circles, paper clips or pieces of strong but bendable wire, matchstick size wood or plastic sticks. Ask students to design and make a model car propelled by an elastic band, mouse trap or spring, whose speed or distance travelled can be measured.
(side view) candle stub

Cotton reel racer

elastic band

pencil match cotton reel

5.3.2 Investigating pendulums

Hang a small weight or ball of dough (made from flour and water and dried), plasticine or papier mache from the horizontal bar of a chair. The time taken for ten swings of different lengths of string can be measured and a graph drawn of the results.

5.3.3 Building bridges

n

Students investigate what shape makes the strongest bridge. They can be given five equal sized cards which they shape and test or different shapes to compare (e.g. a rolled card, flat piece, corrugated, folded). Students work in groups and are given a card 30 cm x 20 cm and 20 cm of sticky tape. The group which makes the longest bridge able to support the weight of a stone wins.

5.3.4 Thermal conductivity

Materials of different colours conduct heat (thermal) energy at different rates. Tin cans or glass jars of the same size with a cover can be either painted or covered in white, black and silver paper. A thermometer is inserted into the water inside the can through a hole in the cover.

cover (card/metal)

thermometer water

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In hot conditions, the cans can be left outside and the temperature of the water measured at the start of the day, and at regular intervals during the day. Draw a graph of the results with a different coloured line for each container to find the best absorber. Alternatively, the containers can be filled with hot water, and the temperature measured at regular intervals. Draw a graph of the results with a different coloured line for each container to find the best insulator.

5.3.5 Convection currents

Cut a circular piece of paper or foil into a coil and suspend with a piece of string:

insert string here

Hold the coil over a candle, convection currents due to hot air rising will cause the coil to turn round. Do not put the coil too close to the flame, especially if using paper, as it may catch fire.

5.3.6 Springs (Hookes Law)

If small springs are not available locally, springs can be made by twisting a wire round a pencil or stick. Each spring should have a hook-shape at its base onto which weights can be suspended. Equal weights can be made by hanging similar sized beads or small stones onto a wire with sticky tape or embedding cement balls onto string. Each weight can be suspended using paper clips or wire loops. Each time a weight (the load) is suspended on the spring, the change in length is measured until the spring loses its stretch. A graph of the results can be drawn. A straight line indicates that the change in length is proportional to the load added to the spring. Different sized springs (length, diameter) or those made of different materials can be compared.

spring

ruler

load

5.3.7 Testing strength of paper

Similar apparatus to that used in 5.3.6 can be used to test the strength of different types of paper. Use a variety of locally available sources of paper such as newspaper, tissue paper, paper used to wrap bread etc. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Cut identical strips 10 cm long and 2 cm wide of each type of paper. Reinforce the ends with sticky tape, and then form a loop at each end of the strip. Hang the strip from a stick through one paper loop. Onto the loop at the base, hang identical weights (concrete balls or beads hooked on a wire). Find the number of weights (the load) needed to break each test paper.

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5.3.8 Magnetism
n

Steel and iron nails can be magnetized by stroking the nail from one end to the other using one end of a magnet. Another way is to coil thick fuse wire or insulated copper wire around the nail tightly. The two ends of the wire are then connected to a dry cell battery. Dont use a lead acid or other type of battery as it may overheat and explode. (see chapter 2.6) The nail becomes magnetized and can be used to pick up pins. A compass can be placed at both ends of the magnet to see if there is any difference in the direction of the magnetic field. To see the magnetic force field, place a bar magnet under a sheet of paper. Either sprinkle iron filings onto the paper or place filings in a sealed plastic bag and place this above the magnet. (This is preferable, to prevent iron filings sticking to the magnet or being spilled and getting transferred to eyes from fingers.)

5.3.9 Static charge

n

Charge a comb by rubbing it on hair or cloth. Bring the comb near some tiny pieces of paper and these will be attracted to the comb. Hold the charged comb near a thin stream of water flowing from a tap. The comb causes a change in the direction of the water stream. Charge a balloon by rubbing it on a cloth. When moved towards a students hair, the static force attracts the hair. This only works in a dry atmosphere.

5.3.10 Electrical experiments

n

Comparing electrical conductivity of materials

A simple circuit can be set up with batteries (cells) connected to two wires as shown. When the circuit is completed (joined), the bulb should light. Different metals and non-metals (e.g. nail, coin, copper strip, glass, wood, paper, iron, rusty iron, magnesium, thick fuse wire any material locally available) can be used to complete the circuit. Those that conduct electricity will allow the bulb to light. Those that are non-conductors or insulators will not allow the current to pass through and so the bulb will not light.
cells

bulb

ammeter

material to be tested

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Current and voltage

If a multimeter is available, the changes in voltage and current could be measured and students could investigate the effect of using different lengths of the same type of wire or using equal lengths of different thicknesses or types of wire.
cells

bulb

ammeter

material to be tested

voltmeter

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31

References
Byers, Childs, Laine (1994) The Science Teachers Handbook, Heinemann, Oxford ISBN 0-435-92302-1 Oladimeji, (1987), Guide to Production of Primary Science Equipment by the Teacher, Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council The Association for Science Education (2006) Safeguards in the School Laboratory [11th edition], ASE, Hatfield, UK. ISBN: 0 86357 408 4 (ISBN: 978-0-86357-408-5 Valid from 2007) The Association for Science Education (2001) Be Safe [3rd edition] ASE, Hatfield, UK ISBN: 0 86357 324 X University of Cambridge International Examinations (2002) Planning for Practical Science in Secondary Schools, CIE, Cambridge, UK.

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6.
A

Index
E
acids concentrated diluting experiments alkalis concentrated diluting experiments ammeter ammonia amylase apparatus improvisation asbestos 6 1920 25, 28 13 19 2425 1114 7 8 11 18 20 24 20 23 30 10 26 7 11 30 29 29 25 27 11 11 32, 33 3031 31 11 33 13 27 12 22 16, 20 6 1819 25, 28 electrical experiments electricity supply enzymes experiments amylase catalase eye protection 12, 32, 33 9 2425 2425 25 4 23 12 6 2324 23 23 21, 23 24 10 12

F
fat, test for filtering flammable liquids, heating food tests fats proteins starch sugar, reducing fuel burners funnels

B
batteries beakers bench reagents Benedicts solution test Biuret solution test bridges, building burners burning experiments

G
gases making carbon dioxide making hydrogen making oxygen smelling 29 29 29 6 3, 68 3 1011 10 11 11 6 9 10 5, 26 31 29 29 17 9-14 10-14 9 9 9, 10 9 10 13 12 32 20 28

H
hazards hazard symbols heaters heating burners camping stoves cookers flammable liquids improvisation oil lamps substances Hookes law experiment hydrogen making test for hydrogen peroxide

C
carcinogens calibrating containers car, model, making carbon dioxide making test for catalase cells (see batteries) chromatography circles drawing clamps conductivity experiments electrical thermal convection currents experiment crucibles current experiments measuring

I
Improvisation apparatus electricity fire and safety heating waste disposal water indicators, pH insect collection insulators experiment iodine solution iron experiments

D
density experiment dessicator diffusion experiments diluting solutions

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L
large classes length, measuring limewater liquids flammable heating measuring 9 13 20 6 5, 6 13

S
safety fire and screens symbols safe working scales serial dilution soaps experiment sodium hydroxide solutions bench concentrated diluting making up percent serial dilution stock standard storage of weight per volume spatulas springs experiment stands starch test static charge experiment stoppers storage of chemicals sugar, reducing, test for sweep net 38 9 5 3 5-6 14 16-17 28 19 15-20 18 6 1620 1520 17 16-17 15 18 15 17 14 31 11 21, 23 32 14 15 24 12

M
magnetism experiments materials experiments measuring current length liquids voltage metre rulers mixtures, separating model car, making multimeter 32 27, 33 13 13 13 13 13 29 30 13 10 23 29 29

O
oil lamp osmosis experiments oxygen making test for

P
paper filter testing strength pendulum experiment percent solutions photosynthesis experiments pH experiments indicators pipettes fillers plant experiments photosynthesis water transport pooter protein, test for 12 31 30 17 21 25, 28 13 6 13 2122 22 12 23 2728 24 4 34 28

T
tests carbon dioxide fat hydrogen oxygen protein reducing sugar starch timers tubing 29 23 29 29 23 24 21, 23 14 14

V
voltage experiments measuring voltmeter 32, 33 13 13 9 10 24

R
rates of reaction experiments respiration experiments risk risk assessment rusting experiment

W
waste disposal water supplies

Y
yeast experiments

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7.

Appendices

Appendix 1
We suggest that you display a similar poster in the school science laboratory and inform students of the rules

SCIENCE SAFETY RULES

The biggest danger in the laboratory is YOU. You are a danger whenever you are ignorant or careless or both. Remember this because the person most likely to suffer from your mistakes is you.

USE CARE AND COMMON SENSE AT ALL TIMES

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Never go into a laboratory without permission. Do not rush or run in the laboratory. Keep your bench and nearby floor clear, with bags and coats well out of the way. Never touch apparatus or chemicals or remove anything from the laboratory without permission. Long hair should be tied back and ties, clothes etc. should not be allowed to hang freely especially when heating things. Always wear eye protection when told to do so. Always listen to and follow the instructions given. Check labels carefully and keep tops on bottles except when removing substances from them. If in doubt, ask. Never taste or eat anything in the laboratory. If you get burnt or splash chemical on your skin, wash the affected area at once, with lots of water. Never put waste solids in the sink. Put them where your teacher instructs you. Wipe up all small spills and report bigger ones and breakages to your teacher.

8. 9. 10.

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Appendix 2
SCIENCE PRACTICAL WORK and INVESTIGATIONS
Hints for students to help plan, carry out and write up practical investigations. TITLE BEFORE THE INVESTIGATION VARIABLES PREDICTIONS METHOD
n n n n

What is the problem or task you have been set? Decide what you want to find out. What will you need to do to find this? What are the things that can be changed in this investigation? Using your scientific knowledge predict what you think will happen when you change the variable(s). Give step by step instructions on how you will do the investigation, including details of the quantities you will use. What will be measured? How will this be done? Will you need to repeat your measurements? Have you decided how you will record any results or observations? You may need to prepare a table for results which needs to be filled in. Have you checked for safety symbols and made sure you are working safely, e.g. is the desk cleared, hair tied back? You may need to draw and label a diagram to show how you will set up your apparatus. Have you written down all your readings or observations, with units? Note: take readings to 1 or 2 decimal places if appropriate. Have you repeated your measurements to make them reliable? Can you draw a graph of your results? Note: label the axes and include units. Describe any patterns you notice in your results and graphs. Do these patterns agree with your predictions? If not, what is the reason? Was your prediction wrong? Were your results inaccurate? What did you learn from the experiment? Can you explain your results and observations using your scientific knowledge? Describe any odd or unexpected results? Explain why these unexpected results may have happened? Did you have any problems taking readings, or in the method? If you could do the experiment again, would you change it? If yes, describe any improvements you would make.

n n n

SAFETY DIAGRAM DURING THE EXPERIMENT

AFTER THE EXPERIMENT Analysing Evidence and Drawing Conclusions

n n n

EVALUATION

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Appendix 3 University of Cambridge International Examinations / Science Practical Lesson Plan (a template)
When (date / time / lesson) Who (teacher / class) Where (room) Title Temperature, amylase and starch digestion

Aim / focus / context To investigate the effect of temperature on enzymes Learning outcomes Candidates should be able to:
n n n n n

explain enzyme activity in terms of the lock and key hypothesis 3b (syllabus reference) investigate and describe the effect of temperature on enzyme activity 3c follow a sequence of instructions Assessment Objective C1 interpret, evaluate and report upon observations and experimental data Assessment Objective C4 evaluate methods and suggest possible improvements Assessment Objective C6

Teaching and learning activities 10 minutes introduction and context teacher led session to remind students of the effect of temperature on enzyme action and the reasons for it in terms of the lock and key hypothesis; as temperature increases, molecules move faster, increasing collisions between enzyme and substrate; at higher temperatures, thermal vibration breaks weak bonds in the enzyme, changing the shape of the active site so that substrate does not fit causing denaturation. 10 minutes demonstration of key elements of method. 30 minutes practical work including recording of temperature and time taken for starch to disappear, adding own results to class results on the board. Each group of students to be allocated a different temperature so that all the temperatures are covered. If groups work quickly, can allocate them another temperature so that all temperatures are investigated several times. 10 minutes teacher led explanation how to write-up the experiment including calculation of rate of reaction as 1/time and correct graph to plot. Homework write up, plot graph of results and describe and explain in writing what the graph shows. Resources Practical materials listed on the Technical Information sheet Blackboard and chalk

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Appendix 4 University of Cambridge International Examinations Science Practical Technical Information

Title Temperature, amylase and starch digestion Students to work alone Apparatus and materials
n n

Students to work in groups of

amylase enzyme 1% solution fresh 1 % starch solution made by stirring 1 g of corn starch or similar into 80 cm3 of boiling water until dissolved, making up to 100 cm3 iodine solution straws or droppers for transferring iodine solution test-tubes means of timing white tiles syringes to measure 1 cm3 bowls or beakers of water at approximately 10 oC, 20 oC, 30 oC, 40 oC, 50 oC and 60 oC, each containing a thermometer some of these will need ice added from time to time, and for others, hot water will need to be added ice kettle or means of heating water

n n n n n n n

n n

Risk assessment Amylase enzymes may cause allergic reactions on the skin or eyes of some people. Other materials at the concentrations used present few hazards, but care should be taken to avoid contact with skin or eyes.

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Appendix 5 University of Cambridge International Examinations Science Practical Student Worksheet

Aim To investigate the effect of temperature on enzymes Background Information n For the enzyme amylase, the substrate is starch which is broken down to form maltose, a sugar. n When starch is present it turns iodine solution blue-black, but when all the starch has been broken down, the iodine solution remains a brown or yellow colour. n Increasing the temperature increases the speed at which both enzyme and substrate molecules move, so that as temperature increases, the number of collisions between the active site of the enzyme and the substrate increases and therefore the rate of reaction increases. n At high temperatures, there are more vibrations within the enzyme molecule, so that weak bonds are broken. As a result the shape of the active site changes so the substrate no longer fits into it. The enzyme is now denaturated. n The time taken for the starch to be removed is the opposite of (inversely proportional to) the rate of reaction, so 1/time can be used to represent rate of reaction. Apparatus and materials n amylase enzyme 1 % solution [danger of irritation] if spilt on eyes or skin n 1 % starch solution n beakers or bowls of water for water baths n thermometer n test-tubes n means of timing n dry white tile n dropper pipette or straw to take samples from the bottom of test-tubes n syringe Method Your teacher will tell you which temperature water bath to start with. 1. Put 1 cm3 of amylase solution into a labelled test tube and place in the water bath. Leave for 5 minutes. Record the temperature of the water bath. 2. Put small drops of iodine solution on the dry white tile so they are well separated. 3. Add 1 cm3 of starch solution to the amylase solution in the test tube in the water bath, and start timing. 4. Take a drop of mixture from the test-tube and add to the first drop of iodine on the tile record the time and the colour of the drop. 5. Repeat step 4 after 1 minute, 2 minutes and every minute for 10 minutes or until the iodine drop stays brown or yellow. The time it takes for the drop to remain brown or yellow is the end point record this time in minutes and the final temperature of the water bath. 6. If there is time, your teacher will give you another temperature to investigate. Write-up 1. Calculate rate of reaction as 1/ time for each temperature. 2. Draw a graph of temperature against rate of reaction (temperature is the independent variable so is on the x-axis). 3. Describe the effect of temperature on the rate of reaction using information from your graph. 4. Explain the reasons why temperature has an effect on the rate of reaction. 5. Evaluate how effective your method was and suggest possible improvements.
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Appendix 6 University of Cambridge International Examinations Science Practical Lesson Plan

When (date / time / lesson) Who (teacher / class) Aim / focus / context To develop skill in making observations Where (room) Title Observation of animals / plants

Learning outcomes Candidates should be able to: n make and record observations, measurements, calculations and estimates with due regard to precision, accuracy and units Assessment Objective C3 n interpret, evaluate and report upon observations Assessment Objective C3

Teaching and Learning activities 15 minutes Introduction to the skills that are required to be developed observing the material, drawing it accurately, taking measurements and calculating the magnification of the drawing teacher led session 30 minutes making the observations and drawings using a hand lens, measuring the length of the same part of the specimen and drawing and calculating the magnification

Resources Practical materials listed on the Technical Information sheet

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Appendix 7 University of Cambridge International Examinations Science Practical Technical Information

Title Observations of animals / plants Students to work alone Apparatus and materials
n n

Students to work in groups of

Hand lens Fresh dead crustacean such as a freshwater or marine shrimp or crab (or a preserved insect) or a twig with or without leaves from a plant Tweezers or forceps Ruler to measure in mm Calculator Paper with no lines Sharp medium-hard (hb) pencil

n n n n n

Risk assessment Dead animals may be contaminated with bacteria which may pose serious risks to health. To minimise any risk place the material in a dish and tell the students not to handle the material or to use tweezers or forceps.

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Appendix 8 University of Cambridge International Examinations Science Practical Student Worksheet

Aim To develop skill in making observations Learning Outcomes By the end of this practical you should be able to: n make and record observations, measurements, calculations and estimates with due regard to precision, accuracy and units Assessment Objective C3 n interpret, evaluate and report upon observations Assessment Objective C4 Background Information This practical involves you in working with unfamiliar animal / plant material you may have seen the specimen before, but you will need to look at it very carefully. You will need to observe, draw, measure and calculate accurately. Apparatus and materials n hand lens n fresh dead crustacean such as a shrimp / preserved insect / plant twig n ruler to measure in mm n calculator n paper with no lines n sharp medium-hard (HB) pencil Method Look carefully at the specimen, avoid touching it too much so you dont damage it, as well as to minimise any safety risks. Lay the specimen down so that it will not fall and change its position, for example, on its side. Make a large, clear outline pencil drawing of the specimen, carefully representing all the structures that you can see, showing them in the correct position and proportions. Measure and record the length of the specimen, and then measure and record the same length on your drawing. Measure and record the length of several parts of the specimen, such as the width, the length of its antennae, the length of its front legs etc. and then measure and record the same lengths on your drawing. Write-up Calculate the magnification of your drawing compared to the actual size of the specimen using the measurements that you made show each stage of your calculation. Repeat the magnification calculations using the other measurements that you made. Explain why you do not get exactly the same magnification for every set of measurements you made. Explain why measurements and calculations made of small structures are less likely to be accurate than those made from large structures.

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The Association for Science Education College Lane Hatfield Hertfordshire AL10 9AA United Kingdom Tel: +44 (0)1707 283000 Fax: +44 (0)1707 266532 Email: [email protected] Web: www.ase.org.uk

University of Cambridge International Examinations 1 Hills Road Cambridge CB1 2EU United Kingdom Tel: +44 1223 553554 Fax: +44 1223 553558 Email: [email protected] Web: www.cie.org.uk

TM IPSG 0601 The Association for Science Education and University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate 2006