A Look at Nuclear Science and Technology

Larry Foulke

Atomic and Nuclear Physics The Einstein Connection 2.5 Discovering radiation

Radioactive Decay
When an unstable nucleus decays it (eventually) transitions to a lower energy state and radiates away excess energy. Radiated energy can take two forms:
Emitted Particles
Released immediately as a part of nuclear decay.

Electromagnetic Radiation (EM)

Nuclear decay can leave the nucleus and/or orbital electrons in an excited state. As the atom returns to ground state it releases EM radiation.
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Radioactive Decay
Any atomic process that releases energy is referred to as radioactive decay Energy may be due to nuclear decay or to de-excitation of nucleons or electrons to a lower energy state. Energy emitted from the atom is called radiation.
n

n n

Nuclides subject to radioactive decay are referred to as radionuclides or radioisotopes. All radionuclides will eventually undergo radioactive decay. Any material containing measurable quantities of one or more radionuclides is referred to as being radioactive.
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Radioactive Decay - Example

Given 10 grams of I-131, which decays by beta emission with a halflife of 8.020 days, and has an atomic mass of 130.906124 amu: 1. Write the balance equation for this decay.

2. Determine the decay constant. 3. Determine how many atoms of I-131 are initially in the sample. 4. Determine the initial activity in the sample 5. Determine the activity after 1 half-life

Radioactive Decay - Example

1. Write the balance equation for this decay.
131 53
A Z

I + X+
0 -1 A Z 0 0
131 54

X=

X=

131 54

Xe

2. Determine the decay constant.

= ln 2
t1
2

= 0.693

8.202 days

= 0.0864 days1 = 1.00 x106 sec

Concept of a Mole
A mole is the number of atoms or molecules of a substance or element equal to 6.022 x 1023 (Avogadro's number, NAV). For example: a mole of uranium is taken to be 6.022 x 1023 uranium atoms. A mole of water molecules is taken to be 6.022 x 1023 water molecules.

Image Source: See Note 1

Concept of a Mole and Molecular Mass

The number of moles, n, of a mass, m, of material is given by: n moles = mass of material, m, in grams divided by the molecular mass M (gm/mole)

m ( grams) nmoles = M (grams / mole)

M molecular mass (weight) in gm/mole

For Iodine-131, use 130.9 gm/mole The molecular mass of an isotope is just its atomic weight

Radioactive Decay - Example

3. Determine how many atoms of I-131 are initially in the

sample.

mN A N= M
N= 130.9 gm / mole

m=10 grams NA=6.022x1023 atoms/mole M=130.9 gms/mole

10 gm (6.022 x10 23 atoms / mole)

N = 4.60 x10 22 atoms of I 131

4. Determine the initial activity in the sample

A = N = ( 1.0 x106 sec1 )(4.60 x1022 atoms )

A = 4.60 x1016 decays / sec

16 4.60 x 10 decays / sec 6 A = 4.60 x1016 Bq = = 1.24 x 10 Ci 10 3.7 x10 decays / sec Ci
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Radioactive Decay - Example

5. Determine the activity after 1 half-life

A(t = 8.020 d ) = N (t = 8.020 d ) = N 0 e ( 8.020 d ) A(t = 8.020 d ) = A0 e ( 8.020 d )

A(t = 8.020 d ) = 1.24 x10 Ci e

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0.0864 d 1 ( 8.020 d )

A(t = 8.020 d ) = 6.2 x10 5 Ci

Radiation
What is radiation? Energy transmitted in the form of waves or particles (or both). Types of radiation Electromagnetic (radio, visible light, x-rays, rays) Charged particles (electrons, protons, particles) Other (neutrons, neutrinos, other exotic beasts) Categorized as either ionizing or non-ionizing Depending on whether they can ionize other particles Ionization can be direct or indirect

Radioactivity

proton neutron

Image Source: See Note 2

Electromagnetic Radiation
Energy transmitted in a wave form Radio, microwave, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays, rays EM radiation is characterized by its frequency (or wavelength)

In the quantum world EM radiation behaves as a particle rather than a wave Individual quanta of EM radiation are photons Photon energy is proportional to frequency
Image Source: See Note 3

Electromagnetic Spectrum
High energy Low energy

Image Source: See Note 4

Structure of the Atom

Nucleus Protons & Neutrons Organized in shells arranged according to their stability Electron cloud Electrons are arranged in orbitals (spatial distribution) and shells (energy) according to stability
Image Source: See Note 5

X-Rays
When individual atoms absorb energy above their lowest electron ionization energy, electron(s) can be stripped from the atom. If the electron is removed from a lower shell, the atom will move electrons from the outer shells in to fill the gap and become more stable. As electrons move to lower shells their potential energy decreases; the excess energy is released as a photon.

 Rays
Nucleons (protons and neutrons) are also arranged in shells. Just as with electrons, atoms want to have their nucleus in the most stable state. High-energy particle collisions or nuclear (beta) decay can leave the nucleus in an unstable state. When the nucleus rearranges nucleons, excess energy is emitted as gamma rays.

X-rays and gamma rays

X-Rays Electrons moving between orbital shells Rays Nucleons moving between shells in the nucleus Transitions between energy levels are all characterized by a unique decay constant, Decay calculations for photons are identical to the corresponding calculations for nuclear decay

Ionizing Radiation
Radiation that contains enough energy to remove one or more electrons from an atom or molecule. All charged particles are ionizing. Only photons with an energy greater than the ionization energy of a given atom or molecule are considered ionizing. Some molecules are affected by photons in the visible or UV range, but typically only X-rays and gamma rays are considered ionizing. Neutrons are ionizing (by indirect means).

Ionizing Radiation
Radiation that contains enough energy to remove one or more electrons from an atom or molecule. Neutrons are ionizing (by indirect means)
Neutrons do not have a charge. Neutron interactions with nuclei can produce secondary particles that cause ionizations.
Elastic collisions with light (H, C, O, N) nuclei cause the positively charged nucleus to recoil. Inelastic collisions or absorption by a nucleus can produce ionizing gamma rays. Fission events produce positively charged fission fragments as well as ionizing gamma rays.

Image Source Notes

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Public domain: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Avogadro_Amedeo.jpg Creative Commons: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atom_diagram.png Public domain: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ File:VisibleEmrWavelengths.svg Creative Commons: Philip Ronan, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EM_spectrum.svg Creative Commons: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Helium_atom_QM.svg