www.AnimationPhysics.

com June 2011

Its not important what goes on each frame of film; its the spaces between the frames that are important.
Norman McLaren Oscar-winning animator of Neighbors

Physics of Timing & Spacing

This tutorial explains basic timing and spacing with simple examples, such as the acceleration of a falling ball. Youll nd that the core principles apply equally well to more complex animation, such as a jumping character or a waterfall.

2011 Alejandro L. Garcia Creative Commons AttributionNoncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 United States License

Ball Drop Animation Test

Typically the rst animation exercise you do is a falling ball. In this exercise, the composition couldnt be simpler. Its just the same round ball in every frame. Nevertheless, animating the ball so that it moves realistically can still be a challenge. But the challenge is not in how you draw the ball but where it is drawn on each frame. Another way to view the challenge of this test is to realize that its all about the timing and the spacing. Suppose you space your key drawings as shown here. Are those spacings correct? Is there any pattern to the distances? How much time does it take for the ball to move from one drawing to the next? One frame per drawing? Two? More? How does that timing depend on the size of the ball? What about the balls weight? In this tutorial well look at how to make your animation look realistic by getting the timing and spacing physically correct. You may later nd that you need to alter that reality to better serve your story, but that will be easier to do if your motion looks correct from the start.

The principles illustrated in this tutorial by the ball drop animation test will apply to your other animation work, even character animation such as a person jumping or effects animation such as a stream of water.

2 Animation Physics Timing and Spacing

Frames, Keys, Clocks

Animators use three different ways of measuring time: Frames (intervals of 1/24th of a second) Keys (given number of frames between key poses) Clocks (actual seconds as measured by a clock) For example, you may slug out a scene using a stop watch, then convert that into a number of key poses, which are indicated on frames in your exposure sheet (also known as an X sheet or dope sheet). In this example, key pose #1 is drawn on frame 1, key #2 on frame 4, and so forth. This is called shooting on threes since only every third frame has a different drawing. Because our persistence of vision is about a tenth of a second we see this as a (choppy) animation of a person jumping. Further drawings could be added asbreakdowns and inbetweens.

Frame

Key Pose

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

#1 / / #2 / / #3 /

#3 #4 #2 #1

#5

frames between key poses is xed in each example. In your own animation work you may nd yourself putting a different number of frames between each key, such as putting more drawings when the action is fastest. But to keep things simple, in our examples well always have the same number of frames between each key pose and between each drawing.

Important: In this tutorial, the number of

Animation uses a confusing varity of frame rates. The most common is 24 frames per second (fps) is since its used for lm. Digital video is often recorded at 30 fps. The conversion is easy since 4 frames of lm = 5 frames of video.

Note:

3 Animation Physics Timing and Spacing

Uniform Motion
The simplest type of motion is uniform motion; a bowling ball rolling on the oor is a good example. In uniform motion, the velocity is constant so the spacings from frame to frame are constant. The greater the spacing, the faster the ball is traveling.

Uniform motion may not appear uniform due to the distortion of scale when shown in perspective, such as in the example below in which a ball is rolling from the foreground towards the background.

4 Animation Physics Timing and Spacing

Timing, Spacing, and Speed

The timing and spacing indicates the speed at which an object or a character is traveling. The table on the right converts speed from miles per hour into spacing distance (in inches) between frames. The table also gives the distance traveled in one second of time. Usually you wont time the motion going frame-to-frame but rather by blocking in key poses. For example, suppose your character is power walking at about 4 miles per hour. Blocking in the action with a key pose every six frames then the spacing is approximately 18 inches between the keys (6 frames x 3 inches per frame).
17 inches 19 inches

Miles per Hour

Inches per Frame

Distance per Sec.

2 4 10 30 60 90

1 1 /2 3 7 22 44 66

35 inches 70 inches 14 2/3 feet 44 feet 88 feet 44 yards

The table is also useful when staging a scene. For example, if a character is sprinting at 10 miles per hour then you need about 15 feet of space for a shot lasting one second.

Note:

A normal walking speed is around 3 miles per hour while running is typically in the range of 6 to 10 mph.

Question:

These key poses for the girl on the sled are three frames apart; about how fast is she going?

,teef ev dnuora eb ot skool gnicaps ehT .h.p.m 03 dnuora si deeps reh os ,emarf rep sehcni 02 si hcihw !suoregnaD

:rewsnA

5 Animation Physics Timing and Spacing

Slowing In and Slowing Out

When an objects motion is not uniform, the object is either speeding up, slowing down, or changing direction. If the speed is decreasing then the spacing between drawings decreases, which in animation is called slowing in (or easing in). A sled slowing due to friction is a simple example of slowing in.

Slowing in

A ball thrown upward slows in as it rises to the apex and then slows out as it falls back downward.

Slowing in Slowing Out

If the speed is increasing then the spacing between drawings increases, which in animation is called slowing out (or easing out). A ball rolling down an incline is a simple example of slowing out.
Slowing Out

The apex is the highest point or the furthest point reached by a moving object.

Note:

Slowing in and out is one of the Principles of Animation listed by Frank Thomas and Olie Johnston in their classic book, The Illusion of Life. They describe it an important discovery that became the basis of later renements in timing and staging.

6 Animation Physics Timing and Spacing

Distance Fallen from the Apex

The table below lists the distance fallen from the apex after a certain amount of time (or frames) for an object falling straight down.

Time (sec.)

Frames

Distance Fallen from Apex

1/24 1/12 1/8 1/6 1/4 1/3 1/2 2/3 3/4 1 2

1 2 3 4 6 8 12 16 18 24 48

1/3 inch 1 1/3 inches 3 inches 5 1/3 inches 1 foot 1 3/4 feet 4 feet 7 feet 9 feet 16 feet 64 feet
Shooting on twos (two frames per drawing) the rst drawing below the apex is 1 1/3 inches down. This softball is 4 inches wide so thats a third of its diameter.

The distances fallen from the apex may also be found using this formula: (Distance in inches) = (1/3 inch) x (Number of Frames) x (Number of Frames) For example, the distance fallen after 6 frames is (1/3)x(6)x(6) = 12 inches.

Question: What is the distance fallen after 5 frames? Answer: .sehcni 3/1 8 = 3/52 = )5(x)5(x)3/1( si ecnatsid ehT

The distance that an object falls does not depend on its weight if air resistance is minimal. Well discuss the effect of air resistance in later in this tutorial.

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Reaction Time
Distance Time (sec.)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14 16 18

0.07 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.17 0.19 0.20 0.23 0.25 0.27 0.29 0.30

This table gives the time it takes an object to fall various distances. It is useful for measuring reaction time, as shown in the photo.

Release

Typical reaction times are about 0.20 to 0.25 seconds. Compare with your visual frame rate (rate at which you see distinct images), which is about 0.10 seconds per image.

Catch

Take a one dollar bill and have a friend put their thumb and index ngers near Washingtons head. At random, you let go of the dollar. Can your friend react fast enough to catch the money? Probably not! Typical reaction time is 0.20 to 0.25 seconds. Half the length of dollar bill is 3 inches so it takes about 1/8 of a second (0.125 seconds) to fall this distance.

Experiment:

a short scene with a stop watch should you account for reactiom time? No! The reason is that your reaction time in pressing START is more or less equal to the reaction time to hit STOP.

Note: When you time

8 Animation Physics Timing and Spacing

Planning the Ball Drop

Suppose you want to animate a softball falling straight down from a height of four feet. Diameter of a softball is four inches. How many total frames will you need to animate from the apex until the ball hits the ground? The Distance Fallen table (page 7) says it takes 12 frames ( second) for the ball to fall four feet. So there will be 13 frames, including the rst frame, which is the apex. Now lets say that youll shoot on twos, that is, only draw every other frame. As you see from the X-sheet below, we have 7 drawings from the apex (key #1) to the bottom (#7).

Frame

Key Pose

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

#1 (apex) / #2 / #3 / #4 / #5 / #6 / #7

The next question is: Where do you draw keys #2 through #6?

9 Animation Physics Timing and Spacing

Straight-Ahead Action & Pose-to-Pose

There are two approaches for composing an animation: straight-ahead action and pose-to-pose. In straight-ahead action, you have a rst drawing and a rough idea of what you want for the full action. For example, you might be animating a golf swing that takes a little less than half a second, say 9 or 10 frames (shooting on ones). You create key drawing #1, then drawing #2, and so forth. As you create each drawing, you keep in mind that by around drawing 9 or 10 the swing should be complete.

Note:

Straight-Ahead Action and Pose-to-Pose is another of Disneys Principles of Animation.

Pose-to-pose animation is all about planning. You start with the rst and last poses; from the timing you decide how many poses need to go inbetween these two extremes. Then you divide and conquer by adding the middle drawings. In the example below youd start with poses #1 and #9, then create #5 as a breakdown, then add #3 and #7. If you decide to shoot on ones then nish with #2, #4, #6, and #8.

10 Animation Physics Timing and Spacing

The Odd Rule

For a falling object, the spacings follows a simple pattern, which well call The Odd Rule because it uses the odd numbers (1,3,5,etc.) From the apex, the distance between drawings increases in the ratios 1:3:5:7:9

If youve had a physics class then you probably didnt learn about acceleration in this way. Physicists like to measure falling by the total distance from the apex, which increases in the ratios 1:4:9:16:25: or 12:22:32:42:52:... As you see below, the physicists description and the Odd Rule give exactly the same the positions for the falling ball.

Ping-pong ball falling from a height of four feet, shot on twos. Diameter of a ping-pong ball is about 1 1/2 inches.

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Straight-Ahead Action & the Odd Rule

Lets see how to use the Odd Rule to animate the falling softball using Straight-Ahead Action. Remember that were shooting on twos so the rst drawing after the apex is when the ball has fallen for a time of two frames. The Distance Fallen table (pg. 7) tells us that in two frames the distance fallen is 1 1/3 inches, which happens to be a third of the diameter of the softball. Key #2 is drawn at that distance from the apex. By the Odd Rule, the next key is spaced three times farther, which puts key #3 a distance of one diameter below key #2 (which is 4 inches below #2). Again, by the Odd Rule, the spacing between keys #3 and #4 is ve times farther than between #1 and #2. The next spacing is seven times farther, and so forth.

Question: Answer:

Instead of a softball you animate a falling bowling ball; how far below the apex is the rst drawing when shooting on twos? .gnillaf tcejbo eht fo sseldrager sehcni 3/1 1 si ecnatsid ehT

Important:

You should use the Odd Rule as a helpful guide for judging timing and spacing of your key drawings.

Do not use a ruler and a calculator when drawing your animation. That approach only works for the very simplest tests, is time intensive, and creates stiff action. The better approach is to understand the Odd Rule and be able to apply it instinctively. You should be able to feel the rhythm of the pattern when you see it. You will need such skills when creating more sophisticated animation, like a jumping character.

12 Animation Physics Timing and Spacing

The Odd Rule (Increment Version)

Heres another way of thinking about the Odd Rule that is sometimes easier to visualize and to use: Starting from the apex, the spacing between keys increases in the ratios 1:3:5:7:9 Notice that: 3=1+2 5=3+2 7=5+2 9=7+2 etc. In other words, after the rst increment, all the others are longer by the same amount. For any falling object, the rst spacing below the apex is: 1/3 inch 1 1/3 inch 3 inches (if Shooting on Ones) or; (if Shooting on Twos) or; (if Shooting on Threes)

All the spacings between the drawings after this rst one are longer by the same increment and this increment is: 2/3 inch 2 2/3 inch 6 inches (if Shooting on Ones) or; (if Shooting on Twos) or; (if Shooting on Threes)

The important thing is not the numbers above but rather its the simple fact that the spacings always get longer by the same amount (that is, by the same increment). Maintaining a constant increment in the spacings makes slowing in or slowing out look believable.

doesnt matter whether you measure distances from the bottom, the center, or even the top of the ball as long as you always measure from the same spot on the ball.

Note: It

13 Animation Physics Timing and Spacing

Checking the Spacings

Once the drawings are complete, its easy to use the Odd Rule to check that the spacings are believable. We know that shooting on twos the rst drawing after the apex is always 1 1/3 inches below it. That distance happens to be a third of the balls diameter. By the increment version of the Odd Rule, all the other spacings are larger by twice that amount, which is 2 2/3 inches, or two-thirds of the balls diameter.

The Odd Rule essentially has three parts; the rst two are the most important: From the apex, spacings increase between drawings. After the apex, that increase in the spacing is always by the same amount. You should always visually check your spacings to be sure that these two conditions are met. The nal part of the Odd Rule is: That increase in the spacing is twice the distance from the apex to the rst drawing below the apex. For large objects, such as a basketball, the drawings near the apex are too close together to apply the last part. But if you increase the spacing for the rest of the drawings in a consistent fashion then the motion should still look correct.

After creating a realistic animation of a falling softball its likely that your lms director (or your teacher) will make you alter the timing or spacing. Thats life as an animator. But your efforts were not wasted since your animation has physically realistic motion as its foundation.

14 Animation Physics Timing and Spacing

Fourth Down at Half-Time

Fourth Down at Half Time is a useful rule for creating breakdown drawings in pose-to-pose animation and a way to check your spacings when working straight-ahead. The rule is easiest to understand from the examples below: Key #3 is half way in time between #1 and #5. Key #3 is a fourth the distance from #1 to #5. The rule works like this: Pick any key below the apex, call it the bottom key. Find the key that is half-way in time between the bottom key and the apex, call that the half-time key.

Apex key

If your spacings are correct then the half-time key should be a quarter of the distance from the apex to the bottom key.

Apex key Half-time key Half-time key

6 frames per key (Medium Shot) 3 frames per key (Close-up Shot)

Bottom key Bottom key

Bowling ball is one foot in diameter

15 Animation Physics Timing and Spacing

Motion Graphs
In computer animation the timing and spacing of motion is often viewed using motion graphs, which are manipulated in a graph editor. Below are motion graphs from Autodesk Maya showing the position (either horizontal or vertical) versus frame number.

For uniform motion the graph is a straight line. The higher the speed, the steeper the curve. When an object is stationary the motion curve is a at horizontal line.

For falling motion the graph of height versus frame number is a parabolic arc. Rising motion has the same parabolic arc, simply going the other way. In general, slowing in or out with constant acceleration is a parabolic arc motion graph.

Falling

fact that the parabolic arc in these motion graphs is the same as the path of action for a ball thrown across a room is not a coincidence. The connection is explained in the Physics of Paths of Action tutorial.

Link: The

Rising

16 Animation Physics Timing and Spacing

Using Fourth Down at Half-Time

Here is an example of applying Fourth Down at HalfTime in a pose-to-pose animation of the falling softball: From our planning of the scene, we blocked out apex and bottom keys on frames 1 and 13 (see page 9). The apex position is four feet (48 inches) off the ground so at the half-time key (frame 7) the ball is one foot (a fourth down) below the apex. That means that on frame 7 the ball is at a height of 36 inches. In Autodesk Maya these three keys, on frames 1, 7, and 13, give you the motion graph shown below; the resulting motion is realistic and believable.

Note: The motion graph curve

should be at at the apex, which usually requrires the tangent for that key to be set manually.

In this example we mathematically calculated the position of the half-time key but usually you would just visually estimate its location as a quarter of the way down from the apex.

You now know the basic physics for animating falling objects. So before reading any further, apply what youve learned and create your own animation of a ball drop. The rest of this tutorial covers a variety of topics related to creating believable accelerated motion. Come back later and read the rest to make your animation even better.

STOP:

17 Animation Physics Timing and Spacing

Falling a la Chai
Dave Chai came up with an approximation for slowing out thats easy to use in pose-to-pose animation. Recipe for Falling a la Chai: Draw interval from rst & last keys. Divide interval in half. Mark a key. Divide top part in half. Mark a key. Divide top part in half. Skip Divide top part in half. Mark a key. In the example on the left, the rst and last keys are #1 and #5. Following the recipe, we mark those two. Then we nd the mid-point between them and mark that as key #4. Then we nd the mid-point again and thats key #3, Then nd the mid-point again but skip that point. Finally, nd the mid-point one last time and thats key #2.

Although this recipe does not give exactly the correct spacing, the fact that key #4 is just a bit too high is unlikely to be noticed. Finally, notice that Falling a la Chai is a simple way to place the in-between drawings for Fourth Down at Half Time (see page 15), namely keys #2 and #4.

Odd Rule

Falling a la Chai

David Chai is an award-wining independent animation director, a professor of animation at San Jose State University, and one handsome fellow.

18 Animation Physics Timing and Spacing

In-betweens of Accelerated Motion

When the motion slows out or slows in the in-between drawings are not spaced evenly but instead theyre shifted towards the apex. The example on the right shows how a set of key poses shot on twos are in-betweened for shooting on ones (1 frame per key). To draw the in-betweens, divide the rst distance by 4, then keep the same ratios of 1:3:5:7. Notice how the rst in-between drawing is signicantly closer to the apex. On the other hand, the rest of the in-between drawings are just slightly above the half-way distance. Finally, verify for yourself that the spacings obey the Fourth Down at Half Time rule.

Note: An animation of such a

small object with such large spacings would not look very good due to strobing (see page 21).

Question: From what height is this ball falling? How big is the ball? Answer: si ti os xepa eht retfa semarf 6 rof sllaf ti seno no gnitoohS
na fo driht a tuoba si llab ehT .toof eno fo thgieh a morf gnillaf .elbram llams a eb dluoc ti os retemaid ni hcni

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Acceleration Stretch
Despite what youve seen in countless cartoons in which a character falls off a cliff, objects dont physically stretch as they fall (not even raindrops). Objects visually stretch as they gain speed due to motion blur. Motion blur does not depend on the objects material yet it will look more natural for rigid objects (like a bowling ball) to stretch less than elastic objects (such as a water balloon). The motion blur makes a falling object look stretched in the vertical direction while its width is unchanged. However in animation this makes the objects volume appear to change, as if the object is growing longer. You thus need to narrow the width to maintain a consistent visual volume.

Actual Shape
20 Animation Physics Timing and Spacing

Human Eye

Stobing & Stretch

Strobing is a distracting visual effect that occurs when drawings are spaced so far apart between frames that the perception of motion is lost and the action appears choppy. When the action is slow, the overlapping of an object from one frame to the next helps maintain the perception of uid motion. When the action is too fast, the perception of motion can be lost because the object seem to disappear in one location and then reappear elsewhere.
of motion is sometimes confused with persistence of vision. When an object disappears the brain momentarily sees a ghost of the object--this is persistence of vision. This visual effect not why we see motion in animation.

Note: Perception

This action is slow so the drawings achieve perception of motion.

This action is fast so the drawings may be too far apart to keep a perception of motion.

Using stretch allows us to keep the same speed in the action while reducing the gap between the drawings.

21 Animation Physics Timing and Spacing

Up and Down
Weve been analyzing the timing of a ball falling straight down but what about a ball thats thrown straight upward? It turns out that the timing of a ball slowing into the apex is just the reverse of how it slows out from the apex. That means that from the apex you can use the same drawings twice, once on the way up (#1 to #6) and again on the way down (#8 to #13). You could do this but you shouldnt. The reason you shouldnt re-use your drawings is that your animation will look jerky due to an optical effect called strobing. When the eye sees an object disappear and then reappear in the same spot it jars the illusion that the object is moving through space, instead we perceive it as vanishing and reappearing. To avoid strobing, shift the positions of your drawings a bit up or down; while they may not be exactly in the right locations the motion will still look realistic if you (approximately) follow the basic principles weve discussed.

Hang time of a jump is easy to nd because its just twice the time it takes to fall from the apex height. For example, the hang time for a four foot jump is 24 frames (12 frames going up and 12 coming down).

22 Animation Physics Timing and Spacing

Hitting the Invisible Ceiling

If the spacings near the apex arent quite right then the ball reverses direction at the top in an unnatural way. Its as if the ball hits and bounces off of an invisible ceiling.

Use the Odd Rule and Fourth Down at Half-time to check your spacings near the apex as to avoid hitting the invisible ceiling.

Note: In computer animation this

hitting the invisible ceiling occurs if the motion graph curve for the vertical position is not at at the apex.

23 Animation Physics Timing and Spacing

Decelerating by Friction
Deceleration by friction is very similar to the deceleration of a ball thrown upward. Using straight-ahead animation, you start by drawing the last key pose (where object stops) and go backwards in time, draw keys leading up to it with spacings in the ratios 1:3:5:7:9:, that is, using the Odd Rule. The increment version of the Odd Rule also applies but the distances will be different from those for a falling object.

The same procedure works for sliding uphill, but depending on the amount of friction the sliding object will either come to rest or slide back down.

The Odd Rule applies in many other situations, such as a ball rolling down a ramp or a drop of rain sliding down a window pane. In another tutorial (Creating Action) youll see how to identify when the Odd Rule applies (and when it doesnt).

Link:

24 Animation Physics Timing and Spacing

Bounce Squash
Most objects do not physically squash except under extremely large forces of impact. For example, it takes a very fast moving golf club to produce a noticeable squash in a golf ball. You would expect this because a golf ball does not squash signicantly when you squeeze it in your hands. Although it may not be physically correct, you often want to animate objects squashing when they bounce to remove the jarring visual effect that occurs when an object suddenly changes its direction of motion. A rigid object, such as a brick, may need little or no squash while an object such as an apple will look hard as a rock without a bit of squash. However, use squash judiciously because the more your objects deform, the less realistic (and the more cartoon-ish) they will appear. John Lasseter says, Because of the realistic look of computer animation, an animator need to be aware of how far to push the motion. The motion should match the design of the character and the world. Animating very cartoony motion with lots of squash and stretch on a realistic looking object may not look believable, as would realistic motion on a caricatured object.

When drawing an objects squash, be sure to maintain consistent volume. You want your object to appear elastic; rarely do you want it to look compressible.

Tip:

25 Animation Physics Timing and Spacing

Falling Speed
The approximate speed of an object thats fallen from a given height may be found using the table below or by the following formula: (Speed in inches per frame) = (4) x (Square Root of the Height in feet ) To nd the height from the speed of the falling object, use: (Height in feet) = (1/16) x (Speed in inches/frame) x (Speed in inches/frame) Here is an example of how to use this table and formulas in timing an animation: Below we have Alice (in Wonderland) falling down the rabbit hole. The distance between drawings is about two feet, so if were shooting on twos the distance between frames is one foot, which means that were seeing her after having fallen from a height of only 9 feet.

Height S p e e d S p e e d
(feet) (inches per frame) (miles per hour)

1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 100 256 400

4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 40 64 80

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 50 80 100

Suppose that were shooting on ones instead of on twos; in that case from what height has Alice fallen?

Question:

Answer:

nellaf sehs os sehcni 42 si semarf neewteb ecnatsid ehT .sroo eerht tuoba si hcihw ,teef 63 fo thgieh a morf

The table and the formulas assume that air resistance is negligible, which is not true for very light objects, for falls from very great heights, or if the air pushes with great force. For example, because Alices dress acts like a parachute it may be that shes fallen from a greater height yet due to air resistance she is oating downward more slowly.
The Empire State Building has 102 oors. At 12 feet per oor, that puts the top oor at a height of 1224 feet. From the formula, a fall from this height would reach a speed of 140 inches per frame (about 200 m.p.h.). However, air resistance is significant so the speed will be lessened.

26 Animation Physics Timing and Spacing

Straight Falling in Perspective

When an object falls straight down but the motion is viewed in perspective, all we have to do is use the Odd Rule but account for the distortion of sizes due to perspective. In this example, we see Alice (in Wonderland) falling down the rabbit hole as viewed from above, looking straight down.

The size of the rst two rectangles is somewhat arbitrary since they depend on the station point of the viewer (distance between the viewer and the picture plane). Once those rst key poses are selected, all the rest of the positions are xed by the Odd Rule. Alternatively, use Falling a la Chai (see page 18) for poseto-pose animation going from the apex to the lowest key. 27 Animation Physics Timing and Spacing
Falling golf ball, 1/24 second intervals

Paths of Action
This tutorial has covers the essentials of slowing in and out, focusing on the ball drop animation test. Specifically, we considered a ball falling straight up and down, focusing on the timing of a ball slowing out from (or back into) the apex. A more advanced test would have the ball travelling in an arc, possibly in perspective, and have it lose height with each successive bounce. Well discuss this type of motion (and more) in the next tutorial, Physics of Paths of Action.

Image Credits
All illustrations not listed below are by Charlene Fleming and photos not listed are by the author Water Fountain, pg. 2, http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Balboa_1_bg_020903.jpg Jumper, pgs. 2, Corey Tom Detective, pgs. 3, Rebbaz Royee Bowler bowling, pg. 4, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ Image:Bowlerbowling.JPG Walker, pgs. 5, Corey Tom Juggling, pg. 6, Aracapital, http://www.aracapital.com.au/ Softball vs. Bowling Ball, pg. 7, Rebbaz Royee Dr. Experiment, pg. 8, Rebbaz Royee Golfer, pg. 10, Dora Roychoudhury

Directors Chair, pg, 14, http://www.thedirectorschairtv.com/ David Chai, pg, 18, http://www.houseofchai.net/ Basketball Players, pg, 22, http://sportscenteraustin.blogs. com/photos/uncategorized/sports_center_basketball_injuries.jpg Cliff jumper, pg. 20, Rebbaz Royee Golf ball squash, pg. 25, http://perfectgolfswingreview.net/ TI-impact.jpg Baseball squash pg. 25, Rebbaz Royee Empire State Building, pg. 26, Wallace Gobetz (wallyg), Flickr. Bouncing Ball, pg. 28, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ Image:Bouncing_ball_strobe_edit.jpg

Special thanks to Alice Carter, Cassidy Curtis, David Chai, John Clapp, Courtney Granner, Lizz Greer, Rex Grignon, Martin McNamara, and the Shrunkenheadman Club at San Jose State. Physics of Animation is a project supported, in part, by the National Science Foundation

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