Physics Notes PDF
Physics Notes PDF
Physics Notes PDF
Terms we will use: Position, distance, displacement Speed, velocity (average and instantaneous) Acceleration (average and instantaneous)
Coordinate Systems
A coordinate system is used to describe location. A coordinate system consists of: a xed reference point called the origin a set of axes a denition of the coordinate variables
coords
Example
(-3,5)
cartesian
Example
What is the average speed of a person at the equator due to the Earths rotation?
What is the average velocity of a person at the equator due to the Earths rotation?
The Dragster
Instantaneous Velocity
The velocity at one instant in time is known as the instantaneous velocity and is found by taking the average velocity for smaller and smaller time intervals:
(e.g. the speedometer indicates the magnitude of instantaneous velocity)
The average velocity between two times is the slope of the straight line connecting those two points.
average velocity is positive average velocity is negative
Acceleration
Often, velocity is not constant, rather it changes with time The rate of change of velocity is known as acceleration
positive, negative or zero
This is the average acceleration Acceleration is a vector The SI unit of acceleration is m/s2
Acceleration
for example: car is advertised to do zero to sixty in 6 seconds in this case 60 is 60mph = 27m/s so the average acceleration is
Instantaneous Acceleration
If we wish to know the instantaneous acceleration, we once again let t 0:
Four Ways to Represent the Motion of a Race Car Moving with Constant Acceleration
in a few slides well see that we can describe these graphs by some simple equations
Deceleration
Deceleration refers to decreasing speed is not the same as negative acceleration occurs when velocity and acceleration have opposite signs Example: A ball thrown up in the air. The velocity is upward but the acceleration is downward. The ball is slowing down as it moves upward. (Once the ball reaches its highest point and starts to fall again, it is no longer decelerating, but is accelerating)
in what region do we have deceleration? can we sketch the position versus time?
Example: Lets go back to our previous example of the car and assume that the acceleration is constant. We found that the average acceleration was = 1.5 m/s2 Lets calculate the acceleration. Recall v = v0 + at -1 m/s = -4 m/s + a(2 s) 3 m/s = a(2 s) a = 1.5 m/s2
better still - rearrange the equation for a - then we can use it for any values:
e.g. say we know that a car was moving with velocity 4 m/s when it was 10m down a track, and we wanted to know how fast it was moving 50m down the track if we also know its acceleration is constant at 3 m/s2 which equation do we use?
this was our denition of average accn (with t0 = 0) - if the accn is constant then it is the same as the average
e.g. now say we were traveling at constant acceleration of unknown value and moved from rest at the origin to a position 10 m away where we had velocity of 3 m/s which equation do we use to nd: (a) the time taken? (b) the acceleration?
A: B: C:
v=0
a t
-9.80 m/s2
v
v0
0
t
v = v0 + a t = v0 - g t
10
+
x
By
Ax Cx
Bx x
note B = C - A
Motion in a plane
Often, motion in three-dimensions is really motion in a plane (two-dimensions). e.g. if theres no wind, a eld-goal kick can be considered to move in vertical plane In this lecture well consider some generalities then two specic, common examples: projectile motion (in a plane, with gravity vertically) uniform circular motion
Position Vector Species Location and Displacement of an Object in an x-y Coordinate System
A position vector points from the origin to the particle.
recall: co-ordinates indicate position relative to xed axes (here x, y) position vector points from the origin to the object vector has components - for the position they are the co-ordinates
Velocity in two-dimensions
Velocity is a vector: average velocity dened as the change in position vector in time
note: y vs. x
note: y vs. x
Instantaneous Velocity
The velocity vector has a magnitude equal to the speed of the object and points in the direction of motion.
can completely separate into components - hence nothing new in this chapter !
be careful here - this is not a graph of x vs. t, so the slope is not the velocity. all were getting here from the tangent is the direction
Instantaneous Velocity
The velocity vector has a magnitude equal to the speed of the object and points in the direction of motion.
A model car
Radio-controlled model car on a tennis court. The surface of the court represents the x-y plane and you stand at the origin. At time t1 = 2.00 s the car has x, y co-ordinates (4.0 m, 2.0 m) and at t2 = 2.50 s it is at (7.0 m, 6.0 m). For the time interval t1 to t2 nd (a) the components of the average velocity (b) the magnitude and direction of the average velocity
Dragony
A dragony follows the path shown, moving from point A to point B in 1.50 s. Find (a) the x & y components of its position vector at A (b) the magnitude and direction of its position vector at A (c) the x & y components of the average velocity between A&B (d) the magnitude and direction of the average velocity between A & B (e) indicate the direction of the instantaneous velocity at A and B on the diagram
Acceleration Vector
Just as in one-dimension, we can dene an acceleration in terms of the change in velocity average
instantaneous
Acceleration Vector
Important point: If the velocity changes direction, there is an acceleration, even if there is no change in speed
this is what we considered in the last chapter
Projectile Motion
= motion in two-dimensions under gravity (well neglect air resistance) Project a body with some initial velocity and watch it travel e.g. ring a cannon kicking a eld-goal throwing a baseball many other things Only acceleration is in the vertical direction, is constant, and is due to gravity
y
y-position doesnt change if the particle has an xcomponent of velocity
notice that the velocity points in the direction of the tangent to the curve
x x
Paintball Gun
A paintball is red horizontally at a speed of 75.0 m/s from a point 1.50 m above the ground. (a) for how many seconds is the ball in the air? (b) nd the maximum horizontal displacement (or range) Ignore air resistance
A home-run hit
Hit with an initial speed 37.0 m/s at an initial angle of 53.1o. Find (a) the balls position and magnitude and direction of velocity when t =2.00 s (b) the time when the ball is at its highest point and its height at that time (c) the horizontal range of the ball
for (a) we can solve the y-component problem: y0 = 1.50 m, v0y = 0, y = 0, t = ? = 0.553 s for (b) we must solve the x-component problem: x0 = 0, v0x = 75.0 m/s, x = ?, t = 0.553 s = 41.5 m
well neglect the fact that the ball is probably hit about 1 m above the ground, and treat it as though it were at ground level initial velocity components:
A home-run hit
Hit with an initial speed 37.0 m/s at an initial angle of 53.1o. Find (a) the balls position and magnitude and direction of velocity when t =2.00 s (b) the time when the ball is at its highest point and its height at that time (c) the horizontal range of the ball
A home-run hit
Hit with an initial speed 37.0 m/s at an initial angle of 53.1o. Find (a) the balls position and magnitude and direction of velocity when t =2.00 s (b) the time when the ball is at its highest point and its height at that time (c) the horizontal range of the ball
(a) @ t=2.00 s x = 44.4 m y = 39.6 m vx = 22.2 m/s vy = 10.0 m/s (b) highest point, so not getting higher any more, i.e. vy = 0 t = 3.02 s y = 44.7 m
(c) horizontal range? many ways to solve this a simple way is to notice that the trajectory is symmetric about the midpoint then t 2 = 2 t1 = 6.04 s x = 134 m
R = 230 m
Carnival Ride
The passengers in a carnival ride travel in a circle with radius 5.0 m. They make one complete circle in a time T = 4.0 s. what is their acceleration? in 4.0 s they travel a distance so their circular speed is v = 7.9 m/s
Stone on a string
You swing a 2.2 kg stone in a circle of radius 75 cm. At what speed should you swing it so its centripetal acceleration will be 9.8 m/s2 ?
we found a formula
what this force is depends upon the problem e.g. ball on a string - force is the tension in the string 3.
REMEMBER:
speed
radial accn
smaller than your weight at the bottom: vertically - no acceleration were using the horizontal component of the normal force to cause the radial acceleration
Conceptual Question
A box slides down a circular, frictionless ramp. The forces on the box at point A are: (a) the upward push of the ramp, which is greater than the inertial force ma of the box (b) the upward push of the ramp, which equals the downward pull of the earth (c) the upward push of the ramp, which is greater than the downward pull of the earth
Weight
A while ago we suggested that weight was the force on you due to the gravitational attraction from the earth. Now we have Newtons law of gravitation we can see whats going on:
as Galileo found, the acceleration due to gravity is constant for all bodies, independent of their mass
Satellite Motion
lets try out a thought experiment - imagine a motorcyclist drives off the edge of a cliff we studied his free-fall motion, the faster his initial horizontal speed, the further away he lands
(a)
weight of lander at Martial surface? = force on the lander due to Marss gravity
now imagine he lands far enough away that we have to consider the curvature of the earth
acceleration due to Marss gravity then follows from Newtons 2nd law (F = ma)
eventually he could go so fast that he never hit the earth he becomes a satellite
Satellite Motion
well just consider the case where satellite motion is circular - this is approximately true for most man-made satellites and for several of the planets in the solar system We have a force acting on a satellite due to the gravity of the planet it orbits. This is the only force and it is directed toward the planets center
Conceptual Problems
A satellite in circular orbit travels at constant speed because (a) the net force acting on it is zero (b) the pull of gravity is balanced by centrifugal force (c) there is no component of force along its direction of motion
orbital time?
The moon is pulled directly toward the earth by the earths gravity, yet it does not fall into the earth because (a) the net force on it is zero (b) the pull of the earth is balanced by the centrifugal force (c) the moon pulls back on the earth with an equal and opposite force (d) but it is constantly falling!
(Apparent) Weightlessness
An astronaut in a spacecraft orbiting the earth appears to be weightless. How can this be, the earths gravity still acts upon them? Easier to understand this way. Imagine you are in an elevator without a safety break when the cable is cut. Both you and the elevator are in free-fall with acceleration g. Imagine you are standing on a bathroom scale in the elevator - it reads zero, you are weightless. It must since you are accelerating downwards at g and hence the net force must just be gravity, therefore no normal force, therefore no reading on the scale. Orbital motion is also, essentially, free-fall and hence we observe the same phenomenon.
Quizzes
If the Earth had twice its present mass, its orbital period around the sun (at the present radius) would be (a) years (b) 1 year (c) year (d) 2 years If the sun had twice its present mass, the Earths orbital period around the sun (at the present radius) would be (a) years (b) 1/2 year (c) year (d) 2 years In the 1960s, during the cold war, the USSR put a rocket into a circular orbit about the earth. A US senator expressed concern that a nuclear bomb could be dropped on the US as it passed over. What would happen if a bomb were released from the rocket (a) it would drop on the US, directly below (b) it would follow a curved path and land elsewhere (c) it would remain in the same orbit as the rocket (d) it would move in a straight line into space
a very important and general law of physics is that the energy in a closed system is conserved. That is while it can be transformed into different forms, it cannot be created or destroyed. what types of energy do we need to know about kinetic energy - the energy a body has due to its motion
potential energy - energy stored in a system that has the potential to be released example would be gravitational potential energy being changed into kinetic energy
conservation of energy
vertical projectile motion can be analyzed in terms of the conserved energy of the particle
energy dissipation
kinetic and potential energies are mechanical there is also non-mechanical energy e.g. there is some air resistance on the rock, slightly slowing it down and hence reducing its energy this energy is not lost but is transferred when it slightly heats the air - becomes internal energy of the air
potential
As another example think of friction, where the friction force slows objects down, reducing their kinetic energy.
kinetic
kinetic
Work
theres a very specic denition of what physicists mean by work. the simplest case is when a constant force is used to move an object with this displacement parallel to the force
Work
SI units of work are clearly N m (Newton - meters). 1 N m is also known as 1 J, or one Joule (pron. jewel) Work is a scalar quantity - it does not possess a direction. Well see soon that work is the transfer of energy
then the work done by the force, W = F s more generally, if the force vector makes an angle vector, then the work done by the force is W = with the displacement
normal force and weight force are perpendicular to the motion, so they do no work on the sled tractor does work WT = FT cos s = 80.0 x 103 J
friction forces is in the opposite direction to the motion, so = 180o, cos 180o = -1 Wf = - f s = -70.0 x 103 J negative? means the sled is doing work losing energy through friction (to the ground)
OR, net force in direction of motion, Fx,tot = FT cos - f = 4000 N - 3500 N = 500 N
Kinetic Energy
The energy possessed by a body due to its motion. Depends only on the mass of the body and its speed. Is a positive, scalar quantity. SI units are Joules (J) note that work done on the body can reduce the kinetic energy if W is negative then v f < vi - this is the case where the force opposes the motion (e.g. v in positive x-direction, F in negative x-direction)
vf = 4.16 m/s
total work done by the hammerhead during the drop (with gravity and against friction) Wdrop = Ftotal s = (w - f) s = 1900 N * 3.00 m = 5700 J
as the hammerhead pushes the I-beam 7.40cm into the ground it slows from 7.55 m/s down to 0 m/s . Hence it loses kinetic energy of 5700 J doing work on the I-beam (via the normal force), gravity and the guide-rail friction Ftotal = (w - f - n) = 1900 N - n W = 5700 J = Ftotal s = (1900 N - n) * 0.00740m n = 79,000 N this is the force the I-beam exerts on the hammerhead, so by Newtons third, this is the force the hammerhead exerts on the I-beam
Potential Energy
We just did work on a spring by stretching it - that is we supplied energy to it. Where did this energy go? Not into kinetic energy since the spring isnt moving. We consider the spring to have potential energy. The stretched spring is storing the energy. We could release it by say, putting a block on the end of the spring and releasing the block. Then the potential energy of the spring would be transferred into kinetic energy of the block. An important form of potential energy is gravitational potential energy, which is energy associated with the height of an object.
the area under the curve is the area of a triangle of base X and height kX
and the
Conservation of energy
If the only force acting on an object is gravity, then the sum of the kinetic and potential energy is conserved:
N.B. it doesnt matter where we put the origin (y = 0) - only differences in position ever appear ( yf - yi & )
kinetic energy = 1/2 m v2 = ? potential energy = 1/2 k x2 = 0.0160 J 0.0250 J = 0.0160 J + 1/2 m v2
initially: kinetic energy = grav. potential energy = at the highest point, kinetic energy = grav. potential energy = conservation of total energy:
y-component of velocity is zero at the highest point, & there is no acceleration in x so v x = v0x
Non-conservative forces
Energy is conserved in a closed system. We also may have to deal with the case where work is being done on the system by an external force. In this case energy is still conserved provided we take account of the incoming or outgoing energy through work. An example of this is when we have non-conservative forces doing work, e.g. friction which transfers energy out of the system Example 7.12 - Work and energy on an air-track
Glider on an air-track with spring again. Suppose the glider is initially at rest at x=0, with the spring unstretched. Then you apply a constant force of magnitude 0.610 N to the glider. What is the gliders speed at x=0.100m your applied force is external to the glider-spring system
Chapter 8: Momentum
A simple way to understand what happens in a collision is to use a quantity called momentum. Well nd that the total momentum of a system is conserved if no external forces act on the system
an 18-wheeler moving at 30mph collides with a Honda Civic moving at 30mph who comes off worse? Why? We intuitively know the Civic is in trouble and the reason is that it has much less mass. Which is more dangerous - a bullet moving at 10mph or one moving at 50mph? It is clear that both mass and velocity are important in these circumstances, so we dene a quantity that includes both, momentum,
(18 wheeler has more momentum, faster bullet has more momentum)
Total momentum
if we have a system of particles, the total momentum of the system is simply the vector sum of the momenta of the particles
if the mass is constant with time then so forces actually cause changes in momentum and this even works when the mass changes with time
(an example would be rocket propulsion)
Conservation of momentum
Last time we learnt of an example of a conservation law. We found that provided no external forces acted on a system to do work, the total energy in the system was conserved. With momentum we have another conservation law: Provided no external forces act on a system, the total momentum of a system is conserved Internal forces cannot change the total momentum by Newtons 2nd and 3rd laws say particle A applies a force to particle B, changing Bs momentum (2nd law) then by the 3rd law, B applies an equal and opposite force to A changing As momentum by an equal and opposite amount. Then is unchanged and we say that the total momentum is conserved If an external force was applied to the AB system, then the total momentum would change according to
Inelastic collisions
The preceding examples have been elastic collisions, where the total kinetic energy before the collision is that same as after. We can also have collisions where the kinetic energy after the collision is less than it was initially - we call these inelastic
Inelastic collisions
equating the x-components of momentum immediately after the collision, the block has kinetic energy
when the block is at the highest point of its swing, it has zero velocity - all the K has been turned into gravitational potential energy
Elastic collisions
Have conservation of both kinetic energy and momentum. In the special case of a moving object (A) hitting a stationary object (B), we can derive the following
for elastic collision - this is not an extra conservation law - it follows from conservation of both kinetic energy and momentum
Center of Mass
Suppose we have several particles at various positions, then the position of the center of mass is dened to be e.g.
CM 1kg 1kg 1kg CM 4kg 6kg CM 1kg 1kg
Center of Mass
the effect of an external force then is to accelerate the center of mass
total mass
Think about a rigid body that rotates about a xed axis. Firstly we need to sort out a better unit for angles Weve been using degrees [0:360], but there is a better unit we can use called radians 1 radian is dened as the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc with length equal to the radius of the circle
1 rad = 57.3o
Angular velocity
Dene an angular velocity as the rate of change of an angle
Angular acceleration
Dene an angular acceleration as the rate of change of the angular velocity
who has the larger angular velocity, the boy or the girl?
Directions
Rotation can be clockwise or counterclockwise - our sign denition is
rad
applying these formulae to rotational problems is just the same as we did previously
axis BC
all the particles have the same perpendicular distance to A, r A = 0.40m perpendicular distance to B, rB = 0 perpendicular distance to C, r C = 0
we can dene a property of the rigid body (for a particular axis) called the moment of inertia so that
axis A
perpendicular distance to A, r A = 0 perpendicular distance to B, rB = 0.50m perpendicular distance to C, r C = 0.40m
assuming no energy is lost as friction, all the work done in pulling the cable becomes kinetic energy of the winch work done kinetic energy of a rotating cylinder
=
cable moves transverse to the circle at the radius
a primitive yo-yo
a primitive yo-yo is made from a solid disk of radius R and mass M. It is released from rest by a stationary supporting hand and the string unwinds without slipping. (a) Find an expression for the speed of the center of mass of the disk after it has dropped a distance h. (b) What would the speed have been if the disk had been dropped without the string (c) Why are they different?
torque
Weve considered rigid bodies undergoing angular acceleration. What causes this? In the case of linear acceleration it was a force, as dictated by Newtons 2nd law. For angular acceleration we introduce the concept of torque
and
are related:
in one complete rotation, the amount of string unwound is , which must be the same distance traveled by the center of mass
torque
sign convention for torques: counterclockwise torques are positive clockwise torques are negative
torque
computing the torque: only the perpendicular piece of the force/moment arm contributes
a weekend plumber
the weight of a 900N man is applied to the end of an extended wrench 0.80m long which makes an angle 19o to the horizontal. Find the magnitude and direction of the torque exerted out the center of the pipe tting.
compute the component of force perpendicular to the lever the torque is the lever length times this torque is positive since it causes a counterclockwise rotation
unwinding a winch
cable is wrapped around a uniform solid cylinder of diameter 0.12m and mass 50kg that can rotate freely about its axis. The cable is pulled by a force of magnitude 9.0N. Assuming that the cable unwinds without stretching or slipping nd the acceleration of the cable.
a primitive yo-yo
a primitive yo-yo is made from a solid disk of radius R and mass M. It is released from rest by a stationary supporting hand and the string unwinds without slipping. (a) Find an expression for the speed of the center of mass of the disk after it has dropped a distance h. (b) What would the speed have been if the disk had been dropped without the string (c) Why are they different?
and
are related:
in one complete rotation, the amount of string unwound is , which must be the same distance traveled by the center of mass
rest. (a) what is the angular acceleration of the ywheel? (b) what is its angular velocity after it makes 4.00 revolutions (c) how much work is done by the motor during the rst 4.00 revolutions?
angular momentum
is there a quantity like momentum that is conserved in rotational motion? angular momentum is dened by
Periodic Motion
e.g. a pendulum - keeps swinging from side to side with a xed period hence we can use it to keep time (pendulum clock) it has an equilibrium position, but if we give it an initial push away from there, conservation of energy prevents it from coming to rest even though there is a force pulling it back simplest example of periodic motion is called simple harmonic motion
this turns out to be one of the most important idealizations in physics, it just keeps coming up
e.g. quantum eld theories that describe the smallest known particles in the universe are really just fsncy coupled harmonic oscillators
a physical system that is described well by simple harmonic motion is a glider on an air-track tethered by a spring
a physical system that is described well by simple harmonic motion is a glider on an air-track tethered by a spring
but the block cant stop because it has velocity (Newtons 1st law)
a physical system that is described well by simple harmonic motion is a glider on an air-track tethered by a spring
amplitude = max |x | = A period = T = time to travel one cycle and return to original position frequency = f = 1/ T = number of cycles in a given unit of time (units Hz = s-1)
A spring is mounted horizontally on an air track, with the left end held stationary. We attach a spring balance to the free end of the spring, pull toward the right, and measure the elongation. A force of 6.0 N causes an elongation of 0.030 m. We remove the spring balance and attach a 0.50 kg object to the end, pulling it a distance 0.040 m. After releasing the object it oscillates in Simple Harmonic Motion. Find (a) the force constant of the spring (b) the maximum and minimum velocities of attained by the object (c) the maximum and minimum acceleration (d) the velocity and acceleration when the object has moved 0.020 m (e) the kinetic, potential and total energies at 0.020 m
equations of motion
how does the position, velocity and acceleration of the block vary as a function of time? with calculus these equations are easy to nd, they are:
what is
looks a bit like circular motion - is there a connection? YES, and we can use it to derive the above equations
equations of motion
check we can correctly use them: at t=0, x=A=20 cm & v=0 the period is found to be 10 s what is the position, velocity and acceleration at t = 2 s ? what is the position, velocity and acceleration at t = 8 s ? what is the position, velocity and acceleration at t = 102 s ? at what time(s) is the position x=10 cm ? what is the maximum velocity?
45o 90o
making a simple timepiece lets say we want to build a pendulum clock that will count seconds the bob should pass the equilibrium position once every second
Mechanical waves
what is the period of the motion? how long should our pendulum be?
if I make the pendulum length four times as long, how does the angular frequency change? what about the period?
transverse, longitudinal or a combination of both waves transport energy, but not matter
a disturbance that propagates through a medium, repeating itself over time a special case is where the particles undergo SHM - then the wave is said to be sinusoidal
a special case is where the particles undergo SHM - then the wave is said to be sinusoidal
amplitude dened as before as the maximum deviation of any particle from its equilibrium position wavelength, = spatial distance over which the wave-pattern repeats wave propagates with a speed given by
longitudinal waves
e.g. a tube lled with air being compressed and expanded by a plunger get regions of increased pressure (compressions) and regions of decreased pressure (rarefactions)
how fast will these waves propagate? depends on the tension in the rope and the mass per unit length
principal of superposition
what happens if a wave reaches a boundary, e.g. the xed end of a rope?
consider a related process, where two waves traveling on the same rope meet each other superposition indicates that we add (vectorally) the displacements of each wave to make a total displacement
standing waves
wave traveling to the left (red) combines with an identical wave traveling to the right (blue)
call these standing waves since they are not transferring energy along the string
standing waves
clearly we have to have a node at each end, which limits the allowed wavelengths allowed set of frequencies (harmonic series) :
Interference
standing waves are one example of an interference between two waves that overlap in a region of space
constructive interference
two speakers are driven by the same amp and emit sinusoidal waves in phase. If the speed of sound is 350 m/s for what frequencies does maximum constructive interference occur at point P? What frequencies give destructive interference?
destructive interference
Beats
interference of waves with differing frequencies - tends to cause a pulsing effect called beats
human hearing is effective over a huge range of intensities, from faint whispers of intensity about 10-12 W/m2 to the pain threshold at 100 W/m2 - 14 orders of magnitude an appropriate scale is logarithmic - dene intensity level by
noise rock gig pain threshold riveter busy street conversation quiet car whisper rustle of leaves hearing threshold
intensity, W/m2 100 1 3 x 10-3 10-5 3 x 10-6 10-7 10-10 10-11 10-12
stationary source
wavelength is a xed length in space, so is the same for the listener, hence
listener hears a higher frequency
police car siren emits a sinusoidal wave with frequency fS = 300 Hz. The speed of sound is 340 m/s. (a) nd the wavelength of the waves if the siren is at rest in the air (b) if the siren is moving with a velocity v S = 30.0 m/s. Find the wavelength in front of and behind the siren
(a) when the source is at rest (b) in front of the siren the wavelength is reduced
a bystander (at rest) observes the chase - what frequency does he hear when the police car has passed him?
what if the bystander gets in his car and drives away at 30 m/s ?
temperature
temperature intuitively related to hotness or coldness quantitative denition comes via the thermometer
two examples of thermometers
thermal equilibrium
measure temperature by placing thermometer in contact with the object the two interact, the object cooling a little and the thermometer heating up - at some point they reach and stay at the same temperature
they are said to be in thermal equilibrium
two systems that are in thermal equilibrium with a third system are also in equilibrium with each other
a useful thermometer
a thermometer becomes a quantitative device if we assign a numerical scale to the changes it undergoes common scale choice is Celsius
water freezes @ 0oC water boils @ 100oC
it looks like were free to choose the zero of our temperature scale is there a minimum temperature that we ought to use?
absolute zero = -273.15oC dene Kelvin scale - same interval as Celsius, but zerod at absolute zero
heat
so a bodys hotness is described by its temperature - but how did it get hot? consider putting a cold metal spoon into a hot cup of coffee - the spoon will heat up until it is in thermal equilibrium with the coffee (they both have the same temperature) heat transfer from the coffee to the spoon has taken place. James Joule showed experimentally that there is an equivalence between work and heat transfer
if Q is positive, heat is owing to the object and the temperature increases if Q is negative, heat is owing from the object and the temperature decreases specic heat capacity of water is c = 4.190 x 103 J kg -1 K-1 e.g. how much heat must be transferred to raise 0.25 L of water by 80oC?
phase changes
heat ow does not always cause a change in temperature - it can cause a change of phase, for example from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas
e.g. add heat to ice at 0o C and its temperature doesnt increase, instead in turns into water at 0oC
the amount of heat required to cause such a phase change is called a latent heat
e.g. the heat required to turn 1kg of ice at 0oC into 1kg of water at 0oC is called the latent heat of fusion and is for an arbitrary mass process is reversible so we get this heat energy out when the water freezes
also a latent heat (of vaporization) to turn water into water vapor (a gas)
phase changes
ice
Suppose over 30 seconds I add 10,000 J of heat to a 1 kg sample of ice, initially at a temperature of 0oC. Which of the following is true of the sample after Ive added the heat? (the system is in thermal equilibrium)
A. B. C. D. it is entirely ice at a temperature of 5o C it is a mixture of ice and water at a temperature of 0oC it is entirely water at a temperature of 0o C it is entirely water at a temperature of 5o C
mechanisms of heat ow
how much ice (@ -20oC) should we add to 0.25 kg of cola (@ +20oC) to chill it to 0oC with all the ice melted? heat lost from the cola is gained by the ice heat gained by the ice does two things
raises the temperature from -20o C to 0oC melts the ice
how can heat move from one system to another? three basic mechanisms are conduction, convection and radiation
conduction occurs within objects that are in physical contact
heat is really just the energy of motion of huge numbers of atomic particles, heat transfer by conduction is when neighbouring atomic particles transfer energy through collisions note that still air is actually not very good at conducting heat
mechanisms of heat ow
mechanisms of heat ow
how can heat move from one system to another? three basic mechanisms are conduction, convection and radiation
convection occurs when bulk amounts of a substance move, carrying heat with them
how can heat move from one system to another? three basic mechanisms are conduction, convection and radiation radiation is the transfer of heat in the form of electromagnetic waves radiation allows heat transfer even through a vacuum where there are no atoms and hence no concept of heat all hot objects emit electromagnetic radiation - some of it in the visible region (e.g. white light from a lament lightbulb), but also some in the frequency region not visible to our eyes this is how the Earth manages to be heated by the sun, despite the vacuum separating the Earth from the Sun
designed to prevent heat transfer between the ask contents and the outside world what method of heat transfer does the screw top mostly prevent?
A. B. C. conduction convection radiation
if you hold the ask in your hand what method of heat transfer from the contents to your hand does the vacuum region mostly prevent?
A. B. C. conduction convection radiation
Joules experiment
demonstrates that the same temperature change can be caused by doing work on a system directly heating the system so there must be a connection between heat & work
thermodynamic system
W>0 Q>0
W=0 Q=0
weights are added to the frictionless piston, compressing the gas, as this is done
A. B. the internal energy of the gas stays the same because the container is insulated the internal energy of the gas increases because heat is added to the system the internal energy of the gas increases because work is done on the gas the internal energy of the gas decreases because there is less gas
the rst law of thermodynamics relates the heat transfer to a system and the work done by it to the internal energy of the system in words - when heat Q is added to a system, some of this added energy remains within the system changing the internal energy by an amount .The remainder leaves the system as it does work W on its surroundings.
C. D.
a heat engine
one gram of water becomes 1671cm3 of steam when boiled at a constant pressure of (1atm = 1.013x105 Pa). The latent heat of vaporization is Lv = 2.256x106 J/kg. Compute the work done by the water when it vaporizes and its increase in internal energy
a device which absorbs heat from a hot reservoir, does some work, and discards heat to a cold reservoir. assumed to be cyclic - the engine returns to its original state
practical refrigerator
it is impossible for any system to undergo a process in which it absorbs heat from a reservoir at a single temperature and converts the heat completely into mechanical work with the system ending in the state in which it began.
The Carnot cycle is the most efcient heat engine possible - i.e. obeying the second law of thermodynamics
it is impossible for any process to have as its sole result the transfer of heat from a cooler to a hotter object
an alternative statement of the second law of thermodynamics is the entropy (degree of disorder) in a closed system either remains constant or increases.
Physics 112N
as before well need some math skills and well also make use of physics learnt last semester
Reading Quiz
1. Which of the following is NOT TRUE? The electric force A. decreases with the inverse square of the distance between the two charged particles B. between two protons separated by a distance d is larger than between two electrons separated by d C. may be either attractive or repulsive 2. A material which permits electric charge to move through it is called A. an insulator B. a conductor C. a capacitor D. an inductor
youre likely to have experienced static electrical charges - they accumulate if you rub a balloon on your sweater, they also accumulate on clouds and are the origin of lightning discharges it turns out that charge is quantized, it comes in packets which cant be subdivided it is conserved - the total charge in a closed system will not change with time
origin of charges
the charges we encounter are properties of the particles that make up matter - namely electrons and protons
DEMO 56
some materials permits electric charge to move from one region to another - we call these conductors materials that do not permit such movement are titled insulators
DEMO 58
the sum of charges in a closed system is constant the magnitude of the charge of a proton or an electron is the indivisible unit of charge* any charge seen in experiment will be an integer multiple of this basic charge unit
A. both positive and negative charges move freely. B. only negative charges move freely. C. only positive charges move freely. D. We cant really conclude anything.
*the prevailing nuclear theory suggests quarks with fractional charges exist, but cannot be separated far enough to be seen
plastic spheres Three pithballs (insulators) are suspended from thin threads. Various objects are then rubbed against other objects (nylon against silk, glass against polyester, etc.) and each of the pithballs is charged by touching them with one of these objects. It is found that pithballs 1 and 2 repel each other and that pithballs 2 and 3 repel each other. From this we can conclude that
four lightweight plastic spheres are suspended from insulating threads the net charge on sphere d is +Q the other three spheres have net charges of either +Q, -Q or 0
A. 1 and 3 carry charges of opposite sign. B. 1 and 3 carry charges of equal sign. C. all three carry the charges of the same sign. D. one of the objects carries no charge.
A. a=0, b=+Q, c=-Q B. a=+Q, b=0, c=-Q C. a=-Q, b=+Q, c=0 D. a=-Q, b=0, c=+Q
Coulombs law
1/r2
Coulomb studied the interaction forces between charges in a torsion balance experiment
like gravity, Coulombs law gives a force that behaves as the inverse square of distance
a hydrogen atom contains one proton and one electron. The Bohr model pictures the electron as moving around the proton in a circular orbit of radius r = 5.29 x 10-11 m. What is the ratio of the electric force between the electron and the proton to the magnitude of the gravitational force between them?
A hydrogen atom is composed of a nucleus containing a single proton, about which a single electron orbits. The electric force between the two particles is 2.3 x 1039 greater than the gravitational force! If we can adjust the distance between the two particles, can we nd a separation at which the electric and gravitational forces are equal? A. Yes, we must move the particles farther apart. B. Yes, we must move the particles closer together. C. No, at any distance
two point charges lie on a line. q 1 = 2.0 C is located on the positive x-axis at x = 0.30 m, and an identical charge q2 is at x= - 0.15 m. Find the magnitude and direction of the total force that these two charges exert on a third charge q 3 = 4.0 C which lies at the origin.
a point charge q1 = 2.0 C is located on the positive y-axis at y = 0.30 m, and an identical charge q2 is at the origin. Find the magnitude and direction of the total force that these two charges exert on a third charge q 3 = 4.0 C that is on the positive x-axis at x = 0.40 m
Reading Quiz
1. Which of the following is NOT TRUE? A. The electric eld obeys the principle of superposition B. The tangent to an electric eld line gives the direction of the eld at that point C. The density of electric eld lines is directly proportional to the strength of the eld D. Negative charges are sources of electric eld lines and positive charges are sinks 2. Which of the following is NOT TRUE? A. The electric eld from a point charge at a distance r is the electrostatic force on a test charge at r divided by the test charge B. The electric eld from a point charge falls as the inverse square of distance from the point charge C. The units of electric eld strength are Newtons D. The electric eld lines from a point charge point radially to or from the charge
Electric Field
electric forces act, like gravity, at a distance a powerful way to think of the cause of the force on a charge B due to a distant charge A is to use the concept of a force eld from charge A that is everywhere in space then the force on B arises because B feels the electric eld
electric eld is dened as the force on B, with the charge of B divided out (so the properties of B dont appear)
Electric Field
strictly speaking we call B a test charge and make its charge so small that it does not produce a signicant eld of its own
Two test charges are brought separately into the vicinity of a charge +Q. First, test charge +q is brought to a point a distance r from +Q. Then this charge is removed and test charge q is brought to the same point. The electrostatic eld at the position of the test charge is greater for:
if we have many sources of charge, each will produce a eld (having a vector value at each point in space) which can be added vectorally to produce a net electric eld
a moving proton
Two test charges are brought separately into the vicinity of a charge +Q. First, test charge +q is brought to a point a distance r from +Q. Then this charge is removed and test charge 2q is brought to the same point. The magnitude of electric force felt by the test charge is largest for
a vacuum chamber contains a uniform electric eld directed downward. If a proton is shot horizontally into this region, it feels a force directed
A. downward ? B. upward ? C. to the right ? D. to the left ?
-2q
E
A. +q B. 2q C. It is the same for both.
p+
a moving electron
a vacuum chamber contains a uniform electric eld directed downward. If an electron is shot horizontally into this region, its acceleration is
A. downward and constant ? B. upward and constant ? C. upward and changing ? D. downward and changing ?
E e
when the terminals of a 100V battery are connected to two large parallel horizontal plates 10cm apart, the resulting charges on the plates produce an electric eld in the region between the plates that is very nearly uniform and has magnitude E = 1.0 x 104 N/C. Suppose the lower plate has positive charge so that the electric eld points upward. if an electron is released from the upper plate, what is its speed just before it reaches the lower plate? how much time is required for this motion? explain why we can neglect acceleration due to gravity
hence the electric eld from particle 1 is obtained by dividing out the charge of particle 2, considered to be a test charge
an electric eld has a value at each point in space - this is not an easy thing to display - electric eld lines are a way to attempt this a eld line is drawn at a tangent to the eld vector if lines are drawn close together this indicates a large magnitude of electric eld we assign a direction to the lines which is the direction of the eld vectors (hence it runs from positive to negative charges)
some examples
some examples
eld lines only start and end on positive charges they are otherwise continuous
Consider the four eld patterns shown. Assuming there are no charges in the regions shown, which of the patterns represents a possible electrostatic eld:
a small object S with a charge of magnitude q creates an electric eld. At a point P located 1.0m west of S, the eld has a value of 9 N/C directed to the west. At a point 1.0m east of S, the eld is
A. 10 N/C, directed west ? B. 10 N/C, directed east ? C. 20 N/C, directed west ? D. 20 N/C, directed east ?
(k = 9.0x109 Nm2/C2)
+q
Q?
Q1 A. Q = -2q B. Q = -q C. Q = +q D. Q = +2q
Q2
A. Q1 = -q , Q2 = -q B. Q1 = -q , Q2 = +q C. Q1 = +q , Q2 = +q D. Q1 = +q , Q2 = -q
a charge of 1.0 nC is placed in an electric eld at position X and feels an electric force of magnitude 2.0 N a charge of 2.0 nC is placed in the same electric eld at position Y and feels an electric force of magnitude 3.0 N is the magnitude of the electric eld
A. larger at X than Y B. larger at Y than X C. the same at X and Y
A. Q1 = -q , Q2 = +q Q1 Q2 B. Q1 = -q , Q2 = +2q C. Q1 = -2q , Q2 = +q D. Q1 = +q , Q2 = -q
two charges
Y
+
we place a second point charge at position Y and nd that the magnitude of the electric eld at X increases. What sign charge did we place at Y ? A. positive B. negative
X is equidistant from each charge - in which direction does the electric eld at X point?
A. B. C. D. up down left right
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two charges
point charges q1 and q2 of +12 nC and -12 nC respectively are placed 10.0cm apart. we call this an electric dipole. Compute the resultant electric eld at (a) a point midway between the charges (b) a point 4.0cm to the left of q1 (c) what is the direction of the electric eld at points along the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the charges?
B.
C.
a more accurate statement is that in a static situation, charges in a conductor rearrange themselves so that there is no E -eld inside the conductor also works if theres a cavity in the conductor
Y
? ?
D.
Faraday cage
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potential energy
recall that the work done by a constant force F moving an object through a distance s at an angle is recall we considered gravity as a conservative force, meaning that if we traveled in a closed path, we did no work we were able to dene a potential energy
now consider a uniform electric eld (we discussed last time how to set one up with parallel charged plates) the electric force is conservative so we can again dene a potential energy
since we can have positive and negative charges, you need to be careful with signs
potential energy in a uniform eld was easy - we actually computed the area under the force-displacement curve how about a single point charge where Coulombs law holds?
for a test charge on the x-axis but any point the same distance away would have the same potential so that
true for all possible signs of we are free to choose the zero of potential energy, since measurable work is a difference between two potential energies. Here we choose the zero to be at a very large separation of charges
electrostatic potential
potential energy of a test charge in the eld of several other point charges is the sum of the potential energies of each test charge - point charge pair
we can dene something called potential that removes the properties of the test charge
this quantity bears the same relation to the potential energy that the electric eld does to the force units are J/C or Volts, V
Two test charges are brought separately into the vicinity of a charge +Q. First, test charge +q is brought to point A a distance r from +Q . Next, +q is removed and a test charge +2q is brought to point B a distance 2r from +Q . Compared with the electrostatic potential of the charge at A, that of the charge at B is
Two test charges are brought separately into the vicinity of a charge +Q. First, test charge +q is brought to point A a distance r from +Q . Next, +q is removed and a test charge +2q is brought to point B a distance 2r from +Q . In which case is the electrostatic potential energy of the test charge greatest?
A. A B. B C. the same.
quiz
equipotential surfaces
these are a graphical technique to display potential they are dened as the surfaces on which the potential takes a constant value - hence different equipotentials never intersect usually draw them with equal potential separations
we can use some logical deduction to see that electric elds must be perpendicular to equipotentials we can move a test charge along an equipotential without changing potential, hence the potential energy does not change thus no work is done if the E-eld had a component parallel to the equipotential we would do work hence there can be no component of parallel to an equipotential
equipotential surfaces
qc qa
+100V +80V +60V +40V
+40V
qb
+100V +80V +60V
qc qa
+100V +80V +60V +40V
+40V
qb
+100V +80V +60V
Y
electric eld lines always meet with conductors at right angles
two adjacent equipotential surfaces separated by a small distance potential difference between the surfaces is
V1 + V V1
A X
for a small distance, the E-eld is approximately constant, so the work done per unit charge in moving from one surface to the other is this equals the change in potential,
+10V +8V
+6V
+10V
+8V
+6V
C X
E V1 + V V1
+14V +12V +10V
+16V +10V
+4V
+100V
+100V
shown are equipotentials (equally spaced) the arrows are electric eld vectors which of the diagrams could be correct?
C
-40V
D
-40V
+100V
+100V
what do the equipotentials for +24V, +18V, +12V, +6V, 0V, look like? how about the eld lines?
capacitors
device designed to store charge and electric potential energy useful in devices like camera ashes to allow a large discharge of power
capacitance
capacitance is dened in terms of the charge on the conductors and the potential difference set up units are C/V or Farads, F
any system of two separated conductors can act as a capacitor when charges of equal magnitude and opposite sign are placed on the conductors, an electric eld is established between the conductors and an associated potential difference set up
the most common capacitor consists of two parallel conducting plates of area A, separated by a distance d.
the electric eld magnitude between the plates is proportional to the surface charge density on the plates
this eld is uniform so the potential difference between the plates is hence the capacitance takes a simple form
quiz
circuit rules
24V
A parallel-plate capacitor having circular plates of radius R separated by a distance d is held at a xed potential difference. If the plates are moved closer together A. the charge on each of the plates increases B. the charge on each of the plates decreases C. the charge on each of the plates stays the same A parallel-plate capacitor having circular plates of radius R separated by a distance d is charged to a potential difference V, then is removed from the battery. If the plates are moved closer together A. the charge on each of the plates increases B. the charge on each of the plates decreases C. the charge on each of the plates stays the same
a resistance-less wire acts like an equipotential - all points on it are at equal potential
24V 0V
0V
to get a potential change, we need to introduce a component, e.g. a capacitor a battery can be used to keep wires at a xed potential
24V 0V
24V
0V
24V
0V
circuit rules
capacitors in series
net charge doesnt accumulate - total system charge is zero +Q -Q V all the positive charge pushed off this plate +Q -Q 0 ends up on this plate
capacitors in parallel
example 18.8
two capacitors, one with C 1 = 6.0 F and the other with C 2 = 3.0 F are connected to a potential difference of 18 V. nd the equivalence capacitance and nd the charge and potential differences for each capacitor when the two capacitors are connected in (a) series (b) parallel
quiz
problem 47
for the system of capacitors shown nd the equivalent capacitance (a) between b and c (b) between a and c
a potential difference is applied between a and b. Which of the following statements is NOT TRUE
A. B. C. the 10 F and 20 F capacitors have equal charges the potential difference across the 30 F is the same as the total potential difference across the 10 F and 20 F capacitors the equivalent capacitance of the circuit is 60 F
a potential difference is applied between a and b. Which of the following statements is TRUE
A. B. C. the potential difference is the same across each capacitor the charge is the same on each capacitor the equivalent capacitance is 30 F
capacitors store energy consider charging up a capacitor from zero charge, the potential difference between the plates at any time is
if this is the potential difference, the extra work that must be done to add an extra of charge is extra work is area under the v,q graph area under the triangle is
this turns out to be true for all electric eld congurations and indicates that elds have energy associated with them
clearly this energy is related to the work that had to be done to assemble the charges to set up the elds
quiz
A parallel-plate capacitor having circular plates of radius R separated by a distance d is charged to a potential difference V, with charge Q, then is removed from the battery.
Suppose the plates are pulled apart until they are separated by a distance D>d. The electrostatic energy stored in the capacitor is
A. B. C. greater than less than the same as
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