Dynamics

1

























































Advanced training
Dynamics
Dynamics
2
All information in this document is subject to modification without prior notice. No part or
this manual may be reproduced, stored in a database or retrieval system or published,
in any form or in any way, electronically, mechanically, by print, photo print, microfilm or
any other means without prior written permission from the publisher. SCIA is not
responsible for any direct or indirect damage because of imperfections in the
documentation and/or the software.
Copyright 2008 SCIA. All rights reserved.




















































Advanced training
Dynamics
3
1. Introduction............................................................................................................................... 4
2. Free Vibration: Eigen Frequency ............................................................................................ 5
2.1 Theory ...................................................................................................................5
2.2 Eigen Frequency in Scia Engineer .....................................................................7
Example 1: Free_Vibration_1.esa ...........................................................................9
2.3 Frames ................................................................................................................ 21
Example 2: Free_Vibration_2.esa ........................................................................ 21
Example 3: Free_Vibration_3.esa ........................................................................ 29
2.4 Slabs ................................................................................................................... 38
Example 4: Free_Vibration_4.esa ........................................................................ 38
3. Forced Vibration: Harmonic Load ........................................................................................ 43
3.1 Theory ................................................................................................................ 43
3.2 Harmonic Load in Scia Engineer ..................................................................... 45
Example 5: Forced_Vibration_1.esa .................................................................... 47
Resonance ........................................................................................................... 55
Example 6: Forced_Vibration_2.esa .................................................................... 58
4. Spectral Analysis: Seismic Load .......................................................................................... 65
4.1 Theory ................................................................................................................ 65
4.2 Seismic Load in Scia Engineer ........................................................................ 68
Example 7: Spectral_Analysis_1 ......................................................................... 72
Example 8: Spectral_Analysis_2.esa ................................................................... 74
Example 9: Spectral_Analysis_3.esa ................................................................... 90
4.3 Seismic combinations ...................................................................................... 93
SeismCombi_together.esa. .................................................................................. 93
4.4 Mass in analysis ................................................................................................ 97
Example 10: Spectral_Analysis_participation mass only.esa .............................. 97
Example 11: Spectral_Analysis_missing mass .esa .......................................... 105
Example 12: Spectral_Analysis_Residual mode .esa ....................................... 111
5. Damping ................................................................................................................................ 120
5.1 Theory .............................................................................................................. 120
5.2 Damping in Scia Engineer .............................................................................. 122
Example 10: Damping_1.esa ............................................................................. 125
Example 11: Damping_2.esa ............................................................................. 132
Example 12: Damping_3.esa ............................................................................. 134
Example 13: Damping_4.esa ............................................................................. 137
6. Vortex Shedding: Karman Vibration .................................................................................. 148
6.1 Theory .............................................................................................................. 148
6.2 Karman Vibration in Scia Engineer ............................................................... 150
Example 14: Vortex_Shedding.esa .................................................................... 152
7. Direct time integration ......................................................................................................... 159
7.1 Theory .............................................................................................................. 159
7.2 Direct time integration in Scia Engineer ....................................................... 161
Example: Time_history.esa ................................................................................ 162
Example: RunningLoad.esa ............................................................................... 168
References ................................................................................................................................ 175
Annex A: Earthquake Magnitude ............................................................................................ 176
Annex B: Numerical Damping Values .................................................................................... 177


Dynamics
4
1. Introduction
Dynamic calculations are not so frequent in civil engineering as static calculations. On
the other hand, they are inevitable in certain projects. Wind effects on high-rise
structures, transverse vibration of towers and chimneys, structures located in seismic
regions,
Scia Engineer contains specialized modules covering common dynamics-related issues.
In this course, the different aspects of these modules are regarded in detail.
First, the foundation of dynamic calculations is examined: the eigen frequency
calculation. Eigen frequencies form the basics for all types of dynamic analysis.
In the third chapter the eigen frequency calculation is extended with harmonic loads: the
influence of for example vibrations due to machinery, can be calculated using these
principles.
Two chapters are devoted to seismic calculations and the influence of damping on the
seismic action. The final chapter of the course discusses the aspects of Vortex
Shedding, used for example to calculate chimneys.

All chapters are illustrated with examples. The relatively easy examples have been
purposefully chosen to provide a clear understanding of what actually happens in the
dynamic calculations. To this end, nearly all calculations have been verified by manual
calculations to give a good insight into the application of the theory in Scia Engineer.
When the principles are clearly understood, they can be applied to more complex
structures without difficulties.

The project files can be found on the accompanying cd-rom and have been divided into
two groups:

Initial Projects: The project files without the dynamic input, used throughout
the course.
Final Projects: The project files completed with the dynamic calculations,
thus representing the final results at the end of the course.


Dynamics
5
2. Free Vibration: Eigen Frequency
In this chapter, the calculation of eigen frequencies in Scia Engineer is explained in
detail.
Eigen frequencies can be required to verify comfort criteria for buildings, to analyse
wind-induced resonance for bridges, to check requirements for sensitive equipment,
First, the theory behind the calculation is discussed and illustrated with an example. The
procedure is then used for both frame and slab structures. The results of all examples
are compared with manual calculations to provide a clear understanding of the applied
principles.

2.1 Theory

To understand what is going on during the dynamic analysis of a complex structure with
frames or finite elements, the free vibration of a SDOF (Single Degree Of Freedom)
system is regarded in detail. A complete overview can be found in reference [1].

Consider the following system:


A body of mass m is free to move in one direction. A spring of constant stiffness k,
which is fixed at one end, is attached at the other end to the body.
The equation of motion can be written as:
0 ) ( ) ( = +

t y k t y m (2.1)
A solution for this differential equation is: ) cos( ) ( t w A t y =
Inserting this in (2.1) gives:
0 ) cos( ) (
2
= + t A k m (2.2)
This implies that:
m
k
= (2.3)
Where is called the natural circular frequency.
The natural period T can be written as:

2
= T (2.4)
The natural frequency (or eigen frequency) f can be written as:

2
1
= =
T
f (2.5)
For a general, MDOF (Multiple Degree Of Freedom) structure, equation (2.1) can be
written in matrix notation:
0 = +

U K U M (2.6)


Dynamics
6
Where:
U is the vector of translations and rotations in nodes,

U is the vector of corresponding accelerations,
K is the stiffness matrix assembled for the static calculation,
M is the mass matrix assembled during the dynamic calculation.

From this equation it is clear that the calculation model created for a static analysis
needs to be completed with additional data: masses.
The solutions of (2.6) are harmonic functions in time. A possible solution can have the
following form:
( ) ) ( sin
0
T T U = (2.7)
Notice that in this solution a separation of variables is obtained:
- The first part, ( ), is a function of spatial co-ordinates,
- The second part, ( ) ) ( sin
0
T T , is a function of time.
When substituting (2.7) in (2.6), an equation is obtained which is known as the
Generalised Eigenproblem Equation:
0
2
= M K (2.8)
The solution of (2.8) yields as many eigenmodes as there are equations.
Each eigenmode consists of 2 parts:
- An eigenvalue: value
i

- An eigenvector: vector
i
, which is not fully determined. The
deformation shape is known, but the scale factor is unknown.
This scale factor can be chosen in different ways. In the next paragraph this will be
explained further.

An overview of the mathematical (matrix) approach behind the calculation of
eigenvalues and eigenvectors can be found in reference [25].
















Dynamics
7
2.2 Eigen Frequency in Scia Engineer

In Scia Engineer, as scale factor, a M-orthonormalisation has been implemented. This
is shown in the following relation:
1 =
i
T
i
M (2.9)
Some of the characteristics of M-orthonormalisation are:
0 =
i
T
j
M , When j i (2.10)
2
i i
T
i
K = (2.11)
The M-matrix can be computed in different ways. Scia Engineer uses the so-called
lumped mass matrix representation of the M-matrix. The lumped mass matrix offers
considerable advantages with respect to memory use and computational effort because
in this case the M-matrix is a diagonal matrix.
The masses are thus guided to the nodes of the Finite Element mesh. This principle is
illustrated on the following figure [28]:

The calculation of eigenmodes and eigen frequencies is thus made on a discretised
finite element model of the structure. This means that instead of a general structure with
an infinite number of degrees of freedom, a calculation model with a finite number of
degrees of freedom is analysed.
The number of degrees of freedom can generally be determined by a simple
multiplication: the number of mesh nodes is multiplied by the number of possible
displacements in the node. It is important to know that the accuracy of the model is in
proportion to the "precision of discretisation", i.e. to the number of elements of the finite
element mesh. This refinement has almost no practical meaning in static calculations.
However, for dynamic and non-linear analyses, it significantly affects the accuracy of
the results.
Consider the following example. A beam on two supports is loaded by its self-weight. By
default (for a static calculation) there is only one finite element for the beam. Taking the
above into account, the mass M of the beam will be guided to the two end nodes of the
beam since these correspond with the mesh nodes of the finite element mesh.

In this case, this means that the entire mass will be located in the supports so no mass
can go into vibration and the dynamic calculation cannot be executed. As indicated, a
mesh refinement is required here to attain results.

Dynamics
8
The following diagram shows the required steps to perform a Free Vibration calculation:




The analogy between a static and dynamic calculation is clear: in a static calculation,
Loads are grouped in Load cases and the Load cases are used in Combinations.
In a dynamic calculation Masses are grouped in Mass Groups and the Mass Groups
are used in Mass Combinations.
This diagram is illustrated in the following example.














Activate the Dynamics functionality
Input Masses Generate Masses from Static Load cases
Create a Mass Group
Create a Mass Combination
Perform a Free Vibration Calculation
Refine the Finite-Element Mesh if required
Specify the number of Eigenmodes to be calculated
Dynamics
9
Example 1: Free_Vibration_1.esa
In this example, a beam on two supports is modelled. The beam has a cross-section
type IPE 200, a length of 6m and is manufactured in S235 according to EC-EN. A node
has been added to the middle of the beam, which will make it possible to add a nodal
mass in that location.

In this example, one static load case is created: the self-weight of the beam.

Step 1: The first step in the Dynamic calculation is to activate the functionality
Dynamics on the Functionality tab in the Project Data.




When this is done, a new group will appear in the Main menu:

Dynamics
10




Step 2: The second step is to create a Mass Group.



As indicated in the diagram, a Mass Group is used to group masses in a same way a
Load Case is used to group Loads. When a Mass Group is defined, masses can be
inputted.
Scia Engineer also allows the user to create masses from a static load case. When for
example a roof weight is inputted as line loads, the action will
automatically generate masses from these line loads. It is clear that this provides a
quick input of necessary data.


Note:
- The self-weight of a structure is always taken into account automatically for a dynamic
calculation. The mass of the self-weight is not displayed.
- When specifying a load case but not using the action Create masses from load case
nothing will happen: no masses will be created.
- When creating masses from loads, Scia Engineer will use the acceleration of gravity
specified on the Loads tab of the Project Data. By default this value is 9,81 m/s
- The mass remains unchanged after any modification or removal of the original force. If
the mass is supposed to correspond to the modified force, it is necessary to remove the
mass and create it once more.
- The mass is generated only from vertical force components.

Step 3: When Mass Groups are created, Masses can be inputted on the structure. Scia
Engineer allows the input of nodal masses, masses on beams, line masses on beams.
Dynamics
11





For 2D members, the following options are available:



In this example, a mass of 500 kg will be inputted on the middle node of the beam using
Mass in node.

Dynamics
12


The parameters Koeff mx, Koeff my and Koeff mz specify how much of the mass will
participate in the vibration according to the global X, Y or Z axis.
This can be used when calculating for example a chimney: when Koeff mx is put on 1
and Koeff my and Koeff mz are taken 0, then the mass can only vibrate in the global
X-direction so only eigenmodes in that direction will be obtained.
Imx, Imy and Imz specify the moment of inertia around the global X, Y or Z axis. By
default a nodal mass is concentrated so it has no inertia. When the mass represents a
large machine, it is possible to input the moment of inertia of this machine.
The nodal mass of 500 kg is inputted on the middle node of the beam:

Note:
- To display masses and mass labels, go to Set View Parameters For All >
Loads/Masses.
- Masses are Additional Data, which can be moved/copied to other entities.

Step 4: Next, the Mass groups can be combined within a Combination of Mass
Groups.



The Combination of Mass Groups works in the same way as a Load Combination.
A multiplication coefficient can be inputted for each Mass Group. This can be used
when the mass of a structure changes during its lifetime.
Dynamics
13
Consider for example a water tank. One Combination of Mass Groups can be created
with a coefficient 1,00 to specify a full tank and another Combination of Mass Groups
can be created with a coefficient 0,50 to specify a tank, which is half-full. In this way,
both cases can be calculated in one time.
As stated in step 2: the self-weight is automatically taken into account for each
Combination of Mass Groups.

Step 5: After executing the previous steps, the calculation can already be started
however, as stated in 2.2 it can be required to refine the Finite Element mesh.
This can be done through Calculation, Mesh > Mesh Setup.




For 1D members (beams) the Average number of tiles of 1D element can be
augmented. In general, 5 to 10 tiles are sufficient for a dynamic calculation. When
specifying a too high amount, the calculation will take a long time to complete. For 2D
elements (plates & shells) the Average size of 2D element needs to be altered.
In this example, due to the inserting of the middle node, there is already a mesh node there, so
it is not required to have a denser Finite Element Mesh. This can be seen after mesh
generation:


Step 6: Another important step before launching the calculation is to specify the amount
of eigenmodes that need to be calculated.
Dynamics
14
This can be done through Calculation, Mesh > Solver Setup.




As explained above, the number of eigen frequencies is dependent of the number of
degrees of freedom of the structure which are on their turn dependent of the
discretisation.
In this example, only the mesh node located in the middle of the beam can vibrate
vertically. Therefore only one eigenmode needs to be calculated. The Number of
Frequencies can thus be lowered to 1.

Note:
When the number of frequencies is higher than the amount of degrees of freedom, a
message will appear during the calculation, stating the calculation cannot be executed.
The solution is to lower the number of frequencies to be calculated or to apply a mesh
refinement so more degrees of freedom are created.

Step 7: The last step is to perform the Free Vibration calculation through Calculation,
Mesh > Calculation.

Dynamics
15


After performing the calculation, the Results menu shows the option Eigen
Frequencies:




The preview shows the following result:


Dynamics
16
According to this calculation, the eigen frequency of the first mode is shown to be 6,31
Hz. To view the results in more detail, it is possible to look at the Calculation Protocol
for the Eigen Frequency calculation:





The Sum of masses shows the amount of mass, which can vibrate for this Combination
of Mass Groups. In this example, this is governed by the mass of 500 kg and the mass
of the beam.
These values can be calculated as follows:
- The beam is an IPE 200 with cross-section A= 0,00285 m
- The length of the beam is 6 m
- The volumetric mass of S235 is 7850 kg/m

=> Total beam mass = 0,00285 m x 6 m x 7850 kg/m = 134,235 kg

X-direction

of the beam mass goes to the left support and does not take part of the vibration.
Vibrating mass = 500 kg + x 134,235 kg = 600,68 kg
Z-direction

of the beam mass goes to the left and right supports and does not take part of the
vibration.
Vibrating mass = 500 kg + x 134,235 kg = 567,12 kg
Dynamics
17
It is clear that a denser mesh will provide a more accurate participation of the beam mass.
The Modal Participation Factors show the amount of mass that is vibrating in a specific
eigenmode as a percentage of the total mass. In this example W
zi
/W
ztot
is equal to 1 which
means that 100% of the mass is vibrating in the vertical direction for the first eigenmode.
These factors will be looked upon in more detail during the Seismic calculations.
The eigenmode can be visualised through Deformation of Nodes.



- Selection is set to All
- Type of loads is set to Mass Combinations
- For each eigenmode a specific Mass combination can now be chosen.
- The Values field is set to Deformed Mesh so the deformation of the mesh nodes is
shown.



The result is as expected, the inner node is vibrating. A denser mesh will provide a
much better representation of the Eigenmode. It is important to bear in mind that a
vibration is in two directions: in this case the eigenmode is shown moving up, however
half a period later it will be moving down.
Free vibration gives only the conception of structure properties and allows predicting the
behaviour of the structure under time varying load conditions. In nature, each body
Dynamics
18
prefers to remain in a standstill. If forced to move, it prefers the way requiring minimal
energy consumption. These ways of motion are the eigenmodes.
The eigenmodes do not represent the actual deformation of the structure. They only
show deformation that is "natural" for the structure. This is why the magnitudes of
calculated displacements are dimensionless numbers. The numbers provided are
orthonormed, i.e. they have a particular relation to the masses in the structure. The
absolute value of the individual numbers is not important. What matters is their mutual
proportion.
To vibration of the structure can be shown through View > New Animation Window.



Activating the option Preset minimal ratio to invert MAX will show the actual
vibration in both directions.
Note:
Using CTRL+Right mouse button, the structure can be rotated in the Animation
Window.




















Dynamics
19
Manual Calculation
In order to check the results of Scia Engineer, the eigen frequency of this structure is
calculated by a manual calculation.
Following reference [1], the circular frequency of a beam on two supports with a mass in
the middle can be calculated as follows:
3
2
48
ML
EI
= (2.7)
With:
= Circular frequency
E = Modulus of Young
I = Moment of inertia of the beam
L = Length of the beam
M = Mass in the middle of the beam


In this example E = 210.000 N/mm
Iy = 19430000 mm
4

L = 6000 mm
M = 500 kg
( )
2
2
3
4
2
47 , 1813
6000 500
19430000

000 . 210
48
s
rad
mm kg
mm
mm
N
=

= =>
s
rad
58 , 42 = =>
= = =>

2
f 6,78 Hz

The result calculated by Scia Engineer was 6,31 Hz.
The difference in results is caused by two assumptions in the manual calculation:

- The manual calculation does not take into account the self-weight of the beam
Since
m
k
= a lower mass will lead to a higher and a higher f.

- The manual calculation does not take into account shear deformation
A lower deformation leads to a higher stiffness k, a higher and a higher f.



These two assumptions can also be implemented in the calculation model of Scia
Engineer:
- In order not to take the self-weight into account, the volumetric mass of S235 can
be set to 1 kg/m in the Material Library:


Dynamics
20


- To neglect the shear deformation, activate this option through Calculation, Mesh
> Solver Setup:




Now when the calculation is performed again, the following results are obtained:



These results correspond exactly with the manual calculation.
This example clearly shows the importance of checking the assumptions behind
the applied theories. When comparing results between two calculations, always
make sure the same assumptions/hypotheses are used.
Dynamics
21
2.3 Frames
In this paragraph, the Free Vibration calculation is illustrated for frame structures. The
principles of the theory are applied in detail and verified by means of manual
calculations.

Example 2: Free_Vibration_2.esa
In this example a two-storey frame is modelled. The members have cross-section HEA
240 and are manufactured in S235 according to EC-EN. The height of each storey is
4m; the width of the frame is 5m. The column bases are inputted as fixed supports.
One static load case is created: the self-weight of the frame. On the beams of the floor
and roof level, a line mass of 500 kg/m will be introduced.


Steps 1&2: The activation of the Dynamics Functionality and the creation of a Mass
Group are identical to the previous example.

Step 3: When the Mass Group is created, the line masses of 500 kg/m can be inputted
on the roof and floor beams of the frame.

Dynamics
22

Note:
To render the display of masses, go to Set View Parameters For All > Miscellaneous
> Drawing style for Model + Loads

Step 4: Next, a Combination of Mass Groups can be created.



Step 5: To obtain precise results for the dynamics calculation, the Finite Element
Mesh is refined.
This can be done through Calculation, Mesh > Mesh Setup.

Dynamics
23


The Average number of tiles of 1D element is set to 10 to obtain a good distribution
of the line masses and the mass of the members.

Step 6: The last step before launching the calculation is setting the amount of
eigenmodes to be calculated. The default value in Calculation, Mesh > Solver Setup
is 4. This is sufficient for this example.




Step 7: The Free Vibration calculation can now be executed through Calculation,
Mesh > Calculation.
The following results are obtained:
Dynamics
24


As stated in the previous example, using Deformation of Nodes, the Deformed Mesh
can be shown to view the eigenmodes:



Eigenmode 1: f = 2,89 Hz Eigenmode 2: f = 9,52 Hz



Eigenmode 3: f = 14,51 Hz Eigenmode 4: f = 16,94 Hz









Dynamics
25
The Calculation Protocol for the Eigen Frequency calculation shows the following:



The Sum of masses shows the amount of mass, which can vibrate for this Mass
combination. In this example, this is governed by the line masses of 500 kg/m and the
mass of the members.
This value can be calculated as follows:
- The members are of type HEA 240 with cross-section A= 0,00768 m
- The volumetric mass of S235 is 7850 kg/m
- The total length of the members is 4 x 4m + 2 x 5m = 26m

However, as stated in 2.2 the masses are guided to the mesh nodes. The Finite
Element Mesh was refined to 10 1D elements per member.
This implies that for the two lower columns, half the mass of a 1D element is guided to a
support and does not take part in the free vibration.
- The length of the columns is 4m
- The length of a 1D element is 4m / 10 = 0,4m
- The length of half a 1D element is 0,4m / 2 = 0,2m
The total length of the members taken into account for the mass is
26m 0,2m 0,2m = 25,6m
Total member mass = 0,00768 m x 25,6 m x 7850 kg/m = 1543,37 kg
This mass is added to the line masses of 500 kg/m
Vibrating Mass = 2 x 500 kg/m x 5m + 1543,37 kg = 6543,37 kg

The Modal Participation Factors show the amount of mass that is vibrating in a
specific eigenmode as a percentage of the total mass.
For Eigenmode 1: 86% of the total mass is vibrating in the X-direction
For Eigenmode 2: 11% of the total mass is vibrating in the X-direction
For Eigenmode 3: 16% of the total mass is vibrating in the Z-direction
For Eigenmode 4: 54% of the total mass is vibrating in the Z-direction
The lower row shows the total percentage when these four modes are combined:
97% is taken into account for the X-direction and 69% for the Z-direction.

These factors will be looked upon in more detail during the Seismic calculations in
Chapter 4. For a seismic calculation, it is required that sufficient eigenmodes are
included in the calculation so that at least 90% of the total mass is being taken into
account [7].
Dynamics
26
Manual Calculation
In order to check the results of Scia Engineer, the lowest eigen frequency, or natural
frequency of this structure is calculated by a manual calculation.
The method used here is described in the literature as Rayleighs Energy Method. [1],
[13].
In this method, the structure is idealized as a cantilever beam with lumped masses at
each floor level:

The structure is then loaded with a set of linearly increasing horizontal loads on each
floor level. Due to this loading, the structure will deform and thus the rigidity of the
system is known. The eigen frequency of the structure can then be approximately
calculated as follows:

=
=

=
n
i
i i
n
i
i i
d M
d F
f
1
2
1
2
1

(2.8)

With:
n = Number of floors
F
i
= Horizontal force acting on floor level i
d
i
= Horizontal deformation of floor level i
M
i
= Idealized mass of floor level i
The analogy between this formula and
m
k
= can clearly be seen.


To use this formula, the frame needs to be idealized to a cantilever:
Dynamics
27


The mass of the lower part of the structure is idealized to the support of the cantilever
so it takes no part in the vibration.
The mass M
1
can be calculated as follows:
0,00768 m x (5 + 4 + 4) m x 7850 kg/m + 500 kg/m x 5m = 3283,74 kg
The mass M
2
can be calculated as follows:
0,00768 m x (5 + 4) m x 7850 kg/m + 500 kg/m x 5m = 3042,59 kg

In order to calculate the horizontal deformations d
i
of each floor level due to a linearly
increasing load F
i
, a static load case is calculated with Scia Engineer consisting of loads
of 100 kN and 200 kN. The following results are obtained for the nodal deformations:






Dynamics
28
F
1
= 100 kN = 100000 N
F
2
= 200 kN = 200000 N
d
1
= 95,79 mm = 0,09579 m
d
2
= 199,58 mm = 0,19958 m

Applying formula (2.8):
( ) ( )
=
+
+
=
2 2
19958 , 0 59 , 3042 09579 , 0 74 , 3283
19958 , 0 200000 09579 , 0 100000
2
1
m kg m kg
m N m N
f

2,88 Hz

This result corresponds to the 2,89 Hz calculated by Scia Engineer.














































Dynamics
29
Example 3: Free_Vibration_3.esa
In this example an office building is modelled as a frame. The office is manufactured in
C30/37 according to EC-EN. The building has four storeys with a storey height of 4m. In
horizontal direction, the frame is made up of four columns with a distance of 6m
between them. In the direction out of plane, the frames are spaced 5m. The column
bases are inputted as fixed supports.
The members of the frame have following cross-sections:
- Columns: Rectangular 300 x 450
- Floor Beams: Rectangular 250 x 500
- Roof Beams: Rectangular 150 x 300
The vertical loads acting on the structure are:
- The self-weight of the concrete members
- The weight of the floors: 5 kN/m
- The weight of the roof: 2 kN/m
- A category B (Office) imposed load of 3 kN/m


This gives three static Load-Cases:
LC1: Self-Weight
LC2: Permanent Load: 25 kN/m on the floor beams, 10 kN/m on the roof beams
LC3: Variable Load: 15 kN/m on the floor beams

Step 1: The first step in the Dynamic calculation is to activate the functionality
Dynamics on the Functionality tab in the Project Data.

Steps 2&3: The second step is to create Mass Groups, the third step the creation of
Masses.
Since the self-weight is automatically taken into account in a Combination of Mass
Groups, two Mass Groups are created here, one for each Static load case.
For the Mass Group MG1, the load case LC2 is chosen: the weight of the floors and
roof. Using the action automatically generates masses from
the already inputted loads.
Dynamics
30


In the same way, the Mass Group MG2 is created in which masses are automatically
created from load case LC3: the imposed load.



Note:
As stated in the first example: When creating masses from loads, Scia Engineer will use
the acceleration of gravity specified on the Loads tab of the Project Data. By default
this value is 9,81 m/s

























Dynamics
31
In the Masses menu, the contents of both Mass Groups can be visualised.
Mass Group MG1:

Floor mass:
m
kg
s
m
m
N
4 , 2548
81 , 9
25000
2
=
Roof mass:
m
kg
s
m
m
N
4 , 1019
81 , 9
10000
2
=

Mass Group MG2:

Mass of imposed load:
m
kg
s
m
m
N
1 , 1529
81 , 9
15000
2
=
Step 4: Both Mass Groups can now be combined in a Combination of Mass Groups.
According to Eurocode 8 [7], all gravity loads appearing in the following combination of
actions need to be taken into account for an eigenmode calculation:

+
i k i E k
Q G
, ,
(2.9)




Dynamics
32
With: G
k
= Characteristic value of the permanent load
Q
k,i
= Characteristic value of the variable load i

E,i
= Combination coefficient for load i
i , 2
=
The combination coefficient
E,i
takes into account the likelihood of the variable loads
not being present over the entire structure during the occurrence of an earthquake.
For this example, with a Category B imposed load and independently occupied storeys,
is taken as 0,5 and
2,i
as 0,3. This gives a value of 0,15 for
E,i
The Combination of Mass Groups CM1 can then be formulated as 1,00 MG1 + 0,15
MG2.



Step 5: To obtain precise results for the dynamics calculation, the Finite Element Mesh is
refined.
This can be done through Calculation, Mesh > Mesh Setup.




The Average number of tiles of 1D element is set to 10 to obtain a good distribution
of the line masses and the mass of the members.

Step 6: The last step before launching the calculation is setting the amount of
eigenmodes to be calculated. The default value in Calculation, Mesh > Solver Setup
is 4. This is sufficient for this example.
Dynamics
33




Step 7: The Free Vibration calculation can now be executed through Calculation,
Mesh > Calculation.

The following results are obtained:






















Dynamics
34



With corresponding Eigenmodes:



Eigenmode 1: f = 1,28 Hz Eigenmode 2: f = 3,70 Hz




Eigenmode 3: f = 6,01 Hz Eigenmode 4: f = 8,26 Hz


The Calculation Protocol for the Eigen Frequency calculation shows the following:

Dynamics
35



The Sum of masses can be calculated as follows:

- According to the Bill of Material, the self-weight of the frame is 40500 kg.
-


However, for the four lower columns, half the mass of a 1D element is guided to a
support and does not take part in the free vibration.
- The length of the columns is 4m
- Since 10 1D elements per member were used, the length of a 1D element is 4m /
10 = 0,4m
- The length of half a 1D element is 0,4m / 2 = 0,2m
- The columns have a cross-section of 0,135 m and a volumetric mass of 2500
kg/m
The mass of the columns not taken into account is:

4 x 0,135 m x 0,2 m x 2500 kg/m = 270 kg
The mass of the self-weight taken into account is: 40500 kg - 270 kg =
40230 kg
- For MG1 the mass of the floors is 9 x 2548,42 kg/m x 6m = 137614,68 kg
- For MG1 the mass of the roof is 3 x 1019,37 kg/m x 6m = 18348,66 kg
- For MG2 the mass of the imposed load is 9 x 1529,05 kg/m x 6m = 82568,7 kg

However only 15% was taken into account => 0,15 x 82568,7 kg = 12385,31 kg
Vibrating mass= 40230 kg + 137614,68 kg + 18348,66 kg + 12385,31 kg
= 208578,65 kg







Dynamics
36
Manual Calculation
In order to check the results of Scia Engineer, the lowest eigen frequency of this
structure is calculated by means of the Rayleigh Method.
As specified in the previous example, the frame is idealized to a cantilever:


The masses M
1
, M
2
and M
3
can be calculated as follows:
- Self-Weight of three floor beams and four columns:
3 x 0,125 m x 2500 kg/m x 6 m = 5625 kg
4 x 0,135 m x 2500 kg/m x 4 m = 5400 kg
5625 kg + 5400 kg = 11025 kg
- Floor weight of mass group MG1:
3 x 2548,42 kg/m x 6 m = 45871,56 kg
- Weight of Imposed load of mass group MG2 (15%)
0,15 x 3 x 1529,05 kg/m x 6 m = 4128,44 kg
- Total: 11025 kg + 45871,56 kg + 4128,44 kg = 61024,995 kg

The mass M
4
can be calculated as follows:
- Self-Weight of three roof beams and half of four columns:
3 x 0,045 m x 2500 kg/m x 6 m = 2025 kg
0,5 x 4 x 0,135 m x 2500 kg/m x 4 m = 2700 kg
2025 kg + 2700 kg = 4725 kg
- Roof weight of mass group MG1:
3 x 1019,37 kg/m x 6 m = 18348,66 kg
- Total: 4725 kg + 18348,66 kg = 23073,66 kg
-
In order to calculate the horizontal deformations d
i
of each floor level due to a linearly
increasing load F
i
, a static load case is calculated with Scia Engineer consisting of loads
of 100 kN, 200 kN, 300 kN and 400 kN. The following results are obtained for the nodal
deformations:
Dynamics
37



F
1
= 100 kN = 100000 N
F
2
= 200 kN = 200000 N
F
3
= 300 kN = 300000 N
F
4
= 400 kN = 400000 N
d
1
= 33,07 mm = 0,03307 m
d
2
= 77,92 mm = 0,07792 m
d
3
= 115,88 mm = 0,11588 m
d
4
= 151,71 mm = 0,15171 m

Applying formula (2.8):
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
=
+ + +
+ + +
=
2 2 2 2
15171 , 0 66 , 23073 11588 , 0 995 , 61024 07792 , 0 995 , 61024 03307 , 0 995 , 61024
15171 , 0 400000 11588 , 0 300000 07792 , 0 200000 03307 , 0 100000
2
1
m kg m kg m kg m kg
m N m N m N m N
f

= f
1,27 Hz

This result corresponds to the 1,28 Hz calculated by Scia Engineer.



















Dynamics
38
2.4 Slabs
The last paragraph of this chapter illustrates the procedure for the Free Vibration
calculation of slabs. The applied method is entirely the same as for frames. This is
shown in the following example.

Example 4: Free_Vibration_4.esa
In this example, a multi-span rectangular slab is modelled. The slab has a length and
width of 6m. The slab has a thickness of 0,06m and is manufactured in S235 according
to EC-EN. On two sides the slab is simply supported, on the other two, the slab is free.
In the middle of the slab, perpendicular on both simply supported edges, a line support
is introduced.
One static load case is created: the self-weight of the slab.



Step 1: The first step in the Dynamic calculation is to activate the functionality
Dynamics on the Functionality tab in the Project Data.

Steps 2&3: The second step is to create a Mass Group


Since the Free Vibration calculation will be executed for the self-weight of the slab, no
additional masses need to be inputted.

Step 4: Next, a Combination of Mass Groups can be created.


Dynamics
39
Step 5: To obtain precise results for the dynamics calculation, the Finite Element Mesh is
refined.

Analogous as for frames, this can be done through Calculation, Mesh > Mesh Setup.




The Average size of 2D elements is set to 0,25m.


Step 6: The last step before launching the calculation is setting the amount of
eigenmodes to be calculated. The default value in Calculation, Mesh > Solver Setup
is 4. This is sufficient for this example.



Step 7: The Free Vibration calculation can now be executed through Calculation,
Mesh > Calculation.
The following results are obtained:
Dynamics
40


The same way as for frames, the Eigenmodes can be visualised through Deformation
of nodes now under 2D Members. The Deformed structure for value Uz shows the
following:




Eigenmode 1: f = 6,68 Hz Eigenmode 2: f = 9,44 Hz



Eigenmode 3: f = 19,39 Hz Eigenmode 4: f =21,05 Hz

Note:
- Viewing 2D Members > Deformation of nodes > Deformed Mesh shows the
deformation of both 2D and 1D elements. This allows seeing the complete
Eigenmode for a structure containing both element types i.e. General XYZ
projects.
- To generate all Eigenmodes quickly, the document can be used: The picture of
one Eigenmode can be set as a nested table for the Combinations of Mass
Groups:



This way, all Eigenmodes are generated automatically.

The Calculation Protocol for the Eigen Frequency calculation shows that the
following Sum of masses is accounted for:
Dynamics
41


This value can be calculated as follows:
- The total weight of the slab is 6 m x 6 m x 0,06 m x 7850 kg/m = 16956 kg
- Half of the mass of the elements near the two externally supported edges is
carried to the supports and does not participate in the vibration. Since the mesh
size was set to 0,25 m, half the size of a 2D element is 0,125 m.
2 x 6 m x 0,125 m x 0,06 m x 7850 kg/m = 706,5 kg
- The same applies for the internal edge, however the mass of the two elements on
the start and end nodes has already been taken into account in the above
calculation for the externally supported edges. This leaves a length of 6 m
0,125 m 0,125 m = 5,75 m. The following figure illustrates this length.
2 x 5,75 m x 0,125 m x 0,06 m x 7850 kg/m = 677,06 kg



- The total mass taken into account for the Free Vibration calculation:
16956 kg 706,5 677,06 = 15572,44 kg











Dynamics
42
Manual Calculation
In order to check the results of Scia Engineer, the eigen frequencies of the slab are
calculated by a manual calculation.
The method used here is described in reference [14] In this reference; the eigen
frequency of a multi-span slab is expressed in terms of a non-dimensional parameter .
D
h L

2
2
= (2.10)


With:

= Circular frequency
L = Distance between the two simply supported external edges
= Density of the slab material
h = Slab thickness
D = flexural rigidity of the slab
( )
2
3
1 12
=
Eh
(2.11)
E = Modulus of Young
= Poissons Ratio

In this example, the material properties are the following:
L = 6 m
= 7850 kg/m
h = 0,06 m
E = 210.000 N/mm = 2,1 e
11
N/m
= 0,3
D =
( )
( )
=

2
3
2
11
3 , 0 1 12
06 , 0 1 , 2 m
m
N
e
4153846,15 Nm

The values for for the first four modes, for a slab with two edges simply supported and
two edges free, a h/L ratio of 0,01 and an internal edge on position 0,5L are given in
reference [14]:
Mode 1: = 1,6309
Mode 2: = 2,3050
Mode 3: = 4,7253
Mode 4: = 5,1271


Using these parameters in formula (2.10), the circular frequencies can be calculated:
Mode 1: = 41,99 rad/s => f = 6,68 Hz
Mode 2: = 59,34 rad/s => f = 9,45 Hz
Mode 3: = 121,66 rad/s => f = 19,36 Hz
Mode 4: = 132 rad/s => f = 21,01 Hz

The results correspond perfectly to the results calculated by Scia Engineer:
Mode 1: f = 6,68 Hz
Mode 2: f = 9,44 Hz
Mode 3: f = 19,39 Hz
Mode 4: f = 21,05 Hz


Dynamics
43
3. Forced Vibration: Harmonic Load
In this chapter, the forced vibration calculation is examined. More specifically, the
structure will now be loaded with an external harmonic load, which will cause the
structure to vibrate.
A forced vibration calculation can be required to check the response of a building near a
railroad or major traffic lane, to check vibrations due to machinery, to verify structural
integrity of a floor loaded by an aerobics class,
As in the previous chapter, first the theory will be discussed. The theory will then be
illustrated by examples, which will again be verified by manual calculations.
3.1 Theory

To understand what is going on during the dynamic analysis of a complex structure with
frames or finite elements, the forced vibration of a SDOF (Single Degree Of Freedom)
system is regarded in detail. A complete overview can be found in reference [1]

Consider the following system:


A body of mass m can move in one direction. A spring of constant stiffness k, which is
fixed at one end, is attached at the other end to the body. The mass is also subjected to
damping with a damping capacity c. An external time dependant force F(t) is applied to
the mass.
The equation of motion can be written as:
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( t F t y k t y c t y m = + +

(3.1)

When the acting force on this system is a harmonic load, equation (3.1) can be rewritten
as follows:
) sin( ) ( ) ( ) ( t F t y k t y c t y m = + +

(3.2)

With: F = Amplitude of the harmonic load
= Circular frequency of the harmonic load

A solution to this equation is the following:
2 2 2
) 2 ( ) 1 (
) sin(
)) sin( ) cos( ( ) (

r r
t
Y t B t A e t y
S D D
t
+

+ + =

(3.3)
With:
k
F
Y
S
= The static deflection (3.4)

=
m
c
2
The damping ratio (3.5)
Dynamics
44

2
1 =
D
The damped circular frequency (3.6)
2
1
2
) tan(
r
r

=

(3.7)

= r The frequency ratio (3.8)

The angle signifies that the displacement vector lags the force vector, that is, the
motion occurs after the application of the force. A and B are constants which are
determined from the initial displacement and velocity.
The first term of equation (3.3) is called the Transient motion. The second term is called
the Steady-state motion. Both terms are illustrated on the following figure:


The amplitude of the transient response decreases exponentially (
t
e

). Therefore, in
most practical applications, this term is neglected and the total response y(t) can be
considered as equal to the steady-state response (after a few periods of the applied
load).
Equation (3.3) can then be written in a more convenient form:
2 2 2
) 2 ( ) 1 (
1
r r
Y
Y
S +
= (3.9)
S
Y
Y
is known as the Dynamic Magnification factor, because Y
S
is the static
deflection of the system under a steady force F and Y is the dynamic amplitude.

The importance of mechanical vibration arises mainly from the large values of
S
Y
Y
experienced in practice when the frequency ratio r has a value near unity: this
means that a small harmonic force can produce a large amplitude of vibration. This
phenomenon is known as resonance. In this case, the dynamic amplitude does not
reach an infinite value but a limiting value of
2
S
Y
.






Dynamics
45
3.2 Harmonic Load in Scia Engineer
In Scia Engineer, a Harmonic Load can be inputted after creating a Combination of
Mass Groups. This implies that the steps used to perform a Free Vibration calculation
still apply here and are expanded by the properties of the Harmonic Load.
Conform the theory, a Harmonic Load is defined by a forcing frequency and an
amplitude. To specify the damping ratio of the structure, the logarithmic decrement
can be inputted. [1]
The logarithmic decrement is the natural logarithm of the ratio of any two successive
amplitudes in the same direction. This is illustrated on the following figure:
11
1
ln
X
X
= (3.10)

The logarithmic decrement is related to the damping ratio by the following
formula:
2
1
2

= (3.11)
The damping ratio and the logarithmic decrement are looked upon in more detail in
Chapter 5.
Harmonic Loads in Scia Engineer are always defined as nodal forces i.e. a nodal load
or a nodal moment. More than one node of the structure can be loaded in a load case,
but the frequency of all solicitations is equal to the forcing frequency specified for that
load case.

As specified in the theory, the static results are multiplied by the dynamic magnification
factor. The dynamic calculation is thus transformed to an equivalent static calculation.
Therefore, a Linear Calculation needs to be executed. During this calculation, the Free
Vibration Calculation will also be performed since this data is needed for the result of
the Harmonic Load.













Dynamics
46
The following diagram shows the required steps to perform a Forced Vibration
calculation:


This diagram is illustrated in the following examples.











Activate the Dynamics functionality
Input Masses Generate Masses from Static Load cases
Create a Mass Group
Create a Mass Combination
Perform a Linear Calculation
Refine the Finite-Element Mesh if required
Specify the number of Eigenmodes to be calculated
Create a Harmonic Load case
Input Harmonic Loads
Dynamics
47
Example 5: Forced_Vibration_1.esa
In this example, a beam on two clamped supports is modelled. The beam has a cross-
section type IPE 200, a length of 6m and is manufactured in S235 according to EC-EN.
A node has been added to the middle of the beam, in which a mass of 200 kg will be
inputted.


One static load case is created: the self-weight of the beam. However, in order not to
take the self-weight into account for the dynamic calculation, the volumetric mass of
S235 can be set to 1 kg/m in the Material Library. This will render it easier to check the
results through a manual calculation.
The mass of 200 kg is vibrating with a frequency of 5 Hz. The damping ratio of the
system is taken as 5%.

Step 1: The first step in the Dynamic calculation is to activate the functionality
Dynamics on the Functionality tab in the Project Data.

Step 2: The second step is to create a Mass Group



Step 3: After the Mass Group has been created; the mass of 200 kg can be inputted in
the middle of the beam.


Step 4: Next, the Mass Group is put within a Combination of Mass Groups, which can
be used for defining the harmonic load.


Dynamics
48
Step 5: After creating a Combination of Mass Groups, a harmonic load case can be
defined through Load cases, Combinations > Load Cases.
The Action Type of the Load Case is set to Variable.
The Load Type can then be changed to Dynamic.
Within the Specification field, the type of dynamic load can be set, in this case
Harmonic.




The last option, Mass Combi shows which Mass Combination will be used for the
calculation of the harmonic load case.
To specify the parameters of the harmonic load case, the button behind
Parameters is used.
The forcing frequency of the harmonic load is 5 Hz. The damping ratio was given to
be 5%. Applying formula (3.11) the logarithmic decrement can be calculated:
( )
9 3145527022 , 0
05 , 0 1
05 , 0 2
1
2
2 2
=

Step 6: The parameters of the load case have been defined, what is left is inputting
the amplitude of the load.
The mass was 200 kg. This corresponds to a load of 1,962 kN using 9,81 m/s for the
acceleration of gravity.
This load can be inputted through Load > Point Force > In Node
Dynamics
49


Note:
As specified in the theory, more than one harmonic load can be inputted in the same
harmonic load case however the harmonic parameters like damping and forcing
frequency are defined on the level of the load case. This implies that, for example, when
several harmonic loads are vibrating with different frequencies, different load cases
have to be created.

Step 7: To obtain precise results for the dynamic calculation, the Finite Element Mesh is
refined.
This can be done through Calculation, Mesh > Mesh Setup.


The Average number of tiles of 1D element is set to 10.

Step 8: The last step before launching the calculation is setting the amount of
eigenmodes to be calculated. For this example, only one eigenmode is required so in
Calculation, Mesh > Solver Setup the number of frequencies is set to 1.
To compare the results with a manual calculation, the shear force deformation is
neglected.






Dynamics
50




Step 9: All steps have been executed so the Linear Calculation can be started through
Calculation, Mesh > Calculation.







Dynamics
51
This gives the following results:


The deformation for the harmonic load shows the following:



It is however very important so keep in mind that this is a vibration: half a period later
the deformation is to the upper side of the beam instead of the lower side.
This is even clearer when looking at the moment diagram for the harmonic load:


Dynamics
52


For a static calculation, one expects the inverse of this moment diagram. However,
when performing dynamic calculations, one must always take into account both
directions of the loading since the load vibrates in both directions.

In Scia Engineer, this can easily be done when creating combinations of type code or
envelope. In these combinations, the dynamic load cases will be accounted for with
both a positive and a negative combination coefficient and thus both sides of the
vibration amplitude are taken into account.

In this example, a combination of type Envelope - ultimate is created which contains
the self-weight and the Harmonic load case.



The moment diagram for this combination shows the following:








Dynamics
53
The vibration effect is correctly taken into account: both sides of the vibration are visible.
This is also shown in the Combination Key of the Document; which shows the two
generated Linear combinations from the Envelope combination (Local Extremes):





Manual Calculation
In order to check the results of Scia Engineer, a manual calculation is performed.
First, the calculated eigen frequency is checked using formula (2.3).
Using default engineering tables [11], the maximum static deformation of a beam with
length L, clamped at both sides and loaded with a load F in the middle is given as:
EI
FL
192
3
max
= (3.12)

With:
F = 1,962 kN = 1962 N
L = 6m = 6000 mm
E = 210000 N/mm
I = 19430000 mm
4

( )
mm
mm
mm
N
mm N
54095 , 0
19430000 000 . 210 192
6000 1962
4
2
3
max
=

=

The rigidity k of this system can then be calculated:
m
N
mm
N
mm
N F
k 33 , 3626933 93 , 3626
54095 , 0
1962
max
= = = =

Applying formula (2.3):
s
rad
kg
m
N
m
k
67 , 134
200
33 , 3626933
= = =
= =

2
f 21,43 Hz

This result corresponds exactly to the result calculated by Scia Engineer.

Now the eigen frequency is known, the results of the harmonic load can be verified.
The harmonic load had a forcing frequency of 5 Hz, which corresponds to a circular
frequency of 31,416 rad/s.

Applying formula (3.8) the frequency ratio can be calculated:
= = =
s
rad
s
rad
r
67 , 134
416 , 31

0,233289

Dynamics
54
The frequency ratio can then be used in formula (3.9) to calculate the Dynamic
Magnification Factor:
( ) ( )
=
+
=
+
=
2
2
2
2 2 2
0,05 0,233289 2 0,233289 1
1
) 2 ( ) 1 (
1
r r
Y
Y
S
1,0572

This implies that the static results need to be multiplied by 1,0572 to obtain the dynamic
results.
The static deformation was calculated as mm 54095 , 0
max
=
Dynamic deformation = 1,0572 x 0,54095 mm = 0,5719 mm

This result corresponds exactly to the result calculated by Scia Engineer.

In the same way the moment in the middle of the beam can be calculated.
Using default engineering tables [11], the maximum static moment in the middle of a
beam with length L, clamped at both sides and loaded with a load F in the middle is
given as:
kNm
m kN FL
M 4715 , 1
8
6 962 , 1
8
=

= =
Dynamic moment = 1,0572 x 1,4715 kNm = 1,556 kNm

This result corresponds exactly to the result calculated by Scia Engineer.

































Dynamics
55
Resonance
As specified in the theory, resonance occurs when the frequency ratio r has a value
near unity. In this case, large values for the Dynamic Amplification factor are obtained.
To illustrate this, the calculation of the Dynamic Amplification Factor for this example is
repeated for different frequency ratios and different damping percentages. The results
are given in the following table:

In order to draw conclusions, the numerical results are plotted graphically:
Amplitude-Frequency Response
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 1 2 3 4 5
Frequency Ratio
D
y
n
a
m
i
c

M
a
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

F
a
c
t
o
r
Damping 5%
Damping 8%
Damping 10%
Damping 15%
Damping 25%
Damping 50%

First of all, the resonance phenomenon is clearly visible. When the frequency ratio
equals unity, the Dynamic Magnification factor becomes very large indicating that a
small harmonic load can produce a large amplitude of vibration.
Frequency Forcing Mag. factor Mag. factor Mag. factor Mag. factor Mag. factor Mag. factor
Ratio Frequence [Hz] Damping 5% Damping 8% Damping 10% Damping 15% Damping 25% Damping 50%
0,0 0,00 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000
0,2 4,29 1,0414 1,0411 1,0408 1,0396 1,0361 1,0198
0,4 8,57 1,1891 1,1870 1,1851 1,1785 1,1581 1,0748
0,6 12,86 1,5557 1,5452 1,5357 1,5041 1,4148 1,1399
0,8 17,15 2,7116 2,6173 2,5384 2,3113 1,8582 1,1399
1,0 21,43 10,0000 6,2500 5,0000 3,3333 2,0000 1,0000
1,2 25,72 2,1926 2,0830 1,9952 1,7590 1,3440 0,7824
1,4 30,01 1,0308 1,0144 1,0000 0,9543 0,8417 0,5891
1,6 34,29 0,6377 0,6326 0,6280 0,6127 0,5704 0,4475
1,8 38,58 0,4450 0,4428 0,4408 0,4340 0,4142 0,3480
2,0 42,87 0,3326 0,3315 0,3304 0,3269 0,3162 0,2774
2,2 47,15 0,2600 0,2593 0,2587 0,2567 0,2503 0,2260
2,4 51,44 0,2098 0,2094 0,2090 0,2077 0,2037 0,1876
2,6 55,73 0,1734 0,1732 0,1729 0,1720 0,1694 0,1582
2,8 60,01 0,1461 0,1459 0,1457 0,1451 0,1432 0,1353
3,0 64,30 0,1249 0,1248 0,1246 0,1242 0,1229 0,1170
3,2 68,59 0,1082 0,1081 0,1080 0,1076 0,1066 0,1023
3,4 72,87 0,0946 0,0946 0,0945 0,0943 0,0935 0,0901
3,6 77,16 0,0836 0,0835 0,0835 0,0833 0,0827 0,0801
3,8 81,45 0,0744 0,0743 0,0743 0,0741 0,0737 0,0716
4,0 85,73 0,0666 0,0666 0,0666 0,0665 0,0661 0,0644
4,2 90,02 0,0601 0,0600 0,0600 0,0599 0,0596 0,0583
4,4 94,31 0,0545 0,0544 0,0544 0,0543 0,0541 0,0530
4,6 98,59 0,0496 0,0496 0,0496 0,0495 0,0493 0,0484
4,8 102,88 0,0454 0,0453 0,0453 0,0453 0,0451 0,0443
5,0 107,17 0,0417 0,0416 0,0416 0,0416 0,0414 0,0408
Dynamics
56
Second, the influence of the damping ratio on the system response in resonance is
seen to be significant. With a damping ratio of 5%, the magnification factor is about 10;
with a damping ratio of 50%, the magnification factor is reduced to 1.
In general, the following can be concluded from this graphic [1]:
The system response at low frequencies is stiffness-dependent. In the region of
resonance, the response is damping-dependent and at high frequencies, the response
is governed by the system mass: mass-dependent.
It is important to keep this in mind when attempting to reduce the vibration of a
structure. For example, the application of increased damping will have little effect if the
excitation and response frequencies are in a region well away from resonance, such as
that controlled by the mass of the structure.



The effect of resonance can also be illustrated in Scia Engineer.
In the project Forced_Vibration 1, the excitation frequency is 5Hz. The eigenfrequency
is 21.43 Hz. So this is not in the resonance area.

To see the response in function of the frequency, we can create several load cases with
other excitation frequency. You can easily do this by copying the existing load case and
changing the excitation frequency. (Example 5b: Forced_Vibration_5-30 Hz.esa)





Dynamics
57
Those load cases can then be grouped in a class.
In the result menu, we can for instance ask for the Uz displacement of the middle node.
By asking the result for the class of the load cases 5-30 Hz, we can see clearly the
effect of resonance if the excitation frequency is near the eigenfrequency.








Note:
In Scia Engineer, the logarithmic decrement is limited between 0,0001 and 10. The
lower limit corresponds to a damping ratio 0,0016%. Zero damping is impossible since
this would lead to an infinite response (division by zero) in resonance.
The upper limit corresponds to a damping ratio 85%. For structural vibrations, this is
an extreme value, which, in nearly all cases, will never be attained. Damping will be
discussed in more detail in Chapter 5.

Another common application of a harmonic load is a structure loaded with a plunger
system or a motor. Both the reciprocating effect of the plunger and the rotating
unbalance of the motor produce an exciting force of the inertia type on the system.
For an unbalanced body of mass m
r
, at an effective radius e, rotating at an angular
speed , the exciting force F can be written as [1]:
2
= e m F
r
(3.13)

This is illustrated in the following example.











Dynamics
58
Example 6: Forced_Vibration_2.esa
An electric motor with a mass of 500 kg is mounted on a simply supported beam with
overhang. The beam has a cross-section type HEA 240 and is manufactured in S235
according to EC-EN. The beam has a length of 4m and the overhang is 3m.
The motor has an unbalance of 0,6 kgm. The damping ratio of the system is taken as
10%.


The motor can operate at speeds of 800, 1000 and 1200 rpm. For each of these
speeds, the amplitude of forced vibration needs to be calculated to check, for example,
if the vibrations induced by the motor are acceptable.
One static load case is created: the self-weight of the beam. However, in order not to
take the self-weight into account for the dynamic calculation, the volumetric mass of
S235 can be set to 1 kg/m in the Material Library. This will render it easier to check the
results through a manual calculation.
A node has been added to the middle of the overhang to specify the location of the
motor.

Step 1: The first step in the Dynamic calculation is to activate the functionality
Dynamics on the Functionality tab in the Project Data.
Step 2: The second step is to create a Mass Group.



Step 3: After the Mass Group has been created; the 500 kg mass of the motor can be
inputted in the middle of the overhang.


Step 4: Next, the Mass Group is put within a Combination of Mass Groups, which can
be used for defining the harmonic loads at the different speeds.
Dynamics
59


Step 5: After creating the Mass Combination, three harmonic load cases can be
defined, one for each speed.
Each load case uses the same Mass Combination and has the same damping
specifications.
The damping ratio was given to be 10%. Applying formula (3.11) the logarithmic
decrement can be calculated:
( )
99 6314838833 , 0
10 , 0 1
10 , 0 2
1
2
2 2
=

The forcing frequency is different for each load case and can be calculated from the given
speeds:
s
rad
s rev
rad
rpm 78 , 83
60
min 1
1
2
800
800
= =

Hz f 33 , 13
800
=
s
rad
s rev
rad
rpm 72 , 104
60
min 1
1
2
1000
1000
= =

Hz f 67 , 16
1000
=
s
rad
s rev
rad
rpm 66 , 125
60
min 1
1
2
1200
1200
= =

Hz f 00 , 20
1200
=



Dynamics
60


Step 6: The parameters of the harmonic loads have been defined. What is left is
inputting the amplitude of the three exciting forces.
Using formula (3.13) these forces can be calculated from the forcing circular frequency and
the mass unbalance.
( ) kN N
s
rad
kgm e m F
r
21 , 4 03 , 4211 78 , 83 6 , 0
2
2
800 800
= = = =
( ) kN N
s
rad
kgm e m F
r
58 , 6 74 , 6579 72 , 104 6 , 0
2
2
1000 1000
= = = =
( ) kN N
s
rad
kgm e m F
r
47 , 9 82 , 9474 66 , 125 6 , 0
2
2
1200 1200
= = = =

The loads are inputted through Load > Point Force > In Node


Step 7: To obtain precise results for the dynamic calculation, the Finite Element Mesh is
refined.
This can be done through Calculation, Mesh > Mesh Setup.

Dynamics
61


The Average number of tiles of 1D element is set to 10.

Step 8: The last step before launching the calculation is setting the amount of
eigenmodes to be calculated. For this example, only one eigenmode is required so in
Calculation, Mesh > Solver Setup the number of frequencies is set to 1.
To compare the results with a manual calculation, the shear force deformation is
neglected.




Step 9: All steps have been executed so the Linear Calculation can be started through
Calculation, Mesh > Calculation.

This gives the following results:
Dynamics
62


The nodal deformations for the harmonic loads at the location of the motor are the
following:

At 800 rpm:



At 1000 rpm:




At 1200 rpm:


As stated in the previous example, it is important to keep in mind that the signs are not
relevant since a vibration occurs on both sides of the equilibrium position.







Dynamics
63
Manual Calculation
In order to check the results of Scia Engineer, a manual calculation is performed [15].
First, the calculated eigen frequency is checked using formula (2.3)
Using default engineering tables [11], the maximum static deformation of a simply
supported beam with length L, an overhang with length a and loaded with a load F at
the end of the overhang is given as:

( )
EI
a L Fa
3
2
max
+
= (3.14)


The rigidity k of this system can then be calculated:
) (
3
2
max
a L a
EI F
k
+
= =

With:
L = 4m = 4000 mm
a = 1,5m = 1500 mm
E = 210000 N/mm
I = 77600000 mm
4


( )
m
N
mm
N
mm mm mm
mm
mm
N
k 45 , 3950545 55 , 3950
1500 4000 ) 1500 (
77600000

210000 3
2
4
= =
+

=


Applying formula (2.3):
s
rad
kg
m
N
m
k
89 , 88
500
45 , 3950545
= = =
= =

2
f 14,15 Hz

This result corresponds exactly to the result calculated by Scia Engineer.

Applying formula (3.8) the frequency ratios can be calculated for each motor speed:
9425 , 0
89 , 88
78 , 83
800
800
= = =
s
rad
s
rad
r

1781 , 1
89 , 88
72 , 104
1000
1000
= = =
s
rad
s
rad
r

Dynamics
64
4137 , 1
89 , 88
66 , 125
1200
1200
= = =
s
rad
s
rad
r

The frequency ratios can then be used in formula (3.9) to calculate the Dynamic
Magnification Factors. When also applying formula (3.4) the Dynamic Amplitude can be
calculated for each speed:
( ) ( )
mm
m
N
N
r r
k
F
Y 86 , 4
0,10 0,9425 2 0,9425 1
45 , 3950545
03 , 4211
) 2 ( ) 1 (
2
2
2
2
800
2 2
800
800
800
=
+
=
+
=

( ) ( )
mm
m
N
N
r r
k
F
Y 67 , 3
0,10 1781 , 1 2 1,1781 1
45 , 3950545
74 , 6579
) 2 ( ) 1 (
2
2
2
2
1000
2 2
1000
1000
1000
=
+
=
+
=

( ) ( )
mm
m
N
N
r r
k
F
Y 31 , 2
0,10 1,4137 2 1,4137 1
45 , 3950545
82 , 9474
) 2 ( ) 1 (
2
2
2
2
1200
2 2
1200
1200
1200
=
+
=
+
=

These results correspond exactly to the results calculated by Scia Engineer.
In the same way as in the previous example, the calculation can be repeated for several
angular velocities. The result is shown graphically on the following figure:
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 500 1000 1500 2000
F
o
r
c
e
d
V
i
b
r
a
t
i
o
n
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
[
m
m
]
Angular Velocity [rpm]
Amplitude - Velocity Response

The main feature to notice is the decrease in vibration amplitude when the forcing
frequency increases due to moving away from resonance. [15]

Dynamics
65
4. Spectral Analysis: Seismic Load
In this chapter the seismic analysis in Scia Engineer is explained in detail.
During an earthquake, the subsoil bearing a structure moves. The structure tries to
follow this movement and as a result, the masses in the structure begin to move.
Subsequently, these masses subject the structure to inertial forces. When these forces
are determined, they can be applied to the structure and thus, like with the harmonic
load, the dynamic calculation is transformed to an equivalent static.
In the first part of the chapter, the theory will be explained. The theory will then be
illustrated by examples, which are again verified by manual calculations.

4.1 Theory
General

Analogous to the previous chapters, before examining the dynamic analysis of a
complex structure, the Seismic analysis of a SDOF (Single Degree Of Freedom) system
is regarded in detail. A complete overview can be found in references [2], [3].
Generally, this paragraph deals with the analysis of structures that are submitted to a
harmonic ground motion. The most important harmonic ground motions are
earthquakes (seismic loads), but this calculation method can also be applied to the
analysis of underground or surface explosions and vibrations generated by heavy traffic
or machinery.
The following figure illustrates the displacement of a system that is submitted to a
ground motion:
y
g
(t)
y(t)
u(t)


Where:
y
g
(t) : is the ground displacement,
y(t) : is the total displacement of the mass

u(t) : is the relative displacement of the mass

The total displacement can thus be expressed as follows:
) ( ) ( ) ( t u t y t y
g
+ = (4.1)
Since y
g
is assumed to be harmonic, it can be written as:
) sin( ) ( t Y t y
g g
= (4.2)
Dynamics
66
The equilibrium equation of motion can now be written as:
0 ) ( ) ( ) ( = + +

t u k t u c t y m (4.3)
Since the inertia force is related to the total displacement (y) of the mass and the
damping and spring reactions are related to the relative displacements (u) of the mass.
When (4.1) is substituted in (4.3) the following is obtained:
0 ) ( ) ( ) ) ( ) ( ( = + + +

t u k t u c t y t u m
g
;
or

= + + ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( t y m t u k t u c t u m
g
(4.4)
This equation is known as the General Seismic Equation of Motion. This equation
can be used to illustrate the behaviour of structures that are loaded with a seismic load:
Substituting (4.2) in (4.4) gives the following:
) sin( ) ( ) ( ) (
2
t Y m t u k t u c t u m
g
= + +



This equation can be compared with equation (3.2) of the previous chapter. As a
conclusion, the ground motion can also be replaced by an external harmonic force with
amplitude:
2
=
g
Y m F

Response Spectra
When a structure has to be designed for earthquakes, in most cases spectral analysis is
used because the earthquake loading is often described as a response spectrum.
This response spectrum can either be a displacement, velocity or acceleration
spectrum.
The relation of an earthquake (given by an acceleration time-history) and the
corresponding displacement response spectrum is given by [16]:
max
) (
)) ( sin( ) (
1
) , (
(

d T e y S
T
g d
(4.5)
With: ) (
g
y

: Ground acceleration in function of time
: Damping factor
T: The period 2
Instead of the displacement response spectrum S
d
, also the velocity response spectrum
S
v
or the acceleration response spectrum S
a
can be used. These three spectra are
related by :
d v a
S S S = =
2
(4.6)
In Eurocode 8 [7] the earthquake motion at a given point on the surface is represented
by an elastic ground acceleration response spectrum or Elastic Response
Spectrum S
e
This spectrum is illustrated in the following figure:
Dynamics
67

A commonly used way of describing an earthquake magnitude is the so-called Richter
scale. Annex A gives a relation between the magnitude on the Richter scale and the
Peak Ground Acceleration.
Spectral Analysis
For MDOF (Multiple Degree Of Freedom) systems, equation (4.4) can be written in
matrix notation as a set of coupled differential equations:
{ } g Y M U K U C U M

= + + 1 (4.7)

The matrix {1} is used to indicate the direction of the earthquake. E.g. for a two-
dimensional structure (three degrees of freedom) with an earthquake that acts in the x-
direction, the matrix is a sequence like {1,0,0,1,0,0,1,0,0,}

The resulting set of coupled differential equations is reduced to a set of uncoupled
differential equation by a transformation U = Z.Q, where Z is a subset of (the
eigenvectors) and Q is a vector, which is time-dependent.
{ } g Y M Q Z K Q Z C Q Z M

= + + 1 ; or
{ } g
T T T T
Y M Z Q Z K Z Q Z C Z Q Z M Z

= + + 1

This can be simplified to a set of uncoupled differential equations:
{ } g
T
Y M Z Q Q C Q

= + + 1
2 *
(4.8)
Where
*
C is a diagonal matrix containing terms like
i i
2 .


Each equation j has a solution of the form:
{ }

=

t
j
T
g
T
j
d T e Y M Z Q
j
0
) (
)) ( sin( ) (
1
1

(4.9)
To obtain the maximum displacements, the displacement response spectrum S
d
of
equation (4.5) can be substituted:
{ } ) , ( 1
max , j j d
T
j
S M Z Q = (4.10)
And:
{ } ) , ( 1
max , j j d
T
j
S M Z Z U = ; or
) , (
max , j j d j
S Z U = (4.11)
Where { } 1 = M Z
T
is known as the modal participation factor.
Dynamics
68
4.2 Seismic Load in Scia Engineer
Response Spectra
In Scia Engineer, a Seismic Load can be inputted after creating a Combination of Mass
Groups. This implies that the steps used to perform a Free Vibration calculation still
apply here and are expanded by the properties of the Seismic Load.
As specified in the theory, Eurocode 8 [7] specifies an Elastic Response Spectrum S
e
.
For design purposes, this spectrum is reduced to a Design Spectrum S
d
. This Design
Spectrum is dependent on several parameters: the Ground Type, the Ground
Acceleration, the Behaviour Factor and the Damping.

For a detailed description of these parameters, reference is made to Eurocode 8 [7].
The following is a brief overview for understanding the input needed for Scia Engineer.

- Ground Type: The Ground Type is dependant on the soil characteristics and is
specified by letters A to E. For example Ground Type A corresponds with rock or
rock-like formations. B corresponds with very dense sand, gravel or very stiff clay,
C corresponds with dense or medium dense sand, gravel or stiff clay, etc.
- Ground Acceleration: Each country is divided into seismic zones. By definition,
the seismic hazard within each zone is assumed to be constant. The hazard is
described by a single parameter: the peak ground acceleration (PGA) a
gR.
The
following figure illustrates the division in seismic zones for the map of Belgium [9]:


-
The ground acceleration a
g
can be calculated from a
gR
by means of an
importance factor. In most cases however, instead of referring to a
g
, the
parameter is used. The Coefficient of Acceleration is defined as the ground
acceleration divided by the acceleration of gravity g:
g
a
g
= (4.12)
- Behaviour Factor: To avoid explicit inelastic structural analysis in design, the
capacity of the structure to dissipate energy, mainly through ductile behaviour of
its elements, is taken into account by performing an elastic analysis based on a
response spectrum reduced with respect to the elastic one. This reduction is
accomplished by introducing the behaviour factor q.
- Damping: The Design Spectra of Eurocode 8 are defined for a damping ratio of
5%. If the structure has another damping ratio, the spectrum has to be adapted
with a damping correction factor . This will be looked upon in more detail in
Chapter 5.




Dynamics
69
In Scia Engineer, several spectra have already been inputted in the Seismic Spectra
Database:



The spectra are specified using the above parameters. The value for can be inputted
when defining the Seismic Load case itself which will be discussed below.

Besides the manual input of the Seismic spectrum, its also possible to introduce a
spectrum according to one of the standards.
Then a seismic spectrum is drawn in order to the code parameters.


Dynamics
70

Calculation Protocol
In the calculation protocol of Scia Engineer the intermediate results that were
determined while calculating the global effect of a spectral loading can be found.
This paragraph describes the formulas that have been used to determine those
intermediate results.
Natural circular frequency and modal shape

Mass matrix
D
M] [
Mass vector } 1 { ] [ } { =
D
M m
Natural circular
frequency of mode
shape j
) ( j

Natural normalized
modal shape
) (
} {
j
, With 1 } { ] [ } {
) ( ) ( ) (
= =
j j D
T
j
M M
Total mass in k
th

direction
tot k
M
,

Acceleration response
spectrum
) ( , , j k a
S
Direction k
Total number of
directions
NK

Participation factor of the mode shape j in direction k

Participation factor } { } {
} { } {
) (
) ( ,
m
M
m
T
k
j
T
k
j k
=

Effective mass
2
) ( , ) (
2
) ( , ) ( , , j k j j k j ef k
M M = =
Participation mass
ratio
tot k
j ef k
j k
M
M
L
,
) ( , ,
) ( ,
=

Mode coefficient for mode j

Mode coefficient in k
th

direction
2
) (
) ( , ) ( , ,
) ( ,
j
j k j k a
j k
S
G

=
Total mode coefficient
2
) (
1
) ( , ) ( , ,
) (
j
NK
k
j k j k a
j
S
G

=

Response of mode shape j

Displacement
) ( ) ( ) (
} { } {
j j j
G u =
) ( ) ( , ) (
} { } {
j k j k j k
G u =
Acceleration
) ( ) (
2
) ( ) (
} { } {
j j j j
G u = & &
) ( ) ( , ) ( , , ) ( ) ( ,
2
) ( ) (
} { } { } {
j k j k j k a j k j k j j k
S G u = = & &
Lateral force in node i
for direction k
) ( , , ) ( , ) ( , , ) ( , , ) ( , , j k i j k j k a j k i j k i
S m F =
Dynamics
71
Shear force in direction
k
} { } { } { } {
) ( ) ( , ) ( , , ) ( ) ( , , ) ( ,
m S m u F F
T
j k j k j k a
T
j k
i
j k i j k
= = =

& &

2
) ( , ) ( , , ) ( , j k j k a j k
S F =
Overturning moment in
node i for direction k
i j k i j k j k a k i j k i
z S m M =
) ( , , ) ( , ) ( , , , ) ( , ,

Overturning moment in
direction k
( )

= =
i
i j k i j k j k a k i
i
j k i j k
z S m M M
) ( , , ) ( , ) ( , , , ) ( , , ) ( ,


( )

=
i
i j k i k i j k j k a j k
z m S M
) ( , , , ) ( , ) ( , , ) ( ,


The calculation of these parameters will be illustrated with an example further in this
chapter.
Modal combination methods
Modal combination methods are used to calculate the response R of a seismic analysis.
The term "response" (R) refers to the results obtained by a seismic analysis, i.e.
displacements, velocities, accelerations, member forces and stresses.
Because the differential equations were uncoupled, a result will be obtained for each
mode j.
To obtain the global response R
tot
of the structure, the individual modal responses
R
(j)
have to be combined.

The modal combination methods that are used in Scia Engineer are:
1. SRSS-method (Square Root of Sum of Squares)

=
=
N
j
j tot
R R
1
2
) (
,
With:

) ( j
R : The response of mode j


2. CQC-method (Complete Quadratic Combination)

= =
=
N
i
N
j
j j i i tot
R R R
1 1
) ( , ) (
,
With:

) ( ) (
,
j i
R R : The response of mode i and j
j i,
: Modal Cross Correlation coefficients.

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
2
2
,
4 1 4 1
8
2
3
r r r r
r r
j i j i
j i j i
j i

+ + + +
+
=

i
j
r

=

i
,
j
: Damping ratio for mode i and j.


This method is based on both modal frequency and modal damping. The CQC-method
thus requires the input of additional data: a Damping Spectrum to define the damping
ratio for each mode.
In many cases however, there is no procedure to calculate the damping ratio for the
higher modes. Most of the time, the same damping ratio is then used for all modes [17].



Dynamics
72
3. MAX-method

=
+ =
N
j
j j tot
R R R
MAX
1
2
) (
2
) (
,
With:

) ( j
R : The response of mode j

) (
MAX
j
R : The maximum response of all modes


Eurocode 8 [7] prescribes the SRSS-method. However this method may only be
applied if all relevant modal responses are independent of each other. This is met if the
period of mode j is smaller or equal to 90% of the period of mode i.
If modal responses are not independent of each other a more accurate procedure like
the CQC-method needs to be used.

The following numerical example shows this difference between SRSS and CQC.

Example 7: Spectral_Analysis_1
A four-storey symmetrical building is modelled in a 3D analysis [18]. The structure has
the following natural frequencies for the first 5 modes:
Mode 1: f = 13,87 Hz
Mode 2: f = 13,93 Hz
Mode 3: f = 43,99 Hz
Mode 4: f = 44,19 Hz
Mode 5: f = 54,42 Hz

It is clear that modes 1 & 2 and 3 & 4 are very closely spaced.
For each mode, applying the formulas from the theory, the Base Shear Force for one
direction can be calculated:
Mode 1: F = -57,53 kN
Mode 2: F = 52,30 kN
Mode 3: F = -9,02 kN
Mode 4: F = 8,12 kN
Mode 5: F = 0,33 kN

To obtain the Global Response, these modal responses are combined using both the
SRSS-method and the CQC-method.
For the CQC-method, the following Modal Cross Correlation coefficients
i,j
are used
with a damping ratio
i,j
of 5%.

Mode 1 2 3 4 5
1 1,000 0,998 0,006 0,006 0,004
2 0,998 1,000 0,006 0,006 0,004
3 0,006 0,006 1,000 0,998 0,180
4 0,006 0,006 0,998 1,000 0,186
5 0,004 0,004 0,180 0,186 1,000

It is of importance to note the existence of the relatively large off-diagonal terms that
indicate which modes are coupled.



Dynamics
73
Global Base Shear using SRSS: 78,69 kN
Global Base Shear using CQC: 6,37 kN
Exact solution using Time-History Analysis: 5,44 kN

In this example, the SRSS-method overestimates the Base Shear by a factor of 10.
The ability of the CQC-method to recognize the relative sign of the terms in the modal
response is the key to the elimination of errors in the SRSS-method.


The following diagram shows the required steps to perform a Spectral Analysis
calculation:


Activate the functionalities - Dynamics
- Seismic
Input Masses Generate Masses from Static Load cases
Create a Mass Group
Create a Mass Combination
Perform a Linear Calculation
Refine the Finite-Element Mesh if required
Specify the number of Eigenmodes to be calculated
Create a Seismic Load case
Define a Seismic Spectrum
Dynamics
74

As specified in the theory, the dynamic calculation is transformed to an equivalent static
calculation. Therefore, a Linear Calculation needs to be executed. During this
calculation, the Free Vibration Calculation will also be performed since this data is
needed for the Seismic results.
The diagram is illustrated in the following examples.



Example 8: Spectral_Analysis_2.esa
In this example a three-storey structure is modelled as a cantilever. The members have
cross-section IPE 200 and are manufactured in S235 according to EC-EN. The height of
each storey is 4m. At each storey-level, the structure carries a mass of 500 kg.


One static load case is created: the self-weight of the structure. However, in order not
to take the self-weight into account for the dynamic calculation, the volumetric mass of
S235 can be set to 1 kg/m in the Material Library. This will render it easier to check the
results through a manual calculation.
The structure will be subjected to an earthquake according to Eurocode 8, using a
Design Response Spectrum for Ground Type B with a behaviour factor of 2. The
acceleration coefficient is 0,35.

Step 1: The first step in the Dynamic calculation is to activate the functionality
Dynamics on the Functionality tab in the Project Data. In order to execute a Seismic
calculation, also the Seismic functionality needs to be activated:




Dynamics
75



Step 2: The second step is to create a Mass Group.



Step 3: After the Mass Group has been created; the 500 kg masses can be inputted on
each storey level:
Dynamics
76


Step 4: Next, the Mass Group is put within a Combination of Mass Groups, which can
be used for defining the Seismic load case.



Step 5: Before creating the Seismic load case, the Seismic Spectrum needs to be
defined. This can be done through Libraries > Seismic Spectrums.
Instead of inputting a spectrum manually, the System Database is used which holds
the predefined Eurocode 8 spectra. In this example, the spectrum for Ground Type B
with a Behaviour Factor q = 2 is used:
Dynamics
77


The values of the spectrum are given as Sd(T) divided by . The acceleration
coefficient will be defined in the seismic load case since the same spectrum can be
used for different values of .

Step 6: After creating a Mass Combination, a Seismic load case can be defined through
Load cases, Combinations > Load Cases.
The Action Type of the Load Case is set to Variable.
The Load Type can then be changed to Dynamic.
Within the Specification field, the type of dynamic load can be set, in this case
Seismicity.




When this option is selected, the parameters of the seismic load can be inputted:

Dynamics
78


First of all, the options Seismic spectrum X, Y, Z can be activated. These options allow
specifying which seismic spectrum has to be used in a certain global direction.
In this example, the spectrum is defined in horizontal X-direction so Seismic spectrum
X is activated and the specified spectrum of the previous step is chosen.
When no spectrum has been defined yet, a spectrum can be inputted through
When the seismic action is not according to one of the global directions, the coefficients
direction X, Y, Z can be used to specify a vector.
In this example the seismic action is according to the global X-direction so direction X
is set to 1.
As specified in the previous step, the values of the seismic spectra are given as Sd(T)
divided by . The coefficient of acceleration can now be inputted. In this example, the
value of is taken as 0,35.
Remark: when a seismic spectrum according to the code is choosen, the value of has
to be 1. In that case, the coefficient of acceleration is inputted yet in the dialogue box of
the parameters specifically for each code:

Dynamics
79


The Overturning parameter is used when the supports of the structure are above
ground level. By default, this value equals 0.
In the Type of evaluation box, the Modal Combination Method can be chosen. As
specified in the theory, for the CQC-method an extra damping spectrum needs to be
defined. This will be illustrated in a following example.
For this example, the default SRSS-method will be applied.

Because of the square root in the formulas of the modal combination methods, the
results are always positive. To use these results for a precise analysis of the structure,
the option signed results can be used. When this property is checked, the user can
select the mode shape which will be used to define the sign.
If the default is choosen, the mode shape with the biggest mass participation is used
(sum of direction X, Y and Z). This option can be used for example for shear walls.

The option multiple eigenshapes can be used in the seismic analysis in the case of
the method SRSS. Classical the following formula is used for SRSS:
2 2 2 2 2
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
.... R R R R R R = + + + + +
If the option multiple eigenshapes is checked, then the following condition is verified:
( )
( ) ( )
( )
1 precision, where i<j;
i
i j
j

Mode (i) and (j) are multiple. Then for example:
2 2 2 2
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
( ) .... R R R R R R = + + + + +

When the dynamic calculation is performed, the user has to verify if the 90% rule is
satisfied. This can be done in the calculation protocol. In here the modal participation
factors can be claimed. If the mass in vibration is lower than 90%, the number of eigen
frequencies has to be increased.
To avoid this check, one can activate the option missing mass in modes or residual
mode. See further for more explanation.


Dynamics
80
Note:
The options under Multiple Eigen Shapes can be used to avoid the errors in the SRSS-
method for closely spaced modes. As specified in the theory however, it is advised to
use the CQC-method in such cases.



Step 7: As specified in the previous chapters, the finite element mesh needs to be
refined to obtain precise results.
This can be done through Calculation, Mesh > Mesh Setup.
For this example however, the default mesh is not refined which will make it easier to
verify the results by a manual calculation.

Step 8: The last step before launching the calculation is setting the amount of
eigenmodes to be calculated. For this example, two eigenmodes are chosen.
In Calculation, Mesh > Solver Setup the number of frequencies is thus set to 2.























Dynamics
81
Step 9: All steps have been executed so the Linear Calculation can be started through
Calculation, Mesh > Calculation.

The following results are obtained:




Using Deformation of Nodes, the Deformed Structure can be shown to view the
eigenmodes:

Eigenmode 1:











Dynamics
82

Eigenmode 2:



The Calculation Protocol for the Eigen Frequency calculation shows the following:



As specified in the first example of this course, the Modal Participation Factors show
the amount of mass that is vibrating in a specific eigenmode as a percentage of the total
mass.
For the first Eigenmode, 73% of the total mass is vibrating. For the second Eigenmode,
22% is vibrating. In total, these two Eigenmodes account for about 94% of the total
mass.
According to Eurocode 8 [7] the sum of the effective modal masses for the modes taken
into account must amount to at least 90% of the total mass of the structure. This
criterion is fulfilled which indicates the two Eigen modes are sufficient for this example.

The details of the seismic calculation can be found in the Calculation Protocol for the
Linear Calculation:


Dynamics
83
The Damping ratio shows the manually inputted damping ratio for the respective
Eigenmode.
It is important to keep in mind that the Seismic Spectra of Eurocode 8 have been
calculated with a damping ratio of 5% as specified in the theory. When a damping ratio
is manually inputted, the spectra need to be adapted. This is done through the
Damping Coefficient.
Damping and the Damping Coefficient will be discussed in detail in Chapter 5 and in
the next example.
Sax, Say and Saz show the spectral accelerations.
G(j) shows the mode coefficient for mode j.
Fx and Fy are the Base Shears for each mode.
Mx and My are the Overturning Moments for each mode.
The last line in the table shows the global response. This response was obtained by
means of the SRSS-method for combining the modal responses.
The formulas for these parameters have been shown in the theory and will now be
illustrated by means of a manual calculation.

Manual Calculation
In this paragraph, the seismic results of Scia Engineer are calculated manually to give a
clear understanding of the applied formulas. All formulas can be found in the paragraph
Calculation Protocol of this chapter.
First, the Modal Participation Factors of the Eigen Frequency Calculation Protocol
are verified.
As shown in the Deformation of Nodes, the normalised modal shapes for both modes
were the following:

{ }
1
0, 039111
0, 020803
0, 006128
0

=
`


)
{ }
2
0, 020233
0, 030451
0, 025755
0

=
`


)




Participation factor: } { } {
) ( ,
m
T
k j k
=
021 , 33 500 006128 , 0 500 020803 , 0 500 039111 , 0
) 1 ( ,
= + + =
x

984 , 17 500 025755 , 0 500 030451 , 0 500 020233 , 0
) 2 ( ,
= + + =
x

Effective mass:
2
) ( , ) ( , , j k j ef k
M =
( ) 39 , 1090 021 , 33
2
) 1 ( , ,
= =
ef x
M
( ) 42 , 323 984 , 17
2
) 2 ( , ,
= =
ef x
M


Participation mass ratio:
tot k
j ef k
j k
M
M
L
,
) ( , ,
) ( ,
=
=
+ +
=
500 500 500
39 , 1090
) 1 ( , x
L 0,7269
=
+ +
=
500 500 500
42 , 323
) 2 ( , x
L 0,2156
Dynamics
84
These results correspond to the results obtained by Scia Engineer



Next, the details of the seismic calculation found in the Calculation Protocol for the
Linear Calculation are verified.



The spectral acceleration Sax for both modes is calculated using the defined seismic
spectrum.
The spectrum for Ground Type B with a Behaviour Factor q = 2 gives the following
values for Sd(T)/



The first mode has a period T
1
of 1,9036 s Sd(T
1
)/ = 0,5918 m/s
The second mode has a period T
2
of 0,2920 s Sd(T
2
)/ = 1,25 m/s
In this example, the coefficient of acceleration was 0,35
2 2 ) 1 ( ,
2071 , 0 35 , 0 5918 , 0
s
m
s
m
S
ax
= =
2 2 ) 2 ( ,
4375 , 0 35 , 0 25 , 1
s
m
s
m
S
ax
= =

These results correspond to the results obtained by Scia Engineer. The small deviation
is due to the fact that Scia Engineer uses more decimals. In the further analysis, the
spectral accelerations of Scia Engineer are used.


Mode coefficient:


2
) (
) ( , ) ( , ,
) ( ,
j
j k j k a
j k
S
G

=
( )
6119 , 0
3007 , 3
021 , 33 2019 , 0
2 ) 1 ( ,
=

=
x
G
( )
0170 , 0
5192 , 21
984 , 17 4380 , 0
2 ) 2 ( ,
=

=
x
G
Dynamics
85


These results correspond to the results obtained by Scia Engineer.
The necessary intermediate results are calculated so the response of each mode can
now be obtained.
First, for each mode, the lateral force in each node can be calculated. These lateral
forces can then be used to calculate the base shear and overturning moment.

Mode 1:
Lateral force in node i:
) ( , , ) ( , ) ( , , ) ( , , ) ( , , j k i j k j k a j k i j k i
S m F =
N
s
m
kg F
x
38 , 130 039111 , 0 021 , 33 2019 , 0 500
2 ) 1 ( , , 4
= =
N
s
m
kg F
x
35 , 69 020803 , 0 021 , 33 2019 , 0 500
2 ) 1 ( , , 3
= =
N
s
m
kg F
x
43 , 20 006128 , 0 021 , 33 2019 , 0 500
2 ) 1 ( , , 2
= =
N F
x
0
) 1 ( , , 1
=
Base Shear Force:

=
i
j k i j k
F F
) ( , , ) ( ,

= = + + = N N N N F
x
129 , 220 43 , 20 35 , 69 38 , 130
) 1 ( ,
0,2201 kN

Overturning moment in node i:
i j k i j k i
z F M =
) ( , , ) ( , ,

Nm m N M
y
50 , 1564 12 38 , 130
) 1 ( , , 4
= =
Nm m N M
y
77 , 554 8 35 , 69
) 1 ( , , 3
= =
Nm m N M
y
71 , 81 4 43 , 20
) 1 ( , , 2
= =
Nm M
y
0
) 1 ( , , 1
=
Overturning Moment:

=
i
j k i j k
M M
) ( , , ) ( ,

= = = Nm Nm Nm Nm M
y
89 , 2200 71 , 81 77 , 554 50 , 1564
) 1 ( ,
-2,2009 kNm

Note:
In this mode, all lateral forces in the nodes are oriented the same way. The lateral loads
in the nodes are in this case oriented in the negative X-direction so the Base Shear
Force is oriented in the positive X-direction. The lateral loads in the nodes thus produce
a negative Overturning Moment around the Y-axis. An example of this principle can be
found in reference [26].

However, as stated in the previous chapters, the signs have no absolute importance
since vibration amplitudes always occurs on both sides of the equilibrium position.


Mode 2:
Lateral force in node i:
) ( , , ) ( , ) ( , , ) ( , , ) ( , , j k i j k j k a j k i j k i
S m F =
N
s
m
kg F
x
69 , 79 020233 , 0 984 , 17 4380 , 0 500
2 ) 2 ( , , 4
= =
N
s
m
kg F
x
93 , 119 030451 , 0 984 , 17 4380 , 0 500
2 ) 2 ( , , 3
= =
N
s
m
kg F
x
44 , 101 025755 , 0 984 , 17 4380 , 0 500
2 ) 2 ( , , 2
= =
N F
x
0
) 2 ( , , 1
=
Dynamics
86
Base Shear Force:

=
i
j k i j k
F F
) ( , , ) ( ,

= = + + = N N N N F
x
68 , 141 44 , 101 93 , 119 69 , 79
) 2 ( ,
0,1417 kN

Overturning moment in node i:
i j k i j k i
z F M =
) ( , , ) ( , ,

Nm m N M
y
25 , 956 12 69 , 79
) 2 ( , , 4
= =
Nm m N M
y
45 , 959 8 93 , 119
) 2 ( , , 3
= =
Nm m N M
y
74 , 405 4 44 , 101
) 2 ( , , 2
= =
Nm M
y
0
) 2 ( , , 1
=
Overturning Moment:

=
i
j k i j k
M M
) ( , , ) ( ,

= = = Nm Nm Nm Nm M
y
94 , 408 74 , 405 45 , 959 25 , 956
) 2 ( ,
-0,4089 kNm

To obtain the global response, the modal responses need to be combined. In this
example the SRSS-method was used:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = + = + =
2 2 2
) 2 ( ,
2
) 1 ( ,
1417 , 0 2201 , 0 kN kN F F F
x x x
0,2618 kN
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = + = + =
2 2 2
) 2 ( ,
2
) 1 ( ,
4089 , 0 2009 , 2 kN kN M M M
y y y
2,238 kNm
These results correspond exactly to the results obtained by Scia Engineer.



As specified in the theory, these same principles can now be used to calculate the
displacements and accelerations for each mode. These modal responses can then be
combined again to obtain the global displacements and accelerations of the structure.

Mode 1:
Displacement in node i:
) ( , , ) ( , ) ( , , j k i j k j k i
G u =
= = = m u
x
02393 , 0 039111 , 0 6119 , 0
) 1 ( , , 4
23,93 mm
= = = m u
x
01273 , 0 020803 , 0 6119 , 0
) 1 ( , , 3
12,73 mm
= = = m u
x
00375 , 0 006128 , 0 6119 , 0
) 1 ( , , 2
3,75 mm
=
) 1 ( , , 1 x
u 0 mm

Acceleration in node i:
) ( , , ) ( ,
2
) ( ) ( , , j k i j k j j k i
G u = & &
( ) = = =
2
2
) 1 ( , , 4
26073 , 0 039111 , 0 6119 , 0 3007 , 3
s
m
a
x
260,73 mm/s
( ) = = =
2
2
) 1 ( , , 3
13868 , 0 020803 , 0 6119 , 0 3007 , 3
s
m
a
x
138,68 mm/s
( ) = = =
2
2
) 1 ( , , 2
04085 , 0 006128 , 0 6119 , 0 3007 , 3
s
m
a
x
40,85 mm/s
=
) 1 ( , , 1 x
a 0 mm/s


Mode 2:
Displacement in node i:
) ( , , ) ( , ) ( , , j k i j k j k i
G u =
= = = m u
x
00034 , 0 ) 020233 , 0 ( 0170 , 0
) 2 ( , , 4
-0,34 mm
Dynamics
87
= = = m u
x
00052 , 0 030451 , 0 0170 , 0
) 2 ( , , 3
0,52 mm
= = = m u
x
00044 , 0 025755 , 0 0170 , 0
) 2 ( , , 2
0,44 mm
=
) 2 ( , , 1 x
u 0 mm


Acceleration in node i:
) ( , , ) ( ,
2
) ( ) ( , , j k i j k j j k i
G u = & &
( ) = = =
2
2
) 2 ( , , 4
15928 , 0 ) 020233 , 0 ( 0170 , 0 5192 , 21
s
m
a
x
-159,28 mm/s
( ) = = =
2
2
) 2 ( , , 3
23972 , 0 030451 , 0 0170 , 0 5192 , 21
s
m
a
x
239,72 mm/s
( ) = = =
2
2
) 2 ( , , 2
20275 , 0 025755 , 0 0170 , 0 5192 , 21
s
m
a
x
202,75 mm/s
=
) 2 ( , , 1 x
a 0 mm/s

To obtain the global response, the modal responses need to be combined. In this
example the SRSS-method was used:

Displacements:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = + = + =
2 2 2
) 2 ( , , 4
2
) 1 ( , , 4 , 4
34 , 0 93 , 23
x x x
u u u 23,93 mm
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = + = + =
2 2 2
) 2 ( , , 3
2
) 1 ( , , 3 , 3
52 , 0 73 , 12
x x x
u u u 12,74 mm
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = + = + =
2 2 2
) 2 ( , , 2
2
) 1 ( , , 2 , 2
44 , 0 75 , 3
x x x
u u u 3,78 mm
=
x
u
, 1
0 mm

Accelerations:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = + = + =
2 2 2
) 2 ( , , 4
2
) 1 ( , , 4 , 4
28 , 159 73 , 260
x x x
a a a 305,53 mm/s
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = + = + =
2 2 2
) 2 ( , , 3
2
) 1 ( , , 3 , 3
72 , 239 68 , 138
x x x
a a a 276,94 mm/s
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = + = + =
2 2 2
) 2 ( , , 2
2
) 1 ( , , 2 , 2
75 , 202 85 , 40
x x x
a a a 206,82 mm/s
=
x
a
, 1
0 mm/s


In Scia Engineer, a specific result menu Seismic Detailed was designed to view these
modal displacements and accelerations.




In the Properties Window, the options for viewing the modal results can be set:

Dynamics
88




- In the field Load Cases, a Seismic Load case can be selected.
- The field Modal results allows choosing between the Displacements or
Accelerations.
- Evaluation for is used to specify which results need to be shown: the results for
a specific Eigenmode, the results for All Eigenmodes or the global,
Summarised results.


The following results are obtained:


Modal Displacements:








Dynamics
89
Modal Accelerations:




Summarised Displacements:



Summarised Accelerations:





When comparing the results of the manual calculation and those obtained by Scia
Engineer, it is clear that both calculations correspond.

As specified in the theory, when using the CQC-method, a damping spectrum needs to
be defined. To illustrate this, the above example is calculated again, but now using the
CQC-method for the modal combination.










Dynamics
90
Example 9: Spectral_Analysis_3.esa
The previous example is repeated and will now be calculated using the CQC-method.
For all frequencies, a damping ratio of 2% is used.
In Step 6, CQC is chosen in the Type of evaluation box:


Using the button behind CQC, a damping spectrum can be inputted. Since for this
example a constant damping ratio will be used for all eigenmodes, the ratio of 2% is
inputted starting from frequency 0 Hz to 100 Hz

Dynamics
91
This damping spectrum will be used for the calculation of the Modal Cross Correlation
coefficients of the CQC-method and will also be used to calculate the Damping Coefficient
for each mode as specified in the previous example.
When the spectrum has been inputted, the Linear Calculation can be re-run.
The following results are obtained through the Calculation protocol of the Linear
Calculation:

The results show that for each mode, the Damping Ratio is equal to 2%.
As specified in the theory, the Seismic Spectra of Eurocode 8 have been defined using a
Damping Ratio of 5%. Since now another value is used for the damping, the spectrum needs
to be corrected using a Damping Coefficient .
Following Eurocode 8 [6], this coefficient is calculated as follows:
( )
10
0, 55
5

=
+
(4.13)
With: = Damping Ratio expressed in percent.
For a default damping ratio of 5%, equals unity.
The lower limit of 0,55 for the Damping Coefficient indicates that Damping Ratios higher
than 28.06% have no further influence on the seismic spectrum.
For the exact application of in the formulas of the seismic design spectra, reference is made
to Eurocode 8 [7].
In this example, the damping ratio of 2% causes the following Damping Coefficient:
( )
10
5 2
= =
+
1,1953
This indicates that the spectral accelerations will be augmented by 20% due to the fact that
less damping is present in the structure. The spectral accelerations of the previous example can
thus be multiplied by :
2 2 ,(1)
0, 2019 1,1952 0, 2413
ax
m m
S
s s
= =
2 2 ,(2)
0, 4380 1,1952 0, 5235
ax
m m
S
s s
= =
With these new spectral accelerations, the calculation of the Base Shear, Overturning
Moment, can be repeated.

Dynamics
92

Manual Calculation
In this paragraph, the application of the CQC-method is illustrated for the global
response of the Base Shear.
Mode 1:
(1)
= 3,3007 rad/s F
(1)
= 0,2912 kN
Mode 2:
(2)
= 21,5192 rad/s F
(2)
= 0,1875 kN

Using a spreadsheet, the Modal Cross Correlation coefficients
i,j
are calculated with a
damping ratio
i,j
of 2%.

Mode 1 2
1 1 0,00023245
2 0,00023245 1
kN
kN kN kN kN
kN kN kN kN
R R R
N
i
N
j
j j i i tot
346 , 0
1875 , 0 1 1875 , 0 2912 , 0 00023245 , 0 1875 , 0
1875 , 0 00023245 , 0 2912 , 0 2912 , 0 1 2912 , 0
1 1
) ( , ) (
=
+ +
+
=
=

= =

Dynamics
93

4.3 Seismic combinations

There are different possibilities to create load combinations which include also seismic
load cases.
We will explain here one of the methods by means of an example:
SeismCombi_together.esa.

First of all, 3 load cases are created.
The general format of effects of actions should be:
, 2, ,
; ; ; j 1;i 1
d k j Ed i k i
E E G P A Q =
The combination of actions in brackets can be expressed as:
, 2, ,
1 1
'' '' " " " "
k j ED i k i
j i
G P A Q

+ + +



:
Where
0, 3 0, 3
0, 3 0, 3
0, 3 0, 3
d
Edx Edy Edz
Edx Edy Edz
Edx Edy Edz
E
E E E
E E E
E E E
+ +
+ +
+ +


So, these load cases include respectively the seismic spectra in the directions X, Y and
Z (seismic spectra for X and Y are equal, but different from the spectrum in vertical
direction Z):




Dynamics
94







Dynamics
95


Next, we have to assign a type of load group to the seismic load case.

First of all, the relation between load cases in the same group has to be defined. The
three seismic spectra have to appear always in the same combination. So, the option
together will be choosen here.
Next, the type of load has to be selected: for this, the special type seismic has been
implemented.



Note:
______________________________________________________________________
In the case of the EC-EN, we have to create for each spectrum two load cases. Namely,
one for the deformations and one for the internal forces. For the deformations we
take a value for the behaviour factor q equal to 1 and for the internal forces a value of
q (different from 1) so that the spectrum used for the forces will be divided by this value.




After the creation of seismic load cases, the combinations can be made. For this
purpose, a new type of combinations was implemented: namely the Seismic
combination according to the EC-EN.
According to the content of E_d (see above), the user has to create (2) 3 combinations
in (2D) 3D for the displacements and (2) 3 combinations in (2D) 3D for the internal
forces.


0, 3 0, 3
0, 3 0, 3
0, 3 0, 3
+ +
+ +
+ +
Edx Edy Edz
Edx Edy Edz
Edx Edy Edz
E E E
E E E
E E E


Dynamics
96


































Dynamics
97
4.4 Mass in analysis
As mentioned before, the sum of the effective modal masses for the modes taken into
account must amount to at least 90%.
In Scia Engineer the user disposes of the following options for a seismic load case.


The used method is displayed in the linear calculation protocol.
In the following examples the differences are explained in detail.
In these projects the following general principle is used:
First of all, a seismic spectrum is introduced. For this spectrum the modal displacements
are calculated for each mode, in this case there are 2 modes. Afterwards, the
displacements are transformed in real load cases. For these 2 load cases the results of
the internal forces and reactions can be asked. According to the specific analysis
method, the results are summed. On that way, one can compare these results with the
output of the internal forces of the seismic load case. This will be done with the following
three types of mass in analysis.
Remark: The used method is displayed in the linear calculation protocol.

Example 10: Spectral_Analysis_participation mass only.esa
If the option participation mass only is checked, the standard calculation is used. In this
case, only the participation mass from the selected number of modes is taken into
account and the user has to consider the 90% rule of the Eurocode. In other words,
using this method its important that the total amount of the masses in X, Y and Z are
sufficient.
In the example, a structure made of beams with rectangular cross-sections is subjected
to dynamic forces. The members are manufactured in C25/30 according to EC-EN. The
height of each column is 5m.
Next, a seismic load case is introduced. The seismic spectrum acts in 3 directions. An
acceleration of 2 m/s^2 is given in function of the frequency.
The evaluation method SRSS is used together with the option Participation mass only.
The Eigen frequency analysis gives the following output:















Dynamics
98
Deformation for mass combination CM1/1-2,05 :




Deformation for mass combination CM1/2-2,39:



- The masses of the participating nodes (N2, N4, N5 and N7) are needed. The
mass is attributed to the end nodes of each member.
Dynamics
99


Calculation of mass X for N2:
Mass X = 2500 kg/m^3 x(2,5 x area (rect 150;150) + 3 x area (rect 300;150) + 1,5 x
area (rect 300;150) = 646,875 kg.
The total mass matrix is:



- The modal participation factor is calculated as:



Calculation of _x for mode 1:
{ }
,(1)
0
0, 001267
0
0, 000778
0, 001265
0
0, 000777
x

=
`

)
and { }
0
646,875
0
646,875
787, 5
0
1537, 5
x
m





=
`




)


,(1)
0, 001267 647 0, 000778 647 0, 001265 788 0, 000777 1538 3, 514
x
= =


The participation factor matrix is:

Dynamics
100
- Out of this matrix the effective masses can be calculated:



Calculation of Mef for mode 1 in direction x:
2
, ,(1)
3, 514 12, 346
ef x
M = =


- The formula for the participation mass ratio is as follows:


,(1)
12, 346
0, 0034
3618, 75
x
L = =


- The acceleration response spectrum S has the constant value of 2 m/s^2:


- Calculation of mode coefficient in each direction:



For example for direction x and mode 1:
,(1)
2 3, 514
0, 042
166, 4
x
G

= =


- Now, the lateral forces can be calculated in each node:
As example, this is calculated for node 2 in direction X:

2, ,(1)
646, 875 0, 7524 ( 0.001267) 166, 4 102, 6
N x
F N = =
= =
&&
2
, ,( ) , ,( ) , ,( ) , ,( ) ( ) , ,( ) ( ) i k j i k j i k j i k j j i k j j
F m u m G
Dynamics
101


- And also the shear forces in direction X, Y and Z:
For mode 1 in direction x:
,(1)
439, 9
0, 4399
1000
x
F kN

= =

- The overturning moment in each node for each direction is:



2, ,(1) 2, ,(1)
(height - overturning height)
= 1227, 3 (5 0 ) 6136, 4
N x N y
M F
N m m Nm
=
=


The other values are:


- The sum of the moments for each node gives the overturning moment in base:
,( ) , ,( ) k j i k j
i
F F l =

Dynamics
102


The moments for each separate mode are combined with the SRSS-method.

- Calculation of the modal displacement:



For instance for node 2 in direction X and first mode:
{ } { }
(1)
0, 7524 G = and
{ } { }
2, ,(1)
0, 001267
N x
=
2, ,(1)
(0, 7524 0.001267) 1000 0, 95
N x
u mm = =

Other values are:


- Calculation of the modal acceleration:



For instance for node 2 in direction X and first mode:
2
2, ,(1)
0, 95 166, 4 158, 6mm/s
N x
= =
Dynamics
103




Next, the displacements are inputted on the structure by means of a loadcase, namely
translation of support:

For these load cases the following internal forces are computed:


Dynamics
104


According to the SRSS-method the following formula is used:

=
=
N
j
j tot
R R
1
2
) (


Take for instance the normal force in member B1:
( ) ( )
2 2
4, 38 0, 27 4.39
tot
N kN kN kN = + =


These values correspond with the internal forces for the seismic loadcase in the project.
The same can be done for the reactions:




Dynamics
105
Calculation of the reaction for N1:
2 2
( 0, 36 ) ( 0, 36 ) 0, 51
x
R kN kN = + =


After verifying the results in Spectral_analysis_participation mass only.esa for the
seismic load case, we can conclude that these values of the manual calculation
correspond to the calculated values.

Example 11: Spectral_Analysis_missing mass .esa
Consider the case that the following sum of masses is reached in direction X, Y and Z:
respectively 30%, 80% and 10%.
With the option missing mass in modes, masses are added until a value of 100% is
reached in each direction. With other words, the missing mass is assigned to the known
modes ( modes selected by the user in the analysis) and then the modal deformations
and forces can be computed. Afterwards its summed depending of the selected rule
SRSS, CQC or MAX.

Simply, in this case 70%, 20% and 90% masses are added.
This principle is explained on the previous example.
Instead of the option participation mass only the option missing mass in modes is
checked.
As a result of the previous example, the values of the effective masses are:

The masses in the free nodes are:

After comparing the real masses and the effective masses in each direction, one can
conclude that there are missing masses in the vibration analysis.
Take for instance the masses in direction X:

Dynamics
106
,1
,2
=3618, 75 416, 95 3201,80
3201,80
7, 679
416, 95
7, 679 12, 346 94,8
7, 679 404, 603 3107
miss
miss
miss
eff
miss
miss
M kg kg kg
M kg
R
M kg
M kg kg
M kg kg
=
= = =
= =
= =




- Calculation of the participation factor for the missing mass:
{ } ) , , , , , , , ,
(
miss k j k j miss k j eff k j k j
sign M M = +
For instance for mode 1 in direction X:
, ,(1)
( 94, 8 12, 346 3, 514 ) 6,8
miss x
kg kg = + =


- To take the missing mass into account in the calculation, this participation factor
is included in the formula for the mode coefficient G:


With Sa_cutoff: acceleration of cut off frequency in direction k (i.e. last calculated
frequency).
For mode 1 in direction X:
,(1)
2 3, 514 2 6, 8
0,124
166, 4
x
G
+
= =



- From now on, the same procedure can be followed as in the normal method. The
formula for the lateral force in each node is:

Dynamics
107



( )
2, ,(1)
646, 875 1, 23 ( 12, 67) 166, 4
167, 7
10000
N x
F N

= =


- Next, the shear force in base is calculated:



- Calculation of the overturning moment. The overturning height is 0:



- The sum of these moments gives the overturning moment in base:
Dynamics
108

- Also the modal displacements can be calculated for each node:




- The modal accelerations are:

Dynamics
109


Analogous to the previous example, these displacements for each mode are
transformed to 2 real load cases. For these load cases the internal forces are analysed:



Calculation of the normal force for member B1 according to the principle of SRSS:
Dynamics
110
( ) ( )
2 2
7,15 1, 04 7, 23 N kN kN kN = + =
The other internal forces are calculated on the same way:


This corresponds to the results for the seismic load case in Scia Engineer:






This corresponds to the reactions in Scia Engineer:


Dynamics
111

Calculation of Rz for LC2







Example 12: Spectral_Analysis_Residual mode .esa
The principle of the residual mode method is analogous to the method of the missing
mass:
if there is too less mass taken into account with the standard method, more mass will be
added to satisfy the prescriptions of the EC.
The aim of this method is to evaluate the missing mass as an extra mode which is
computed as an equivalent static load case. The static load case represents the weight
of the missing mass under the cut-off acceleration. Afterwards its summed depending
the selected rule SRSS, CQC, MAX.

This is possible with the following option:



The difference with regard to the previous method is that the missing mass is taken in
the seismic analysis as an extra mode which represents the weight of the missing mass.
The modal result of this mode is computed by a static equivalent load case.

The effective masses are calculated for each separate node. In the other method, the
effective mass was determined for each direction in each mode. Now, this parameter
will be calculated for each different node in direction X,Y and Z for each mode. Later,
this missing mass will be taken into account by means of an extra load case.

Effective mass in node:

Dynamics
112
( ) , ,( ), , ,
, ,( ),
,
1000
k i k j i eff k j
eff k j i
k j
M M
M

Calculation of the effective mass in direction X for mode 1 and N2:
( )
, 2, ,(1)
646, 875 ( 12, 67) 12, 346
2, 9
10000 3, 514
eff N x
kg
M

= =




- The missing mass is the difference between the total mass for each node minus the
effective mass:
N2,x
Missing mass 646, 9 176, 8 470kg = =

mass x mass y mass z
[kg] [kg] [kg]
N2 470,0 49,8 646,6
N4 639,5 49,8 647,0
N5 572,3 126,4 652,9
N7 1520,0 246,8 1537,5
- Out of these missing masses, load cases are generated. This by the formula:
, , ,( )
Load case Missing mass
i k i k k cutoff
S =
F x F y F z
[kN] [kg] [kg]
N2 0,940 0,100 1,293
N4 1,279 0,100 1,294
N5 1,145 0,253 1,306
N7 3,040 0,494 3,075
summ 6,4036 0,9457 6,9681


Remark:
The cut-off acceleration is the acceleration of the cut-off frequency, this is the last
calculated frequency.

Dynamics
113

- Calculation of the mode coefficient:
2
) j (
) j ( , k ) j ( , k
) j ( , k
Sa
G

=


1/ 2
2
1/ 2
,(1)
2
2 3, 514
0, 042
166, 4
x
m
kg
s
G m kg
s

= =

(j) G_x G_y G_z G
[m*kg^0.5] [m*kg^0.5] [m*kg^0.5] [m*kg^0.5]
1 -0,042 0,673 0,122 0,752
2 0,178 -0,034 0,050 0,194






- Calculation of the lateral forces:




1/ 2
2
1, ,(1)
646, 9 0, 75 12, 67 166
102, 6
10000
x
kg m kg mm
s
F N

= =

mode 1
node F_x(1) F_y(1) F_z(1)
[N] [N] [N]
2 -102,6 1227,3 3,4
4 -63,0 1227,3 -2,9
5 -124,7 1541,8 1271,1
7 -149,6 3010,0 0,2
summ -439,9 7006,3 1271,8
mode 2
node F_x(1) F_y(1) F_z(1)
[N] [N] [N]
2 379,1 -558,3 -0,3
4 12,2 -558,3 0,6
5 461,4 321,6 245,8
7 29,0 627,8 -0,1
summ 881,7 -167,1 246,1


- Calculation of the shear force in base




= =
&&
2
, ,( ) , ,( ) , ,( ) , ,( ) ( ) , ,( ) ( ) i k j i k j i k j i k j j i k j j
F m u m G
,( ) , ,( ) k j i k j
i
F F l =

Dynamics
114
, ( ) , ,( )
*
i ki j i k j i
M F z =
(j) F_x F_y F_z
units [kN] [kN] [kN]
1 -0,4399 7,0063 1,2718
2 0,8817 -0,1671 0,2461
R 6,4036 0,9457 6,9681
summ 6,5 7,1 7,1






- The overturning moment in each node is calculated as follows:



The height z
i
is equal to the height of the concerning node minus the overturning height.
In this case, the overturning height is equal to zero.
mode 1
node M_x(1) M_y(1)
[Nm] [Nm]
2 -6136,4 513,1
4 -6136,4 315,1
5 -7709,0 623,6
7 -15049,9 747,9
mode 2
node M_x(2) M_y(2)
[Nm] [Nm]
2 2791,4 -1895,4
4 2791,4 -60,8
5 -1608,1 -2307,1
7 -3139,2 -145,2


In this case, an extra overturning moment is calculated for the residual load case:
2, ,(1)
0, 94 (5 0 ) 4, 7
N y
M kN m m Nm = =

mode R
node M_x(1) M_y(1)
[Nm] [Nm]
2 0,0 -4,7
4 0,0 -6,4
5 0,0 -5,7
7 0,0 -15,2


The letter R stands for the residual mode.
- For each mode the sum of the overturning moments are taken, afterwards the
results are combined with the SRSS method:
-
(j) M_x M_y
units [kN] [kN]
1 -35,0317 2,1997
2 0,8355 -4,4085
R 0,0000 -32,0180
summ 35,0 32,4


- Calculation of the modal displacement:

, ,( ) ( ) ,( )
*
i k j j k j
u G =
Dynamics
115

mode 1
node ux uy uz
[mm] [mm] [mm]
2 -0,95 11,40 0,03
4 -0,59 11,40 -0,03
5 -0,95 11,77 9,70
7 -0,58 11,77 0,00
mode 2
node ux uy uz
[mm] [mm] [mm]
2 2,60 -3,82 0,00
4 0,08 -3,82 0,00
5 2,59 1,81 1,38
7 0,08 1,81 0,00


To calculate the deformations for mode R, the load cases- generated out of the missing
masses- are inputted as real load cases on the nodes of the structure. This gives the
following table:

2. Deformation of nodes
Ux Uy Uz
[mm] [mm] [mm]
N1 LC3 0 0 0
N2 LC3 4,14 4,91 0,03
N3 LC3 0 0 0
N4 LC3 1,46 4,91 0
N5 LC3 4,14 8,25 6,74
N6 LC3 0 0 0
N7 LC3 1,45 8,25 0
Linear calculation, Extreme : Node
Selection : All
Load cases : LC3
Node Case


The deformations for each mode (namely mode 1, mode 2 and mode R) are combined
with the SRSS-formula:
summ
node ux uy uz
[mm] [mm] [mm]
2 4,98 12,99 0,04
4 1,58 12,99 0,03
5 4,98 14,48 11,89
7 1,57 14,48 0,00



- The same for the modal acceleration:


=
&&
2
, ,( ) ( ) ( ) ,( )
* *
i k j j j k j
u G
Dynamics
116
mode 1
node ax ay az
[mm/sec2] [mm/sec2] [mm/sec2]
2 -158,6 1897,2 5,3
4 -97,4 1897,2 -4,5
5 -158,4 1957,8 1614,2
7 -97,3 1957,7 0,1
mode 2
node ax ay az
[mm/sec2] [mm/sec2] [mm/sec2]
2 586,0 -863,0 -0,4
4 18,8 -863,0 1,0
5 585,9 408,4 312,1
7 18,9 408,4 0,0


For mode R the constant value of 2000 mm/s^2 is used:
mode R
node ax ay az
[mm/sec2] [mm/sec2] [mm/sec2]
2 2000,0 2000,0 2000,0
4 2000,0 2000,0 2000,0
5 2000,0 2000,0 2000,0
7 2000,0 2000,0 2000,0


This gives through the SRSS-method:
summ
node ax ay az
[mm/sec2] [mm/sec2] [mm/sec2]
2 2090,1 2888,7 2000,0
4 2002,5 2888,7 2000,0
5 2090,1 2828,4 2589,0
7 2002,5 2828,3 2000,0





- On the same way as for the missing mass method the calculated deformations are
put on the structure as real load cases. This gives the following internal forces:


















Dynamics
117
Mode 1:
dx N Vy Vz Mx My Mz
[m] [kN] [kN] [kN] [kNm] [kNm] [kNm]
B1 LC3 0 4,38 -1,35 0,36 0,01 -0,49 3,44
B1 LC3 5 4,38 -1,35 0,36 0,01 1,29 -3,3
B2 LC3 0 -3,73 -1,35 -0,04 0,01 0,12 3,44
B2 LC3 5 -3,73 -1,35 -0,04 0,01 -0,06 -3,3
B3 LC3 0 0,62 -4,32 -0,78 0,28 6,54 18,85
B3 LC3 5 0,62 -4,32 -0,78 0,28 2,65 -2,73
B4 LC3 0 0 0,35 0,08 -4,43 -1,48 -0,4
B4 LC3 3 0 0,35 0,08 -4,43 -1,24 0,63
B5 LC3 0 0 -0,12 -1,19 1,48 2,69 0,35
B5 LC3 6 0 -0,12 -1,19 1,48 -4,43 -0,4
B6 LC3 0 0 -0,12 0,54 1,49 -1,46 0,33
B6 LC3 6 0 -0,12 0,54 1,49 1,78 -0,36
B7 LC3 0 0 0,23 -3,19 -1,4 4,78 -0,35
B7 LC3 3 0 0,23 -3,19 -1,4 -4,8 0,34
Linear calculation, Extreme : Member, System : Principal
Selection : All
Load cases : LC3
Member Case


Mode 2:
dx N Vy Vz Mx My Mz
[m] [kN] [kN] [kN] [kNm] [kNm] [kNm]
B1 LC4 0 -0,27 0,46 0,36 -0,15 -0,88 -1,17
B1 LC4 5 -0,27 0,46 0,36 -0,15 0,94 1,15
B2 LC4 0 0,59 0,46 0,01 -0,16 -0,03 -1,17
B2 LC4 5 0,59 0,46 0,01 -0,16 0,04 1,15
B3 LC4 0 -0,08 -0,77 0,49 -2,26 -1,52 3,07
B3 LC4 5 -0,08 -0,77 0,49 -2,26 0,94 -0,76
B4 LC4 0 0 -0,55 -0,08 -0,91 -0,25 -0,12
B4 LC4 3 0 -0,55 -0,08 -0,91 -0,5 -1,78
B5 LC4 0 0 -0,05 -0,33 0,25 1,04 0,2
B5 LC4 6 0 -0,05 -0,33 0,25 -0,91 -0,12
B6 LC4 0 0 -0,13 0,01 0,26 -0,06 0,31
B6 LC4 6 0 -0,13 0,01 0,26 -0,03 -0,48
B7 LC4 0 0 0,06 0,6 -0,1 -0,9 -0,05
B7 LC4 3 0 0,06 0,6 -0,1 0,89 0,14
Linear calculation, Extreme : Member, System : Principal
Selection : All
Load cases : LC4
Member Case



















Dynamics
118
Mode R:
dx N Vy Vz Mx My Mz
[m] [kN] [kN] [kN] [kNm] [kNm] [kNm]
B1 LC3 0 4,232 -0,575 0,824 -0,134 -1,804 1,47
B1 LC3 5 4,232 -0,575 0,824 -0,134 2,314 -1,402
B2 LC3 0 -0,061 -0,574 0,244 -0,144 -0,559 1,47
B2 LC3 5 -0,061 -0,574 0,244 -0,144 0,661 -1,401
B3 LC3 0 2,798 -3,078 5,79 -2,301 -22,431 13,299
B3 LC3 5 2,798 -3,078 5,79 -2,301 6,521 -2,093
B4 LC3 0 -1,406 -1,192 0,005 -4,714 -1,048 0,818
B4 LC3 3 -1,406 -1,192 0,005 -4,714 -1,033 -2,759
B5 LC3 0 0,159 0,242 -1,301 1,048 3,092 -0,632
B5 LC3 6 0,159 0,242 -1,301 1,048 -4,714 0,818
B6 LC3 0 -1,527 0,164 -0,282 1,061 -0,117 -0,525
B6 LC3 6 -1,527 0,164 -0,282 1,061 -1,807 0,457
B7 LC3 0 0,039 -0,478 -1,637 -0,778 2,45 0,766
B7 LC3 3 0,039 -0,478 -1,637 -0,778 -2,461 -0,669
Linear calculation, Extreme : No, System : Principal
Selection : All
Load cases : LC3
Member Case


Combination via SRSS-method gives:
dx N Vy Vz Mx My Mz
[m] [kN] [kN] [kN] [kNm] [kNm] [kNm]
B1 LC2 0,00 6,10 1,54 0,97 0,20 2,07 3,92
B1 LC2 5,00 6,10 1,54 0,97 0,20 2,81 3,77
B2 LC2 0,00 3,78 1,54 0,25 0,22 0,57 3,92
B2 LC2 5,00 3,78 1,54 0,25 0,22 0,66 3,77
B3 LC2 0,00 2,87 5,36 5,86 3,24 23,41 23,27
B3 LC2 5,00 2,87 5,36 5,86 3,24 7,10 3,52
B4 LC2 0,00 1,41 1,36 0,11 6,53 1,83 0,92
B4 LC2 3,00 1,41 1,36 0,11 6,53 1,69 3,34
B5 LC2 0,00 0,16 0,27 1,79 1,83 4,23 0,75
B5 LC2 6,00 0,16 0,27 1,79 1,83 6,53 0,92
B6 LC2 0,00 1,53 0,24 0,61 1,85 1,47 0,69
B6 LC2 6,00 1,53 0,24 0,61 1,85 2,54 0,75
B7 LC2 0,00 0,04 0,53 3,64 1,60 5,45 0,84
B7 LC2 3,00 0,04 0,53 3,64 1,60 5,47 0,76
Member Case



- The reactions are:
Mode 1:
Rx Ry Rz Mx My Mz
[kN] [kN] [kN] [kNm] [kNm] [kNm]
Sn1/N1 LC3 -0,36 -1,35 -4,38 3,44 -0,49 0,01
Sn2/N6 LC3 0,78 -4,32 -0,62 18,85 6,54 0,28
Sn3/N3 LC3 0,04 -1,35 3,73 3,44 0,12 0,01
Load cases : LC3
Support Case
Linear calculation, Extreme : Node
Selection : All









Dynamics
119
Mode 2:
Rx Ry Rz Mx My Mz
[kN] [kN] [kN] [kNm] [kNm] [kNm]
Sn1/N1 LC4 -0,36 0,46 0,27 -1,17 -0,88 -0,15
Sn2/N6 LC4 -0,49 -0,77 0,08 3,07 -1,52 -2,26
Sn3/N3 LC4 -0,01 0,46 -0,59 -1,17 -0,03 -0,16
Selection : All
Load cases : LC4
Support Case
Linear calculation, Extreme : Node

Mode R:
Rx Ry Rz Mx My Mz
[kN] [kN] [kN] [kNm] [kNm] [kNm]
Sn1/N1 LC3 -0,82 -0,575 -4,232 1,47 -1,804 -0,134
Sn2/N6 LC3 -5,79 -3,078 -2,798 13,299 -22,431 -2,301
Sn3/N3 LC3 -0,24 -0,574 0,061 1,47 -0,559 -0,144
Linear calculation, Extreme : Node
Selection : All
Load cases : LC3
Support Case

Summarized by SRSS:
Rx Ry Rz Mx My Mz
[kN] [kN] [kN] [kNm] [kNm] [kNm]
Sn1/N1 LC2 0,97 1,54 6,10 3,92 2,07 0,20
Sn2/N6 LC2 5,86 5,36 2,87 23,27 23,41 3,24
Sn3/N3 LC2 0,25 1,54 3,78 3,92 0,57 0,22
Support Case

Note:
_____________________________________________________________________
In case of CQC, we dont assume any correlation with the other modes (i.e. absolute
value is added)
The cut-off frequency is the frequency of the latest modes in the analysis. It is the
responsibility of the user to select the correct number of modes. This can be done in the
setup > solver.
____________________________________________________________

Dynamics
120
5. Damping
In the previous chapters, the influence of damping on the dynamic response of a
structure was shown. Especially in the vicinity of resonance the effect of damping was
significant.
In this chapter, damping will be looked upon in more detail. First the theory will be
explained after which the input of non-uniform damping in Scia Engineer is regarded.
By means of the examples of the previous chapter, the influence of damping on the
seismic response is illustrated. The chapter if finished with a 3D structure, which takes
into account material damping of the different elements.
5.1 Theory

Damping can have different causes. The component that is always present is structural
damping. Structural damping is caused by hysteresis in the material: the transfer of
small amounts of energy into warmth for each vibration cycle possibly increased by
friction between internal parts.
Other causes can be the foundation soil of the building and aerodynamic damping due
to the diversion of energy by the air [22]. In many cases, damping is increased by
adding artificial dampers to the structure.

In the same way as for the previous chapters, first the theory is examined. A complete
overview can be found in reference [1].


Consider the following damped free-vibrating system:

m
k
c

A body of mass m can move in one direction. A spring of constant stiffness k, which is
fixed at one end, is attached at the other end to the body. The mass is also subjected to
damping with a damping capacity c.
The equation of motion, using matrix notations can be written as:
0 ) ( ) ( ) ( = + +

t x K t x C t x M
(5.1)
A possible solution to this equation is one of the type:
st
e A x =
(5.2)

Substituting (5.2) in (5.1) gives:
0
2
= + +
st st st
e A K e A s C e A s M (5.3)


Dynamics
121
This equation can be rewritten as:
0 2
2 2
= + +
n
s n s (5.4)
With:
M
C
n
2
= (5.5)

M
K
n
= (5.6)
The possible solutions for equation (5.4) are:
2 2
n
n n s = (5.7)
It is clear that the response of the system depends on the numerical value of the radical.
Therefore the following three possibilities need to be examined:
n
n =
n
n < (5.8)
n
n >
These can be rewritten as:
M K C = 2
M K C < 2 (5.9)
M K C > 2
The condition
c
C M K C = = 2 is called critical damping. In this case, the
displaced body is restored to equilibrium in the shortest possible time, without
oscillation.
The ratio
c
C
C
= is called the damping ratio or the relative damping.
Therefore, when assuming
n
n = , equation (5.5) can be written as:
M C
n
= 2 (5.10)
The three possibilities of equation (5.8) can then be rewritten as:
1 =
1 < (5.11)
1 >
When looking at the conditions 1 = and 1 > , it can be shown that there is
no harmonic solution.
Only the condition 1 < gives a harmonic solution.
Dynamics
122
Introducing the damped circular frequency
2
1 =
n D
, the solution to
equation (5.1) can be written as:
( ) ( ) { } t B t A e x
D D
t
n

sin cos + =

(5.12)
In chapter 2 this vibration equation was illustrated by the following figure:


A convenient way to determine the damping in a system was shown to be the
logarithmic decrement , which is the natural logarithm of the ratio of any two
successive amplitudes in the same direction.
2
11
1
1
2
ln

= =
X
X
(5.13)
Note:
As shown above, the circular frequency is reduced by the damping action to obtain the
damped circular frequency. However, in many systems this reduction is likely to be
small because very small values of are common; for example, in most engineering
structures is rarely greater then 0,02. Even if = 0,2;
D
=0,98
n
Annex B gives some references for numerical values of the damping ratio.

5.2 Damping in Scia Engineer
In Scia Engineer, damping can be specified on 1D elements, 2D elements and
supports. The damping of each of these elements (or substructures) will be used to
calculate a modal damping ratio for the whole structure for each Eigenmode. In the
literature this is described as Composite Damping.
Composite damping is used in partly bolted, partly welded steel constructions, mixed
steel-concrete structures, constructions on subsoil, ...
For structural systems that consist of substructures with different damping properties,
the composite damping matrix C can be obtained by an appropriate superposition of
damping matrices
i
C for the individual substructures:

=
=
N
i
i
C C
1
(5.14)
With:
i
C = The damping matrix for the i
th
substructure in the global
coordinate
system.
N = The number of substructures being assembled.

Dynamics
123
Proportional Damping (Rayleigh Damping)
A way of describing the damping is assuming that the damping matrix is formed by a
linear combination of the mass and stiffness matrices.
i i i i i
K M C + = (5.15)

With:

i
and
i
= Proportional damping coefficients for the i
th
part of the structure.
M
i
= Mass matrix for the i
th
part of the structure in the global coordinate
system.
K
i
= Stiffness matrix for the i
th
part of the structure in the global coordinate
system.

Formulas for these proportional damping coefficients can be found in reference [19].
Examples can be found in reference [20].


Stiffness-Weighted Damping
For structures or structural systems that consist of major substructures or components
with different damping characteristics, composite modal damping values can be
calculated using the elastic energy of the structure [8], [21]:
E
E
N
i
i i
j

=
1

(5.16)
With:
j
= Damping ratio of the considered eigenmode.
E = Elastic energy of the structure, associated with the modal displacement of
the considered eigenmode.
N = The number of all substructures.
i
= Damping ratio for the i
th
substructure.
i
E = Elastic energy for the i
th
substructure, associated with the modal
displacement of the considered eigenmode.

Equation (5.16) can be rewritten in the following way [19]:
[ ]
2
1
j
j
N
i
i
T
j
j
K

=
(5.17)
With: [ ]
i
K = Stiffness matrix for the i
th
substructure in the global
coordinate system, scaled by the modal damping ratio of the i
th

substructure.
Note:
This formula may be used as long as the resulting damping values are less then
20% of critical. If values in excess of 20% are computed, further justification is
required.

As specified, in Scia Engineer on each element a damping ratio can be inputted. For
this ratio, also the damping of the material can be used from which the element is
manufactured.

When no damping ratio is inputted on an element, a default value will be used since all
Dynamics
124
elements need a damping ratio before the above formulas can be applied. The input of
this default will be shown in the examples.
Analogous to the input of other objects in Scia Engineer, Damping on elements will be
grouped in a Damping Group. In turn, this Group can be assigned to a Combination
of Mass Groups.


Support Damping
Additional to the damping of 1D and 2D elements, SCIA ENGINEER allows the input of
a damper on a flexible nodal support. The modal damping ratio
j
is calculated by the
following formula:

j
j s
s
s
T
j s
j
C
Alpha

4
, ,
(5.18)
With:
j
= The circular frequency of mode j
j s,
= The modal displacement in support node s for mode j
s
C = The damping constant for the support
Alpha = A user defined parameter (> 0)

The total modal damping ratio can then be calculated as the summation of equations
(5.17) and (5.18).
As specified, on all 1D and 2D elements a damping ratio has to be defined. This is not
the case with supports, not every support needs to have a damping value.

The following diagram shows how non-proportional damping is inputted in Scia
Engineer:


The use of dampers and the calculation of the composite damping ratio will be
illustrated in the following examples.


Activate the functionalities - Dynamics
- Non-Proportional Damping
Create a Damping Group
Input Dampers
Assign the Damping Group to a Mass Combination
Proceed with the steps of the previous chapters
Dynamics
125
Example 10: Damping_1.esa
In this example, the principle of stiffness-weighted damping is illustrated.
A concrete frame is modelled in which the beam is assumed to be rigid. In this case,
only the columns take part in the horizontal stiffness of the frame.
The left column has a Rectangular 500 x 500 section, the right column a Rectangular
350 x 350 section. The column bases are modelled as rigid. To model the rigid beam, a
Rectangular 500000 x 500000 section is used. To make sure this beam acts as rigid, in
the nodes between the columns and the beam, supports are inputted which have a fixed
Translation Z and Rotation Ry. The height of the columns and the length of the beam
are taken as 5m. All elements are manufactured in C30/37 according to EC-EN.

The beam is loaded by a line mass of 500 kg/m. The left column has a damping ratio of
12%, the right column a damping ratio of 3%.
One static load case is created: the self-weight of the beam. However, in order not to
take the self-weight into account for the dynamic calculation, the volumetric mass of
C30/37 can be set to 1e-10 kg/m in the Material Library. This low value is chosen to
avoid any influence by the rigid beam.
The steps of the Free Vibration calculation are followed and extended with the input of
damping.

Step 1: The first step in the Dynamic calculation is to activate the functionalities
Dynamics and Non-Proportional Damping on the Functionality tab in the Project
Data.











Dynamics
126


Step 2&3: A Mass Group is created after which the line mass of 500 kg/m can be
inputted on the rigid beam.







Dynamics
127
Step 4a: Before creating a Combination of Mass Groups, the dampers are inputted.



First of all, a Damping Group is created.



As specified in the theory, on each element a damping ratio needs to be inputted. When
no damper is specified, a default value will be taken. In the properties of the Damping
Group, this default can be set as either:
- Global default: The logarithmic decrement specified in the Damper Setup will be
used
- Material default: The logarithmic decrement of the material will be used

In this example, the Global default is chosen.
After the creation of a Damping Group, Dampers can be inputted. In this example, 1D
Damping shall be inputted on the columns. The damping can be inputted in the
following ways, which have been explained in the theory:



Dynamics
128
On the left column, a Relative damping of 0,12 is inputted, on the right column a
Relative damping of 0,03.


As a final step, the general parameters can be checked through Damper Setup:



The Base value specifies the default value when a Damping Group of type Global
default is chosen and no damper is inputted on an element.
The Alpha factor is used in the damping calculation for supports as specified in the
theory.
When the composite modal damping ratio is calculated, the value is checked with the
Maximal modal damping value inputted here. If the calculated value is higher then the
maximal value, the maximal value is used. In this example, the maximal value is set to
0,2 in accordance with the remark for formula (5.17)











Dynamics
129
Step 4b: A Combination of Mass Groups can now be created and the Damping
Group can be specified.



Step 5: To obtain precise results for the dynamic calculation, the Finite Element Mesh is
refined.
This can be done through Calculation, Mesh > Mesh Setup.



The Average number of tiles of 1D element is set to 10.

Step 6: The last step before launching the calculation is setting the amount of
eigenmodes to be calculated. For this example, only one eigenmode is required so in
Calculation, Mesh > Solver Setup the number of frequencies is set to 1.
To compare the results with a manual calculation, the shear force deformation is
neglected.
Dynamics
130


Step 7: All steps have been executed so the Free Vibration calculation can be started
through Calculation, Mesh > Calculation.

The following results are obtained through the Calculation Protocol for the Eigen
Frequency calculation:



The calculated modal damping ratio is shown to be 0,1026 or 10,26%.

Manual Calculation
In order to check the results of Scia Engineer, a manual calculation is performed.
First, the calculated eigen frequency is checked using formula (2.3)
In this example, the two columns can be treated as fixed-fixed beams. Using default
engineering tables [12], each column contributes the following stiffness to the frame:
3
12
L
EI
k = (5.19)



Dynamics
131
With: Column 1:
E = 32000 N/mm
I = 5208300000 mm
4

L = 5000 mm
Column 2:
E = 32000 N/mm
I = 1250500000 mm
4

L = 5000 mm
mm
N
mm
mm
mm
N
k 8976 , 15999
) 5000 (
5208300000 32000 12
3
4
2
1
=

=
mm
N
mm
mm
mm
N
k 536 , 3841
) 5000 (
1250500000 32000 12
3
4
2
2
=

=

Both columns act in parallel since each column will displace the same amount due to
the fact the beam is rigid. The beam itself does not bend so it does not contribute to the
stiffness.
mm
N
mm
N
mm
N
k k k
tot
4336 , 19841 536 , 3841 8976 , 15999
2 1
= + = + =

The vibrating mass is calculated as:
kg m
m
kg
2500 5 500 =
s
rad
kg
m
N
m
k
087 , 89
2500
6 , 19841433
= = =
= =

2
f 14,1787 Hz
These results correspond exactly to the results obtained by Scia Engineer.

Next, the stiffness-weighted damping ratio is calculated. The first column has a damping
ratio of 12%, the second column a damping ratio of 3%.
Using the elastic energy principle of formula (5.16) the modal damping ratio can be
calculated as follows:
mm
N
mm
N
mm
N
k
k k
tot
4336 , 19841
536 , 3841 03 , 0 8976 , 15999 12 , 0
2 2 1 1
+
=
+
=


=0,1026 = 10,26%

This result corresponds exactly to the result obtained by Scia Engineer.
The modal damping ratio can now be used to calculate the Damping Coefficient in a
seismic calculation. This will be illustrated in the following examples.











Dynamics
132
Example 11: Damping_2.esa
In this example, non-proportional damping is accounted for in a seismic calculation
using the SRSS modal combination method. To this end, the example
Spectral_Analysis_2.esa from the previous chapter is extended with dampers.
More specifically, a relative damping of 12%, 3% and 8% is inputted on the three
columns starting from the base of the structure.

Step 1: The first step to take into account the damping is to activate the functionality
Non-Proportional Damping on the Functionality tab in the Project Data.

Step 2: The second step is the creation of a Damping Group.



Since a damper will be inputted on all elements, the choice of the default damping type
is not relevant.

Step 3: After the creation of a Damping Group, Dampers can be inputted. A relative
damping of 12%, 3% and 8% is inputted on the three columns starting from the base of
the structure:


Step 4: As a final step, the Damping Group is assigned to the Mass Combination:
Dynamics
133


The non-proportional damping has now been inputted so the Linear Calculation can be
re-done to see the Seismic results.
The following results are obtained through the Calculation protocol of the Linear
Calculation:



For both eigenmodes the Composite Modal Damping Ratio is calculated using
equation (5.17).
As specified in the previous chapter, this Damping Ratio will be used to calculate the
Damping Coefficient, which influences the spectral accelerations. Using equation
(4.13):
( )
1
10
5 9, 96
= =
+
0,8176
( )
2
10
5 7,11
= =
+
0,9087

As expected, since the modal damping ratios are higher then the default 5% used in the
acceleration spectrum, they will have a positive effect thus lowering the response of the
structure.
More specifically, for the first eigenmode only 81,7% of the spectral acceleration will be
taken into account and for the second eigenmode 90,8%.

The spectral accelerations of the original example without damping can thus be
multiplied by :
2 2 ,(1)
0, 2019 0,8176 0,1651
ax
m m
S
s s
= =
2 2 ,(2)
0, 4380 0, 9087 0, 3980
ax
m m
S
s s
= =
These adapted spectral accelerations will thus influence the mode coefficients, the base
shear, the overturning moment, the nodal displacements and accelerations,







Dynamics
134
Example 12: Damping_3.esa
In this example, non-proportional damping is accounted for in a seismic calculation
using the CQC modal combination method. To this end, the example
Spectral_Analysis_3.esa from the previous chapter is extended with dampers.
More specifically, a relative damping of 2%, 5% and 2% is inputted on the three
columns starting from the base of the structure.
As seen in the theory and the original example, the CQC method required the definition
of a Damping Spectrum. This damping spectrum was used for the calculation of the
Modal Cross Correlation Coefficients and to calculate the Damping Coefficient for
each mode.
When however Non-Proportional Damping is used, the calculated Composite Modal
Damping Ratios are used instead of the data of the Damping Spectrum. This is
illustrated in this example.

Step 1: The first step to take into account the damping is to activate the functionality
Non-Proportional Damping on the Functionality tab in the Project Data.

Step 2: The second step is the creation of a Damping Group.



Since a damper will be inputted on all elements, the choice of the default damping type
is not relevant.

Step 3: After the creation of a Damping Group, Dampers can be inputted. A relative
damping of 2%, 5% and 2% is inputted on the three columns starting from the base of
the structure:



Dynamics
135
Step 4: As a final step, the Damping Group is assigned to the Mass Combination:



The non-proportional damping has now been inputted so the Linear Calculation can be
re-done to see the Seismic results.
The following results are obtained through the Calculation protocol of the Linear
Calculation:



In the original example, a Damping Spectrum with a constant damping ratio of 2% was
used. Due to the inputted dampers, the calculated Composite Modal Damping Ratios of
2,64% and 3,30% are now used.
Using equation (4.13) the Damping Coefficients can be calculated:
( )
1
10
5 2, 65
= =
+
1,1432
( )
2
10
5 3, 30
= =
+
1,0976
As was the case in the original example, the damping ratios are lower then the default
5% used in the acceleration spectrum, they will have a negative effect thus augmenting
the response of the structure.
Since the calculated damping ratios are higher then the original 2%, the response will
be less when compared to the original example.
Second, the calculated Composite Modal Damping Ratios will be used for the
calculation of the Modal Cross Correlation Coefficients of the CQC-method.
This will be illustrated in a manual calculation.


Manual Calculation
In this paragraph, the application of the CQC-method using the calculated Composite
Modal Damping Ratios is illustrated for the global response of the Base Shear.
Mode 1:
(1)
= 3,3007 rad/s F
(1)
= 0,2701 kN
Mode 2:
(2)
= 21,5192 rad/s F
(2)
= 0,1629 kN

Using a spreadsheet, the Modal Cross Correlation Coefficients
i,j
are calculated with a
damping ratio
i,j
of 2,64% for the first eigenmode and 3,30% for the second eigenmode.



Dynamics
136
Mode 1 2
1 1 0,00055202
2 0,00055202 1

kN
kN kN kN kN
kN kN kN kN
R R R
N
i
N
j
j j i i tot
315 , 0
1875 , 0 1 1629 , 0 2701 , 0 00055202 , 0 1629 , 0
1629 , 0 00055202 , 0 2701 , 0 2701 , 0 1 2701 , 0
1 1
) ( , ) (
=
+ +
+
=
=

= =

The difference between these Correlation Coefficients and the original is very small
which was to be expected since the calculated damping ratios are close to the original
2%.










































Dynamics
137
Example 13: Damping_4.esa
In this example, a seismic analysis is carried out on a storage depot. The layout of the
structure is given in the pictures below. The depot is constructed with steel members
manufactured of S235 according to EC-EN. On the upper roof, a steel shell is used with
thickness 20 mm.
On each floor level, concrete slabs are used with thickness 200 mm. The slabs are
manufactured in C25/30 according to EC-EN.



Dynamics
138


The diagonals are hinged in both directions. The column bases are also hinged though
the anchors are spaced such that the rotation around the Z-axis is taken as fixed.
The steel members of the depot have following cross-sections:
- Columns: IPE 300
- Floor Beams: HEA 200
- Roof Beams: IPE 160
- Diagonals: L(ARC) 40x40x4
The vertical loads acting on the structure are:
- Load Case 1: The self-weight of the depot
- Load Case 2: A category E (Storage) imposed load of 5 kN/m on all floor slabs.
-
The structure will be subjected to an earthquake loading in both X, Y and Z direction,
using a Design Response Spectrum according to Eurocode 8 for Ground Type A with a
behaviour factor of 1,5. This means that the spectrum for the internal forces will be
divided by this value. The acceleration coefficient is 0,50.
For the dynamic calculation, the structural damping of the depot is taken into account.
More specifically, a logarithmic decrement of 0,025 is used for steel and 0,056 for
concrete [22].

Step 1: The first step in the Seismic calculation is to activate the functionalities
Dynamics and Seismic on the Functionality tab in the Project Data. In order to take
the structural damping into account, the functionality Non-Proportional Damping is
also activated.









Dynamics
139


Steps 2&3: The second step is to create Mass Groups, the third step the creation of
Masses.
Since the self-weight is automatically taken into account in a Combination of Mass
Groups, only one Mass Group is created here, a group to take the mass of the
imposed load into account.

Using the action automatically generates masses from the
already inputted loads.



Step 4a: Before creating a Combination of Mass Groups, the damping is specified.
First of all, a Damping Group is created.

Dynamics
140


Since, in this example, the structural damping of the steel and concrete is taken into
account, the Type of default damping is set to Material default. This way, when no
damper is inputted on an element, the default damping value of the material will be
used.
The damping values can be specified in the Material Library:


For the concrete, a logarithmic decrement of 0,056 is inputted, for the steel a value of
0,025.

Step 4b: The Mass Group and Damping Group can now be combined in a
Combination of Mass Groups.
As specified in formula (2.9) all gravity loads appearing in the following combination of
actions need to be taken into account for an eigenmode calculation:

+
i k i E k
Q G
, ,

For this example, with a Category E imposed load, is taken as 1,0 and
2,i
as 0,8.
This gives a value of 0,8 for
E,i
Since the Self-Weight is automatically taken into account, the Combination of Mass
Groups CM1 can be formulated as 0,80 MG1
Dynamics
141


As a final step, the Damping Group is assigned to the Combination of Mass Groups.

Step 5: Before creating the Seismic load cases, the Seismic Spectrum needs to be
defined through Libraries > Seismic Spectrums.
Instead of inputting a spectrum manually, the spectrum according to EC8 is choosen. In
this example, the spectrum for Ground Type A with a Behaviour Factor q = 1,5 is used
for all directions:




Step 6: The Seismic load cases can now be defined through Load cases,
Combinations > Load Cases.
For the Seismic load case in the X-direction, the following parameters are used:
Dynamics
142


The Coefficient of Acceleration is set to 0,5. As Type of evaluation the CQC-method
is used.

In exactly the same way, the Seismic load cases in the Y and Z-direction are defined:



Dynamics
143


This has to be repeated for the load cases which define the deformations.

Note:
- For the load case Seismic Z a new spectrum has to be defined with type vertical.
- There are 6 load cases, 3 with behaviour factor equal to 1 for the deformations
and 3 with behaviour factor equal to 1,5 for the internal forces.




According to Eurocode 8 [7] the action effects due to the combination of the horizontal
components of the seismic action may be computed using both of the two following
combinations:

" "0, 3 " "0, 3
0, 3 " " " "0, 3
0, 3 " "0, 3 " "
+ +
+ +
+ +
Edx Edy Edz
Edx Edy Edz
Edx Edy Edz
E E E
E E E
E E E


Where:
" "+ = Implies to be combined with.
Edx
E = Represents the action effects due to the application of the
seismic action along the chosen horizontal axis x of the structure.
Edy
E = Represents the action effects due to the application of the
same seismic action along the orthogonal horizontal axis y of the
structure.
Edz
E = Represents the action effects due to the application of the
same seismic action along the orthogonal vertical axis z of the
structure.

First of all, this implies that all Load cases must always be considered together in a
combination. In Scia Engineer this can be done by putting both Seismic Load cases in a
Load Group with relation Together.
Dynamics
144

Note:
The EC1 load type will not be used in this example. In the new EC-EN it is possible to
specify the load type as Seismic.

Next, the combination for the Seismic calculation can be inputted. According to
Eurocode 8 [7] this combination is the following:

+ +
+ i k i Ed k
Q A P G
, , 2
(5.22)

Where A
ed
signifies the accidental action, in this case the combined seismic action.
In Scia Engineer, the EN-seismic type can be used for this purpose.
To fulfil the conditions of the Eurocode, 6 load combinations of this type are created:



In order to see the global extremes for both combinations, two Result Classes can be
used:


Step 7: To obtain precise results, the Finite Element Mesh is refined through
Calculation, Mesh > Mesh Setup.
The Average number of tiles of 1D element is set to 10; the Average size of 2D
element is set to 0,25m.






Dynamics
145



Step 8: The last step before launching the calculation is setting the amount of
eigenmodes to be calculated. For this example, five eigenmodes are chosen.
In Calculation, Mesh > Solver Setup the number of frequencies is thus set to 5.




Step 9: All steps have been executed so the Linear Calculation can be started through
Calculation, Mesh > Calculation.

The Calculation Protocol for the Eigen Frequency calculation shows the following:




Dynamics
146




It can be seen that for both horizontal directions more then 90% of the total mass is
taken into account in these five modes so it is concluded that sufficient Eigenmodes
have been calculated.
Through Deformation of nodes under 2D Members, the Deformed Mesh can be used
to visualize the first four Eigenmodes:


Eigenmode 1: f = 0,73 Hz Eigenmode 2: f = 1,82 Hz


Eigenmode 3: f = 2,17 Hz Eigenmode 4: f = 2,20 Hz
Dynamics
147

The Calculation Protocol for the Linear calculation shows the results of the seismic
calculation:






For each Eigenmode the Composite Damping Ratio has been calculated using the
structural damping of the steel and concrete.
The Result Class can now be used to verify the structural elements.

Dynamics
148
6. Vortex Shedding: Karman Vibration
In this final chapter, the transverse vibration of cylindrical structures due to wind is
examined.
First the theory is explained in which reference is made to the Harmonic load since
Vortex shedding is a special case of harmonic loading.
The theory is then illustrated by an example of a steel chimney for which the results are
again verified by a manual calculation.
6.1 Theory
One of the most important mechanisms for wind-induced oscillations is the formation of
vortices (concentrations of rotating fluid particles) in the wake flow behind certain types
of structures such as chimneys, towers, suspended pipelines,
At a certain (critical) wind velocity, the flow lines do not follow the contours of the body,
but break away at some points, thus the vortices are formed [27].
These vortices are shed alternately from opposite sides of the structure and give rise to
a fluctuating load perpendicular to the wind direction. The following figure illustrates the
vortex shedding for flow past a circular cylinder. The created pattern is often referred to
as the Karman vortex trail [2]:



When a vortex is formed on one side of the structure, the wind velocity increases on the
other side. This results in a pressure difference on the opposite sides and the structure
is subjected to a lateral force away from the side where the vortex is formed. As the
vortices are shed at the critical wind velocity alternately first from one side then the
other, a harmonically varying lateral load with the same frequency as the frequency of
the vortex shedding is formed [23].
The frequency of the vortex shedding
v
f is given by:
d
v S
f
v

= (6.1)
With:
S = Non-dimensional constant referred to as the Strouhal Number
For a cylinder this is taken as 0,2.
d = Width of the body loaded by the wind [m]
For a cylinder this equals the outer-diameter.
v = The mean velocity of the wind flow [m/s]

The manner in which vortices are formed is a function of the Reynolds number Re,
which is given by [24]:

5
10 687 , 0 Re = d v (6.2)

In general large Reynolds numbers mean turbulent flow. The Reynolds number
characterizes three major regions:

Subcritical
5
10 Re 300
Supercritical
6 5
10 5 , 3 Re 10
Transcritical Re 10 5 , 3
6

Dynamics
149
For chimneys with circular cross section the flow is either in the supercritical or
transcritical range for wind velocities of practical interest.
If the vortex shedding frequency coincides with the natural frequency of the structure
(resonance) quite large across-wind amplitudes of vibration will result unless sufficient
damping is present. This principle was already discussed in Chapter 3.
In this case, formula (6.1) can be rewritten to calculate the critical wind velocity at which
resonance occurs:
f d v
crit
= 5 (6.3)
With: f = Natural frequency of the structure

The across-wind forces per unit length caused by the vortex shedding can be
approximated by the following formula: [2]
( ) ( ) t C v d t P
t crit L
=
2
2
1
(6.4)
With: = Air density taken as 1,25 kg/m
( ) t C
t
= A lift coefficient that fluctuates in a harmonic or random
manner
and depends of the Reynolds number. The following figure
shows
this relation when C
t
is proportional to the mode shape [24].


If the vortex shedding is taken as harmonic, equation (6.4) can be written as:
( ) ( )
v t crit v L
f C v d t P t P 2 sin
2
1
) sin(
2
0
= = (6.5)
According to reference [2], assuming a constant wind profile, the equivalent modal force
due to the fluctuating lift force of equation (6.5) is given by:
( ) ( )

= =
H
t v crit v L
dz z z C f v d t P t P
0
2
)} ( ){ ( 2 sin
2
1
) sin( (6.6)
With:
) (z = Modal shape at height z
H = Total height of the structure
As seen in Chapter 3, the dynamic amplitude Y at resonance can be written as:
2
S
Y
Y = (6.7)
Dynamics
150
The static deformation Y
S
is given by:
2
0 0
M
P
K
P
Y
S
= = (6.8)
M is the equivalent modal mass of a prismatic member given by [2]:
dz z z m M
H
2
0
)} ( { ) (

= (6.9)
With:
m(z) = The mass per unit height

When combining formulas (6.7) and (6.8) the maximum response of a SDOF system
subjected to a harmonic excitation may be written as:
2
1
2
=
M
P
Y
L
(6.10)
It follows that when the vortex shedding occurs with the same frequency as the natural
frequency of the structure, the maximal amplitude is given by:

2
1
)} ( { ) (
)} ( ){ (
2
1
2
0
2
0
2

dz z z m
dz z z C v d
Y
H
H
t crit
(6.11)
When it is assumed that the mass per unit height is constant and that the lift coefficient
is proportional to the mode shape, formula (6.11) can be simplified to the following:

=
m S
C d
Y
t
2 2
3
16
(6.12)
This equation may be used as a first estimate of likely response of the structure.

6.2 Karman Vibration in Scia Engineer
In Scia Engineer, the Vortex Shedding was implemented according the Czech loading
standard [24].
The effect is only taken into account if the critical wind velocity calculated by formula
(6.3) is between a minimal and maximal value. These two extremes can be defined by
the user. According to [24] these values are taken as 5 m/s and 20 m/s.
In addition to formula (6.11), in Scia Engineer it is possible to specify the length of the
structure where the Von Karman effect can occur. For each geometric node of the
structure, it is possible to relate a length of the cylinder to the node. This implies that, in
order to obtain precise results, the structure should be modelled with sufficient
geometric nodes.
By default the effect can occur over the entire height of the structure however, when
there are specific obstacles on the surface of a chimney for example, these obstacles
will hamper the formation of the vortices and thus reduce the Von Karman effect. In
practice, this is exactly the solution to suppress vortex-induced vibration: the fitting of
special ribs on the surface of the cylinder.
Dynamics
151
The following diagram shows the required steps to perform a Vortex Shedding
calculation:




This diagram will be illustrated in the following example.
















Activate the Dynamics functionality
Input Masses Generate Masses from Static Load cases
Create a Mass Group
Create a Mass Combination
Perform a Linear Calculation
Refine the Finite-Element Mesh if required
Specify the number of Eigenmodes to be calculated
Create a Karman Vibration Load case
Input Karman Loads (lengths)
Dynamics
152
Example 14: Vortex_Shedding.esa
In this example, a steel chimney is modelled with a fixed base.
The chimney has an outer-diameter of 1,2m and a thickness of 6mm.
The total height is 30m and the structure is manufactured in S235
according to EC-EN.
To take into account the weight of insulation, electrical cables and other
non-structural elements, a distributed mass of 55 kg/m is inputted.
No specific structural measures are taken to prevent the vortex
shedding thus the entire length of the chimney must be taken into
account for the Von Karman vibration.
To this end, the chimney is modelled as a cantilever built up as 30
members to create sufficient geometric nodes. Each node (except the
base and top) will be assigned a chimney length of 1m.
For the logarithmic decrement of the chimney, a value of 0,025 is used.

One static load case is created: the self-weight of the structure.














Step 1: The first step in the Karman Vibration calculation is to activate
the functionality Dynamics on the Functionality tab in the Project
Data.

Step 2: The second step is to create a Mass Group.

Since the self-weight is automatically taken into account, only one Mass Group needs to
be defined: a group for the additional weight.

Step 3: After the Mass Group has been created; the distributed mass of 55 kg/m can be
inputted on all members.







Dynamics
153
Step 4: Next, the Mass Group is put within a Combination of Mass
Groups, which can be used for defining the harmonic load.




Step 5: After creating a Mass Combination, a Karman vibration load
case can be defined through Load cases, Combinations > Load
Cases.
The Action Type of the Load Case is set to Variable.








The Load Type can then be changed to Dynamic.
Within the Specification field, the type of dynamic load can be set, in
this case Karman vibration.



To specify the parameters of the Karman vibration load case, the button behind
Parameters is used.




Dynamics
154
The logarithmic decrement was given to be 0,025.
The Diameter of the tube was 1,2m.

The Wind direction is defined in the Global Coordinate System. A direction of 0,00 deg
specifies the global X-axis. This implies that the Karman vibration will occur in a
direction along the Y-axis (perpendicular to the wind direction).
As specified in paragraph 6.2 the minimal and maximal wind velocities are set to 5 m/s
and 20 m/s respectively. Vortex shedding will only occur if the critical wind velocity is
between these two limits.
The option User number of excited eigenshape can be used to manually specify for
which eigenmode the Vortex shedding needs to be calculated. When this option is not
used, Scia Engineer determines the representative mode automatically.
Since the wind direction is set along the global X-axis, the representative mode will be a
mode shape along the global Y-axis.

Step 6: The parameters of the load case have been defined, what is
left is to specify the length of the structure where the Von Karman
effect can occur. As indicated in paragraph 6.2; Scia Engineer allows
to relate a length of the chimney to each geometric node.
This load can be inputted through Load > Point Force > Karman
Load
As no specific measures were taken to prevent vortex shedding and
since the chimney was inputted as 30 members, each node is
assigned a length of 1m. The top node is assigned a length of 0,5m
and the base node is not assigned a length since this node will not
take part in the vibration.

Step 7: To obtain precise results for the dynamic calculation, the Finite
Element Mesh is refined. The Average number of tiles of 1D element is
set to 5 through Calculation, Mesh > Mesh Setup







Step 8: The last step before launching the calculation is setting the amount of
eigenmodes to be calculated. The default value in Calculation, Mesh > Solver Setup
is 4. This is sufficient for this example.

Dynamics
155


Step 9: All steps have been executed so the Linear Calculation can be started through
Calculation, Mesh > Calculation.

The Calculation Protocol for the Eigen Frequency calculation shows the following:



The details of the Karman Vibration calculation can be found in the Calculation
Protocol for the Linear calculation:



As expected, the Vortex shedding was analyzed for the second eigenmode, the mode
with largest mass participation in the Y-direction.
The Maximum and Reduced loads are intermediate results used to calculate the across-
wind forces according to [24].
The maximum horizontal translation for the second eigenmode can be found through
Deformation of Nodes:
Dynamics
156


In the same way, the total deflection of the top of the chimney caused by the Karman
Vibration can be shown:



It is clear that this large translation at the top will cause considerable stresses at the
base of the chimney.
As specified in Chapter 3, a combination of type Envelope can take into account both
sides of the vibration amplitude since a vibration is always in both directions.
An envelope combination is created for the chimney to evaluate the stresses at the
base:




The Member Stresses for the lower member of the chimney give the following normal
stresses for the combination:
Dynamics
157


A stress range of 207,3 MPa will lead to significant fatigue problems after even a low
amount of cycles. This is one of the most reported types of failures due to Vortex
shedding.
A solution to this problem is the fitting of a helix type rib to prevent the correlation of the
vortices (and thus lower the chimney-length which must be taken into account for the
Von Karman effect). The disadvantage of such a rib is that it increases the drag force
[2].
Since the Vortex shedding is a state of resonance, the amplitude is damping dependent
as explained in Chapter 3. Another solution is thus to increase the damping by installing
a tuned mass damper system [23].


Manual Calculation
In order to check the results obtained with Scia Engineer, a manual calculation is
performed.
First of all, the fundamental natural frequency of the chimney is approximated by the
following formula given in Eurocode 1 [4]:
t
s
eff
l
W
W
h
d
f
2

=

(6.13)
With:

l
= 1000 for steel chimneys
d = Diameter of the chimney at the top [m]
h
eff
= Total height of the chimney for a prismatic cantilever structure [m]
W
s
= Weight of the structural elements which add to the stiffness of the
chimney, in this case only the self-weight of the chimney.
W
t
= Total weight of the chimney, thus including the additional weight.


The self-weight of the chimney is given in the Bill of Material:



=
+

=
55 6 , 176
6 , 176
30
2 , 1 1000
2
f 1,16 Hz
This result is a good approximation of the result of 1,18 Hz calculated by Scia Engineer.

Next the result of the Von Karman vibration is verified.
The critical wind velocity at which resonance occurs is calculated using formula (6.3):
Dynamics
158
1834 , 1 2 , 1 5 5 = = f d v
crit
= 7,10 m/s

The critical wind velocity is between the upper and lower limit of 5 m/s and 20 m/s thus
vortex shedding is likely to occur.
Using formula (6.2) the Reynolds number Re is calculated:
= = =
5 5
10 2 , 1 10 , 7 687 , 0 10 687 , 0 Re d v 585356,98

Using the Reynolds number, the lift coefficient C
t
can be calculated:



These intermediate results correspond to the results calculated by Scia Engineer.



As an approximation of the response at the top of the chimney, equation (6.12) can be
used:

=
m S
C d
Y
t
2 2
3
16

With: = 1,25 kg/m
S = 0,2
m = 176,6 kg/m + 55 kg/m
= 0,003979 for a logarithmic decrement of 0,025

= =
+

= m Y 21099 , 0
003979 , 0 ) 55 6 , 176 ( 2 , 0 16
5686 , 0 2 , 1 25 , 1
2 2
3

210,99mm

This result corresponds to the result calculated by Scia Engineer.
Eurocode 1 [4] gives an approximate formula to calculate the amount of cycles a
chimney is subjected to due to vortex shedding. This can be used in a fatigue analysis.
Adaptations to the formulas for formations of cylindrical elements like chimneys and
cables are found in the same reference.





585356,9
8
0,568
6
Dynamics
159
7. Direct time integration

7.1 Theory

The title may be misleading because normally in the literature, this name is used for a
dynamic computation without modal superposition. In Scia Engineer, the eigenmodes
are determined first and are used to uncouple the equilibrium equations into a set of m
uncoupled second order differential equations which are solved one by one by direct
time integration. The uncoupling is based on the properties given by equations
0 =
i
T
j
M , When j i
2
i i
T
i
K =

. In equation (3.1) a solution for y is assumed to be of the form:

y = Q (7.1)

Where is the matrix of eigenvectors (n*n) and Q is a vector which is time dependent.

Substitution in equation (3.1) gives:

M Q C Q F + =
&& &
(7.2)

When the equation is pre-multiplied with
T
, and the above equations are taken into
account, one obtains :


&& &
Q C Q Q F
T T
+ + = (7.3)

This set of equations is still coupled because of the damping term. If however C-
orthogonality is assumed (this means that
T
.C. reduces to only diagonal terms), then
the equations are uncoupled and can be solved separately. The global results are
obtained by superposition of the individual results (7.1) is also the exact solution if the
assumption of C-orthogonality holds. If however, only a few eigenvectors (m<n) are used
in instead of all the eigenvectors, then the system of equations and the superposition of
the solutions gives a solution y which is an approximation of the exact solution.

In Scia Engineer, C-orthogonality is assumed and it is also assumed that all modal
damping factors are constant. This means that:


T
i ij
C = 2 (7.4)

The value of is one of the input data and is called damping factor.

The number of eigenvectors that is taken into account is also specified by the user. This
value is equal to the number of eigenvectors computed in the eigenvalue computation.
The method used to solve each uncoupled second order differential equation is the
Newmark-method. This method is unconditionally stable but the accuracy depends on the
time step. This time step has to be given by the user. However, to help him in his choice,
a value determined by the program will be used if the user does not specify a value. This
proposed value is computed as: 0.01 T
Where T smallest period of all the modes which have to be taken into account

Dynamics
160
This proposed value guarantees accuracy better than 1% over each period of integration
of this highest mode. In most cases, a larger time step can be used because the
contribution of this last mode is small.
This brings us to the question about the number of modes that should be used. When the
time dependent terms on the left hand side of equation (7.3) are neglected, the solution
for q
j
(a term of Q) is:

q F
j j j
T
= 1
2
/ (7.5)

This indicates that the lowest eigenmodes (
j
small) will contribute more than the highest
modes (
j
large), if dynamic terms are neglected. This can give a first idea on how many
modes to use.
A second criterion is the periodicity of F. Any mode which coincides with the loading
frequency should be taken into account.
Modal weight is a third criterion that can be used. If you add all modal weights in a
particular direction together and divides this result by 9.81*sum of nodal masses in the
same direction, you obtain a value smaller than 1. If this value is close to 1, it means that
the higher modes will not contribute anymore. If, on the contrary, the value is smaller than
0.9, one can doubt about the value of a subsequent modal superposition.







































Dynamics
161
7.2 Direct time integration in Scia Engineer
In Scia Engineer, its possible to input a dynamic function. This can be used for different
purposes, for example: harmonic loads, explosions,
In this case, the user has to input a dynamic function which presents the frequency in
function of the time.

The following diagram shows the different steps which has to be performed for the time
history calculation:


























This will be shown in following example.




Activate the functionalities

-Dynamics


-General dynamics
Input Masses

Generate Masses from Static Load cases

Create a Mass Group

Create a Mass Combination

Perform a Linear Calculation
Refine the Finite -Element Mesh if required

Specify the number of Eigenmodes to be ca lculated

Create a general dynamics load case

Define a Dynamic load function

Dynamics
162
Example: Time_history.esa
In this example an explosion is simulated on a concrete plate.


The plate has a dimension of 6x6m and the thickness is 300 mm. The plate will be
calculated according to the EC-EN and is made of concrete grade C30/37. The four
corners are supported by hinged supports.
Three load cases are introduced:
- Self weight
- Permanent surface load: -4kN/m^2
- Variable point load: Blast of -11 kN

Step 1: Go to Project>functionality and check the options:
Dynamics and General dynamics

Step 2: Open the menu Dynamics and a mass group will be created here. For this, the
permanent surface load of -4kN/m^2 is used.
For this, you can click on the create masses from load case button.



A surface mass of 407.7 kg/m^2 is created.


Dynamics
163

Step 3: Next, a combination of mass groups can be created.



Step 4: After the creation of masses, the explosion can be simulated by means of a
dynamic load function.
Go to Libraries > loads > Dynamic load functions.
Here, the input of frequences in function in time is asked.
Two type of functions can be input, namely a base and/or modal function. If both are
introduced, the user can choose if these functions has to be multiplied or summarized.
4 types of functions can be choosen: constant, linear, parabolic or sinusoidal.

In our example a modal function is created with linear lines:


This function has to be attributed to a point load. We will do this in step 6.

Step 5: A load case is introduced to simulate this explosion.






Dynamics
164
The action type is variable and the type of load Dynamic



For the load group, the user can choose a special case, namely accidental.



Next, the specification has to be selected and the type General dynamics has to be
choosen for a time history calculation.
For this, we need some extra parameters:




Where:


Dynamics
165
Total time: The total time of the dynamic analysis
Integration step: When Auto is checked, then 1/100 of the smallest period is taken.
When Auto isnt checked, then the user is allowed to select an
integration step value.
Output step: Step for generating the load cases. The value need to be bigger or
equal at the integration step
Log Decrement: Damping defined as logarithmic decrement

Step 6: Input of a nodal force. In fact, its only possible to link this type of forces to a
dynamic function and this only on internal nodes.



A point force of -11kN is input in the middle of the plate. The user has the option to
attribute the dynamic function DLF1 to this load.

Step 7: Before the calculation, the mesh is refined to get precise results.



Step 8: Now, the calculation can be performed.
When the calculation is finished, new load cases are created which present the
influence of the blast on the structure on each output step:


To find the most extreme result, these load cases can be input in a result class.

Step 9: Results:
Dynamics
166

The eigen frequencies are shown in the results menu:



Other results, like for example deformations, can be regarded for the different output
steps:

- After 0.3 seconds:

- After 0.6 seconds:










Dynamics
167
- After 0.9 seconds:



- After 1.2 seconds:



- After 1.5 seconds:















Dynamics
168
Example: RunningLoad.esa
In this example a running load over a bar is simulated.



The beam has a length of 20m and a section HEA200. The beam will be calculated
according to the EC-EN and is made of steel S235. The edges are supported by hinged
supports.
Two load cases are introduced:
- Self weight
- Variable dynamic load: Point loads of -100 kN on every 2m over the beam

Step 1: Go to Project>functionality and check the options:
Dynamics and General dynamics

Step 2: Open the menu Dynamics and a mass group will be created here. For this, no
mass is inputted. Only the self weight is taken into account.

Step 3: Next, a combination of mass groups can be created.



Step 4: After the creation of masses, the running load can be simulated by means of
dynamic load functions.
Go to Libraries > loads > Dynamic load functions.
Here, the input of frequences in function in time is asked.
Two type of functions can be input, namely a base and/or modal function. If both are
introduced, the user can choose if these functions has to be multiplied or summarized.
4 types of functions can be choosen: constant, linear, parabolic or sinusoidal.

In our example 9 modal functions are created with linear lines:

Dynamics
169



Each function will be attributed to a different point load (see step 6). DLF1 to the first
point load from the left. DLF2 to the second point load from the left. And so on...
By this a displacement of the point load from left to right over a time period is simulated.
On each point (every 2m) the point load stays over a time of 0.20sec. So it takes 2
seconds for the point load to cross the whole beam.

Step 5: A load case is introduced to simulate this running load.

The action type is variable and the type of load Dynamic



For the load group, the user can choose a special case, namely accidental.

Dynamics
170


Next, the specification has to be selected and the type General dynamics has to be
choosen for a time history calculation.
For this, we need some extra parameters:




Where:


Total time: The total time of the dynamic analysis
Integration step: When Auto is checked, then 1/100 of the smallest period is taken.
When Auto isnt checked, then the user is allowed to select an
integration step value.
Output step: Step for generating the load cases. The value need to be bigger or
equal at the integration step
Log Decrement: Damping defined as logarithmic decrement

Step 6: Input of a nodal force. In fact, its only possible to link this type of forces to a
dynamic function and this only on internal nodes.
Thats why the internal nodes first have to be created on the beam. Every 2m an
internal node has to be created on the beam. On each of these nodes a point force of
-100 kN is set. The first point force from the left is linked to DLF1, the second to DLF2,...
and by this the point load moves from left to right over the beam in a total time of 2 sec.

Dynamics
171



Step 7: Now, the calculation can be performed.
When the calculation is finished, new load cases are created which present each output
step:




Dynamics
172
To find the most extreme result, these load cases are automatically input in a result
class:




Step 9: Results:

The eigen frequencies are shown in the results menu:





Dynamics
173
Other results, like for example deformations, can be regarded for the different output
steps:

- After 0.5 seconds:

- After 1 seconds:


- After 1.5 seconds:


- After 2 seconds:


- After 2.4 seconds:

- For the result class (envelope result):


Dynamics
174

It is also possible to see the result in a certain point for all load cases in one picture. By
this it is possible to see the result over the time.
Consider for instance the vertical displacement of the middle node N6.





The deformation of the middle node in function of the time is shown in the result
preview.
Dynamics
175
References
[1] Beards F., Structural Vibration: Analysis and Damping, Arnold, London, 1996.
[2] H. Buchholdt, Structural Dynamics for Engineers, Thomas Telford
Publications, 1997.
[3] Chopra A., Dynamics of Structures: Theory and Applications to Earthquake
Engineering, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2001.
[4] Eurocode 1: Basis of design and actions on structures, Part 2-4: Actions on
structures - Wind actions, ENV 1991-2-4, 1995.
[5] Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures, Part 1-9: Fatigue Strength of Steel
Structures, ENV 1993-1-9: 2002.
[6] Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance, Part 1-1: General
rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings, ENV 1998-1-1, 1994.
[7] Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance, Part 1: General
rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings, EN 1998-1, 2004.
[8] Eurocode 8: Design provisions for earthquake resistance of structures, Part
6: Towers, masts and chimneys, Annex B, ENV 1998-6, 2003.
[9] Eurocode 8: National Application Document for Belgium, NBN-ENV 1998-1-1,
2002 NAD.
[10] Murray M., Allen D., Ungar E., Floor Vibrations due to Human Activity, AISC,
2003.
[11] Leijendeckers P.P.H., Fortuin J.B., Van Herwijnen F., Leegwater H.,
Polytechnisch zakboekje (Polytechnic pocket notebook), 48
e
druk, Koninklijke
PBNA, 1998 (in Dutch).
[12] Ghali A., Neville A.M., Structural Analysis: A unified classical and matrix
approach, Chapman and Hall, London, 1990.
[13] EPFL-ENAC-SGC, Gnie Parasismique, Quotient de Rayleigh (Rayleigh
Quotient), Suisse, 2004 (in French).
[14] Xiang Y., Wei G.W., Exact Solutions for Vibration of Multi-span Rectangular
Mindlin Plates, Journal of Vibration and Acoustics Vol.125, ASME, 2002.
[15] Whalen T.M., Course CE573: Structural Dynamics, Problem 3.10, Purdue
University, Indiana, 2004.
[16] SCIA Group NV, ESA-Prima Win: Dynamics Theoretical Background, Herk-
de-Stad, 2002.
[17] U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Engineering and Design - Seimic Design
Provisions for Roller Compacted Concrete Dams, EP 1110-2-12, 1995.
[18] Wilson E., Three-Dimensional Static and Dynamic Analysis of Structures,
CSI, Berkley, 2002.
[19] ASCE4-98, Seismic Analysis of Safety-Related Nuclear Structures and Commentary,
2000.
[20] Chowdhury I., Dasgupta S., Computation of Rayleigh Damping Coefficients
for Large Systems, EJGE, 2003.
[21] NF P 06-013, PS92: Les Rgles de la construction Parasismique (Rules for
Seismic Structures), 1995 (in French).
[22] Vandepitte D., Berekening van Constructies (Calculation of Structures),
Story-Scientia, Gent, 1979 (in Dutch). www.berekeningvanconstructies.be
[23] Transvik P., Alpsten G., Dynamic Behaviour under Wind Loading of a 90m
Steel Chimney, Report S-01041, 2002.
[24] Czech Standard CSN 73 0035: Actions on Structures, 1986 (in Czech).
[25] Vandewalle J., Cools R., Lineaire Algebra en Analytische Meetkunde (Linear
Algebra and Analytical Geometry), Garant, Leuven, 1998 (in Dutch).
[26] Toratti T., Seismic Design of Timber Structures, Tekes, 2001.

[27] Billah Y., Scanlan R., Resonance, Tacoma Narrows bridge failure, and
undergraduate physics textbooks, Am. J. Phys. 59 (2), American Association
of Physics Teachers, 1991.
[28] Lee I., AE514: Finite Element Methods in Structural Dynamics, Aero elasticity
and Structural Dynamics Lab., Dept. of Aerospace Engineering, Kaist, 2001.

Dynamics
176
Annex A: Earthquake Magnitude
To assess the magnitude of earthquakes, a scale to describe the energy released
during an earthquake was developed by Richter in the 1930s. This is named the Richter
scale and it is the most common scale used today to describe earthquakes [26].
The magnitude of an earthquake on the Richter scale is determined by a so-called
Wood-Anderson seismograph maximum amplitude, where M = log(a), and a is the
maximum amplitude [m] at a 100 km distance from the epicentre.
The seismic action on buildings cannot be described by the Richter scale magnitude
and this may not be used in the design. However, Housner in 1970 developed empirical
relationships between the magnitude, the duration and the peak ground acceleration to
be used in design:



Dynamics
177
Annex B: Numerical Damping Values
In this annex, some numerical values for structural damping are given.
A. EC 8 - Part 6 (ENV 1998-6:2003 Annex B) suggest the following values for the
damping ratio:
Structural material
Damping ratio
Steel elements 1% - 4%
Concrete elements 2% - 7%
Ceramic cladding 1.5% - 5%
Brickwork lining 3% - 10%

B. Other values for damping are suggested by EC1 - Part 2-4 (ENV 1991-2-4:1995
Annex C):
The fundamental logarithmic decrement d is given by:
d a s
d d d d + + =

Where:

s
d : Fundamental structural damping,

a
d : Fundamental aero dynamical damping

d
d : Fundamental damping due to special devices

The structural damping is given by:
min
1 1 1

+ =
s
s
d
b n a d

Where:

1
n : Fundamental flexural frequency,
min 1 1
, , b a : Parameters given in the following table for different structural
types.



Structural type
1
a
1
b
min

Reinforced concrete buildings 0.045 0.030 0.080
Steel buildings 0.045 0 0.050
Mixed structures: concrete + steel 0.080 0 0.080
Reinforced concrete towers 0.050 0 0.025
Lattice steel towers 0 0.030 0
Reinforced concrete chimneys 0.075 0 0.030
Prestressed steel cable 0 0.010 0
Unlined welded steel stacks 0 0.015 0
Steel stack with one liner or thermal insulation 0 0.025 0
Steel stack with two or more liners 0 0.030 0
Steel with brick liner 0 0.070 0
Coupled stacks without liner 0 0.015 0
Guyed steel stack without liner 0 0.040 0
Steel bridges Welded 0 0.020 0
High resistance bolts 0 0.030 0
Ordinary bolts 0 0.050 0
Dynamics
178
Structural type
1
a
1
b
min

Concrete
bridges
Prestressed without
cracks
0 0.040 0
With cracks 0 0.100 0
Bridge cables Parallel cables 0 0.006 0
Spiral cables 0 0.020 0

E.g.: for a steel building with first frequency of 3Hz, the logarithmic decrement is:
0.045 x 3 + 0 = 0.135 (> 0.05)

C. Other values for the logarithmic decrement are suggested by [22]:

Structural material Logarithmic decrement
Steel (welded) 0,025
Reinforced or Prestressed Concrete 0,056
Brickwork 0,25
Wood 0,13
In this reference, preliminary formulas can also be found for aerodynamic damping and
damping caused by the foundation.