AboutLNG

WHATISLNG? LNGismadefromnaturalgas,whichisacleanburningsourceofheatenergywithmanyapplications including as fuel for power generation, industrial and home heating and as a chemical feedstock. Natural gas is composed primarily of methane (typically, 85 90%), but also typically contains ethane, propane and heavier hydrocarbons (butane, pentane, hexane etc.). Small quantities of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and sulphur compounds are also found in most sources of natural gas,butthecompositioncanvarymarkedlywiththegeologicalconditions. Natural gas is transported by pipeline to its consumers, but when the distance between source and consumptionisgreat (~1,500kmbysea or5,000kmoverland)thenliquefactionofthegastoreduce its volume by a factor of 600 becomes economic. The gas in liquid form can then be carried economicallybyshipsequippedwithwellinsulatedtanksmadefromspecialsteel. Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is formed when natural gas is cooled by a refrigeration process to temperatures of between159 to162C at atmospheric pressure and the gas condenses to a liquid. Before natural gas can be liquefied in this way, the impurities, including carbon dioxide, sulphur compounds, heavier hydrocarbons and water must be removed by various processes. If nitrogen is presentinthenaturalgasathighlevelsitmayberemovedattheendoftheprocessasitcondenses atanevenlowertemperaturethanpuremethane(196C). The liquefaction process can be designed to purify the LNG to almost 100% methane, or leave in more ethane and some LPGs (propane and butane) to match the pipeline gas specifications in the receivinggas systemorcountry.Most gasdistributionsystemsspecifylimitsintermsof theheating (calorific) value of the gas to maintain safe conditions in combustion equipment. As it happens the specifications are quite different in Japan (the dominant LNG import market over the past 30 years) andtheUSA,themajoremergingLNGimportmarket. LNGisabout47%asdenseaswaterandisodourless,colourless,noncorrosiveandnontoxic.When vaporized it burns only in concentrations of 5% to 15% when mixed with air. Neither LNG nor its vapourcanexplodeinanunconfinedenvironment. TheLNGvaluechainfromfieldproductiontopipelinegasconsumersacrossoceansisasfollows:

 HowisLNGmade? LNG involves the purification, chilling and liquefaction of natural gas by various processes including refrigeration using hydrocarbon refrigerants. The first step is removal of carbon dioxide and other acid gases such as hydrogen sulphide by a recirculating amine process. This is a very common process in natural gas treatment plants producing pipeline gas and in petroleum refining and petrochemical plants. The carbon dioxide is normally vented to the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide, if not removed would freeze to solid in the heat exchangers involved in the liquefaction process and cause blockages. Water would do the same, so it is removed using molecular sieve driers as commonly used in natural gas treatment plants producing pipeline gas. Traces of mercury sometimes occur in natural gas and this is a potential problem for LNG plant as mercury corrodes aluminium which is used in some of the equipment. Mercury removal facilities are usually incorporatedintoLNGplantsasaresult.

GAS TO LNG BLOCK FLOW DIAGRAM

RECEPTION

ACID GAS REMOVAL

DEHYDRATION & MERCURY REMOVAL

PRE-COOLING

LIQUEFACTION

LNG

CONDENSATE STABILISATION

FRACTIONATION

LPG
STORAGE & LOADING

CONDENSATE

UTILITIES

The chilling of the gas to moderately low temperatures causes at first the condensation of heavy hydrocarbons, which might also freeze and cause blockages of equipment at lower temperatures. These components of the gas are removed in a scrub column along with some of the LPG (propane andbutane)asthegasiscooledtoabout35C. Chilling and then liquefaction is accomplished by a refrigeration process powered by a large compressor typically driven directly by a gas turbine or a steam turbine. In principle, the refrigeration process is no different from that in a domestic refrigerator or air conditioner, but the differenceinscaleisimmense. Cooling and condensation of the high pressure refrigerant gas is accomplished in air coolers or watercooledheatexchangers.When thehigh pressureliquidrefrigerantisdepressuredthroughan expansion valve, the drop in temperature is used to extract heat energy from the process gas through a heat exchanger. Usually there are at least two main compressors with multiple stages of heat exchangers for maximum efficiency in liquefying the methane and ethane in the purified naturalgastomakeLNG.

 Howisitstored? LNG is stored in shore tanks at both ends of its sea voyage to accumulate sufficient volumes for economic shipping. The tanks are of doublewall construction with extremely efficient insulation between the walls. Large tanks tend to have a low aspect ratio (height to width) and are cylindrical in design with a domed roof. Storage pressures in these tanks are very low, less than 5 psig. The outer walls are made of reinforced concrete and are designed to safely contain the contents of the innertankintheextremelyunlikelyeventofitdevelopingaleak. Howisitkeptcold? The shore tank or ship tanks insulation, as efficient as it may be, will not keep the LNG cold enough toremainasaliquidbyitself.LNGisstoredasa"boilingcryogen",thatis,itisaverycoldliquidatits boiling point for the pressure at which it is being stored. Storage of LNG utilizes a phenomenon called "autorefrigeration" where the LNG stays at near constant temperature if kept at constant pressure. This constant temperature occurs as long as the LNG vapour boil off is allowed to leave the storage tank. The vapour is either removed and used as fuel or reliquefied and returned to the tank. LNGTankDesign Inthe3DCADimageanddesigndrawingshownbelowofthetankplannedfortheTimorSeaLNG Project,aconventionalLNGonshoretankisconstructedonandintegratedwithaconcretegravity basestructure(CGS)whichactsasatransportbargeandthenafoundationwhenballastedonthe shoalwithseawater.

 IsLNGsafe? ItisimportanttorememberthatLNGisaformofenergyandmustberespectedassuch.TodayLNG is transported and stored as safely as any other liquid fuel. Before the storage of cryogenic liquids was fully understood, there was a serious incident involving a LNG storage tank failure killing 128 people in Cleveland, Ohio in 1944. This incident virtually stopped all development of the LNG industryfor20years. The race to the Moon led to a much better understanding of cryogenics and cryogenic storage with theexpandeduseofliquidhydrogen(252C)andliquidoxygen(182C).LNGtechnologygrewfrom theadvancementsdevelopedbyNASAforthespaceprogramme. In addition to Cleveland, there have been two other incidents in the USA sometimes attributed to LNG. A construction accident on Staten Island in 1973 has been cited by some parties as an "LNG accident"becausetheconstructioncrewwasworkinginsidean(empty,warm)LNGtank.Inanother case, the failure of an electrical seal on an LNG pump in 1979 permitted gas (not LNG) to enter an enclosedbuilding.Asparkofindeterminateorigincausedthebuildingtoexplode.Asaresultofthis incident, the electrical code has been revised for the design of electrical seals used with all flammablefluidsunderpressure. Today the LNG industry maintains an excellent safety record by incorporating many years of experience and engineering solutions and safety codes into the design and operation of LNG liquefaction,storageandregasificationplantsaroundtheworld.