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Error Detection and Correction

Datacanbecorruptedduringtransmission. Someapplicationsrequirethaterrorsbedetectedandcorrected. Letusfirstdiscusssomeissuesrelated,directlyorindirectly,toerrordetectionandcorrection. INASINGLEBITERROR,ONLY1BITINTHEDATAUNITHASCHANGED.

INMODULONARITHMETIC,WEUSEONLYTHEINTEGERSINTHERANGE0TON1,INCLUSIVE.

Figure:XORingoftwosinglebitsortwowords BLOCK CODING: Inblockcoding,wedivideourmessageintoblocks,eachofkbits,calleddatawords.Weaddr redundantbitstoeachblocktomakethelengthn=k+r.Theresultingnbitblocksarecalled codewords.

ABURSTERRORMEANSTHAT2ORMOREBITSINTHEDATAUNITHAVECHANGED.

TODETECTORCORRECTERRORS,WENEEDTOSENDEXTRA(REDUNDANT)BITSWITHDATA.

Figure:Datawordsandcodewordsinblockcoding

EXAMPLE: The4B/5BblockcodingdiscussedinChapter4isagoodexampleofthistypeofcoding.Inthiscoding scheme,k=4andn=5.Aswesaw,wehave2k=16datawordsand2n=32codewords.Wesawthat 16outof32codewordsareusedformessagetransferandtherestareeitherusedforotherpurposes orunused.

Figure:Thestructureofencoderanddecoder

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Figure:Processoferrordetectioninblockcoding

Figure:Structureofencoderanddecoderinerrorcorrection

Table6.1Acodeforerrordetection

Table6.2Acodeforerrorcorrection

EXAMPLE: Letusassumethatk=2andn=3.Table6.1showsthelistofdatawordsandcodewords.Later,we willseehowtoderiveacodewordfromadataword.Assumethesenderencodesthedataword01as 011andsendsittothereceiver.Considerthefollowingcases: 1.Thereceiverreceives011.Itisavalidcodeword.Thereceiverextractsthedataword01fromit. 2.Thecodewordiscorruptedduringtransmission,and111isreceived.Thisisnotavalidcodeword andisdiscarded. 3.Thecodewordiscorruptedduringtransmission,and000isreceived.Thisisavalidcodeword.The receiverincorrectlyextractsthedataword00.Twocorruptedbitshavemadetheerrorundetectable. ANERRORDETECTINGCODECANDETECTONLYTHETYPESOFERRORSFORWHICHITISDESIGNED; OTHERTYPESOFERRORSMAYREMAINUNDETECTED.

EXAMPLE: LetusaddmoreredundantbitstoPreviousExampletoseeifthereceivercancorrectanerror without knowingwhatwasactually sent.Weadd3 redundantbits to the2bit dataword tomake 5 bit codewords. Table 6.2 shows the datawords and codewords. Assume the dataword is 01. The sender creates the codeword 01011. The codeword is corrupted during transmission, and 01001 is received. First, the receiver finds that the received codeword is not in the table. This means an error hasoccurred.Thereceiver,assumingthatthereisonly1bitcorrupted,usesthefollowingstrategyto guessthecorrectdataword. 1. Comparing the received codeword with the first codeword in the table (01001 versus 00000), the receiverdecidesthat thefirstcodewordis nottheonethatwassent becausethere are two different bits. 2.Bythesamereasoning,theoriginalcodewordcannotbethethirdorfourthoneinthetable. 3.Theoriginalcodewordmustbethesecondoneinthetablebecausethisistheonlyonethatdiffers from the received codeword by 1 bit. The receiver replaces 01001 with 01011 and consults the table tofindthedataword01. THE HAMMING DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO WORDS IS THE NUMBER OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CORRESPONDINGBITS.

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COMPUTER NETWORK LetusfindtheHammingdistancebetweentwopairsofwords. 1.TheHammingdistanced(000,011)is2because 2.TheHammingdistanced(10101,11110)is3because

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PARITY CODE: Asimpleparitycheckcodeisasinglebiterrordetectingcodeinwhich n=k+1withdmin=2.

THE MINIMUM HAMMING DISTANCE IS THE SMALLEST HAMMING DISTANCE BETWEEN ALLPOSSIBLEPAIRSINASETOFWORDS. EXAMPLE: FindtheminimumHammingdistanceofthecodingschemeinTable6.1. Solution: WefirstfindallHammingdistances.

Thedmininthiscaseis2. EXAMPLE: FindtheminimumHammingdistanceofthecodingschemeinTable6.2. Solution WefirstfindalltheHammingdistances.

Table6.3SimpleparitycheckcodeC(5,4)

Thedmininthiscaseis3. TOGUARANTEETHEDETECTIONOFUPTOSERRORSINALLCASES,THEMINIMUMHAMMING DISTANCEINABLOCKCODEMUSTBEDMIN=S+1. EXAMPLE: TheminimumHammingdistanceforourfirstcodescheme(Table6.1)is2.Thiscodeguarantees detectionofonlyasingleerror.Forexample,ifthethirdcodeword(101)issentandoneerroroccurs, thereceivedcodeworddoesnotmatchanyvalidcodeword.Iftwoerrorsoccur,however,the receivedcodewordmaymatchavalidcodewordandtheerrorsarenotdetected. EXAMPLE: Oursecondblockcodescheme(Table6.2)hasdmin=3.Thiscodecandetectuptotwo errors.Again,weseethatwhenanyofthevalidcodewordsissent,twoerrorscreateacodeword whichisnotinthetableofvalidcodewords.Thereceivercannotbefooled. However,somecombinationsofthreeerrorschangeavalidcodewordtoanothervalidcodeword. Thereceiveracceptsthereceivedcodewordandtheerrorsareundetected. SUJOY BHOWMICK (Asst. Prof, IT) PAGE NO : 5

Figure:Encoderanddecoderforsimpleparitycheckcode

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EXAMPLE: Letuslookatsometransmissionscenarios.Assumethesendersendsthedataword1011.The codewordcreatedfromthisdatawordis10111,whichissenttothereceiver.Weexaminefivecases: 1.Noerroroccurs;thereceivedcodewordis10111.Thesyndromeis0.Thedataword1011is created. 2.Onesinglebiterrorchangesa1.Thereceivedcodewordis10011.Thesyndromeis1.Nodataword iscreated. 3.Onesinglebiterrorchangesr0.Thereceivedcodewordis10110.Thesyndromeis1.Nodataword iscreated. 4.Anerrorchangesr0andaseconderrorchangesa3. Thereceivedcodewordis00110.Thesyndromeis0. Thedataword0011iscreatedatthereceiver.Notethatherethedatawordiswronglycreateddue tothesyndromevalue. 5.Threebitsa3,a2,anda1arechangedbyerrors. Thereceivedcodewordis01011.Thesyndromeis1. Thedatawordisnotcreated.Thisshowsthatthesimpleparitycheck,guaranteedtodetectone singleerror,canalsofindanyoddnumberoferrors. ASIMPLEPARITYCHECKCODECANDETECTANODDNUMBEROFERRORS.

FIGURE:Twodimensionalparitycheckcode

Table6.4HammingcodeC(7,4)

Figure:ThestructureoftheencoderanddecoderforaHammingcode

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EXAMPLE: Letustracethepathofthreedatawordsfromthesendertothedestination: 1.Thedataword0100becomesthecodeword0100011. Thecodeword0100011isreceived.Thesyndromeis000,thefinaldatawordis0100. 2.Thedataword0111becomesthecodeword0111001. Thesyndromeis011.Afterflippingb2(changingthe1to0),thefinaldatawordis0111. 3.Thedataword1101becomesthecodeword1101000. Thesyndromeis101.Afterflippingb0,weget0000,thewrongdataword.Thisshowsthatourcode cannotcorrecttwoerrors. EXAMPLE: Weneedadatawordofatleast7bits.Calculatevaluesofkandnthatsatisfythisrequirement. Solution Weneedtomakek=nmgreaterthanorequalto7,or2m1m7. 1.Ifwesetm=3,theresultisn=231andk=73,or4,whichisnotacceptable. 2.Ifwesetm=4,thenn=241=15andk=154=11,whichsatisfiesthecondition. Sothecodeis

CYCLIC CODES:
Cycliccodesarespeciallinearblockcodeswithoneextraproperty.Inacycliccode,ifacodewordis cyclicallyshifted(rotated),theresultisanothercodeword.

Table6.6ACRCcodewithC(7,4)

Figure:BursterrorcorrectionusingHammingcode SUJOY BHOWMICK (Asst. Prof, IT)

Figure:CRCencoderanddecoder

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Figure:HardwireddesignofthedivisorinCRC

Figure:DivisioninCRCencoder

Figure:DivisionintheCRCdecoderfortwocases

Figure:SimulationofdivisioninCRCencoder

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Figure:TheCRCencoderdesignusingshiftregisters

Figure:CRCdivisionusingpolynomials

Figure:GeneraldesignofencoderanddecoderofaCRCcode

THEDIVISORINACYCLICCODEISNORMALLYCALLEDTHEGENERATORPOLYNOMIALORSIMPLYTHE GENERATOR. Inacycliccode, Ifs(x)0,oneormorebitsiscorrupted. Ifs(x)=0,either a.Nobitiscorrupted.or b.Somebitsarecorrupted,butthedecoderfailedtodetectthem.

Figure:Apolynomialtorepresentabinaryword

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