State-of-the-art article

Language awareness and language learning

Agneta M-L. Svalberg School of Education, University of Leicester, UK

[email protected]

classroom practice. The wide scope of the review

This article reviews Language Awareness (LA) as a field
does not allow the wealth of research in any one of
of research and practice. It deals with the period from
the sub-fields of LA to be comprehensively covered,
1990 to the present, asking what LA is, how it has
and some strands of research are not discussed at all.
been collectively constructed during this time, what the
The aim has nevertheless been to present an overview
theoretical underpinnings might be and what it means in
of LA which is as representative as space allows,
practical, methodological terms in the classroom and for
at the same time contextualizing and interrogating
society. It is recognized that its multidisciplinary nature
the field with particular questions in mind. It is
and wide scope could lead to fragmentation, but it is
hoped that the review will both serve as a useful
argued that the holistic view evident in LA research and
introduction to readers not acquainted with the
practice is a strength, and that its different sub-fields have
field, and contribute to a fruitful debate among LA
certain core notions in common which give LA coherence.
researchers and practitioners.
The paper begins with a brief background sketch and
The scope of LA is described by James &
outline, and goes on to discuss the literature on cognitive
Garrett (1991) as covering five domains: affective,
aspects of LA, such as awareness, attention and noticing.
social, power, cognitive, and performance. As this
The review then enquires into the characteristics of LA
indicates, LA straddles a cognitive to sociocultural
teaching methodology, and what LA is needed for teachers
spectrum and involves such apparently distinct areas
to implement it. Social and political perspectives are then
of research and practice as cognitive linguistics
explored in brief reviews of Critical Language Awareness,
(attention and awareness in language learning),
Inter-/Cross-cultural Awareness, and multilingualism.
language teaching, language use and intercultural
The paper closes by drawing conclusions and making
communication (cross-cultural awareness) and this is
suggestions for further research.
reflected in the structure of the paper.
I will start with a brief background sketch of LA,
followed by a discussion of research on consciousness,
1. Introduction awareness and related notions, including a brief
discussion of explicit and implicit learning and
The present review of Language Awareness (LA)
teaching. I will then move on to an exploration
focuses on the period from the 1990s to the present,
of an LA approach to language teaching, leading
i.e. from the time of such events as the publication
to a discussion of the LA of teachers. This
of Language awareness in the classroom (James & Garrett
is followed by an overview of critical language
1991), the founding of the Association of Language
awareness, and then a presentation of work on
Awareness (ALA) in the UK in 1992, the first
intercultural language awareness and multilingualism.
issue of the journal Language Awareness in the same
Throughout, the review will attempt to identify some
year, the publication of Schmidt’s (1990) paper on
of the atheoretical and ideological stances adopted in
consciousness in language learning and Fairclough’s
LA and the theoretical frameworks which underpin
(1992) edited volume on Critical language awareness.
them. A summary and discussion of implications will
Around then, the tide was starting to turn in
be provided in the concluding section.
favour of the teaching of form within meaning-based
It is in the holistic nature of LA that language
instruction, and the view that conscious knowledge
learning is not easily isolated from other objectives.
facilitates language learning, which caused both
Jessner (in press), who in addition to a more in-
research and debate (e.g., Doughty 1991; Long 1991).
depth discussion of LA and multilingualism provides
The review draws mainly on English-language
publications but is international in outlook. Research
and practice in a number of countries and settings, Dr AGNETA M-L. SVALBERG lectures and
relating to a range of languages, is discussed. Although supervises on Masters and Doctoral programmes in
most of it falls obviously within the field of LA, in Applied Linguistic & TESOL in the School of Education
some cases work of authors who have not themselves at the University of Leicester. Before entering tertiary
used the term LA has been included because it education, she worked as an EFL teacher in different parts
has had a major influence on LA researchers and of the world. She has published on Language Awareness,
practitioners or has salient characteristics in itself of an and on non-standard varieties of English, and has a
LA approach. The review draws on both theoretically particular interest in the learning and teaching of grammar.
oriented research and debate, and work based in
Lang. Teach. 40, 287–308. doi:10.1017/S0261444807004491 Printed in the United Kingdom

c 2007 Cambridge University Press 287

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 Feb 2009 IP address: 194.80.32.10

 Agneta M-L. Svalberg ■
a brief history and review of LA, points out that its (Hawkins 1999; James 1999) as, for example, in the
theoretical coverage is vast. But what, exactly, is LA? government-inspired but subsequently abandoned
The National Council for Language in Education LINC project (Carter 1990). Among the aspects not
Working Party on Language Awareness declared in appreciated at the time were the project’s functional
1985 that ‘Language awareness is a person’s sensitivity orientation and its views on non-standard English.
to and conscious awareness of the nature of language However, perhaps as a sign of changing attitudes, the
and its role in human life’ (Donmall 1985, cited in LINC materials have recently become available in
Thornbury 1997a; see also James & Garrett 1991, electronic form.3
Hawkins 1999, James 1999). The ALA website cur- In the 1990s, because the aims of language and
rently provides the following definition: ‘Language literacy teaching were narrowly conceived as ‘to
Awareness can be defined as explicit knowledge produce a literate workforce’, there was no place in
about language, and conscious perception and UK schools for developing a critical understanding
sensitivity in language learning, language teach- of language, according to James (1999: 96); see also
ing and language use’ (emphasis as in original). a historical overview of LA in the UK by Donmall-
Although knowledge about language (KAL) is Hicks (1997). Wright (1991) also identified resistance
sometimes used as synonymous with LA (Stainton to LA, especially among English L1 teachers in the
1992; Van Lier & Corson 1997), it is also often UK (see also Brumfit 1991). According to Mitchell
associated with UK school contexts (Carter 1990; & Hooper (1991), the teachers tended to equate
Hawkins 1992) and the early years of the British LA with the teaching of grammar, to which they
LA Movement (Hawkins 1999), and particularly themselves had usually not been exposed. But from
with knowledge about grammar. In this review the 1990s onwards, there was a gradual shift in
the term LA will be preferred. Near-equivalents schools towards a greater focus on language structure,
in French prise de conscience de la langue/des culminating in the present National Literacy Strategy
langues, éveil aux langages or éveil aux langues (see the list of websites at the end of the article),
(éveil referring to an initial stage of LA), in launched in 1997 for primary schools, and in 2001
German sprachbewußtsein or sprachreflexion, for secondary. It involves conscious learning about
and in Spanish conciencia lingüı́stica.1 language, but does not commit to an LA approach.
Perhaps a good start to understanding what As will be evident below, in continental Europe the
arguably gives LA coherence as a field is to consider LA movement has been propelled less by literacy skills
just a few of the questions it might pose: ‘Can we concerns and more by sociolinguistic issues. Research
become better language users or learners or teachers if and practice often revolve around multilingualism,
we develop a better understanding? And can we gain language attitudes, and citizenship.
other advantages, for example, in our relations with The concerns which initially gave rise to the
other people and/or cultures, and in our ability to see LA movement are not only still with us but are
through language that manipulates or discriminates?’ perhaps of even greater salience due to social
(ALA website) and economic developments such as migration,
The questions do not refer specifically to language globalization, international trade, and international
learning and teaching contexts, but to all situations conflict (Jessner in press). The increased interest
where language is used. For example, popular ideas in LA engendered by such issues has been further
about language, and their effect in society, such as in enhanced by important developments in the fields of
the school or workplace, are important LA concerns. linguistics, applied linguistics and language teaching –
LA is thus seen as having an importance and a value in particularly in our understanding of the cognitive
itself, whether or not it facilitates language learning.2 processes involved in language learning about which
The founder of the LA movement in the UK, more will be said below.
Eric Hawkins (see in particular Hawkins 1981, 1984),
recounts that ALA emerged both out of a concern 2. Cognitive aspects of language
about literacy levels in L1 and poor performance in awareness
the learning of foreign languages, and as a reaction
to prejudice (Hawkins 1999). In the UK, the critical 2.1 Consciousness/awareness,attention
dimension of LA was very much present at an early and noticing
stage when LA proponents’ ideas were controversial, To unpack awareness4 it is necessary to examine
clashing with the political establishment and received the second language acquisition (SLA) research,
‘wisdom’ about language learning and teaching
3
The materials can be obtained from the LINC Project,
1
These terms have emerged at different times and in different c/o Rebecca Peck, School of English Studies, Uni-
contexts and are not exact synonyms. See, for example, discussion versity of Nottingham; [email protected] (cf.
in Gnutzmann 1997. http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/dick/ec/linc.htm (accessed
2
Due to space constraints, work in these areas is not discussed 21/5/2007) for a synopsis and sample pages).
4
in this review, but see Preston 1996; McGregor 1998; Jaworski, No distinction is made here between consciousness and
Coupland & Galasiński 2004; Preston 2004. awareness (cf. James 1992). The two are used synonymously

288

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 Feb 2009 IP address: 194.80.32.10

■ Language awareness
especially cognitive linguistic notions. I will also try needs to be in some way foregrounded for learners
to show very briefly how LA relates to the ongoing to direct their attention to it. One way of doing
debate about form-focused instruction. this is by means of input enhancement (see below).
The best starting point is another elusive notion, Another is by removing any context which could
attention (Schmidt 2001). According to Posner & obviate the learner’s need to process formal linguistic
Petersen (1990) attention consists of three elements: elements. In VanPatten’s Processing Instruction (PI)
alertness, detection and orientation. A person approach,sentences are decontextualized, including
who attends to something is by definition alert. At- the removal of clarifying adverbials, and presented in
tention, in the form of detection, is a precondition for tasks which force learners to attend to form in order
awareness. Awareness, according to Al-Hejin (2004), to extract meaning (VanPatten 1996). VanPatten
causes a change in behaviour or cognitive state and argues that this leads to a change in learners’
the person is able to report that they became aware processing strategies which endures beyond the task
and what they became aware of. Attention/detection itself and which facilitates learning of the processed
can occur without leading to awareness. Despite the form (VanPatten & Sanz 1995; VanPatten 2002b).
lack of agreement in the literature as to the precise This is a controversial claim and has caused some
meaning of attention (Segalowitz & Lightbown debate (e.g., VanPatten 2002a; DeKeyser et al. 2002).
1999), it seems to be generally accepted that some In a comparative study, Toth (2006) did not find PI
level of it is required for learning. In contrast, more effective than communicative output.
awareness is considered to be only facilitative. From a sociocultural perspective, Batstone (2002b)
Attention and awareness come together in also takes issue with VanPatten’s PI approach arguing
noticing, a phenomenon given great prominence that co-text, rather than being a hindrance to
by the learner diary study first reported in Schmidt & learning, helps to clarify the meaning of form
Frota (1986) and which is central especially to form- and thus avoids putting the low level learner in
focused LA instruction. Schmidt defines noticing the artificial and impossible position of guessing
as the ‘registration [detection] of the occurrence of a meaning from form without any clues (see response
stimulus event in conscious awareness and subsequent in VanPatten 2002b). Batstone’s concern focuses on
storage in long term memory’ (Schmidt 1994: 179, the affective dimensions of the learning environment.
emphasis in the original; see also critical review In Batstone (2002a) he criticizes, from this vantage
in Truscott 1998). To Schmidt, detection without point, the limitations inherent in communicative
awareness is simply registration. Schmidt (1990: 29) tasks. He claims they ignore the learners’ inner
posits that ‘noticing is the necessary and sufficient context in favour of creating an external context
condition for converting input into intake’. He where appropriacy is paramount. The stress of trying
later modified his stance somewhat (see below) to produce relevant and coherent output which
but, according to this strong Noticing Hypothesis, achieves its communicative ends, and the possibility
implicit learning is not possible as it occurs without of losing face if it fails, creates an environment where
awareness. Different types of linguistic features will attention cannot be paid to form and which is thus
need to be noticed depending on what is to be an obstacle to learning. Batstone (2002a) suggests
learnt. Pragmatic competence, for example, would that teachers should rather discuss the reasons for
require some awareness to be focused both on forms communicative tasks explicitly with students, to help
as such, and on their functional meanings in the social create a learning culture which is supportive, not face
contexts in which they occur (Schmidt 1993). Tomlin threatening, and which would allow features such as
& Villa (1994) disagree with Schmidt on the necessity hesitation, repetition and risk-taking. It is argued that
of awareness for learning, and Al-Hejin (2004) also detachment from normal communicative norms in
takes a more cautious stance, but concludes that favour of a learning focus could facilitate learners’
both attention and awareness (and hence noticing) noticing of links between context and form.
facilitate learning. This will be the assumption made
in the rest of this paper. 2.2 Explicit and implicit knowledge and
Several authors point out that learners will not
necessarily notice that which they need to learn next.
learning
VanPatten (1990) found that learners had difficulty The role of explicit language learning and knowledge
noticing form and meaning at the same time and has been discussed and debated extensively in the SLA
makes the general claim that learners notice meaning literature as, for example, in a special issue of AILA
before form. A study by Lee (2007) indicates that Review (Hulstijn & Schmidt 1994), the edited volume
there is a trade-off between focus on form and focus by N. C. Ellis (1994), and the article by N. C. Ellis
on meaning. A conclusion one can draw is that form (2005). In this section I will merely attempt to clarify
its central role in an LA approach, and highlight some
with shades of meaning provided by context. It is thus assumed of the complexities.
that LA can be (but is not necessarily) the result of consciousness While cognitive psychologists assume awareness to
raising. be beneficial, DeKeyser (1994: 83) points out that
289

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 Feb 2009 IP address: 194.80.32.10

 Agneta M-L. Svalberg ■
‘in applied linguistics the burden of proof seems to rules sometimes did not. Learners’ readiness will also
be on those claiming explicit learning works’. The intervene, so that more advanced learners might be-
debate includes Norris & Ortega’s (2000) synthesis nefit from consciously attending to features they were
and analysis of 49 published studies, which concludes previously unable to process (Gass et al. 2003: 529).
that on the available evidence explicit instruction Despite continued debate among SLA researches
is more effective than implicit instruction, and the (e.g. Doughty 2003), the value of explicit learning
critical reanalysis of their work by Doughty (2003), to facilitate knowledge, not only of the explicit
who finds the evidence insufficient (see also Norris & type, but also the procedural knowledge learners
Ortega 2001). The LA stance in this debate is clearly need to become fluent users of the language (N. C.
for the effectiveness of explicit learning. Even so, a Ellis 1993; Robinson 1997; Housen, Pierrard & Van
number of questions remain to be addressed, such as Daele 2005) is implicit in LA teaching methodology,
what kind of explicit knowledge is most facilitative, despite continued debate among SLA researchers
and in relation to what kinds of language features. (e.g., Doughty 2003). An ongoing issue in LA is,
Both the level and the quality of awareness however, how best to stimulate and channel LA. To
appear to be important factors. Abu Radwan (2005) inform this debate, more research which contrasts the
differentiates between awareness as noticing, and learning effects of different approaches, such as Toth
awareness at the level of understanding. His and (2006) and Lee (2007), would be particularly useful.
other studies (Leow 1997; Robinson 1995, 1997; Most of the studies discussed above have dealt with
Rosa & O’Neill 1999) show learners with higher the learning of grammatical form. However, it has
levels of awareness of the target features performing been claimed that explicit learning within an LA
better than those with lower levels of awareness. How framework is facilitative in a variety of linguistic fields.
the awareness/explicit knowledge comes about also This will be discussed below.
matters. In Robinson’s (1995) study, learning was
more likely to occur when the learners themselves
had arrived at the rule they verbalized than when it 3. Language awareness and teaching
had been provided as part of the instruction. methodology
Another important question is which particular Though it is recognized that some learners are
language features should be the target of awareness likely to benefit more than others from any given
raising. Gass, Svetics & Lemelin (2003) claim that approach (Jones 1997), the point of departure for LA
focused attention has the most effect in more complex practitioners is that developing a better understanding
areas: for example, more on syntax and least on of the language and of learning/teaching processes
lexis, where incidental learning seems to be most will generally enhance language learning/teaching
effective. By way of explanation, Hulstijn & de and use. This section deals with what form such
Graaf (1994) posit that learners can work out simple awareness raising might take and what assumptions
rules for themselves but that complex rules benefit it makes. I will first explore whether LA classroom
from explicit instruction, and Gass et al. (2003: 528) practice has particular characteristics which might
concur: ‘With more complex rules of grammar, justify talking about an LA approach to language
internal devices are insufficient for learning, and learning/teaching. Secondly, I will briefly review
focused attention . . . may be a necessary crutch’. The the practical impact of LA on skills teaching.
need for focused attention is implied also by Berry Teaching within a critical language awareness (CLA)
(1994), who introduces the notion of saliency and framework will be mentioned briefly here but
concludes that explicit learning seems to be beneficial reviewed in more depth later.
for salient features, or features which can be made
salient by instruction or materials, while it may
be counterproductive for non-salient features; less 3.1 Is there an LA approach to language
obvious relationships are instead likely to benefit from teaching/learning?
a more passive, implicit mode of learning. One could perhaps argue that any approach to
The usefulness of explicit instruction also depends language instruction which aims to raise conscious
on learner characteristics. In Robinson’s study, awareness of how linguistic systems work is an LA
learners with good memory were better able to make approach but in the literature it tends to have certain
use of a rule provided, while more grammar sensitive more specific characteristics. In a discussion of LA in
learners benefited from rule searching (Robinson relation to teacher education, Borg (1994: 62, build-
1995). Individual learning styles might even subvert ing on Wright & Bolitho 1993) outlines five main
task design. As Berry (1994) points out, learners are features of an LA methodology, summarized here:
likely to use a combination of explicit and implicit
learning. Robinson (1995) found that some learners
reported looking for rules although their learning 1. It involves an ongoing investigation of language as
conditions were meant to be implicit and incidental, a dynamic phenomenon rather than awareness of a
while learners who had been instructed to look for fixed body of established facts.
290

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 Feb 2009 IP address: 194.80.32.10

■ Language awareness
2. It involves learners in talking analytically about Languaging naturally involves the use of
language, often to each other. metalanguage, either as formalterminology, or as
3. It considers essential the involvement of learners in informal ways of talking about language structure
exploration and discovery. (Alderson, Clapham & Steele 1997; Berry 2005
4. It aims to develop not only the learners’ knowledge special issue of Language Awareness on metalanguage).
about and understanding of language but also Hence, LA practitioners need to choose how much
their learning skills, thus promoting learner and what kind of linguistic terminology to use,
independence. and perhaps teach. There is a substantial body
5. The aim is to involve learners on both a cognitive of studies on the metalinguistic knowledge and
and an affective level. metalanguage of teachers (Mitchell & Hooper 1991;
Andrews 2003; Berry 2004) and learners (Fortune
While Wright & Bolitho’s (1993) paper focuses & Thorpe 2001; Fortune 2005) but no solid
more specifically on linguistic awareness, Borg (1994) evidence that knowledge of metalanguage as such
emphasizes the broader educational aims of LA facilitates language learning. Neither the quantitative
teacher education and LA methodology. Below I will study by Alderson et al. (1997) nor Robinson’s
expand on the LA methodology issues in relation to qualitative investigation (Robinson 2005) was able to
the five characteristics listed. establish a relationship between linguistic ability and
knowledge of metalanguage. If reflection scaffolded
1. Borg’s first feature implies a constructivist view by verbalizing facilitates language learning, formal
of knowledge. From this follows a learner- rather metalanguage may be a useful tool but informal
than teacher-centred approach, involving and indeed metalanguage might do the job just as well.
relying on extended opportunities for learner–
learner interaction (van Lier 1996; Swain & Lapkin 3. The process of talking about and making explicit
2002). Borg (1994) calls for learner investigation the workings of language requires learner interaction
of language to take the form of exploration and and engagement, the third feature in Borg’s list. There
discovery, which often entails alternative answers and is a body of LA research on the forms of learner–
perhaps ambiguity. The open-endedness of language learner interaction and its learning effects (Fortune
as a salient characteristic of everyday interaction, & Thorp 2001; Storch 2002; Swain & Lapkin
conversation in particular, is addressed by van Lier’s 2002) and also on teacher–learner interaction. In the
work on contingency, where he recommends curriculum outlined in van Lier (1996), awareness,
allowing and creating opportunity for learners to autonomy, and authenticity are key notions, and
experience and deal with the unplanned, unexpected learner engagement is central. Authenticity refers to
nature of linguistic interaction (van Lier 1992, 1994, a process of making interaction and text authentic
1996). At this end of the spectrum, LA work is thus for the participants, and may or may not involve
radically distinct from traditional explicit language the use of so called authentic materials (see also
instruction and can either clash with student and Maun 2006 for a discussion of authenticity). Van Lier
teacher expectations or be perceived as challenging (1998: 128) states that ‘interactions with learners in
in a positive way (Svalberg 2005). classrooms should allow learners to be perceiving,
2. Borg’s (1994) second feature has been described thinking, acting, and interacting persons, rather
by Svalberg (2006) as the talk-about element. It than passive receivers of knowledge’. Sarangi (1998)
differentiates LA methodology from, for example, the also emphasizes the importance of the social and
strong version of communicative language teaching interpersonal aspects of teacher–learner interaction,
in which the emphasis is exclusively on meaning as do Kress, Ogborn & Martins (1998). Nassaji &
(Howatt 1984). As pointed out by Kramsch (1993: Swain (2000) provide support for the effectiveness of
246): ‘Talk about talk is what the classroom does best consciousness raising feedback, negotiated between
and yet this potential source of knowledge has not teacher and learner, and taking the learner’s stage of
been sufficiently tapped, even in communicatively- development into account.
oriented classrooms’. From a constructivist perspect-
ive, Swain (2006) employs the term languaging 4. In line with the ALA definition of LA,
for the ‘use of language to mediate cognitive Borg (1994) emphasizes the desirability of also
activity’, and posits that one of the ways of learning developing awareness of learning/teaching processes
a second language is languaging about language as a means of improving teaching and enhancing
(Swain 2000).5 In Tocalli-Beller & Swain’s (2005: 8) learner independence (the fourth characteristic).
view ‘Metatalk . . . mediates second language learning Ewald (2004) reports on a study in which learners
because it supports the process of appropriation’. explored their own beliefs about and behaviours
in group tasks, and how the resulting awareness
5
For an excellent, in-depth discussion of languaging as pedagogy led them to change behaviours, and potentially
see Phipps & González 2004, and for quite a different use of the to improve learning skills and gain greater learner
term, a brief definition in Becker 1991. independence. The author stresses the importance of
291

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 Feb 2009 IP address: 194.80.32.10

 Agneta M-L. Svalberg ■
the learners’ insider perspective on language teaching differs from most other language learning activities
methodology. Other authors (for example, Walsh in that it does not involve learners in producing
2003) discuss how teachers can develop their own output for the purposes of practice (see Svalberg
awareness of interactions with students (see below). 2005 for examples and discussion). Instead, it denotes
tasks which aim to focus learners’ attention on
5. Most of Borg’s (1994) LA features seem to particular linguistic features and raise their awareness
leave open the precise implementation of an LA of how these features work (Thornbury 2001).6 Borg
methodology but feature five, which emphasizes connects discovery-type, i.e. inductive tasks, with LA
that learner engagement needs to be both cognitive methodology and although a few authors consider
and affective, seems more compatible with some that consciousness raising can be either inductive
pedagogies than others. In areas such as cross-cultural or deductive (Mohamed 2004) the inductive type is
communication (see below), affective issues such as the most common (Wright 1991; Wright & Bolitho
those related to identity are naturally central but 1993; Thornbury 2001).
Borg implies that affective engagement is essential Specific techniques, such as dictogloss and other
in all LA work, including grammar and skills work. text reconstruction tasks, which have an inbuilt
Robinson (2005) recommends that teachers seek the component of student interaction and encourage
pupils’ perspectives on how they approach writing, learners to arrive at and justify their own solutions,
and that the affective dimension of writing awareness are frequently used in the LA classroom (for example,
be taken into account. In a study into the use of Lasagabaster 2002) and have been the subject of
authentic and adapted texts, Maun (2006) found research. Pica (2005) discusses the rationale for task
that young adults perceived texts as more or less choice and shows samples of how students negotiate
difficult, dense, inviting and so on depending on meaning and form, as in text reconstruction.
the visual impact created by formatting, layout and Garcı́a Mayo (2003) compares the effect of multiple
illustrations. Learner engagement in an ideal LA choice, dictogloss (involving full text oral input),
classroom clearly goes well beyond task enjoyment, text reconstruction (involving fragments of written
as is evident also in van Lier’s (1996) discussion of an input) and text editing tasks on the quantity and
LA curriculum, where some of the key phrases are quality of Language Related Episodes (LREs) in pair
conscious engagement, depth of processing and interaction (see also Fortune & Thorpe 2001).
commitment to learning. As already discussed, a starting point for languaging
In LA work, stimulating affective engagement about language is noticing. Sharwood-Smith (1993)
tends to rely on communicative purpose and uses the term input enhancement for ways in
meaningfulness of tasks. Wright & Bolitho (1993) which teachers or materials make particular language
point out that among the properties LA aims to features salient in order to promote noticing. The
develop in learners is a sensitivity to meaning–form term is sometimes used more specifically to refer
connections. It may be, as Thornbury (2001: 38) to typographical enhancement, i.e. manipulation of
claims, that ‘unless the learner notices the effect fonts such as bolding and underlining. In a review
that grammatical choices have on meaning, . . . the of some of the research on input enhancement,
noticing is not sufficient to have any long-term effects Doughty & Williams (1998) classify it as the most
on restructuring’. unobtrusive of a range of form-focused instructional
techniques. Research on its learning effects has,
To sum up, Borg’s five features seem to identify however, not produced clear cut results. Neither
the unifying characteristics of LA methodology Alanen (1995), White (1998) or Abu Radwan (2005)
which might be reformulated as: description (not found any significant learning effect of typographical
prescription), exploration, languaging, engagement enhancement. On the other hand, Shook (1994,
and reflection. discussed in Gass et al. 2003) found it had a significant
Methods and techniques more commonly effect on present perfect and relative pronouns, and in
associated with the LA classroom are, for example, Jourdenais et al.’s (1995) study enhancement seemed
input enhancement; discovery-type, inductive tasks; to produce both an increased quantity and greater
dictogloss and text reconstruction; and open-ended accuracy of the target feature in immediate and
discussion tasks on authentic or adapted texts (Wright delayed post-tests. Important factors may be the
& Bolitho 1993; Thornbury 1997a, b, 2001). In complexity of the target feature, as discussed above,
general, approaches and techniques which make use and the research design. For example, in White
of or engender conscious knowledge and which (1998) the non-specific nature of the target feature
stimulate engagement with the language in a specific (3rd person pronouns/determiners) is likely to have
context, within a constructivist framework, are made enhancement less effective, and think-aloud
consistent with an LA pedagogy.
A term used to refer to some LA tasks is 6
Rutherford & Sharwood Smith’s (1988) use of the term
consciousness raising (Hopkins & Nettle 1994; consciousness raising is wider, including mere exposure to
Hedge 2000; R. Ellis 2002). As Ellis points out, it grammatical features.

292

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 Feb 2009 IP address: 194.80.32.10

■ Language awareness
protocols could have had a priming effect in the comprehension and intake. Like Kim (1995) above,
Jourdenais et al. (1995) study. Pennington & Ellis (2000) investigated learners’ aural
In the classroom, input enhancement is not cognition and found that the Cantonese speakers
normally used on its own but as one element in a in their experimental study did not recall prosodic
more complex task design, for example, as a starting information of the English sentences to which they
point for languaging. Learners may be provided with had been exposed. They improved slightly when their
already enhanced input, but more frequently they are attention was explicitly drawn to intonation, but only
asked to carry out text enhancement themselves by, for sentences with contrastive versus neutral stress.
for example, underlining features they identify (see Combining noticing with explanation may
example tasks in Hall & Shepheard 1991; Thornbury be more effective. A computer assisted, quasi-
2001). One might argue that the effect of input experimental study involving Spanish speaking EFL
enhancement should therefore be evaluated in that learners (Ramirez Verdugo 2006) explained pitch
context. contours of native English speakers to the learners
In summary, the picture of LA pedagogy which and contrasted them with the learners’ own
emerges is one which aims to engender LA by learner production. The overall pedagogic framework built
engagement with the language, including the use on VanPatten’s processing instruction framework and
of languaging, to construct knowledge about the structured input activities (1996, 2002b). As an
language in any of its domains affective, social, power, important part of the training, pitch contours were
cognitive, and performance. I will return to a discus- displayed on computer screens. The intervention
sion of the power domain in the section on CLA. The resulted in both heightened awareness of the role
next two sections will review LA as it has been applied of intonation and improved prosodic performance.
to the learning/teaching of the so called four skills. The authors recommend research into whether such
training results in more long term independent
3.2 Listening and speaking noticing and learning of prosodic features.
McCarthy & O’Keefe (2004) point out, in a review of Computer technology was used also by Coniam
research in the teaching of speaking, that important (2002) in an approach to increasing non-native speak-
advances have been made in our understanding of ing teachers’ awareness of suprasegmentals in English.
spoken language. It is striking therefore how much The software allowed digitization of audio recordings,
less LA work has been done on speaking and listening producing displays in wave form. The trainees
compared to reading and writing. Nevertheless, there matched the displays with utterances and speakers
are a number of interesting studies. To start with (native English speakers and Hong Kong Chinese),
listening, Kim (1995) approaches it from a cognitive and the qualitative differences between speakers were
perspective, asking what features L2 learners are able discussed in class in terms of rhythm and timing.
to attend to in streams of speech. The study thus The studies above dealt with listening and
deals with awareness at the level of noticing. For the pronunciation skills. In contrast, Nakatani (2005)
participating Korean University students, noticing investigated the effect of awareness raising on
was facilitated by phonetic prominence (for example, young, Japanese adults’ use of oral communication
primary or secondary stress), and by initial or final strategies (OCS) such as maintenance of fluency
position in an intonational phrase. Rate of speech and negotiation of meaning. The author attributes
also had an effect so that more words were noticed a significant improvement in test scores for the
at a slower rate. Kim proposes an implicational scale trained group to greater awareness of OCS and
of aural processing by which learners develop from consequent increased use of such strategies. The
being unable to identify even phonetically prominent trained group produced longer utterances and used
key words, through to key word identification, to more achievement strategies, and did not abandon
words surrounding key words in a phrase, to the the message as often as the control. Slade (1997) and
grammatical/semantic relationships of clauses, and Jones (2001, 2002) advocate explicit instruction in
finally an ability to perceive relationships between conversational story telling. Jones (2001) describes a
clauses. Rather than each learner being at a specific consciousness raising approach in some detail. The
stage, Kim suggests that learners function within a learners compare a written narrative and a transcript
range of phases depending on features of the text and of a (non-authentic) oral narrative. They then answer
its delivery (for example, its pace). The author specu- questions on the transcript, designed to draw their
lates that slowing down input, thus making more of it attention to generic structure and features of spoken
available for processing, could push learners from lex- language, before engaging in their own story telling.
ically to more syntactically driven processing. How-
ever, research is needed to test this, and also whether 3.3 Reading and writing
raising EFL learners’ conscious awareness in this area Research on LA and the four skills includes a
would be beneficial for listening comprehension. large body of work on young children’s literacy
Simply drawing learners’ attention to prosodic development in L1 and L2. A review of earlier
features may not be enough to improve listening research on metalinguistic awareness relating to
293

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 Feb 2009 IP address: 194.80.32.10

 Agneta M-L. Svalberg ■
different cultures and writing systems, to evaluate Literacy development may be influenced not
claims about how children learn to read and write, by one particular skill but by a range of factors
is to be found in Downing (1986). It concludes in combination. For example, in the case of
that LA literacy work needs to take children’s the pre-school child, metalinguistic awareness and
metacognitive development into account, and points pre-conventional reading and invented spelling
out the need for research in a range of linguistic development could work together (Lazo, Pumfrey
and cultural contexts. Francis (1999, 2002) studied & Peers 1997). In a study with Spanish pre-school
the metalinguistic awareness of Náhuatl/Spanish and 1st grade children in Spain, Goikoetxea (2005)
bilingual children in Mexico, and its relationship claims that there is a link between pre-reading spelling
to literacy development. The ability to discriminate and phonological awareness development. In some
between two language codes, and to separate them, school contexts, linguistic background could also be
seemed to be linked to development of reflective, a factor. In a recent study, Lesaux, Lipka & Siegel
metalinguistic ability. The 2002 study suggested (2006) found that native English-speaking children
that metalinguistic awareness might be particularly achieved significantly higher scores on syntactic
facilitative in relation to writing. awareness and verbal working memory than ESL
Findings from studies into the effect of children. Whether this advantage could be partially
phoneme awareness on literacy development are not offset by syntactic awareness training specifically for
unequivocal. In a quantitative, longitudinal study by ESL students remains to be investigated. A very
Layton, Robinson & Lawson (1998) phonological different, and interesting, aspect of children’s literacy
awareness training of pre-schoolers in Australia failed is addressed by Kümmerling-Meibauer (1999) who
to have a significant effect on reading and writing. discusses what an understanding of irony in text–
Nor was the reading performance of the 8–10 year picture relationships requires native English-speaking
old children in Layton et al.’s study improved by children to know or be made aware of.
the syntactic awareness they had gained through In academic writing instruction, a genre-based
explicit instruction. In contrast, Elbro & Petersen approach is popular among LA practitioners.
(2004) found phonological awareness training of Distinctions made in Tolchinsky (2000) seem to
kindergarten children of dyslexic parents effective. imply that it is inherently prescriptive, but this need
The children received training for 17 weeks and it not be the case. As shown in Henry & Roseberry
was found that the treatment had long-term benefits (1999), and Clynes & Henry (2004), raising awareness
as late as grade 7. The contradictory results in of genre can in fact mean that learners are trained to
regard to awareness training seem to confirm that apply genre analysis to text themselves. Johns (1997:
the quality of awareness is significant. Teacher-led, 92–105) dedicates a whole chapter to the student
explicit instruction and learner-centered discovery as researcher in what she calls a socioliterate genre-
type tasks could potentially produce qualitatively based approach to academic writing. Recognizing
different knowledge, as could the frequency and the difficulties of the analyst role for non-native
density of the input, and the length of treatment. speakers, Clynes & Henry (2004), in line with
Different quality of noticing may be an essential Johns (1997), attempted to implement training on a
feature in terms of the reflections and conclusions relatively simple genre, anchored in local culture – the
it is able to stimulate in the learner, as implied by Brunei Malay wedding invitation. The idea was that
Tocalli-Beller & Swain (2005). A small-scale study the students would benefit from being able to draw
reported by Qi & Lapkin (2001) suggests that quality on already existing schemata. The training enabled
of noticing is in turn influenced by L2 proficiency. In the students to identify moves successfully, but they
reformulation exercises, lower level learners might, were less able to establish and formulate the purpose
for example, find it harder to establish the nature of a of moves within the text, and the overall commu-
noticed gap or be less ready to accept a reformulation nicative purpose. Careful scaffolding seems to be
than more advanced learners. necessary.
Contradictory research findings could also be Common awareness-raising techniques in the
due to research methodology. In a critical review, teaching of writing are dictogloss (Thornbury
Troia (1999) lists a number of experimental 1997a; Lasagabaster 2002), discussed above, and
studies involving phonological awareness training reformulation. In the latter, the teacher recasts the
of children, which claim that phonological student’s written text to make it more target-like,
awareness correlates highly with reading and while respecting the student’s intended meaning.
spelling achievement, and examines the methodology This production-first-and-model-second sequence is
employed in these studies. The review concludes the reverse of more traditional instruction, where
that there is a trade-off between internal validity teacher-led input is followed by production (fluency-
and ecological validity. Normal classrooms are not to-accuracy vs. accuracy-to-fluency; Thornbury
controlled or controllable environments and, by the 1997b: 328). Thornbury points out that working
same token, findings in controlled environments do with whole texts in this way allows consciousness
not necessarily apply to classroom settings. raising on a number of levels, including discourse,
294

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 Feb 2009 IP address: 194.80.32.10

■ Language awareness
syntax, lexis, within a form-focused or meaning- Teachers’ LA is said to be ‘the knowledge that
focused syllabus. Reformulation has been investigated teachers have of the underlying systems of language
in a number of studies (Qi & Lapkin 2001; Swain & that enables them to teach effectively’ (Thornbury
Lapkin 2002; Adams 2003). As part of their body 1997a: x). This indicates that whatever the teaching
of work on output, Tocalli-Beller & Swain (2005) approach, teachers’ LA is different from that of
studied how French immersion students’ noticing other expert language users; they need not only
the gap between their own written output and to know about the language, but also to reflect on
the reformulated text generated cognitive conflict their knowledge and on underlying systems (Andrews
episodes, and also the learning effect of these 2001, 2006). Regarding the extent of teachers’
episodes. They found that cognitive conflict, more LA, teachers thus take on three roles in regard to
than agreement, stimulated restructuring of the language, those of user, analyst and teacher (Edge
learners’ knowledge. Emphasizing the distinction 1988, cited in Cots & Arno 2005). Hence, they
between cultural or affective conflict on the one require a high level of language proficiency, plus
hand, and cognitive conflict on the other, they assert linguistic and pedagogic knowledge (Wright 1991,
that learners are likely to benefit from the latter if 2002). Andrews & McNeill (2005), in a study of
it gives them opportunity to talk about the errors three good language teachers, in Hong Kong and
and how to correct them. Similarly, Rijlaarsdam & the UK, attempt to identify what characterizes such
Couzijn (2000) conclude in relation to peer teaching teachers’ LA. The good language teachers in the
of writing in secondary school, that activities which study had a willingness to engage with language
required students to reflect on their own and their content, a desire for self-development, an intuitive
peers’ writing led to heightened awareness and helped understanding of the importance of noticing and the
them to revise their work. In this study the reflection use of input enhancement, and an understanding of
did not, however, take the form of verbal interaction. learners’ difficulties helped by their confidence in
Instead, the learners provided written feedback on their own LA, and paired with an awareness of their
their peer’s writing, and self-reflected on this and on limitations in this regard (see also Hislam & Cajkler
the feedback they received on their own work. They 2005).
also wrote learner reports for the purposes of the The trend towards a sociocultural and discourse
study. perspective on language has added to the complexity
The examples above indicate that an LA approach of content knowledge that language teacher
can facilitate learning in different contexts, at education wishes to achieve. Contributors to the
different ages, and for a range of purposes, from volume edited by Trappes-Lomax & Ferguson (2002)
early literacy development to academic writing and suggest that teachers need heightened LA about the
enculturation. Writing instruction within a critical nature and value of languaging; the social dimensions
pedagogy framework will be addressed in the section of language (for example, varieties or identity);
on CLA. The next section will examine the potential language as (pedagogic) subject and as object; the
usefulness of teachers implementing an LA approach, reflexivity of learner language; and what discourse
and how it might be achieved. provides the best learning opportunities (see also the
edited volume Hawkins 2004). For teachers to make
3.4 Teachers and language awareness informed choices regarding the teaching/learning of
In recent years there has been an increased pragmatics, Kasper (1997) suggests that they need to
emphasis world-wide on language teachers’ content be aware not only of native speakers’ use of language
knowledge (Andrews & McNeill 2005: 160). but also of the pragmatics of the classroom, including
Thornbury (1997a: xii) quotes from the Examination cross-cultural issues. In typical FL contexts, such
report for the British-based RSA/UCLES Diploma an approach would seem particularly well justified.
in TEFL examinations for the year 1991/1992: ‘It In Brazil, a brief course on pragmatics failed to
is a matter of concern that so many teachers of produce a change in teachers’ classroom practices
English seem to have such a limited knowledge of (Lana Chavez de Castro 2005) possibly because
the language they are teaching.’ pragmatics had not been discussed in relation to
In the UK, a mandatory Literacy Test for Primary naturally occurring classroom situations. Van Lier’s
Teachers, who teach English L1, was introduced in work on contingency (1992, 1994) suggests that
2001 (Hislam & Cajkler 2005). One can perhaps more opportunities for social and interpersonal
assume that much of the knowledge expected of communication need to be created in the classroom.
teachers by Education authorities worldwide relates In that regard, Kress et al. (1998) make the point
to grammar but, as the discussion below will show, that language is normally accompanied by (or
teachers need a much broader range of explicit accompanies) other modes of communication, such
knowledge and sensitivities.7 as objects, gestures, or images. Such spontaneous

7
See also Andrews (forthcoming) on teachers’ LA and special (Andrews 2003), which includes a literature review on teacher
issue of Language Awareness on ‘Teacher language awareness’ cognition (Borg 2003).

295

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 Feb 2009 IP address: 194.80.32.10

 Agneta M-L. Svalberg ■
interaction, however, places very particular demands in a safe environment. Burley & Pomphrey (2002,
on the sophistication of the teacher’s LA, and presents 2003) report on an intercomprehension approach to
interesting challenges for LA teacher educators. teacher development in which teachers of English
How can such complex LA be promoted and of Modern Languages learnt from each other.
effectively in teacher education? Many authors stress The dialogue across subjects changed the teachers’
the importance of integrating the three elements perceptions so that some of the English teachers
of user, analyst and teacher knowledge on teacher benefited from having their literature focused views
education courses. Borg (1994) argues against a of English enriched by the Modern Languages
strongly linguistic orientation and for an integration teachers’ more linguistic approach to language, and
of pedagogical issues. Andrews & McNeill (2005) vice versa.
likewise call for a balance between linguistically In this section, a discussion of what characterizes
oriented training and methodology, and suggest that an LA approach to language teaching concluded that
LA development opportunities should be available description, exploration, languaging, engagement
at all stages of a teacher’s career, including by self- and reflection were salient features. The methodology
access. The argument for an integration of pedagogy was then explored in terms of classroom techniques,
and linguistics is also supported by contributions and skills teaching. A discussion of teachers’ LA found
to Bartels’ (2005) edited volume, which explore that language teachers in general need awareness in
whether applied linguistics knowledge once acquired a wide range of areas, but that LA as a teaching
is or is not transferred into the language classroom. approach makes particularly challenging demands in
It becomes clear that knowledge transfer cannot this respect.
be taken for granted. In Burns & Knox’s (2005) In the following two sections, the importance
study, for example, MA students’ training in systemic of considering the social, cultural and political
functional grammar did not have the expected impact contexts in which LA work takes place will be
on their teaching. Summing up the findings in explored.
Bartels (2005), the editor concludes that LA is more
likely to transfer to classroom practice if there is
task similarity between the teacher training and the
4. Critical language awareness
classroom experience (Bartels 2005a). In this light, The exploratory approach in which language is ‘a
the findings in Andrews & Bunton’s (2006) study are dynamic phenomenon rather than . . . a fixed body
not surprising: a relevant degree as defined by the of established facts’ (Borg 1994: 62, as discussed
Hong Kong government, such as in Linguistics, was above) is fully exploited in CLA, which deals with
not a good predictor of teacher LA, particularly when language as discourse, i.e. with verbal interaction as
it came to preparing language teaching materials. social practice. Clark et al. (1991) consider discourse
Borg (1994) recommends that the training approach from three perspectives: social context (situation –
should reflect the practical and reflexive nature of institution – society), sociocognitive processes
the LA methodology it promotes. More recently, (production – interpretation) and text (spoken –
contributors to Cots & Nussbaum (2002) show written). Rather than simple, conscious knowledge,
how one might work analytically with naturally the awareness CLA seeks to engender is the socially
occurring and contextualized language in language situated process which Freire (1982, cited in Clark
teacher education. The volume contains analysis and et al. 1991) called conscientisation (see also Freire
discussion of a range of sample activities designed and 1985).
used in Spain. Hence, just as the subject matter of CLA is
Teachers’ LA and their previous experiences of wider than more linguistically oriented LA, so
language learning and/or teaching have a major are its aims and objectives. Other LA approaches
influence on their pedagogic choices (Borg 2005; are criticized by CLA proponents for presenting
Cots & Arno 2005). As already mentioned, UK the existing sociolinguistic situation and ideologies
teacher trainees tend to have a low level of embedded in the discourse as ‘natural’, thereby
LA (Cajkler & Hislam 2002) and have had little contributing to their perpetuation rather than, as
exposure to form-focused language teaching. On CLA aims to do, to social change (Clark et al.
the other hand, in countries where teacher trainees’ 1990, 1991; Fairclough 1992a). A particular focus
awareness of form is generally high, the inductive, of interest and analysis is how power relationships
exploratory nature of LA work often goes against construct, and are constructed by, discourses. For
their previous experience and expectations. For both example, Corson (1997) discusses the ideology of
groups, the process of change from user to analyst, correctness prevalent in schools which helps to
during which already held knowledge and beliefs maintain dominant/non-dominant social structures.
are challenged, can be difficult and destabilizing The notion of appropriateness might seem more
(Wright 1991). Hislam & Cajkler (2005) stress socially aware than correctness but is nevertheless
that trainees need time to reflect on and absorb rejected by Fairclough (1992a), who claims that
LA, and opportunities to try out methodologies rather than providing learners with opportunities,
296

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 Feb 2009 IP address: 194.80.32.10

■ Language awareness
appropriateness cements the hegemony of a particular change; it is the role of language education to foster
variety. The model is said to mask the complexity of such awareness.
how, when and why varieties are used and the fact that An example of how discourse can simultaneously
conventions are constantly contested by individuals engage and marginalize learners in a culturally diverse
and groups. In contrast, CLA aims to empower classroom is found in Duff (2004), who emphasizes
learners to make meaningful choices, including ones the need for greater awareness of such issues among
that introduce change. teachers and learners. Another recurring theme in
The social change and emancipation sought by CLA is the importance of a historical perspective
CLA practitioners is towards greater equality and (Janks & Ivanič 1992). Bhatt & Martin-Jones (1992)
democracy. The wide remit of CLA is evident point out the dangers of well-intentioned but
in the Norton & Toohey (2004) edited volume, uncritical awareness work in multilingual classes and
which includes papers on language and gender stress that unless they are given a historical and social
(Pavlenko 2004), language testing (Shohamy 2004) dimension some activities risk presenting minority
and the teaching of form (Morgan 2004) from languages as exotic. They recommend that discussions
a critical perspective. Another important source include how language attitudes and values are formed
for understanding CLA aims is Fairclough’s edited socially and politically, and how minority languages
volume (1992). In it, the editor himself argues that and their speakers are represented.
the nature of contemporary society makes CLA Similar issues are raised by research on dialect
more necessary than ever in order to create citizens awareness, including social and geographical varieties.
for an effective democracy. It is seen, by Janks & Central is the dominance of English over other
Ivanič (1992: 305), as contributing to emancipatory languages, or Standard English over less privileged
discourse i.e. ‘using language, along with other varieties. Corson (1997) discusses the effect of using
aspects of social practice, in a way which works different sociocultural and geographical varieties
towards greater freedom and respect for all people, of English, particularly in school settings, and
including ourselves.’ In the political arena, Fairclough calls for more explicit discussions of power and
(1999) identifies a narrowing down of political social justice issues in teacher education. Children
discourse as party political agendas become less and should be empowered to make choices based on
less diverse. In a healthy democracy, access and input an understanding of social contexts. Some modest
to political discourse, and some control of where progress in the fostering of CLA by schools
it goes, needs to be as broad as possible; effective is suggested by Smitherman (2004), who claims
participation, he argues, requires critical awareness of that attitudes towards African American Language
the discourses involved. have become more positive. The Afro-Caribbean
Wallace (1997: 242) calls CLA ‘the pedagogical Language and Literacy Project (ILEA 1990) produced
arm of critical discourse analysis’, situating it within materials for multilingual classrooms which aimed
a framework of Critical Pedagogy (Wallace 1999) both to raise awareness about power issues and
which, as she points out, draws both on educational language, and to help students achieve their best
and social theory (writers such as Apple, Bernstein, in written Standard English. The material has been
Freire, Foucault, Giroux and Habermas), and on published (ILEA 1990) and an informative review
linguistics (for example, Clark, Halliday, Fairclough, is available on the web (Harris 2004). An American
Fowler and Kress) (Wallace 1997: 305; see also perspective is presented by contributors to Villanueva
Phipps & Guilherme 2004). CLA practitioners clearly & Smitherman (2003), an edited volume which
consider that it is both important and possible to emerged from a Language Knowledge and Awareness
carry out their potentially subversive work from Survey research project.
within mainstream education. Fairclough (1999) is Discourse, the subject of inquiry, is constructed
highly critical of the focus in Higher Education on by and serves to construct social relationships and
the transmission of skills, such as communication identities, and so CLA is inherently constructivist
skills, in the narrow service of economic needs. (Norton & Toohey 2004: 1). This is reflected in an
In a similar vein, Sealey (1999) critiques National emphasis on students’ own experiences, social settings
Literacy Strategy documents for English primary and perceptions. Clark et al. (1991) suggest that in
schools for their lack of acknowledgement of the the classroom, descriptive language knowledge and
social and political nature of language and discourse, skills, and critical awareness of social relationships and
which a CLA approach could provide. In a Language power, need to be brought together in purposeful
Awareness special issue on CLA (Clark & Ivanič 1999), discourse. In an example activity, children discuss
Fairclough (1999: 78) addresses the challenges and what kinds of people are or are not included in
opportunities of the ‘new global capitalism’ with its history books, such as people they know, which leads
inherent discourse of flexibility, and argues that a into writing a family history. Interesting examples of
critical awareness of the role of discourse in social CLA pedagogy, which include purposeful discourse
practice is required in such a society, not only for (though the term is not used) are Janks (1991) on a
personal success but also in order to drive social CLA approach to teaching grammar in South Africa,
297

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 Feb 2009 IP address: 194.80.32.10

 Agneta M-L. Svalberg ■
and Morgan’s (2004) account of teaching modality more skilled in adapting to either spoken or written
to recent Chinese immigrants in Canada. Morgan delivery. Consciousness raising of these issues in oral
considers the grammar lesson a site where identity and written language is recommended for both L2
is not only represented but also constructed, and at learners and EAP/ESP instructors.
the same time manages to demonstrate the place the Many CLA practitioners might agree with Janks
teaching of form might take in CLA (see also Carter, & Ivanič (1992: 320) that ‘CLA should underlie
Hughes & McCarthy 2000; Goatly 2000; Wallace all language teaching and learning’ but its uptake
2003: 39). could be limited by its confrontational nature.
Classroom practitioners of critical pedagogy face This concerns Wallace (1999: 104), who is critical
the dilemma, as explained by Peyton Young (2000), of the three principles around which she claims
that text production and interpretation can never critical pedagogy is usually constructed: teaching as
be neutral as they are mediated by the unequal emancipatory, difference-oriented and oppositional,
power and resource distributions of societies. This of on the grounds that they ‘overstate the importance of
course applies not only to the discourses which are a confrontational stance to establishment discourse’.
the target of CLA work, but equally to the critical She suggests that critical pedagogy should value
researcher’s, teacher’s and learner’s discourses. Hence commonality and resistance rather than difference
any representation of language (e.g., descriptions of and opposition, and should foster ‘an understanding
grammar) is suspect. Morgan (2004: 173) concludes, of the nature of disadvantage and injustice beyond
however, that avoiding representation would do a that personally experienced’ (Wallace 1999: 104).
disservice to students for whom they are ‘important Such an approach might make CLA more widely
resources with which to shape counter-discursive applicable in mainstream education.
practices in ESL classrooms’. From this reviewer’s perspective, criticality in LA
Much published work on CLA relates to academic work can perhaps best be seen as a matter of
reading and writing, and builds on Fairclough’s degree and focus, rather than as either present or
model, which includes ideational and interpersonal absent. Outside CLA circles, but largely due to
meanings, reader/writer relationships and thoughts, their influence, a critical approach might in that
and their views and assumptions about the discourse sense already be more common than is immediately
(Fairclough 1989). Clark & Ivanič (1991: 170) set apparent. A field usually associated with a degree
out three principles for LA work in this critical of criticality is inter/cross-cultural awareness, to be
framework, one of which is that ‘LA work should discussed below.
focus on the way text, socio-cognitive processes
and socio-cultural context are interrelated’. This 5. LA in a multicultural and
interrelatedness is evident in Pittard & Martlew’s
(2000) ethnographic study of a writer’s engagement
multilingual society
with different writing tasks. They conclude that Not all approaches to inter/cross-cultural communic-
social aspects of writing could not be separated from ation focus on language. In the work reviewed below,
cognitive aspects; individual and social dimensions however, including some work on multilingualism,
of meaning making were equally important. In language is central and teacher and learner awareness
Allwright, Clark & Marshall-Lee’s (1996) discussion pivotal.
of teaching EAP to University students, the academic The relationship between foreign language
discourse community is referred to as a site of teaching and cross-cultural awareness is the subject
struggle. The writer can choose to comply or resist of Kramsch (1993) (see also Kramsch 1995). Hinkel
conventions related to who they are allowed to be, (1999) addresses culture in classroom interaction,
what they express and how. In order to exercise this its effect on writing and acquisition of pragmatic
choice, they need to become aware of the options competence, and in relation to teaching materials.
and the likely effects and consequences. Adopting Referring to the teaching of Modern Languages in
a similar approach, Hyland (2002) discusses the the UK, Phipps & González (2004) argue for a critical
common misconception that first person pronouns constructivist approach in which languaging (see
should not be used and recommends awareness- above) plays a central role in shaping intercultural
raising activities on real academic text in the students’ being. ‘Unless we actually centre languages at
subject discipline as a means of helping them express the heart of life, at the heart of intercultural
their own voice. This focus on discourse as the being, grounding a fresh curriculum in common
outcome of choice, with purpose and audience in experience, then the marginalization will continue
mind, is evident also in Rowley-Jovliet & Carter- and our lives and curiosities for other worlds and
Thomas’s (2003) study of genre awareness and other ways of being will continue to be eroded in
rhetorical appropriacy. From their analysis of NS and the name, even more ironically, of the global market’
NNS scientists’ use in English of syntactic resources to (Phipps & González 2004: 166).
manipulate information structure they conclude that A range of culture-awareness themes can be
the NS are more sensitive to context and genre, and distinguished in LA research, such as cultures of
298

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 Feb 2009 IP address: 194.80.32.10

■ Language awareness
learning/classroom culture (often related to Asian separated cultural hurdles from linguistic challenges,
learners of English), culture and writing (in particular and suggested that it would be useful for both students
academic writing), culture and the media, and and teachers to view textual appropriation issues from
dominant vs. marginalized cultural encounters, to these two viewpoints. Shi advocates a postmodern
mention but a few. An example of the first strand is pedagogic approach which would involve imitation,
Cortazzi & Jin’s (1999) often cited work on Chinese effective borrowing and inferential thinking skills to
learners (also Jin & Cortazzi 1998). They discuss the develop students’ authorship skills and cites a number
mismatch between the cultures of learning of Chinese of recent studies and authors which take a similar
students of English and their English (native-speaker) position, principally Minock (1995).
teachers. Expectations on teacher and learner roles, It may be controversial to put the Jaworski et al.
textbooks, and classroom interaction differ and may (2003) study of travel programmes on British TV
clash. Students in Cortazzi & Jin’s research stress down as an example of encounters of dominant
that they are intellectually active while their western with marginalized cultures. Nevertheless, it could be
teachers perceive them as being passive. Much of argued that the non-English cultures and languages
the work in this area is concerned with countering in the programme are being marginalized. The
existing stereotypes. There is perhaps a danger that researchers present a critical analysis of out-group
despite the researchers’ intentions, work such as that code-crossing (such as the use of basic phrase
by Cortazzi & Jin may be interpreted as showing what book expressions in the local language) in travel
a particular group of learners are ‘really’ like, in which programmes on British television, and what it reveals
case one stereotype has merely been exchanged for about ideological stances and identity positions of the
another. participants and programme makers (see also Gieve &
How does one overcome or counter stereotypes? Norton in press on a similar topic). More transpar-
Lessard-Clouston (1996) observes that opportunities ently to do with dominance and marginalization,
to interact with another cultural group do not Lindberg (2003) discusses the need for native speakers
necessarily produce cultural awareness. Instead, of Swedish to be aware of their responsibility as
interaction can reinforce stereotypes and prejudice. the more competent language users in inter-ethnic,
Explicit training is needed, according to the author, gatekeeper encounters, and what the native speaker
as it affords time for reflection and development of can do to facilitate successful communication. The
critical awareness. Lack of sociolinguistic awareness author reports on attempts to empower recent
among Chinese students in the UK is discussed by immigrants by enlisting native-speaker volunteers
Marr (2005), who found that his participants were to provide conversation opportunities and provides
disappointed and surprised at the regional accents of an analysis of those encounters. Another teaching
their lecturers, whom they had expected to provide approach used was text reconstruction, which,
them with a model of ‘good’ English, i.e. RP perhaps surprisingly, benefited the least educated
(received pronunciation). learners the most.
As exemplified by this and other studies above, In Europe, a number of projects aiming to
the target of research has often been the learner raise cultural and linguistic awareness among school
of English. In de Courcy (1997), in contrast, the children and their teachers and parents have been
participants are English speaking learners of Chinese implemented in recent years. Helot & Young (2006)
and their Chinese native-speaker teachers. The report on a three-year project in a small French
setting of the study is an Australian university, where primary school in Alsace (see also Young & Helot
the students were enrolled in a Chinese immersion 2004). In collaboration with the parents, Saturday
programme. de Courcy describes how learners and sessions were run at which the children were exposed
teacher functioned each according to their own to the languages and cultures represented by children
cultural script, and the problems that arose out of this. in the school and in the community. Based on analysis
It is an interesting account of genuine bewilderment of video footage and observation data, the project was
at culturally different behaviour. Although at least found to be successful in giving the children a more
one teacher’s outlook changed in the course of positive attitude to the languages and cultures, and
the programme, it also becomes clear that cultural to their peers of different backgrounds. The parents’
awareness does not necessarily lead to a willingness participation was an important factor in enhancing
to modify one’s behaviour patterns. the status of the less dominant groups and languages
Another strand of research with cultural and (Helot & Young 2003).
awareness dimensions is represented by Shi (2006), A larger project, which has served as the
who investigates textual appropriation, currently catalyst and model for other, subsequent projects,
a much-debated topic as it relates to plagiarism is EVLANG (‘L’eveil aux langues dans l’ecole
in tertiary education. The study involved native primaire’). Initially a three-year project (1997–2001),
English-speaking and German, Chinese, Japanese and it has since continued as an organization (see website).
Korean undergraduate students at a North American It involved teachers, children and researchers
university. Shi found in interviews that the students in Austria, France, Italy, Spain and Switzerland
299

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 Feb 2009 IP address: 194.80.32.10

 Agneta M-L. Svalberg ■
(Candelier 2001, 2005). The project addressed 2004, 2005). Despite generally positive outcomes,
researchers’ concern about western ethnocentrism Candelier (2005) also refers to some obstacles to
and the dominance of western culture in a culturally a wider implementation of Language Awakening
and linguistically diverse society by producing type programmes in schools: there is strong parental
materials which exposed 5th- and 6th-grade children pressure to provide one foreign language, usually
in 150 classrooms across Europe to a great range of English, which normally takes all the time available
languages and related tasks. As the name suggests, for language education, and there is sometimes a
it was concerned with an initial, ‘awakening’ stage perception that LA is a soft option which does not
of LA, not to teach language but to raise awareness involve any ‘real’ learning.
of how languages work. The assumption was that A number of in-school LA projects have been
this would both facilitate subsequent learning of run, and are still being implemented under the
languages and make students more accepting towards auspices of the Council of Europe through the Centre
a diversity of languages, their speakers and cultures. Européen pour les Langues Vivantes (CELV) in Graz,
The tasks designed for the project involved over 40 Austria. Among them is the 2004–2007 project,
languages and proceeded in three stages: becoming ‘Language Educator Awareness’ (LEA) with the sub-
aware of knowledge already held (including miscon- heading ‘Developing plurilingual and pluricultural
ceptions or lack of knowledge), creating new know- awareness in language teacher education’8 (see
ledge by solving cognitive problems, and becoming website). Another current CELV project is ‘Linguistic
aware of what knowledge had been gained and how diversity and literacy in a global perspective –
(Masats, undated). Topic areas included language an intercultural exchange with African countries’
structure, language and culture, language contact, (2004–2007) in collaboration with UNESCO and
variation, languages in a global context, bilingualism, others (see UNESCO website).
and the status of languages. They attempted to avoid That there is a need for multi-cultural and multi-
stereotyping, instead striving to engender acceptance lingual LA work not only in Europe is highlighted
and appreciation of diversity. According to Candelier by the statement on the UNESCO website that:
(2005) an evaluation produced mixed results, but ‘Today there is a serious lack of adequate teaching
generally the effects on attitude were deemed very resources in Africa and in Europe, especially in regards
positive, and there were indications that linguistic to languages of small migrant communities, non-
sensitivity had also been enhanced. state languages and non-territorial languages’ (see
EVLANG has inspired a number of subsequent website).
projects in Europe and beyond, involving large Like the researchers and practitioners in the
numbers of researchers, communities and schools. projects discussed, Jessner (2006) advocates a cross-
Some education authorities have considered the linguistic approach to LA, particularly with multi-
approach effective enough to integrate it into lingual students who can capitalize on commonalities
the curriculum (Candelier 2005). In Switzerland, between L1, L2, L3 and so on, and also take the
teaching materials in the form of 30 tasks for differences between all their languages into account.
children from pre-school through primary were Being multilingual, Jessner asserts, has cognitive
commissioned in a project called ‘Eveil aux langages effects in itself such as enhanced metalinguistic
et ouverture aux langues a l’école’ (EOLE), awareness and an enhanced multilingual capacity to
and LA is now part of some teacher education monitor, and it positively affects divergent and creat-
programmes in Switzerland (Perregaux et al. 2002; ive thinking, pragmatic competence, communicative
Perregaux 2006; see also http://www.romsem. sensitivity and translation skills. She points out that,
unibas.ch/sprachenkonzept/Annexe_11.html). as a consequence, all learning is affected by prior
In Greece, the Athens Institute of Pedagogy under linguistic and metalinguistic knowledge, and L3
the auspices of the Ministry of Education published learning is therefore different from L2 learning.
materials and introduced LA in 150 schools. In Research is needed to understand these differences,
Austria, the Center for School Development has and the possible implications for teaching a third
made EVLANG materials electronically available to language. Jessner’s claims are backed up by findings
schools. On a smaller scale, EVLANG and subsequent from Kemp’s (2006) study in which an adapted
projects have, according to Candelier (2005), had Modern Language Aptitude Test was administered
some impact on teaching programmes in Portugal and to non-native speakers of English. The effect of
France, but Young & Helot (2003) lament the lack multilingualism on test scores was ‘extraordinary’ and
of guidance on how teachers should implement the
(limited) LA aims of the French primary curriculum.
8
The main spin-off from EVLANG was the In line with what appears to be present usage in the Council
‘Janua Linguarum Reserata’ project (2000–2003), of Europe, plurilingualism is the favoured term here to denote
a person’s competencies in and across more than one language,
usually referred to as JALING, which extended to as opposed to multilingualism denoting a characteristic of a
cover all of primary and secondary, involving 10 place/country where there are speakers of several languages. This
countries in eastern and western Europe (Candelier distinction is, however, not maintained in the present review.

300

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 Feb 2009 IP address: 194.80.32.10

■ Language awareness
cumulative; the more languages the higher the scores. multilingualism and the teaching and nurturing of
The effect of multilingualism on metalinguistic ‘les langues de France’ referred to in the title,
and metacognitive awareness of multilinguals is an that is languages spoken where schools are located,
exciting field for further research (see a review of the including local and home languages such as Breton
field in Cenoz 2003). and Berber. Perregaux (2006) adopts a similarly
In the UK, CILT – the National Centre for positive stance on literacy in multilingual pre-school
Languages – presents a very up-beat picture of children where the teacher cannot assume shared
community languages in England, Scotland and knowledge, experiences and aspirations, or languages,
Wales in a report on a 2005 survey (see website), but can assume a rich variety. The author discusses an
which contrasts with the critical view taken by, approach to creating a common culture through co-
for example, Bhatt & Martin-Jones (1992), referred constructed, shared writing where more than one
to above. Lasagabaster (2003) provides an extensive language may be drawn on (for example, use of
review of research into attitudes to languages around particular vocabulary items), reflecting the linguistic
the world, as well as an account of his own study repertoires of the children. The children compose
of attitudes to Basque, Spanish and English among the story orally and the adult writes it down
students at the Universidad del Paı́s Vasco. In the demonstrating and facilitating the transition from oral
context of Europe, there are concerns both about the to written. Throughout the process, the children are
demands of an increasingly more complex linguistic encouraged to draw and reflect on the resources of
environment and about the negative effects of English their different experiences and languages.
as a Lingua Franca. In summary, the different languages and varieties
Increased multilingualism is only one of the making up a person’s linguistic competence are
suggested and possibly complementary ways of increasingly seen, in the LA literature, as constituting
handling this situation. The fostering of intercom- a repertoire rather than a number of language sets.
prehension is another. The concept is discussed In the LA classroom, social, cultural and linguistic
in some detail by Doyé (2005), who also provides awareness, and language learning are often treated as
a definition: ‘intercomprehension is a form of overlapping and mutually facilitating.
communication in which each person uses his or
her own language and understands that of the other’ 6. Conclusions and the way ahead
(2005: 7). It applies to both spoken and written The aim of this review has been to present an overall
language and aims to develop interpretive discourse picture of where LA as research and practice is today.
skills in typologically related languages. This could, Because of this wide scope, more narrowly focused
it has been suggested, act as a counterweight to reviews could usefully be conducted to interrogate
English Lingua Franca by increasing the use and each of the areas addressed above. Nevertheless, an
perceived value of less dominant languages, thereby impression of the field has emerged, which I will try
providing more opportunities for the expression to summarize below.
of their cultures. The European Awareness and Research into awareness and related notions has
Intercomprehension (EU + I) project has as its stated enhanced our understanding of its complexities,
aim to contribute to LA in Europe by developing an in particular how awareness and attention relate
intercomprehension learning/teaching methodology to noticing. Classroom-based research shows that
and materials (see EU + I website). attempts to guide learners’ noticing towards target
A number of other project sites provide samples of structures, for example through input enhancement
activities and materials, for example, EuroComRom and processing instruction, are promising but
(Romance Languages), IGLO (Germanic Lan- precise causal relationships are complex and difficult
guages), Intercomprehension in Slavonic Languages, to determine. Whatever their facilitative effect
and ILTE (Intercomprehension in Language Teacher these techniques might have, embedding them in
Education). The EuroComCentre provides links to interactive learning contexts would seem necessary
all (see website). in order to allow meaning–form connections to be
Language policies in a de-facto multilingual firmly established. The important role of classroom
European Union are discussed by Nelde (2001), who interaction, whether structured or informal, in
points out that there is no one-size-fits-all solution scaffolding knowledge creation is an exciting area of
to the competing needs and demands of majority and LA research and theory building.
minority language communities. Cots & Nussbaum A range of LA approaches to teaching were
(2002a: 58–60) provide an account of LA as content discussed above: a theoretical framework suggested
and medium in the Spanish and Catalonian curricula, by Borg (1994); three broad curriculum principles –
and their broad LA aims for L1 and FL learning and autonomy, awareness and authenticity – developed
teaching. by van Lier (1996); and a practical pedagogic
In France, Blanchet (2006) argues against the schema for language awakening training, provided
notions that multilingualism is divisive, or that by EVLANG and subsequent projects. The extent to
it requires a rare talent, and for a culture of which any of these sit within a larger framework of
301

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 Feb 2009 IP address: 194.80.32.10

 Agneta M-L. Svalberg ■
Critical Pedagogy depends crucially on the beliefs and how the knowledge has been acquired and the result-
preferences of the teacher. The work of educators and ing quality of the knowledge is not well understood.
researchers in cross-cultural LA and multilingualism Noticing should be further explored; for example,
highlight the important sociocultural and citizenship the relationship between noticing and subsequent
aspects of LA, in CLA combined with a particular fo- production, and between noticing and learner styles,
cus on power issues. Work on cross-cultural LA is par- together with the affective variables which promote
ticularly concerned with the engagement of minority or hinder noticing. LA needs to be studied in
and dominant groups with each others’ languages and different social, cultural and material contexts. Little
cultures. Regarding language teachers, there seems to LA research appears to have been conducted in Asian
be a consensus that to use LA effectively, they need or African settings, for example. Similarly, a few
both a high level of language awareness and first-hand languages tend to dominate and the repertoire needs
learner experience of an LA approach, for example, to be widened. Could LA be an effective approach
from their teacher education courses. to stimulating the use of Arabic as an intellectual
There is perhaps a danger that the multiple foci of and literary language in Lebanon, where English
LA could lead to fragmentation. Depending on the and French arguably tend to dominate? Could
orientation of the research or classroom practice, LA intercomprehension be fostered between related
work will draw to differing degrees on sociocultural, languages, such as on the Indian subcontinent? What
critical, linguistic, cognitive and general educational demands do different approaches to LA, in different
theory. Informal discussions with participants at ALA contexts, make on teachers’ language proficiency,
conferences in 2004 and 2006 suggest that there are and how can teachers be equipped to meet those
no ready answers as to what the various orientations demands? Finally, the notion of engagement suggests
within LA have in common, and yet there is a sense a number of useful directions. What do native
of coherence. I propose that features emerge from the speakers do or not do to allow L2 speakers to
literature reviewed above which explain this common engage with the L1 of the host country? What might
ground of the LA community. encourage or dissuade people from engaging with
A shared concern, I would argue, of LA practi- a language/languages? In order to promote LA in a
tioners and researchers, is the notion of engagement largely monolingual context such as that dominant in
with language. As collectively constructed over the the UK, it would be useful to know when engaging
last 15–20 years, LA does not refer to a purely intel- with a foreign language is considered legitimate, and
lectual awareness and is not passive. In the work when it is perhaps seen as pretence, mimicking or
discussed above, LA both engenders engagement even open to ridicule.
with language and is constructed through it. An I would agree with Gnutzmann (1997) that the
important manifestation of engagement is lan- great strength of LA is its holistic approach and
guaging, a prime site of knowledge construction. therefore its ability to house different ideological
The engagement can be intellectual, affective, social positions at the same time, which makes it particularly
or political or, usually, a combination of the suited to dealing with the complexity of language.
above. Researchers are concerned much less with The present situation, globally, is characterized
memorized or encyclopaedic knowledge than with by population movements, internal and external
LA as it encourages, facilitates, discourages or hinders political conflicts, tensions between language, faith
particular types of engagement with language, be it by and other communities, potential and actual power
language learners, gatekeepers, the general public or abuse. In dealing with these issues there is a great
other groups. Thus, LA has a common core of stances need for enhanced literacies, and multilingual and
and concerns which give it an important degree of multicultural competence and tolerance to which LA
coherence, and within which LA researchers and is well placed to make a major contribution.
practitioners situate themselves. Nevertheless, it has
so far been under-theorized, and its coherence needs Acknowledgements
to be articulated.
A multitude of research avenues are suggested by I am grateful to the anonymous reviewers for detailed
the review, some of which I will mention here. More and constructive comments. Any remaining errors or
longitudinal research is needed on possible language infelicities are, of course, my own.
learning effects of LA. In the realm of multilingual
awareness, is learning/teaching of L2 and L3 the References
same, or different, as Jessner claims? If the latter, how Abu Radwan, A. (2005). The effectiveness of explicit
are they different? The effect of particular awareness- attention to form in language learning. System 33.1, 69–87.
raising techniques on language acquisition is still open Adams, R. (2003). L2 output, reformulation and noticing:
to investigation. Languaging, as a process and its Implications for IL development. Language Teaching Research
7.3, 347–376.
effects, has not been fully explored. What kind of Alanen, R. (1995). Input enhancement and rule rep-
metalanguage facilitates reflection and verbalization resentation in second language acquisition. In Schmidt
in language learning? The link between learning, (ed.), 259–302.

302

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 Feb 2009 IP address: 194.80.32.10

■ Language awareness
Alderson, C., C. Clapham & D. Steele (1997). Metalinguistic Cajkler, W. & J. Hislam (2002). Trainee teachers’ grammatical
knowledge, language aptitude and language proficiency. knowledge: The tension between public expectations and
Language Teaching Research 1.2, 93–121. individual competence. Language Awareness 11.3, 161–177.
Al-Hejin, B. (2004). Attention and awareness: Evidence Camps A. & M. Milian (eds.) (2000). Metalinguistic activity in
from cognitive and second language research. Teachers learning to write. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
College, Columbia University Working Papers in TESOL Candelier, M. (2001). Eveil aux langues: Rapport concernant
& Applied Linguistics 4.1, 1–22. <http://journals.tc- les objectifs. <http://jaling.ecml.at/english/welcome_page.
library.org/index.php/tesol/article/view/43/50> accessed htm> accessed 15/03/2007.
15/03/2007. Candelier M. (ed.) (2004). Janua linguarum – The gateway
Allwright, J., R. Clark & A. Marshall-Lee (1996). Developing to languages. The introduction of language awareness into the
a critical approach to study. In M. Hewings & T. Dudley- curriculum: Awakening to languages. Graz: European Centre
Evans (eds.), Evaluation and course design in EAP. Hemel for Modern Languages, Council of Europe Publishing.
Hempstead: Prentice Hall Macmillan, in association with Candelier, M. (2005). L’éveil aux langues – Une proposition
The British Council 6.1, 71–85. originale pour la gestation du plurilinguisme en milieu scolaire.
Andrews, S. (2001). The language awareness of the L2 teacher: Contribution au rapport mondial de l’UNESCO; Construire
Its impact upon pedagogical practice. Language Awareness des sociétés du savoir. <http://plurilangues.univ-lemans.fr/
10.2/3, 75–90. televersement/docs/eveilauxlanguescandelier.pdf> acces-
Andrews, S. (ed.) (2003). Special issue: Teacher language sed 15/03/2007.
awareness. Language Awareness 12.2, 79–142. Carter R. (ed.) (1990). Knowledge about Language and the
Andrews, S. (forthcoming). Teacher language awareness. Curriculum: The LINC reader. London: Hodder &
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Stoughton.
Andrews, S. & D. Bunton (2006). The language awareness of Carter, R., R. Hughes & M. McCarthy (2000). Exploring
novice teachers of L2 English. Paper at the 8th International grammar in context. Grammar reference and practice: Upper
Conference of the Association for Language Awareness, intermediate and advanced. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
University of Maine, Le Mans, July 2006. sity Press.
Andrews, S. & A. McNeill (2005). Knowledge about language Cenoz, J. (2003). The additive effect of bilingualism on
and the ‘good language teacher’. In Bartels (ed.), 159–178. third language acquisition: A review. International Journal
Bartels, N. (ed.) (2005). Applied linguistics and language teacher of Bilingualism 7.1, 71–87.
education. New York: Springer. Clark, R., N. Fairclough, R. Ivanič & M. Martin-Jones
Bartels, N. (2005a). Applied Linguistics and language teacher (1990). Critical language awareness. Part I: A critical
education: What we know. In Bartels (ed.), 405–424. review of three current appsroaches to language awareness.
Batstone, R. (2002a). Contexts of engagement: a discourse Language and Education 4.4, 249–260.
perspective on ‘intake’ and ‘pushed output’. System 30.1, Clark, R., N. Fairclough, R. Ivanič & M. Martin-Jones
1–14. (1991). Critical language awareness. Part II: Towards critical
Batstone, R. (2002b). Making sense of new language: A alternatives. Language and Education 5.1, 41–54.
discourse perspective. Language Awareness 11.1, 14–29. Clark, R. & R. Ivanič (1991). Consciousness-raising about
Becker, A. L. (1991). Language and languaging. Language and the writing process. In James & Garrett (eds.), 169–185.
Communication 11.1/2, 33–35. Clark, R. & R. Ivanič (eds.) (1999). Special issue: Critical
Berry, E. C. (1994). Implicit and explicit learning of complex language awareness. Language Awareness 8.2.
tasks. In N. C. Ellis (ed.), 147–165. Clynes, A. & A. Henry (2004). Introducing genre
Berry, R. (2004). Awareness of metalanguage. Language analysis using Brunei Malay wedding invitations. Language
Awareness 13.1, 1–16. Awareness 13.4, 225–242.
Berry, R. (ed.) (2005). Special issue: Metalanguage in applied Coniam, D. (2002). Technology as an awareness-raising tool
linguistics. Language Awareness 14.1. for sensitising teachers to features of stress and rhythm in
Bhatt, A. & M. Martin-Jones (1992). Whose resource? English. Language Awareness 11.1, 30–42.
Minority languages, bilingual learners and language Corson, D. (1997). Awareness of non-standard varieties in the
awareness. In Fairclough (ed.), 285–302. schools. In van Lier & Corson (eds.), 229–240.
Blanchet, P. (2006). Enseigner les langues de France? Cortazzi, M. & L. Jin (1999). Cultural mirrors: Materials and
Cahiers Pédagogiques 423. <http://www.cahiers- methods in the EFL classroom. In Hinkel (ed.), 196–219.
pedagogiques.com/article.php3?id_article=850> accessed Cots, J. M. & E. Arno (2005). Integrating language teachers’
15/03/2007. discipline knowledge in a language course. In Bartels (ed.),
Borg, S. (1994). Language awareness as a methodology: 59–78.
Implications for teachers and teacher training. Language Cots, J. M. & L. Nussbaum (eds.) (2002). Pensar lo dicho: La
Awareness 3.2, 61–71. reflexión sobre la lengua y la communicación en el aprendizaje de
Borg, S. (2003). Teacher cognition in grammar teaching: A lenguas. Lleida: Editorial Milenio.
literature review. Language Awareness 12.2, 96–108. Cots, J. M. & L. Nussbaum (2002a). Visiones de conciencia
Borg, S. (2005). Experience, knowledge about language and lingüı́stica: del currı́culo a la prácticas de aula. In Cots &
classroom practice in teaching grammar. In Bartels (ed.), Nussbaum (eds.), 55–68.
325–340. de Courcy, M. (1997). Teaching and learning with different
Brumfit, C. (1991). Language awareness in teacher education. scripts: Cross-cultural conflict in a Chinese late immersion
In James & Garrett (eds.), 24–39. classroom. Language and Education 11.4, 242–259.
Burley, S. & C. Pomphrey (2002). Intercomprehension: A DeKeyser, R. M. (1994). How implicit can adult second
move towards a new type of language teacher. Language language learning be? AILA Review 11, 83–96.
Learning Journal 25, 46–51. DeKeyser, R. M., R. Salaberry, P. Robinson & M.
Burley, S. & C. Pomphrey (2003). Intercomprehension in lan- Harrington (2002). What gets processed in Processing
guage teacher education: A dialogue between English and Instruction? A commentary on Bill VanPatten’s ‘Processing
Modern Languages. Language Awareness, 12.3/4, 247–255. Instruction: An Update’. Language Learning 52.4, 805–
Burns, A. & J. Knox (2005). Realisation(s): Systemic 823.
functional linguistics and the language classroom. In Bartels Donmall, B. G (ed.) (1985). Language awareness: NCLE reports
(ed.), 235–260. and papers, 6. London: CILT.

303

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 Feb 2009 IP address: 194.80.32.10

 Agneta M-L. Svalberg ■
Donmall-Hicks, B. (1997). The history of language awareness Francis, N. (1999). Bilingualism, writing and metalinguistic
in the United Kingdom. In van Lier & Corson (eds.), 21– awareness: Oral-literate interactions between first and
30. second languages. Applied Psycholinguistics 20.4, 533–561.
Dooly, M. (2005). How aware are they? Research into Francis, N. (2002). Literacy, second language learning, and
teachers’ attitudes about linguistic diversity. Language the development of metalinguistic awareness: A study of
Awareness 14.2/3, 97–111. bilingual children’s perceptions of focus on form. Linguistics
Doughty, C. (1991). Second language instruction does make and Education 13.3, 373–404.
a difference: Evidence from an empirical study of second Freire, P. (1982). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Harmondsworth:
language relativization. Studies in Second Language Acquisition Penguin.
13.4, 431–469. Freire, P. (1985). The politics of education. London: Macmillan.
Doughty, C. (2003). Instructed SLA: Constraints, compens- Garcı́a Mayo, M. (2003). Interaction in advanced EFL
ation, and enhancement. In C. Doughty & M. H. Long pedagogy: A comparison of form-focused activities.
(eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition. New York: International Journal of Educational Research 37.3/4, 323–341.
Basil Blackwell, 256–310. Gass, S., I. Svetics & S. Lemelin (2003). Differential effects of
Doughty C. & J. Williams (eds.) (1998). Focus on form in attention. Language Learning 53.3, 497–545.
classroom second language acquisition. New York: Cambridge Gieve, S. & J. Norton (in press). Dealing with linguistic
University Press. difference in representations of encounters with others in
Doughty, C. & J. Williams (1998a). Pedagogical choices in travel, documentary and life-style programmes on British
focus on form. In Doughty & Williams (eds.), 197–261. television. In S. Johnson & A. Ensslin (eds.), Language
Downing, J. (1986). Cognitive clarity: A unifying and cross- in the media: Representations, identities, ideologies. London:
cultural theory for language awareness phenomena in Continuum.
reading. In D. Yaden & S. Templeton (eds.), Metalinguistic Gnutzmann, C. (1997). Language Awareness: Progress in
awareness and beginning literacy: Conceptualizing what it means language learning and language education, or refor-
to read and write. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 13–30. mulation of old ideas? Language Awareness 6.2/3, 65–74.
Doyé, P. (2005). Intercomprehension. Guide for the development Goatly, A. (2000). Critical reading and writing: An introductory
of language education policies in Europe: From linguistic coursebook. London: Routledge.
diversity to plurilingual education. Strasbourg: Council of Goikoetxea, E. (2005). Levels of phonological awareness in
Europe, Language Policy Division. <http://www.coe. preliterate and literate Spanish speaking children. Reading
int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Doye%20EN.pdf> accessed and Writing 18.1, 51–79.
15/03/2007. Hall, N. & J. Shepheard (1991). The anti-grammar grammar
Duff, P. A. (2004). Intertextuality and hybrid discourses: The book. A teacher’s resource book of discovery activities for grammar
infusion of pop culture in educational discourse. Linguistics teaching. Harlow: Longman.
and Education 14, 231–276. Harris, R. (2004). Review of Language and power: Langu-
Edge, J. (1988). Applying linguistics in English language age materials for students in the multilingual and multiethnic
teacher training for speakers of other languages. ELT classroom. <http://www.tomleonard.co.uk/reviews/roxy_
Journal, 42.1, 9–13. harris-language_and_power.shtml> accessed 15/03/2007.
Elbro, C. & D. K. Petersen,(2004). Long-term effects Hawkins, E. W. (1981). Modern languages in the curriculum.
of phoneme awareness and letter sound training: An Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
intervention study with children at risk for dyslexia. Journal Hawkins, E. W. (1984). Awareness of language: An introduction.
of Educational Psychology 96.4, 660–670. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ellis, N. C. (1993). Rules and instances in foreign language Hawkins, E. W. (1992). Awareness of language/knowledge
learning: Interactions of explicit and implicit knowledge. about language in the curriculum in England and Wales:
European Journal of Cognitive Psychology 5, 289–318. A historical note on twenty years of curricular debate.
Ellis, N. C (ed.) (1994). Implicit and explicit learning of languages. Language Awareness 1.1, 5–18.
London: Academic Press. Hawkins, E. W. (1999). Foreign language study and language
Ellis, N. C. (2005). At the interface: Dynamic interactions of awareness. Language Awareness 8.3/4, 124–142.
explicit and implicit language knowledge. Studies in Second Hawkins M. R (ed.) (2004). Language learning and teacher
Language Acquisition 27.2, 305–352. education: A sociocultural approach. Clevedon: Multilingual
Ellis, R. (2002). Grammar teaching – practice or Matters.
consciousness-raising? In J. C. Richards & W. A. Renandya Hedge, T. (2000). Teaching and learning in the language classroom.
(eds.), Methodology in language teaching: An anthology of current Oxford: Oxford University Press.
practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 167–174. Helot, C. & A. Young (2003). Education à la diversité
Ewald, J. D. (2004). A classroom forum on small group work: linguistique et culturelle: le rôle des parents dans un projet
L2 learners see, and change, themselves. Language Awareness d’éveil aux langues en cycle 2. LIDIL (Revue de linguistique
13.3, 163–179. et de didactique des langues), Le plurilinguisme en construction
Fairclough, N. (1989). Language and power. London: dans le système éducatif: Contextes, dispositifs, acteurs. Grenoble:
Longman. Université Stendhal, 187–200.
Fairclough, N. (ed.) (1992). Critical language awareness. Helot, C. & A. S. Young (2006). Imagining Multilingual
London: Longman. Ecation in France: A language and cultural awareness
Fairclough, N. (1992a). The appropriacy of ‘appropriateness’. project at primary level. In T. Skutnabb-Kangas, O. Garcia
In Fairclough, (ed.), 33–56. & M. E. Torrezdu Guzman (eds.), Imagining multilingual
Fairclough, N. (1999). Global capitalism and critical awareness schools. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 69–90.
of language. Language Awareness 8.2, 71–83. Henry, A. & R. Roseberry (1999). Raising awareness
Fortune, A. (2005). Learners’ use of metalanguage in of the generic structure and linguistic features of essay
collaborative form-focused L2 output tasks. Language introductions. Language Awareness 8.3/4, 190–200.
Awareness 14.1, 21–38. Hinkel, E. (ed.) (1999). Culture in second language teaching and
Fortune, A. & D. Thorp (2001). Knotted and entangled: learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
New light on the identification, classification and value Hislam, J. & W. Cajkler (2005). Teacher trainees’
of language related episodes in collaborative output tasks. explicit knowledge of grammar and primary curriculum
Language Awareness 10.2/3, 143–160. requirements in England. In Bartels (ed.), 295–312.

304

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 Feb 2009 IP address: 194.80.32.10

■ Language awareness
Hopkins, D. & M. Nettle (1994). Second language acquisition Kasper, G. (1997). The role of pragmatics in language
research: A response to Rod Ellis. ELT Journal 48.2, 157– teacher education. In K. Bardovi-Harlig & B. Hartford
179. (eds.), Beyond methods: Components of second language teacher
Housen, A., M. Pierrard & S. Van Daele (2005). education. New York: McGraw-Hill, 113–136.
Structure complexity and the efficacy of explicit grammar Kemp, C. (2006). Implicit and explicit knowledge of grammatical
instruction. In A. Housen & M. Pierrard (eds.), form and function in learners using 3 or more languages. Paper
Investigations in instructed second language acquisition. Berlin at the 8th International Conference of the Association for
& New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 235–270. Language Awareness, University of Maine, Le Mans.
Howatt, A. (1984). A history of English language teaching. Kim, H-Y. (1995). Intake from the speech stream: Speech
Oxford: Oxford University Press. elements that L2 learners attend to. In Schmidt (ed.), 65–
Hulstijn, J. & R. de Graaf (1994). Under what conditions 83.
does explicit knowledge of a second language facilitate Kramsch, C. (1993). Context and culture in language teaching.
the acquisition of implicit knowledge? A research proposal. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
AILA Review 11, 97–112. Kramsch, C. (1995). The cultural component of language
Hulstijn, J. & R. W. Schmidt (eds.) (1994). Consciousness in teaching. Language, Culture and Curriculum 8.2, 83–92.
second language learning. AILA Review 11. Kress, G. R., J. Ogborn & I. Martins (1998). A satellite view of
Hyland, K. (2002). Options of identity in academic writing. language: Some lessons from science classrooms. Language
ELT Journal 56.4, 351–358. Awareness 7.2/3, 69–89.
ILEA Afro-Caribbean Language and Literacy Project in Kümmerling-Meibauer, B. (1999). Metalinguistic awareness
Higher Adult Education (1990). Language and power: and the child’s developing concept of irony: The
Language materials for students in the multilingual and multiethnic relationship between pictures and text in ironic picture
classroom. London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. books. Lion and the Unicorn: A Critical Journal of Children’s
James, C. (1992). Awareness, consciousness and language Literature 23.2, 157–183.
contrast. In Mair & Markus (eds.), New departures in Lana Chavez de Castro, M. C. (2005). Why teachers don’t
contrastive Linguistics: Proceedings of the conference held at use their pragmatic awareness. In Bartels (ed.), 281–
Leopold-Franzens University of Innsbruck, Austria, 10–12 May 294.
1991, vol. II, 183–197. Lasagabaster, D. (2002). El texto como medio para trabajar
James, C. (1999). Language Awareness: Implications for the distintos niveles del lenguaje en la clase de ingles. In Cots
language curriculum. Language Awareness 12.1, 94–115. & Nussbaum (eds.), 155–166.
James, C. & P. Garrett (eds.) (1991). Language awareness in the Lasagabaster, D. (2003). Trilingüismo en la enseñanza: Actitudes
classroom. London: Longman. hacı́a la lengua minoritaria, la mayoritaria y la extranjera. Lleida:
James, C. & P. Garrett (1991a). The scope of language Editorial Milenio.
awareness. In James & Garrett (eds.), 3–20. Layton, A., J. Robinson & M. Lawson (1998). The
Janks, H. (1991). A critical approach to the teaching of relationship between syntactic awareness and reading
language. Educational Review 43.2, 191–199. performance. Journal of Research in Reading 21.1, 5–23.
Janks, H. & R. Ivanič (1992). Critical language awareness and Lazo, M., P. D. Pumfrey & I. Peers (1997). Metalinguistic
emancipatory discourse. In Fairclough (ed), 305–331. awareness, reading and spelling: Roots and branches of
Jaworski, A., N. Coupland & D. Galasiński (eds.) (2004). literacy. Journal of Research in Reading 20.2, 85–104.
Metalanguage: Social and ideological perspectives. Berlin: Lee, S. K. (2007). Effects of textual enhancement and
Mouton. topic familiarity on Korean EFL students’ reading
Jaworski, A., C. Thurlow, S. Lawson & V. Ylanne-McEwen comprehension and learning of passive form. Language
(2003). The uses and representations of local languages Learning 57.1, 87–118.
in tourist destinations: A view from British TV holiday Leow, R. (1997). Attention, awareness and foreign language
programmes. Language Awareness, 12.1, 5–29. behaviour. Language Learning 47.3, 467–505.
Jessner, U. (2006). Linguistic awareness in multilinguals. Lesaux, N. K., O. Lipka & L. S. Siegel (2006). Investigating
Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. cognitive and linguistic abilities that influence the reading
Jessner, U. (in press). Language awareness in multilinguals. In J. comprehension skills of children from diverse linguistic
Cenoz & N. H. Hornberger (eds.), Encyclopedia of language backgrounds. Reading and Writing 19.1, 99–131.
and education, 2nd edn., vol 6: Knowledge about language. Lessard-Clouston, M. (1996). Chinese teachers’ views of
Berlin: Springer. culture in their EFL learning and teaching. Language,
Jin, L. & M. Cortazzi (1998). The culture the learner brings: Culture and Curriculum 9.3, 197–224.
A bridge or a barrier? In M. Byram & M. Fleming (eds.), Lindberg, I. (2003). Second language awareness: What for
Language learning in intercultural perspective. Cambridge: and for whom? Language Awareness 12.3/4, 157–171.
Cambridge University Press, 98–118. Long, M. H. (1991). Focus on form: A design feature in
Johns, A. M. (1997). Text, role and context: Developing academic language teaching methodology. In K. De Bot, R. B.
literacies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ginsberg & C. Kramsch (eds.), Foreign language research in
Jones, R. E. (2001). A consciousness-raising approach to the cross-cultural perspectives. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 39–
teaching of conversational storytelling skills. ELT Journal 52.
55.2, 155–163. Marr, T. (2005). Language and the capital: A case study
Jones, R. E. (2002). We used to do this and we’d also do of ‘language shock’ among Chinese students in London.
that: A discourse pattern for teaching the reminiscence Language Awareness 14.4, 239–253.
story. The Language Teacher 26.2. <http://www.jalt- Masats, D. (undated). Language awareness: An international pro-
publications.org/tlt/articles/2002/02/jones> accessed ject. <http://jaling.ecml.at/english/welcome_page.htm>
15/03/2007. accessed 15/03/2007.
Jones, S. (1997). Language awareness and learning styles. In Maun, I. (2006). Penetrating the surface: The impact of visual
van Lier & Corson (eds.), 73–84. format on readers’ affective responses to authentic foreign
Jourdenais, R., M. Ota, S. Stauffer, B. Boyson & C. Doughty language texts. Language Awareness 15.2, 110–127.
(1995). Does textual enhancement promote noticing? A McCarthy, M. & A. O’Keeffe (2004). Research in the
think-aloud protocol analysis. In Schmidt (ed.), 183– teaching of speaking. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics
216. 24, 26–43.

305

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 Feb 2009 IP address: 194.80.32.10

 Agneta M-L. Svalberg ■
McGregor, G. (1998). Whaddaweknow? Language awareness Rijlaarsdam, G. & M. Couzijn (2000). Stimulating awareness
and non-linguists’ accounts of everyday speech activities. of learning in the writing curriculum. In Camps & Milian
Language Awareness 7.1, 32–51. (eds.), 167–202.
Minock, M. (1995). Toward a postmodern pedagogy of Robinson, M. (2005). Metalanguage in L1 English-speaking
imitation. Journal of Composition Theory 15.3, 489–509. 12-year-olds: Which aspects of writing do they talk about?
Mitchell, R. & J. Hooper (1991). Teachers’ views of language Language Awareness 14.1, 39–55.
knowledge. In James & Garrett (eds.), 40–50. Robinson, P. (1995). Aptitude, awareness, and the
Mohamed, N. (2004). Consciousness-raising tasks: A learner fundamental similarity of implicit and explicit
perspective. ELT Journal 58.3, 228–237. second language learning. In Schmidt (ed.), 303–
Morgan, B. (2004). Modals and memories: A grammar lesson 357.
on the Quebec referendum on sovereignty. In Norton & Robinson, P. (1997). Generalizability and automaticity
Toohey (eds.), 158–178. of second language learning under implicit, incidental,
Nakatani, Y. (2005). The effects of awareness raising training enhanced, and instructed conditions. Studies in Second
on oral communication strategy use. Modern Language Language Acquisition 19.2, 223–247.
Journal 89.1, 76–91. Rosa, E. & M. O’Neill (1999). Explicitness, intake and the
Nassaji, H. & M. Swain (2000). A Vygotskyan perspective issue of awareness: Another piece of the puzzle. Studies in
on corrective feedback in L2: The effect of random versus Second Language Acquisition 22.4, 511–566.
negotiated help in the learning of English articles. Language Rowley-Jovliet, E. & S. Carter-Thomas (2003). Genre
Awareness 9.1, 34–51. awareness and rhetorical appropriacy: Manipulation of
Nelde, P. H. (2001). Perspectives for a European language information structure by NS and NNS scientists in the
policy. AILA Review 14, 34–48. international conference setting. English for Specific Purposes
Norris, J. M. & L. Ortega (2000). Effectiveness of L2 24.1, 41–64.
instruction: A research synthesis and quantitative meta- Rutherford, W. & M. Sharwood Smith (eds.) (1988). Grammar
analysis. Language Learning 50.3, 417–528. and second language teaching. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Norris, J. M. & L. Ortega (2001). Does type of instruction Sarangi, S. (1998). ‘I actually turn my back on [some]
make a difference? Substantive findings from a meta- students’: The metacommunicative role of talk in classroom
analytic review. Language Learning 51.1, 157–213. discourse. Language Awareness 7.2/3, 90–108.
Norton B. & K. Toohey (eds.) (2004). Critical pedagogies and Schmidt, R. W. (1990). The role of consciousness in
language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. second language learning. Applied Linguistics 11.2, 129–
Pavlenko, A. (2004). Gender and sexuality in foreign 158.
and second language education: Critical and feminist Schmidt, R. W. (1993). Consciousness, learning and
approaches. In Norton & Toohey (eds.), 53–71. interlanguage pragmatics. In G. Kasper & S. Blum-Kulka
Pennington, M. C. & N. C. Ellis (2000). Cantonese speakers’ (eds.), Interlanguage pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University
memory for English sentences with prosodic cues. Modern Press, 21–42.
Language Journal 84.3, 372–389. Schmidt, R. W. (1994). Deconstructing consciousness in
Perregaux, C. C. (2006). La lecture dans un contexte search of useful definitions for applied linguistics. AILA
plurilingue et pluriculturel: à l’école enfantine, ponts entre Review 14, 11–26.
langues familiales et scolaires, entre oral et écrit. Interdialogos Schmidt, R. W. (ed.) (1995). Attention and awareness in foreign
1, 21–24. language learning. Honolulu, HI: Second Language Teaching
Perregaux, C., C. de Goumoens, D. Jeannot & J-F. de & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaii at Manoa.
Pietro (eds.) (2002). Education au langage et ouverture aux Schmidt, R. W. (2001). Attention. In P. Robinson (ed.),
langues à l’école (EOLE). Neuchatel: Secretariat general de Cognition and second language instruction. Cambridge:
la conférence intercantonale de l’instruction publique de la Cambridge University Press, 3–32.
Suisse romande et du Tessin (CIIP). Schmidt, R. W. & S. N. Frota (1986). Developing basic
Peyton Young, J. (2000). Boy talk: Critical literacy and conversational ability in a second language: A case study
masculinities. Reading Research Quarterly 35.3, 312– of an adult learner of Portuguese. In R. Day (ed.), Talking
337. to learn: Conversation in second language acquisition. Rowley,
Phipps, A. & M. González (2004). Modern languages: Learning MA: Newbury House, 237–326.
and teaching in an intercultural field. London: Sage. Sealey, A. (1999). Teaching primary school children about the
Phipps, A. & M. Guilherme (eds.) (2004) Critical pedagogy: English language: A critique of current policy documents.
Political approaches to languages and intercultural communication. Language Awareness 8.2, 84–97.
Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Segalowitz, N. & P. Lightbown (1999). Psycholinguistic
Pica, T. (2005). Classroom learning, teaching and research: A approaches to SLA. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 19,
task based perspective. Modern Language Journal 89.3, 339– 43–63.
352. Sharwood-Smith, M. (1993). Input enhancement in
Pittard, V. & M. Martlew (2000). Socially-situated cognition instructed SLA: Theoretical bases. Studies in Second
and metalinguistic activity. In Camps & Milian (eds.), 79– Language Acquisition 15, 165–179.
102. Shi, L. (2006). Cultural backgrounds and textual
Posner, M. I. & S. E. Petersen (1990). The attention system of appropriation. Language Awareness 15.4, 264–282.
the human brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience 13, 25–42. Shohamy, E. (2004). Assessment in multicultural societies:
Preston, D. R. (1996). Whaddyaknow? The modes of folk Applying democratic principles and practices to language
linguistic awareness. Language Awareness 5, 40–74. testing. In Norton & Toohey (eds.), 72–92.
Preston, D. R. (2004). Folk metalanguage. In Jaworski et al. Shook, D. (1994). FL/L2 reading, grammatical information,
(eds.), 75–101. and the input-to-intake phenomenon. Applied Language
Qi, D. S. & S. Lapkin (2001). Exploring the role of noticing in Learning 5, 57–93.
a three-stage second language writing task. Journal of Second Slade, D. (1997). Stories and gossip in English: The macro-
Language Writing 10.4, 277–303. structure of casual talk. Prospect 12, 72–86.
Ramı́rez Verdugo, D. (2006). A study of intonation awareness Smitherman, G. (2004). Language and African Americans:
and learning in non-native speakers of English. Language Movin on up a lil higher. Journal of English Linguistics 32.3,
Awareness 15.3, 141–159. 186–196.

306

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 Feb 2009 IP address: 194.80.32.10

■ Language awareness
Stainton, C. (1992). Language awareness: Genre awareness – VanPatten, B. (2002a). Processing instruction: An update.
a focused review of the literature. Language Awareness 1.2, Language Learning 52.4, 755–803.
109–121. VanPatten, B. (2002b). Processing instruction, prior awareness
Storch, N. (2002). Patterns of interaction in ESL pair work. and the nature of second language acquisition: A (partial)
Language Learning 52.1, 119–158. response to Batstone. Language Awareness 11.4, 240–258.
Svalberg, A. M-L. (2005). Consciousness raising activities VanPatten, B. & C. Sanz (1995). From input to output:
in some Lebanese English language classrooms: Teacher Processing instruction and communicative tasks. In F.
perceptions and Learner engagement. Language Awareness Eckman, D. Highland, P. Lee, J. Mileham & R. Weber
14.2/3, 170–190. (eds.), SLA theory and pedagogy. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Svalberg, A. M-L. (2006). Consciousness raising in the Erlbaum, 169–186.
communicative classroom. Paper at BAAL Language Villanueva, S. & G. Smitherman (2003). Language diversity
Learning and Teaching SIG Conference: Language Use, in the classroom: From intention to practice. Carbondale, IL:
Language Processing and Language Learning, 19–20 April, Southern Illinois University Press.
University of Southampton. Wallace, C. (1997). The role of language awareness in
Swain, M. (2000). The output hypothesis and beyond: critical pedagogy. In van Lier & Corson (eds.), 241–
Mediating acquisition through collaborative dialogue. In J. 249.
Lantolf (ed.), Sociocultural theory and second language learning. Wallace, C. (1999). Critical language awareness: Key princi-
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 97–114. ples for a course in critical reading. Language Awareness 8.2,
Swain, M. (2006). Languaging, agency and collaboration in 98–110.
second language learning. Plenary address at BAAL Language Wallace, C. (2003). Critical reading in language education.
Learning and Teaching SIG Conference: Language Use, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Language Processing and Language Learning, 19–20 April, Walsh, S. (2003). Developing interactional awareness in the
Southampton University. second language classroom through teacher self-evaluation.
Swain, M. & S. Lapkin (2002). Talking it through: Two French Language Awareness 12.2, 124–142.
immersion learners’ response to reformulation. International White, J. (1998). Getting the learners’ attention: A
Journal of Educational Research 37.3/4, 285–304. typographical input enhancement study. In Doughty &
Thornbury, S. (1997a). About language: Tasks for teachers of Williams (eds.), 85–113.
English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wright, T. (1991). Language awareness in teacher education
Thornbury, S. (1997b). Reformulation and reconstruction: programmes for non-native speakers. In James & Garrett
Tasks that promote ‘noticing’. ELT Journal 51.4, 326–335. (eds.), 62–77.
Thornbury, S. (2001). Uncovering grammar. Oxford: Wright, T. (2002). Doing language awareness: Issues for
Macmillan Heinemann. language study in language teacher education. In Trappes-
Tocalli-Beller, A. & M. Swain (2005). Reformulation: The Lomax & Ferguson (eds.), 113–130.
cognitive conflict and L2 learning it generates. International Wright, T. & R. Bolitho (1993). Language awareness: A
Journal of Applied Linguistics 15.1, 5–28. missing link in language teacher education? ELT Journal
Tolchinsky, L. (2000). Contrasting views about the object and 47.4, 292–304.
purpose of metalinguistic work and reflection in academic Young, A. & C. Helot (2003). Language awareness and/or
writing. In Camps & Milian (eds.), 29–48. language learning in French primary schools today.
Tomlin, R. S. & V. Villa (1994). Attention in cognitive science Language Awareness 12.3/4, 236–246.
and second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Young, A. & C. Helot (2004). L’éducation à la citoyen-
Acquisition 16, 183–203. neté par le biais de l’interculturel à l’école. 7e biennale
Toth, P. D. (2006). Processing instruction and a role for output de l’éducation et de la formation. INRP – APRIEF,
in second language acquisition. Language Learning 56.2, Lyon, 362–363. <http://www.inrp.fr/Acces/Biennale/
319–385. 7biennale/Contrib/longue/6091.pdf> accessed 15/03/
Trappes-Lomax, H. & G. Ferguson (eds.) (2002). Language in 2007.
language teacher education. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Troia, G. A. (1999). Phonological awareness intervention re- Websites
search: A critical review of the experimental methodology.
Reading Research Quarterly 34.1, 28–52. ALA (Association for Language Awareness). <http://www.
Truscott, J. (1998). Noticing in second language acquisition: lexically.net/ala.htm> accessed 15/03/2007.
A critical review. Second Language Research 14.2, 103– CILT, The National Centre for Languages. <http://www.
135. cilt.org.uk/index.htm> accessed 15/03/2007.
van Lier, L. (1992). Not the nine o’clock linguistics class: Positively Plurlingual. <http://www.cilt.org.uk/pdf/pubs/
Investigating contingency grammar. Language Awareness positively_plurilingual.pdf> accessed 15/03/2007.
1.2, 91–108. Talking World Class: The impact of language skills
van Lier, L. (1994). Language awareness, contingency and on the UK economy. <http://www.cilt.org.uk/pdf/
interaction. AILA Review 14, 69–82. pubs/talking_world_class.pdf> accessed 15/03/2007.
van Lier, L. (1996). Interaction in the language curriculum: EU + I (The European Awareness and Intercomprehension
Awareness, autonomy & authenticity. London: Longman. project). <http://www.sprachenzentrum.com/eui/> ac-
van Lier, L. (1998). The relationship between consciousness, cessed 15/03/2007.
interaction and language learning. Language Awareness EuroComCentre. <http://www.eurocom-frankfurt.de> ac-
7.2/3, 128–145. cessed 15/03/2007.
van Lier, L. & D. Corson (eds.) (1997). Encyclopedia of language EuroComRom (Romance Languages). <http://www.
and education, vol. 6: Knowledge about language. Amsterdam: hgklein.de/eurocom/lit/ECengl-Innsbruck.htm> acces-
Kluwer. sed 15/03/2007.
VanPatten, B. (1990). Attending to form and content in the EVLANG (L’eveil aux langues dans l’ecole primaire).
input: An experiment in consciousness. Studies in Second <http://www.eveilauxlangues.be/evlang.php> accessed
Language Acquisition 12, 287–301. 15/03/2007.
VanPatten, B. (1996). Input processing and grammar instruction. IGLO (Germanic Languages). <http://www.hum.uit.no/
Westport, CT: Ablex Publishing. a/svenonius/lingua/> accessed 15/03/2007.

307

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 Feb 2009 IP address: 194.80.32.10

 Agneta M-L. Svalberg ■
ILTE (Intercomprehension in Language Teacher Education). education’. <http://www.ecml.at/mtp2/LEA/html/
<http://www.lett.unipmn.it/ilte/> accessed 15/03/2007. LEA_E_news.htm> accessed 15/03/2007.
JALING (Janua Linguarum Reserata). <http://jaling.ecml. National Literacy Strategy <http://www.literacytrust.org.
at/english/welcome_page.htm> accessed 15/03/ uk> accessed 15/03/2007.
2007. UNESCO <http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.
LEA (Language Educator Awareness) ‘Developing php-URL_ID=42363&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_
plurilingual and pluricultural awareness in language teacher SECTION=201.html> accessed 15/03/2007.

308

http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 02 Feb 2009 IP address: 194.80.32.10