PREFACE

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 INTRODUCTION

_______________________________________________________________________________

Properly designed and operated

utilities are vital to a modern 5. Plumbing Installations
military installation. They are and Bills of Materials.
essential in safeguarding health,
providing comfort, and promoting the 6. Sewerage Systems.
general efficiency of all personnel.
7. Rehabilitation of
As an engineer officer you may be Utilities.
assigned the job of directing some
phase of utilities work. To do this Examination.
efficiently, you must understand the
broad, general phases of utilities You will not be limited as to the
operations. That is the purpose of number of hours you may spend in the
this subcourse. It is planned to solution of the subcourse, any
give you basic knowledge in utilities lesson, or the examination.
layout, installation, and operation.
Twenty credit hours are allowed
Since much of the operation and for this subcourse.
maintenance of utilities are
performed by engineer service teams, The format of this subcourse has
or detachments, information is also been changed to facilitate student
furnished on these organizations and selfpacing and to eliminate the
their function. necessity of submitting to the
USAES each lesson answer sheet for
This subcourse consists of seven grading. Each lesson in this
lessons and an examination as subcourse is followed by a number of
follows: questions and exercises designed for
a review of that lesson. After
Lesson 1. Organization and completing study of the lesson, you
Functions of Utilities Engineer should answer these questions in the
Service Teams. space provided below each, then turn
to the back of the subcourse booklet
2. Electric Power Systems. where the correct answers have been
included. A comparison of your
3. Refrigeration Systems. answers with those given in the back
of the subcourse will indicate your
4. Water Supply and knowledge and understanding of the
Distribution Systems. material presented.

* * * IMPORTANT NOTICE * * *

THE PASSING SCORE FOR ALL ACCP MATERIAL IS NOW 70%.

PLEASE DISREGARD ALL REFERENCES TO THE 75% REQUIREMENT.

i
 LESSON 1
ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONS OF
UTILITIES ENGINEER SERVICE TEAMS
CREDIT HOURS . . . . . . . 1. . . .
TEXT ASSIGNMENT. . . . . . . . . .
Attached memorandum.
MATERIALS REQUIRED . . . . .
None.. . .
LESSON OBJECTIVE . . . . . . . . .
Upon completion of this lesson on Engineer
Service Teams you should be able to accom-
plish the following in the indicated topic
areas.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1. Purpose. State in general terms, the purpose and functions of the utilities
engineer service teams.

2. Characteristics. Give the five general characteristics which would be

applicable to all utilities engineer service teams.

3. Assignment. Explain the various methods of team assignment and the

responsibilities for team support.

4. Capabilities. By reference to the textual material provided, explain the

capabilities of each team including qualification of personnel assigned and
major items of equipment.

5. Team selection. Select the appropriate team for a specific requirement.

ATTACHED MEMORANDUM
1-1. INTRODUCTION Teams fall into the following eight
classes:
Within the military, utility services a. Administrative and headquarters.
have been specialized and organized into b. Firefighting.
engineer service teams. The Engineer c. Equipment operating.
Service Organization provides cellular, d. Construction, utilities, and
specialized teams of varying sizes, electrical power.
functions, and capabilities for use when e. Topographic and intelligence.
standard organizations are too large or f. Dredging.
cannot meet the particular engineer needs g. Engineer civic action.
of the theater of operations. The team h. Engineer combat support.
organizations provide variety and
flexibility to permit the most efficient
use of manpower and equipment. Teams may
be combined to form a composite platoon or
company, depending on the nature and scope
of the mission. Individual teams may be
attached or assigned to an engineer unit to
increase the unit's capabilities, or to a
unit of another arm or service such as an
Area Support Command, to provide a
particular, required engineer capability.

1-1
1-2. CHARACTERISTICS team. The capabilities of an engineer
Teams have the following composite unit of several teams will vary
characteristics: with the number and types of teams used.
a. They comprise a group of individuals b. Most of these teams must be
trained to work together as specialists in furnished supply, mess, administrative,
some particular field. personnel, medical, signal, and
organizational maintenance services. These
b. They may perform certain operations are ordinarily provided by the fixed
as a unit; comprise a specialized cadre strength unit to which a team is assigned
around which a larger organization is or attached. When applicable, mess teams
built; or act as individual inspectors, will be drawn from the TOE 29-500 series,
instructors, or supervisors. automotive maintenance teams from the TOE
29-600 series, and personnel services will
c. Their equipment is generally be provided by an AG personnel service unit
restricted to vehicles required to or a support team drawn therefrom. A
transport team personnel and materiel, composite unit formed from two or more
individual weapons, and tools and supplies teams may be commanded and provided
related to their specialty. administrative services by: (1) Team AB,
platoon headquarters, separate to provide
d. They are not self-sufficient in such personnel and equipment for the
matters as administration, shelter, headquarters of an engineer platoon formed
messing, supply, storage facilities, signal from two or more teams of the TOE 5-500
communications, and medical service. For series, or (2) team AC, company
such support they must rely on the headquarters, to provide personnel and
organization to which they are attached. equipment for the headquarters of a
company-sized unit formed from two or more
e. Some teams consist of only a handful teams of the TOE 5-500 series.
of specialists, while others, such as c. These teams are not adaptable to
certain topographic and equipment operating level 2 or 3 strengths nor to a type B
teams, are small-scale replicas of organization.
corresponding larger units. However, host country or allied nationals
may in some cases be used to supplement
1-3. MISSION OF ENGINEER CELLULAR TEAMS team strength.
a. To provide engineer technical, d. Individuals of these teams can
combat service, and combat support where engage in effective coordinated defense of
units of less than company size are the team's area or installation, or
required. contribute to the defense of the unit to
b. To increase the capability of fixed which assigned or attached.
strength units where increments of less
than company size are required. These 1-6. BASIS OF ALLOCATION
teams are designed to provide special
support and will be assigned in accordance The allocation of teams depends on the
with the tactical and logistical special support requirements. Type alloca-
considerations involved. tions are indicated in the discussion of
c. To provide command and individual teams.
administrative personnel for engineer
composite units. 1-7. CATEGORY
d. To provide advisory assistance to
host country forces and units in an The category given each team is based on
internal defense and development the area of employment of the units to
operational environment. which

1-4. ASSIGNMENT
Teams may be attached or assigned as
required to fixed strength units or may be
organized into a separate composite unit.

1-5. CAPABILITIES
a. The capabilities of an individual
team are listed in the discussion of that

1-2
the team is normally assigned (reference b. Basis of allocation. Normally
Unit Categories, AR 320-5). attached to an engineer construction or
combat unit to provide support for drilling
1-8. MOBILITY operations.
The degree of mobility utilizing organic
transport is given for each team. When c. Category. II.
teams are combined to form a composite
unit, the mobility of the composite unit d. Mobility. 100 percent mobile.
must be computed.
e. Strength. Aggregate--5, as follows:
1-9. ENGINEER INSTALLATION SUPPORT
a. In the COMMZ. Engineer installation Number Grade MOS
support in the communications zone is 1 E-6 (NCO) 62N40
provided by cellular teams of the 5-500 1 E-6 62J30
series of TOE's. Teams are assigned to 2 E-5 62J30
Area Support Groups (ASGP) of the Area 1 E-4 62J30
Support Command (ASCOM). Area Support
Groups are assigned areas of responsibility f. Major items of equipment.
to provide direct combat service support
(including installation support) to the Weapons
TASCOM commands and other designated forces Individual weapons only.
in the COMMZ. The assigned teams provide
the following services: Vehicles
Semitrailer, tank, water, 2000 gal ... 1
(1) Operation, maintenance, and Truck, cargo, 3/4-T .................. 1
repair of utilities, including sewage and Truck, cargo, 5-T .................... 1
trash disposal and water supply. Truck, Tractor, 5-T .................. 1
(2) Maintenance, report, and minor
new construction of all types of Other Equipment
facilities. Drilling machine, well, rotary, trlr mtd,
(3) Fire protection service. DED, 5-7/8 in dia at 1500 ft ...... 1
(4) Real estate service. Tool kit, pipefitter's ............... 1
Torch outfit, cutting and welding .... 1
b. In the combat zone. Engineer
installation support in the combat zone is g. Method of operation. Team personnel
provided for the corps support command reconnoiter an area and select one or more
(COSCOM) by teams of the 5-500 series of well sites. Work is scheduled in two or
TOEs. This support consists of real more shifts so that the well drilling
estate, facilities engineering, and operation is continuous. The supported
firefighting services. Teams are attached unit provides one or more helpers for each
to, and under the command and control of, shift and must supply all casings, screens,
the COSCOM or its subordinate units. and pumps required. Engineer work at the
site -- clearing, access roads, and a
1-10. ENGINEER EQUIPMENT OPERATING TEAMS, parking area -- is performed by the
TOE 5-520G supported unit. For de-
TOE 5-520G consists of teams of various tailed information on well drilling
sizes and types whose mission is to provide operations,
engineer equipment operating teams for see TM 5-297.
support to the Army as required.
Paragraphs 1-11 through 1-16 below provide 1-12. TEAM GF, WELL DRILLING (AIRBORNE)
information on teams in TOE 5-520G that are
concerned with the supply of water. a. Capability. Capable of developing
and drilling water wells. On a two-shift
1-11. TEAM GE, WELL DRILLING basis in-
a. Capability. Capable of drilling and stalls casings, screens and pumps, and de-
developing water wells on a two-shift velops drilled wells to supply water at the
basis. Installs casings, screens, and pumps water head. May drill blast holes up to 4-
to supply water to users at the well head. 7/8 inch in diameter and up to 500 feet
deep for quarrying or to create obstacles
and barriers. Supported unit must provide

1-3
helper personnel for effective utilization e. Strength. Aggregate--4, as follows:
of the team.
b. Basis of allocation. Normally Number Grade MOS
attached to an engineer combat battalion, 1 E-5 (NCO) 51N40
airborne, or to the airborne division 3 E-4 51N20
engineer battalion. May be attached to the
engineer light equipment company, airborne. f. Major items of equipment.
c. Category. II.
d. Mobility. 100 percent mobile. Weapons
e. Strength. Aggregate--5, as follows: Individual weapons only.

Number Grade MOS Vehicles

1 E-6 62N4P Truck, cargo, 3/4-T ............... 1
1 E-6 62J3P
2 E-5 62H3P Other Equipment
1 E-4 62J3P Generator set, 10 kw .............. 2
Ion exchange unit, water purification, trk
f. Major items of equipment. mtd …….......................... 1
Tank, 3,000 gal, fabric, collapsible 3
Weapons Telephone set, TA-312/PT .......... 1
Individual weapons only. Water purification equipment set,
trk mtd, 3,000 gph ............. 1
Vehicles Water quality control set ......... 1
Trailer, low bed, 8-T ............ 1
Truck, cargo, 3/4-T .............. 1 g. Method of operation. Team personnel
Truck, cargo, 5-T ................ 1 reconnoiter for and select a suitable site
Truck, tank, water, 1000 gal, 2½-T 1 for the establishment of a water point.
Engineer work at the water point --
Other Equipment clearing, access roads, turn-arounds, and a
Drilling machine, rotary, skid mtd, GED, parking area -- is performed by the
4-7/8 inch diameter hole at 600 foot supported unit. Wire communication to the
depth ......................... 1 water point, when necessary, is installed
Tool kit, pipefitter's ........... 1 by the supported unit. Security of the
Torch outfit, cutting and welding 1 water point beyond the capability of the
team is provided by the supported unit.
g. Method of operation. Work is sched- For details of water purification
uled in two or more shifts so that the well operations, including the treatment of
drilling operation is continuous. The sup- water contaminated with chemical,
ported unit provides one or more helpers biological, and radiological (CBR) agents,
or each shift. If the team and its see TM 5-700.
drilling equipment are air dropped, the
supported unit provides equipment to move 1-14. TEAM GH, WATER PURIFICATION (12,000
the drill rig to the drilling site. GPH)
Engineer work at the well site--clearing,
access roads, and a parking area--is a. Capability. Capable of operating
performed by the supported unit. For single or multiple standard water
detailed information on well drilling purification
operations, see TM 5-297.

1-13. TEAM GG, WATER PURIFICATION (3,000

GPH)
a. Capability. Capable of producing up
to 3,000 gallons of potable water per hour
and storing up to 9,000 gallons.
b. Basis of allocation. Normally
attached to an engineer unit having a large
water supply mission or to an area support
group.
c. Category. II.
d. Mobility. 100 percent mobile.

1-4
units forming a central field water plant water contaminated with CBR agents, see TM
to support 6,000 to 60,000 individuals. 5-700.
b. Basis of allocation. Normally
attached to an engineer unit, such as a 1-15. TEAM GI, WATER DISTILLATION(250 GPH)
brigade or group, which has a large water
supply mission or an area support group. a. Capability. Capable of producing
May be attached to a military government 5,000 gallons of potable water per day
team. using sea or brackish water operating on a
c. Category. III. two-shift basis (20 hours).
d. Mobility. 100 percent mobile. b. Basis of allocation. May be
e. Strength. Aggregate -- 17, as attached to any size unit or assigned to a
follows: civic action mission on an as required
basis.
Number Grade MOS c. Category. III.
1 LT 4940 d. Mobility. 100 percent mobile.
1 E-6 (NCO) 51N40 e. Strength. Aggregate -- 6, as
4 E-5 (NCO) 51N40 follows:
9 E-4 51N20
2 E-4 51N20 Number Grade MOS
2 E-5 (NCO) 51N40
f. Major items of equipment 4 E-4 51N20

Weapons f. Major items of equipment.

Individual weapons only.
Weapons
Vehicles Individual weapons only.
Trailer, cargo, 3/4-T ............. 1
Truck, cargo, 3/4-T ............... 1 Vehicles
Truck, cargo, 2 ½-T ................ 2
Other Equipment
Generator set 1.5 kw .............. 1 Other Equipment
Generator set 10 kw ............... 5 Distillation equipment set, water, thermo-
Ion exchange unit, water purification, compression, trlr mtd 150 GPH ...... 2
trk mtd ........................ 1 Pump, 65 gpm ....................... 4
Light set, general illuminating, 25 outlet Water quality control set .......... 2
……………………………………………………………………......... 1
Pump 65 gpm ....................... 8 g. Method of operation. Team personnel
Pump 125 gpm....................... 4 reconnoiter for and select a suitable site
Tank, 3,000 gal, fabric collapsible 12 for a water point. Engineer work at the
Telephone set TA-312/PT ........... 4 water point; clearing, access roads,
Tool kit, pipefitter's ............ 1 turnarounds, brine sumps, and a parking
Water purification equipment set, area is performed by the supported unit.
trk mtd, 3,000 gph ............. 4 For information on water distillation and
Water quality control set ......... 4 on the treatment of water contaminated with
CBR agents, see TM 5-700.
g. Method of operation. Team personnel
reconnoiter for and select a suitable site 1-16. TEAM GJ, WATER TRANSPORT (5,000 GAL)
for the establishment of a central field a. Capability. Capable of transporting
water plant. Individual water purification water for short hauls of 10 to 15 miles to
units (up to four) are connected to a dry water points. Capable of transporting
single central distribution point. 5,000 gallons of water per trip.
Engineer work at the water point is
performed by the supported unit. Wire
communication to the water point, when
necessary, is installed by the supported
unit. Security of the water point beyond
the capability of the team is provided by
the supported unit. For details of water
purifications, including the treatment of

1-5
 b. Basis of allocation. Normally Number Grade MOS
attached to an engineer unit or an area 1 LTC 7932
support group with a water hauling 1 CPT 7932
requirement. 1 E-7 (NCO) 51F40
c. Category. II. 1 E-6 81B20
d. Mobility. 100 percent mobile. 1 E-4 71B30
e. Strength. Aggregate--8, as follows: 1 E-4 81B20

Number Grade MOS f. Major items of equipment.

2 E-4 64A10
6 E-3 64A10 Weapons
Individual weapons only.
f. Major items of equipment.
Vehicles
Weapons Trailer, cargo, 1 ½-T ........... 1
Individual weapons only. Trailer, cargo, 3/4-T ........... 1
Truck, cargo, 3/4-T ............. 1
Vehicles Truck, utility, ¬-T ............. 1
Truck, tank, water, 2 ½-T, 100 gal .. 5
Other Equipment
g. Method of operation. Team hauls Drafting equipment set, bn ...... 2
potable water from a water source to a Interpretation kt, photographic . 1
distribution point or non-potable water to Sketching set, survey ........... 1
support a large concrete construction Stereoscope lens, aerial photo
project. interpretation ............... 1
Stereoscope prism-mirror ........ 1
1-17. ENGINEER CONSTRUCTION, UTILITIES,
AND ELECTRICAL POWER TEAMS, TOE 5-530G g. Method of operation. Team works
TOE 5-530G consists of teams of various closely with engineer units engaged in
sizes and types whose mission is to provide pipeline construction rehabilitation. It
engineer construction and facilities provides assistance and supervision in all
engineering teams for specialized support phases of a project from initial survey
to the Army as required. Paragraph 1-18 through actual construction operations and
through 1-24, below, provide information on with petroleum staff elements and units
some of the teams in TOE 5-530G. responsible for planning and operating
these facilities. For details on pipeline
1-18. TEAM HB, PIPELINE DESIGN design and construction, see TM 5-343.
a. Capability. Capable of assisting
the supported unit in: 1-19. TEAM HC, REAL ESTATE
(1) Reconnaissance and selection of
sites for major tank farms, pipeline routes a. Capability. Capable of performing
and appurtenant structures, offshore dis- functions incidental to acquisition,
charging and loading facilities, and fixed utilization and disposal of real property
dispensing equipment. required or occupied by military forces.
(2) Design and layout of pipeline
projects, preparation of specifications and b. Basis of allocation. Normally one
construction estimates, selection of per Corps Support Command, and/or Area
material and equipment, and formulation of Support Command.
a construction plan.
(3) Management and supervision of c. Category. III.
construction operations.
b. Basis of allocation. Normally to an d. Mobility. 100 percent mobile.
engineer construction group on an as-
required basis.
c. Category. III. e. Strength. Aggregate -- 16, as
d. Mobility. 100 percent mobile. follows:

e. Strength. Aggregate -- 6, as Number Grade MOS

follows: 1 MAJ 4312
1 CPT 4312

1-6
 3 LT 4312 one per camp, base, depot, or other
1 E-8 (NCO) 51H50 installation with a population up to 2,500.
2 E-6 51H40 c. Category. III.
1 E-6 71D20 d. Mobility. 95 percent mobile.
4 E-4 71B30 e. Strength. Aggregate -- 31, as
1 E-4 84B20 follows:
2 E-3 70A10
Number Grade MOS
f. Major items of equipment. 1 CPT 7130
2 E-6 (NCO) 51P40
Weapons 1 E-5 82B20
Individual weapons only. 1 E-5 62K20
1 E-5 62M20
Vehicles 1 E-5 51B20
Trailer, cargo, ¬-T .............. 2 1 E-5 51K20
Trailer, cargo, 3/4-T ............ 1 2 E-4 62J20
Truck, cargo, 3/4-T .............. 2 1 E-4 44D20
Truck, utility, ¬-T .............. 3 3 E-4 51B20
3 E-4 51R20
Other Equipment 2 E-4 62B20
Camera set, still picture ........ 1 1 E-4 81A10
Gen set, 3 KW .................... 1 2 E-4 64B20
Photocopying and processing machine 1 3 E-4 51K20
Photographic set, printing and processing, 1 E-4 51L20
ES-28 ......................... 1 1 E-4 44C20
Reproduction set, diazotype machine, 1 E-4 63B20
moist process ................. 1 3 E-3 51A10
Reproduction expendable supply set,
moist process ................. 1 f. Major items of equipment.

g. Method of operation. The team Weapons

prepares real estate acquisition and Individual weapons only.
disposal documents and inventories and
records the location, extent, and condition Vehicles
of real property required or occupied by Trailer, cargo, ¬-T ............. 1
Army forces. The team commander and his Truck, cargo, 3/4-T ............. 3
deputy are contracting officers for real Truck, dump 5-T ................. 2
estate functions. The deputy also Truck, utility, ¬-T ............. 1
appraises or secures appraisals of real
property and reviews and approves rental Other Equipment
agreements and damage and restoration Drafting equipment set, bn ...... 1
estimates. The other officers are Generator set, 3 kw.............. 1
responsible for negotiation and preparation Grader, road. mtzd, DED 6 x 4 ... 1
of leases, licenses, termination
agreements, and disposal documents, and for
the investigation and processing of claims
connected with real estate operations. For
information on real estate operations, see
TM 5-300.

1-20. TEAM HE, UTILITIES (2,500)

a. Capability. Capable of providing

facilities engineering type services for an
overseas or theater of operations
installation with a population up to 2,500.
Maintains and repairs buildings, roads, and
utilities including refrigeration.
b. Basis of allocation. Normally to
the Corps Support Command on the basis of

1-7
Loader, scoop, 2 ½ cu yd ........... 1 installation with a population of 2,500 to
Pneumatic tool and compressor outfit, 4,000.
250 cfm, trailer mtd............. 1 c. Category. III.
Rod, level ......................... 1 d. Mobility. 95 percent mobile.
Rod, stadia ......................... 1 e. Strength. Aggregate -- 52, as
Roller, motorized, GED, 3-wheel 10-T 1 follows:
Spray outfit, paint, 2 guns,
w/compressor ....…………………………………………………………………… Number Grade MOS
…….... 1 1 CPT 7130
Tool kit, blacksmith's ............. 1 1 WO 521AO
Tool kit, carpenter's .............. 4 1 E-7 (NCO) 51P40
Tool kit, electrician's, set No. 1 . 3 1 E-6 (NCO) 51H40
Tool kit, pioneer, engineer platoon. 1 1 E-6 (NCO) 51P40
Tool kit, pipefitter's, 1/8 to 2 in. pipe … 1 E-5 82B20
………………………………………………………………….......... 1 1 E-5 62K20
Tool kit, pipefitter's, 2 ½ to 4 in. pipe … 1 E-5 62M20
………………………………………………………………….......... 1 1 E-5 64B20
Tool kit, service, refrigeration ... 1 2 E-5 51B20
Tool kit, sheet metal worker's ..... 1 1 E-5 52F20
Tool kit, welder's ................. 1 1 E-5 51K20
Tool outfit, pioneer, portable 2 E-4 62J20
electronic tools................. 1 1 E-4 44D20
Transit, 1 minute 16 to 21 diam. 8 E-4 51B20
magnifying power................. 1 3 E-4 51R20
Welding shop, trlr mtd ............. 1 1 E-4 62B20
Welding set, arc, inert gas shielded 1 1 E-4 81A10
3 E-4 51J30
g. Method of operation. Team functions 2 E-4 64B20
in a manner similar to that of a facilities 4 E-4 51K20
engineering organization at a CONUS in- 2 E-4 51L20
stallation. The team leader acts as the 3 E-4 51J20
facilities engineer; team members repair 1 E-4 76P20
and maintain utilities services, 1 E-4 44C20
structures, and roads, and do minor new 1 E-4 63B20
construction within the team's capability. 4 E-3 51A10
For details on facilities engineering, see 1 E-3 52A10
the TM 5-600-series. 1 E-3 70A10
1-21. TEAM HF, UTILITIES (4,000) f. Major items of equipment.

a. Capability. Capable of providing Weapons

for maintenance of utilities at Individual weapons only.
installations of from 2,500 to 4,000
individuals; provide facilities engineering Vehicles
type service in overseas or theater of
operations installations; maintain Trailer, cargo, ¬-T ............ 1
utilities and furnish utilities service and Trailer, cargo, 3/4-T .......... 2
repair, including maintenance of Truck, cargo, 3/4-T ............ 3
environment equipment (air conditioners, Truck, dump, 5-T ............... 3
heaters, and refrigeration equipment). Truck, utility, ¬-T ............ 1
Specialized tools and equipment required to
carry out the repair and utility functions
described above must be provided by the
installation or activity supported, under
the provisions of AR 385-32.

b. Basis of allocation. Normally to

the Corps Support Command of TASCOM and/or
the Engineer Command on the basis of one
per camp, base, depot, or other

1-8
 Other Equipment described herein must be provided by the
Drafting equipment set, bn ....... 1 installation or activity supported, under
Generator set, 3 kw .............. 1 the provisions of AR 310-34 and/or AR 385-
Grader, road mtzd, DED, 6 x 4 .... 1 32.
Loader scoop, 2 ½ cu yd .......... 1 b. Basis of allocation. Normally on
Pneumatic tool and compressor outfit, the basis of one team for each camp, post,
250 cfm, trlr mtd .............. 1 depot, or other installation with a
Pump, centrifugal, GED, frame, mtd, population of 4,000 to 10,000.
170 gpm, 50 ft head ............ 1 c. Category. III.
Rod, level …...................... 1 d. Mobility. 85 percent mobile.
Road, stadia ..................... 1 e. Strength. Aggregate -- 90, as
Roller, motorized, GED, 3-wheel, 10- follows:
T .......…………………………………………………………..... 1
Spray outfit, paint, 2 guns, w/compressor … Number Grade MOS
…………………………………………………………….......... 1 1 LTC 7130
Tool kit, blacksmith's ........... 1 1 CPT 7130
Tool kit, carpenter's ............ 10 1 LT 7020
Tool kit, electrician's, set No. 1 4 1 WO 521A0
Tool kit, pioneer, engineer platoon 2 1 E-8 (NCO) 51H50
Tool kit, pipefitter's, 1/8 to 2 in pipe …… 1 E-7 (NCO) 51H40
………………………………………………………........... 4 1 E-7 (NCO) 41P40
Tool kit, pipefitter's, 2 ½ to 4 in pipe …… 1 E-7 (NCO) 62N40
………………………………………………………........... 1 1 E-6 (NCO) 62B40
Tool kit, service, refrigeration . 1 1 E-6 (NCO) 76Y40
Tool kit, sheet metal worker's ... 3 1 E-6 (NCO) 51P40
Tool kit, welder's ............... 1 1 E-6 81B20
Tool outfit, pioneer, portable electric 1 E-5 (NCO) 51N40
tools ……………………………………………………………….... 1 1 E-5 82B20
Torch outfit, cutting and welding, 1 E-5 71H20
set No. 3 ....................... 1 2 E-5 52G20
Transit, 1 minute 16 to 21 diam. 1 E-5 44E20
magnifying power ............... 1 2 E-5 62D20
Welding set, arc, inert gas shielded ……………… 2 E-5 51B20
…………………………………............... 1 1 E-5 62H20
Welding shop, trlr mtd ........... 1 1 E-5 62E20
1 E-5 51R20
g. Method of operation. Team functions 3 E-5 62K20
in a manner similar to that of a facilities 2 E-5 64B20
engineering organization at a CONUS in- 2 E-5 51K20
stallation. The team leader acts as the 1 E-5 44C20
facilities engineer; team members repair 2 E-4 62J20
and maintain utilities services, 1 E-4 76Y20
structures, and roads; and do minor new 2 E-4 62D20
construction within the team's capability. 1 E-4 71B30
For details on repairs and utilities, see 1 E-4 62F20
the TM 5-600 series. 1 E-4 81B20
4 E-4 52F20
1-22. TEAM HG, UTILITIES (10,000) 2 E-4 62B20
1 E-4 71T20
a. Capability. Provides for 8 E-4 51B20
maintenance of utilities at installations 1 E-4 51J30
of from 4,000 to 10,000 individuals;
provides facilities engineering type
service in overseas or theater of 4 E-4 64B20
operations installations; maintains 2 E-4 62M20
utilities and furnishes utilities service 2 E-4 51D20
and repair, including maintenance of 1 E-4 72B20
environmental equipment (air conditioners, 1 E-4 76V20
heaters, and refrigeration equipment). 7 E-4 51K20
Additional tools and equipment required to 2 E-4 51L20
carry out the repair and utility functions 1 E-4 76Q20

1-9
 1 E-4 51J20 Tractor, airmobile, w/backhoe and front
1 E-4 44C20 loader, ½ cu yd ...................... 1
1 E-4 63B20 Tractor, tracked, med DBP ............ 1
1 E-4 62L20 Welding set arc, inert gas shield .... 1
2 E-3 51A10 Welding shop, trlr mtd ............... 1
1 E-3 52A10
1 E-3 62B10 g. Method of operation. Team functions
5 E-3 51A10 in a manner similar to that of a facilities
engineering organization at a CONUS
f. Major items of equipment. installation. The team leader acts as the
facilities engineer; team members repair
Weapons and maintain utilities services,
Individual weapons only. structures, and roads; and do minor new
construction within the team's capability.
Vehicles For details on repairs and utilities, see
Semitrailer, low bed, 2-T, 4 wheel .. 1 the TM 5-600-series.
Truck, cargo, 3/4-T ................. 3
Truck, cargo, 2 ½-T ................. 1 1-23. TEAM HH, POWER PLANT OPERATION AND
Truck, dump, 5-T .................... 6 MAINTENANCE
Truck lift fork 6000 lb rough terrain 1
Truck, tractor, 10-T ................ 1 a. Capability. Capable of operating
Truck, utility, ¬-T ................. 1 and maintaining an electric power plant
containing from one to three diesel engine
Other Equipment generators of 300 to 2,500 kw capacity.
Book set, const gp .................. 1 b. Basis of allocation. Normally one
Crane shovel, crawler mtd, 12½-T, per Engineer Construction Brigade.
3/4cu yd ………………………………………………………………………. 1 c. Category. III.
Distributor, bituminous material,truck mtd, d. Mobility. 60 percent mobile.
800 gal .......................…..... 1 e. Strength. Aggregate -- 16, as
Distributor, water, truck mtd, 1000 gal ... follows:
………………………………………………………………………....... 1
Drafting equipment set, bn .......... 1 Number Grade MOS
Generator set, 3 kw ................. 3 1 LT 7611
Generator set, 5 kw ................. 1 1 E-6 (NCO) 52E40
Generator set, 10 kw................. 1 1 E-5 52G20
Grader, road, motorized, 6 x 4 ...... 2 2 E-5 52E20
Kettle, heating, bitumen, trailer mtd, 2 E-5 52B30
165 gal .......................... 2 3 E-4 52E20
Loader, scoop, 2 ½ cu yd ............ 1 4 E-4 52B30
Mixer, concrete, trailer mtd, 16 cu ft 1 2 E-3 52A10
Roller, motorized, 3 whl, 10-T ...... 1
Scraper, earth moving, grader mounting 2
Service kit, power line maint ....... 1 f. Major items of equipment.
Shop equip, woodwork, base maint, trlr
mtd ..................................... Weapons
1 Individual weapons only.
Survey set, gen purp ................ 1
Tool kit, carpenter's................ 6
Tool kit, electrician's set No. 1 ... 5
Tool kit, mason and concrete
finisher's ....………………………………………………………………………
…..... 1
Tool kit, pioneer, engr platoon ...... 3
Tool kit, pipefitters 1/8 to 2 in pipe 9
Tool kit, pipefitter's, 2½ to 4 in pipe 1
Tool kit, service, refrigeration ..... 2
Tool kit, sheetmetal worker's ........ 2
Tool outfit, pioneer portable elec
tools ....…………………………………………………………………………
…..... 3

1-10
 Vehicles
Trailer, cargo, 3/4-T ............ 1 e. Strength. Aggregate -- 14, as
Truck, cargo, 3/4-T .............. 1 follows:

Other Equipment Number Grade MOS

Multimeter, AN/USM-223 ........... 3 1 LT 7611
Service kit, power plant maint ... 1 1 E-6 (NCO) 52G40
Tool kit, automotive mechanic's... 6 9 E-5 52G20
Tool kit, carpenter's, engineer plat 3 E-4 52G20
....……………………………………………………………....... 1
Tool kit, electrician's, set No. 1 3 f. Major items of equipment.
Tool kit, electronic equipment repair ....…
…………………………………………………………....... 1 Weapons
Torch outfit, cutting and welding, set No. Individual weapons only.
3 .……………………………………………………………………….... 1
Vehicles
g. Method of operation. Team is Trailer, cable, reel, 3 ½-T ......... 1
divided into two shifts to provide Trailer, cargo, 1 ½-T ............... 1
continuous operation of the power plant. Truck, cargo, 3/4-T ................. 3
For information on electric power in the Truck, cargo, 2 ½-T ................. 1
field, see TM 5-766. Truck, maintenance, earth borer,
pole setter ...................... 1
1-24. TEAM HJ, POWER LINE
Other Equipment
a. Capability. Capable of installing Multimeter, AN/USM-223 .............. 3
high voltage electric power lines, Tool kit, carpenter's, engineer plat 1
including setting poles, and maintaining Tool kit, electrician's, set No. 1 .. 9
approximately 60 miles of high voltage Tool kit, electronic equipment repair 10
electric power lines. Voltmeter, portable ................. 1

b. Basis of allocation. Normally one g. Method of operation. Team may be

per two electric power generator plants of divided into three sections, each
300 to 2,500 kilowatt capacity. responsible for the maintenance and repair
of 20 miles of power line. For power line
c. Category. III. installation it is advisable to augment the
team with personnel for setting poles. For
d. Mobility. 100 percent mobile. information on electric power transmission
and distribution, see TM 5-765.

REVIEW EXERCISES

Note: The following exercises are study aids. The figures following each
question refer to a paragraph containing information related to the question.
Write your answer in the space provided below each question. When you have
finished answering all the questions for this lesson, compare your answers with
those given for this lesson in the back of this booklet. Review the lesson as
necessary. Do not send in your solutions to these review exercises.

1. Give a brief, general description of utilities engineer service teams.

(Para 1-1)

2. State a characteristic of the engineer service teams which broadly defines

their training and utilization. (Para 1-2a)

3. How do these teams ordinarily obtain supply, mess, and medical services?
(Para 1-5b)

1-11
4. When the mission requires the support of two or more engineer service
teams, these teams may be formed into a composite unit. In this case, how are
command and administrative services provided? (Para 1-5b)

5. How is engineer utility support provided to installations in a

communications zone? (Para 1-9a)

6. What command, or organization, controls utilities engineer support teams

operating in the combat zone? (Para 1-9b)

7. What is the most normal assignment for team GE, Well Drilling? (Para 1-
11b)

8. What is the principle difference in the capabilities of teams GE and GF?

(Paras 1-11f, 1-12f)

9. Team GG, Water Purification, selects a suitable site for establishment of a

water point. Who builds the access loads to the site? (Para 1-13g)

10. What team is trained and equipped to convert sea or brackish water, to
potable water? (Para 1-15a)

11. If you are commanding a construction unit on a project and a requirement

for 10,000 gallons of water a day delivered from a source 15 miles away suddenly
comes up, what engineer service team would you like to have available to you?
(Para 1-16a)

12. What military unit does the team HB, Pipeline Design, normally support?
(Para 1-18b)

13. Estimates of damage to land and crops by military units on a field

exercise, are the responsibility of what particular individual? (Para 1-19g)

1-12
14. Where might you find detailed information on real estate operations? (Para
1-19g)

15. A Corps Support Command has four camps and one depot in its area of
responsibility, each has a population less than 2,500. How many, and what type,
utility teams would be auhorized to this command? (Para 1-20b)

16. What is the aggregate strength of a utilities team capable of providing

facilities engineering type service for an overseas installation of 3,500
population? (Para 1-21a)

17. How many vehicles are provided with team HG, Utilities? (Para 1-21a)

18. What special feature of its organization makes team HH, Power Plant
Operation and maintenance, capable of continuous operations? (Para 1-23g)

19. How many miles of high voltage electric power line can be installed and
maintained by team HJ, Power Line? (Para 1-24a)

20. How is team HJ, Power Line, transported from one site to another? (Para 1-
24d)

1-13
 LESSON 2

ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS

CREDIT HOURS . . . . . . . 4. . . .
TEXT ASSIGNMENT. . . . . . . . . .
Attached memorandum.
MATERIALS REQUIRED . . . . .
None.. . .
LESSON OBJECTIVE . . . . . . . . .
Upon completion of this lesson on Electric
Power Systems you should be able to ac-
complish the following in the indicated
topic areas.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1. Basic concept of electricity. Explain the basic concept of electricity

including such terms as circuit, current, resistance, conductor, insulator,
volt, watt, ampere, and ohm.

2. Laws of electricity. Apply the laws of electricity in the analysis of an

existing or planned electric power system.

3. Electric power system. Explain the features of the two-wire, three-wire,

and four-wire systems and give illustrations of the appropriate use of each.

4. Series and parallel circuits. Define series and parallel circuits covering
the special features, advantages, and disadvantages of each, and give examples
of the appropriate use of each.

5. Transformers. Describe the construction and use of transformers, the

different transformer connections, transformer capacity, maintenance, location,
and protection.

6. Generators. Describe types of generators, principles of operation, use,

and maintenance.

7. Motors. Describe types, uses, care, maintenance, and efficiency of

electric motors.

8. Associated equipment and accessories. Describe the various minor items of

equipment and accessories such as wire, conduit, outlet boxes, cable, and
insulation used in an electric power system.

9. Layout and construction. Design an electric power system for a theater of

operations installation based upon knowledge of the power requirement and
materials and equipment available. Design to include details of layout,
connections, supports, bends, and other construction features.

10. Safety. Outline safety precautions to be observed when working with

electrical power systems.

ATTACHED MEMORANDUM

2-1. GENERAL generators and existing plants

supplying high-voltage power for
This lesson covers the fundamentals, military use.
layout, and construction of electric
power distribution, systems for
theater of operations installations.

a. The two sources of electric

power considered are portable military

2-1
 b. Layouts of distribution systems b. Watts. Watts measure the rate
are based on standard equipment of flow of energy through the circuit
supplied to over-seas depots. at a given instant, the same as
horsepower measures the energy
2-2. BASIC CONCEPTS OF ELECTRICITY developed by an engine.
Electricity is a form of energy 746 watts = 1 horsepower
which the electrician controls by
proper installation of wires, NOTE: Both watts and horsepower
switches, and devices to produce denote the rate of work being done;
usable light, power, and heat. not the total work done.
Electric energy is generated c. Kilowatts. Kilowatts are
chemically as in a battery, or convenient for expressing large
mechanically as in an electric wattages.
generator. 1,000 watts (w) = kilowatt (kw)
a. Flow of electricity. When the d. Kilowatt hours. The kilowatt
terminals of a battery or generator hour (kwh) measures the total quantity
are connected by a wire, electricity of energy consumed in a given time.
flows through the wire. The path of Average kilowatts x hours =
flow is called a circuit, and the kilowatt hours.
electrical flow, a current. To use e. Ohms. Ohms measure the
the current, an electrical device such resistance of material to the flow of
as a lamp, heater, or motor is electricity; the higher the number of
connected in the circuit and the ohms, the greater the resistance. A
electrical energy is changed to light, wire has a 1-ohm resistance if 1
heat, or mechanical energy. ampere flows through it when it is
b. Resistance. Resistance is the connected to a 1-volt electrical
opposition to electrical flow. source.
Resistance increases as the length of f. Amperes. Current is the flow
wires is increased, and decreases as of electrons and is measured in
the cross-sectional area of wires is amperes. Ampere is analogous to the
increased. Thus, resistance varies term "gallons per minute" used in
inversely with the cross-sectional hydraulics. The number of electrons
area of the wire. passing a given point in the circuit
c. Conductors and insulators. per second is by definition the number
Different materials resist the flow of of amperes of current flow.
electricity in varying degrees. For 2-4. LAWS OF ELECTRICITY
example, copper or aluminum, which To simplify the explanation of laws
have very little resistance, and iron, of electricity, direct-current
which has about six times the fundamentals will be used to explain
resistance of copper, are conductors. Ohm's law, power, voltage drop, and
Materials which allow practically no power loss.
current to flow, such as cotton, a. Ohm's law. When 1 volt forces
porcelain, and rubber, are insulators. 1 ampere through a wire with a given
2-3. MEASURING ELECTRICITY resistance, 5 volts will force 5
Pressure, flow, and power of amperes through the same wire at the
electricity and resistance are same resistance. In other words, when
measured and vary in quantity for resistance is constant, current is in
various appliances. To furnish the direct proportion to voltage. The
required amount of electricity to a Ohm's law can be expressed by the
device safely and efficiently, the following formula:
electrician must know the meaning of Volts
electrical units of measure. OHMS = ---------
a. Volts. Volts measure the Amperes
"pressure" of electricity much the
same way as pounds per square inch
measure water pressure. The
electromotive force which produces a
current of 1 ampere when steadily
applied to a conductor having a
resistance of 1 ohm is defined as a
volt.

2-2
For brevity, the formula is set up in
symbols. P = I2R
E POWER LOSS
R = ---
I R = OHMS (2) To reduce power loss and
or: Where: I = AMPERES voltage drop:
E E = VOLTS (a) Use large size wires.
I = --- (b) Use high voltage.
R (c) Keep distribution
or : distances (distance between generator
E = IR and fixtures) as short as possible.
Derived facts from Ohm's law:
(1) If any two factors are
known, the third can be computed.
(2) If the voltage is constant,
amperes may be increased by decreasing
the resistance.
(3) If resistance (size,
length, and material of wire) is
constant, increasing the voltage
increase the amperage.
(4) If amperage is constant,
increasing the size of wire reduces
resistance and permits use of lower
voltage.

b. Power. Electric power (P) is

measured in watts and can be converted
to horse-power (hp).

P = EI = I2R (WATTS) 2-5. CURRENT

EI I2R a. Direct current. Direct current

HP = ---- = --- (HORSEPOWER) (dc) flows continually in one
746 746 direction. When terminals of a
battery or generator are marked (+),
c. Voltage drop and power loss. P, or POS (positive), and (--), N, or
(1) Voltage drop is electrical NEG (negative), the current produced
pressure lost as current flows through by connecting the terminals is direct
a wire or an electrical device: A current. Current from a battery is
voltmeter, used to measure voltage, always direct current.
connected between terminals A and B
shows that the power source is b. Alternating current.
producing 115 volts; one connected Alternating current (ac) is a current
between C and D shows that the lamp is that reverses its direction of flow at
using 110 volts to produce light (fig. regular intervals.
2-1). The 5-volt difference in meter (1) A simple alternating-
readings measures the voltage drop in current generator consists of a
the line and can be compared to the rotating magnet and a coil of wire.
loss of pressure caused by friction in As the north pole (N) of the magnet
a long water pipe. Voltage drop in passes the coil, a voltage is
the conductor can be computed using generated and current flows (fig 2-2).
Ohm's law, if current and resistance
of the conductor are known. To furnish
satisfactory voltage to equipment and
to keep power losses low, voltage drop
in the line must be kept low.

E = IR
VOLTAGE DROP

2-3
 (fig 2-3). As the north pole (N) of
the magnet passes coil 1, a voltage is
induced and current flows as indicated
by arrows. The south pole (S) induces
the voltage and current flow as shown
in coil 3. Since neither pole is
close to coil 2 at this instant, no
current flows. The fluctuating
currents in the coils are shown in
figure 2-3. Three-phase current
pushes the motor 360 times per second
and never allows the power to drop to
zero. This makes the motor run
smoother, the same as an eight-
cylinder gasoline engine runs smoother
than a one-cylinder gasoline engine.

(2) As the south pole (S) passes

the coil, a voltage is generated in
the opposite direction and current
flows in the opposite direction (fig
2-2).

(3) One complete revolution of the

magnet constitutes a cycle (fig 2-2).

c. Frequency. Frequency is the

number of times an alternating current
changes direction in a given period of
time. Two changes of direction are a
cycle. Normal alternating current in
the United States has a frequency of
120 changes per second and is called
60-cycle current. Most European coun-
tries use 50-cycle current.

d. Single-phase current. Phase is

the number of alternating currents
flowing through the circuit.
Alternating current described thus far
is single-phase current. Since the
voltage drops to zero twice in each
cycle, the power furnished is uneven
and is not suited for operation of
some motors. Sixty-cycle, single-phase 2-6. ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS
current gives the motor a push 120
times a second. a. Two-wire systems. Two-wire
systems are always single-phase. One
e. Three-phase current. Three- of the wires
phase current is used to power heavy
motors and equipment. A three-phase- may be grounded by connecting it to a
current generator consists essentially water pipe or an iron rod or pipe
of a magnet and three coils of wire driven into the ground (fig 2-4). To

2-4
identify the grounded neutral wire,
measure the voltage between each wire
and a grounded metal object. If there
is no voltage between one wire and
ground, that wire is the grounded
neutral. The other wire is the hot
wire. Switches are connected to
interrupt the current flowing in the
hot wire. c. Four-wire systems. Four-wire
systems are usually three-phase. They
consist of a neutral and three hot
wires (fig 2-7). A grounded neutral
is identified as in the two-wire
system. If the neutral is not
grounded, it is found by measuring the
voltage between each wire and the
other three wires. All voltages
measured from the neutral are equal.
Voltage between hot wires is 1.73
times the voltage between neutral and
each hot wire.

b. Three-wire systems. Three-wire

systems may be either single-phase or
three-phase.
(1) Single-phase. Single-
phase, three-wire systems consist of a
neutral and two hot wires. The
voltage between the two hot wires is
twice the voltage between the neutral
and either of the hot wires (fig 2-5).
A grounded neutral is identified as in
the two-wire system. If the neutral d. Balancing loads. Loads are
is not grounded, it is found by balanced to provide better voltage for
measuring the voltage between each equipment. Figure 2-8 represents a
wire and the other two wires. All balanced load with 300 watts on each
voltages measured from the neutral circuit.
wire should be equal. (1) In systems having a
neutral, the loads are balanced when
the total watts of electrical load
connected between the neutral and each
of the hot wires are equal.
(2) In systems without a
neutral, the loads are balanced when
the total watts of electrical load
connected between each pair of wires
are equal (fig 2-9).
(3) It is highly improbable
that the loads at an installation can
(2) Three-phase. Three-phase, be balanced on the phases exactly.
three-wire systems consist of three However, the maximum unbalance for
hot wires. The voltages between all circuits should not exceed 10 percent.
wires are equal (fig 2-6). That means that the load on the
heaviest loaded phase is no more than
10 percent greater than the load on
the least loaded phase. Preferably,
the unbalance should be kept within 1
percent.

2-5
 wire system of figure 2-7 is
abbreviated 30 4w 120-208v. When
transformers are used as the means of
voltage reduction, the three-phase
four-wire voltage will be 120/208 or
115/199.

2-7. SERIES CIRCUITS

Symbols used in circuit diagramming

are shown in figure 2-10.

a. Series wiring. Fixtures

connected in a circuit by a single
wire are wired in series. Series
wiring is not practical for the
following reasons:

(1) When one of the fixtures

burns out or is removed from the line,
the circuit is broken, current will
not flow, and the remaining fixtures
cannot be used.

(2) Fixtures requiring

different amperages cannot be used
efficiently in the same circuit. The
amount of electricity that can pass
through the fixtures is limited to the
amperage of the smallest fixture.
Low-amperage lamps limit electricity
flowing through the wires and high-
amperage lamps will not produce light.
e. System notation. Systems are
identified by the number of phases and b. Unit calculations.
wires and the voltage between wires.
For example, figure 2-5 shows a (1) Ohms. In a series
single-phase, three-wire system; the circuit, the total resistance (ohms)
source of power is a generator. The is the sum of the resistances in each
voltage is 120 volts from hot wire to part of the circuit. Figure 2-11
neutral and 240 volts between hot shows a series circuit with a battery
wires. This notation is abbreviated producing 12 volts and three lamps
10 3w 120/240v. The three-phase four- connected in

2-6
series. Assume the wires have resistance of that part by the
negligible resistance. The lamps amperage.
have resistances of 2.1 ohms, 1.3 The voltage drop in the first part
ohms, and 1.4 ohms. The total is:
resistance in this circuit is: E1 = I1 x R1 = 2.5 x 2.1 = 5.25volts.

R = R1 + R2 + R3 or 2.1 + 1.3 + The voltage drop in the second

1.4, or 4.8 ohms. part is:
(2) Amperes. In a series E2 = I2, x R2 = 2.5 x 1.3 = 3.25
circuit, the amperage of the current volts.
in any one part of the circuit is
equal to the amperage of the current The voltage drop in the third part
in any other part, and is equal to is:
the amperage of the total current. E3 = I3 x R3 = 2.5 x 1.4 = 3.5 volts.
This is expressed by the equation: In a series circuit, the total
I (amperes) total = I1, = I2, = I3. applied voltage is equal to the sum
According to Ohm's law, the current of the individual voltage drops.
in the circuit of figure 2-11 is: This can be expressed by the
equation:
E (volts) total 12 E total = E1 + E2 + E3.
I total = ---------------- = --- =
R (ohms) total 4.8 In the problem,
E total = 5.25 + 3.25 + 3 5 = 12
2.5 amperes volts, the total applied voltage.

This means that 2.5 amperes flow in The relation of Ohm's law to
each part of the circuit. series circuits may be worded in
(3) Volts. Each part of the another way: The current in amperes
element of the circuit in figure 2-11 in such an electric circuit can be
consists of a known resistance with found by dividing voltage by total
2.5 amperes flowing through it. If resistance in ohms. This statement,
Ohm's law is applied to each part of however, may be hard to remember.
the circuit, that is, if the current The diagram, figure 2-12, will help
in each part is multiplied by the to fix the law in your mind. Study
resistance of that part, a voltage E the diagram. E stands for pressure
will be obtained. These separate in volts; I stands for current in
voltages are known as voltage drops. amperes; R stands for resistance in
They are found by multiplying the ohms.

2-7
 A heater element of an electric
range takes 10 amperes at 115 volts.
Find the resistance in ohms of the
element. Place a finger over the R.
E 115
R = - = --- = 11.5 ohms
I 10
You can find the volts required to
force amperes of current through ohms
of resistance by placing a finger over
E in the triangle. Notice the
positions of I and R. These letters
are located side by side. This
indicates multiplication.
Work a simple problem with the Suppose that you want to find how
triangle. Suppose that you wish to many volts are needed to force 1
find how many amperes a pressure of 1 ampere through a resistance of 10
volt will force through a resistance ohms. Place a finger over E. You get:
of 1 ohm. Cover I in the triangle E = I x R
with a finger. Notice the positions Then, replacing letters with
of E and R. E is located over R and numbers you have:
the two letters are separated by a E = I x R = 1 x 10 = 10 volts
horizontal line. The line indicates A current of 25 amperes must be
division. sent through an electropolating tank
that has a resistance of 1/5 ohm. How
You now have: many volts must be used? Place a
E (volts) finger over E.
I (amperes) = -----------
R (ohms) 1
E E = 25 x - = 5 volts
or I = - 5
R 2-8. PARALLEL CIRCUITS
By replacing the letters E and R
with numbers you get: In a parallel circuit, half the
1 terminals of the elements are
I = - = 1 ampere connected together to form one "side"
1 of the system. The remaining
An electric appliance has a terminals are also connected to form
resistance (a nameplate reading) of 20 the other sides of the system.
ohms. How many amperes will the Consequently, as figure 2-13 shows,
appliance take when connected to a there are as many paths for the
120-volt line? current as there are elements in the
E 120 circuit.
I = - = --- = 6 amperes
R 20 a. Volts. In a parallel circuit,
Ohms can be found in the same way the voltage across each element part
that you found amperes. Suppose that of the circuit is the same. Assuming
you want to find the resistance that that the wires of the circuit in
will allow a current of 2 amperes to figure 2-13 have no resistance, the 12
flow under a pressure of 10 volts. volts
Place a finger over R in the triangle.
You get:
E
R = -
I
Replacing the letters E and I with
numbers, you have:

10
R = -- = 5 ohms
2

2-8
of the battery are applied to each
lamp. This can be expressed by the In a parallel circuit, the total
equation: current or amperes is equal to the sum
of the currents flowing in each part
E total = E1 = E2 = E3 = 12 of the circuit. This can be expressed
volts. by the equation:

b. Amperes. In the circuit in I total = I1 + I2 + I3

figure 2-13, the resistance of each
part is shown. The voltage across Thus the total current in this circuit
each part is 12 volts. By applying is:
Ohm's law to each part, the current-
flow in each lamp can be determined. 1 + 3 + 2 = 6 amperes

The current in the first part is: This current will not be
E1 12 interrupted by the breakage of one of
I1 = --; -- = 1 ampere the lamps. Fixtures wired in parallel
R1 12 are independent of each other. If one
fixture breaks, the others continue to
The current in the second part is: function. Lamps requiring different
E2 12 amperages can be put into the circuit
I2 = --; -- = 3 amperes and each one shines with its normal
R2 4 brilliance. This system is used in
nearly all wiring.
The current in the third part is:
c. Ohms. Unlike a series circuit,
E3 12 the total resistance in a parallel
I3 = --; -- = 2 amperes circuit is not equal to the sum of the
R3 6 resistance in each

2-9
part. Total resistance is found by voltage than the other. Either the
using the following equation: high- or low-voltage winding may be
1 1 1 1 termed the primary, according to how
-- total = -- + -- + -- the transformer is being used.
R R1 R2 R3 a. Elementary transformer. An
elementary transformer (fig 2-14)
For example, take the parallel consists of a primary and a secondary
circuit in figure 2-13. Replacing coil wound on an iron core.
letters with numbers, you have: Alternating current in the primary
1 1 1 1 1 3 coil produces an alternating magnetic
-- total = -- + -- + -- = -- + -- + field in the iron core. A voltage is
R 12 4 6 12 12 induced in the secondary coil by the
alternating field.
2 6 1
-- = -- = -
12 12 2

1
By cross-multiplying - total = ½, you
R
get 2 ohms.

This can be checked by Ohm's law.

E (total)
R (total) = ---------
I (total)
12
R = -- = 2 ohms
6 b. Turn ratio. Transformer coils
R + R are designed to get the required
For two R in parallel, R = -------- number of turns into a minimum of
R1 + R2 space. At the same time the cross
Losses of efficiency in an electric section of the conductor must be large
motor result from several causes enough to carry the current without
including friction of the moving overheating, and room enough must be
parts. In the process of producing provided for insulation and for
power, the output of any electric cooling ducts. The turn ratio of the
motor is always less than 100 percent transformer is--
of the input. Input is expressed in Number of turns in primary
watts; output usually in horsepower. ----------------------------
One horsepower equals 746 watts. A Number of turns in secondary
motor with an output of 3 horse-power This ratio determines the relation
or 2,238 watts, with an efficiency of between primary and secondary currents
85 percent, for example, will require and voltages.
an input of 2,632 watts: Primary current x turn ratio =
Output secondary current.
Input = ----------
Efficiency Primary voltage
2,238 --------------- = secondary voltage.
Input = ----- = 2,632 watts Turn ratio
.85
2-9. TRANSFORMERS That is, if the secondary has twice as
A transformer receives electrical many turns as the primary, the voltage
energy from one circuit and transfers in the sec-
it to another circuit by magnetic ondary will be twice that of the pri-
action. The winding by which energy mary, but the amperage will be only
leaves for the load is termed the half as great. If the secondary has
secondary. Transformers are generally 10 times as many as the primary, the
used to step up or to step down voltage in the secondary will be 10
voltages. Therefore, one winding times that of the primary, but the
normally is designed for a higher amperage will be only 1/10 as great.

2-10
 c. Coil position. In practical ages are required. Distribution trans-
transformers, the high-voltage coil formers must be used to reduce high
surrounds the low-voltage coil, in- distribution voltage to usable value.
stead of having each coil on a sep- a. In the distribution transformer,
arate leg of the core, as shown in both the primary and secondary have 2
figure 2-14. coils. A secondary coil is wound on
d. Coil connection. Many trans- each leg of the laminated iron core
formers have two identical coils on and a primary coil is wound over each
the primary and two on the secondary. secondary coil. The secondary leads
Connecting the two primary coils in pass through the steel tank and are
series permits operation of twice the insulated from it by porcelain bush-
primary voltage of the two coils ings. The primary leads are connected
connected in parallel. Series con- to studs on a terminal block. Copper
nection of the secondary coils pro- straps on the primary terminal block
vides a secondary voltage which is permit connecting the 2 primary coils
twice that of the coils connected in in series or parallel. From the ter-
parallel. minal block, two primary leads pass
e. Taps. Many transformers have through high-voltage porcelain bush-
taps on the high-voltage winding in ings to the outside of the tank. A
order that correct voltage may be line inside the tank marks the level
maintained on the low-voltage winding to which the tank is filled with
when the high-voltage varies by chang- transformer oil to aid in cooling and
ing the tap connections. Figure 2-15 insulating the coils. Transformer oil
shows a 2,400/120-volt trans-former which has high dielectric strength
with two taps on the primary winding. must be used; ordinary lubricating oil
In the transformer, one tap, the 95- cannot be substituted.
percent tap, gives a 19:1 turn ratio; b. A cover with a sealing gasket
the other, the 90-percent tap, gives a clamps over the top of the tank, mak-
ratio of 18:1. If the primary voltage ing it oiltight and watertight. Mount-
is 5 percent below 2,400 volts, the ing brackets on the outside of the
transformer is connected to the 95- tank secure the transformer to the
percent tap, keeping the secondary pole. A sling can be looped under the
voltage at 120 volts. To change the lifting lugs to raise the transformer
tap connection, the transformer is into position. The nameplate on the
disconnected, the cover removed, the outside of the tank gives the manu-
tap-changer operating handle turned to facturer's name and operating data,
the desired tap. It is not necessary including kilovolt-ampere (kva) rat-
to lower the oil level. In other types ing, primary and secondary voltage,
of transformers, the taps are brought and frequency of the alternating-
to a suitable terminal board of current circuit to which it is to be
porcelain or treated maple fitted connected.
2.11. TRANSFORMERS AVAILABLE IN
OVERSEA DEPOTS
a. Plans for an oversea electrical-
distribution-system layout should
include only the
distribution transformers listed in
with porcelain bushings. Links or table 2-1 unless it is known that
similar devices are provided for tap other transformers are available.
changing. This table includes all distribution
2-10. DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS transformers shipped to oversea
Utilization voltage for most mili- depots. Standard utilization voltage
tary electrical equipment is 120 or is 120 or 240 volts and standard
240 volts. A voltage of 208 volts is primary voltages for distribution are
also commonly used as three-phase 2,400, 4,800, 3,300 and 6,600 volts.
voltage. However, such low voltages b. In some foreign countries,
are not practical for transmitting standard utilization voltage is 230
appreciable quantities of electrical volts. Transformers are available
energy farther than 1,000 to 1,500 ft; (table 2-1) to reduce this voltage to
therefore, higher distribution volt- 120 volts for lighting load.

2-11
2-12. TRANSFORMER POLARITY polarity is additive. If lower,
Transformer polarity refers to the polarity is subtractive.
order in which primary and secondary 2-13. SINGLE-PHASE AND THREE-PHASE
leads are brought out of the tank. TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
Transformer polarity is either a. Paralleling transformers.
additive or subtractive and is stamped (1) When the load on a single-
on the nameplate. Polarity is phase transformer is so great that it
important only when transformers of overloads the transformer, one of the
different polarities are connected in following steps must be taken:
parallel or are used to supply three- (a) Install a larger
phase service. When transformers are transformer.
the same polarity, it is immaterial (b) Transfer part of the
whether they are additive or load to another transformer.
subtractive. (c) Connect two
a. Standard practice. In the transformers in parallel.
United States, additive polarity is (2) Two transformers operating
standard for all single-phase in parallel should have the same ratio
distribution transformers 200 kva and and approximately the same impedance.
below which have high-voltage ratings Impedance, or the opposition to flow
of 7,500 volts and below. Other of alternating current, is stamped on
single-phase distribution transformers the transformer nameplate. If the
are subtractive polarity. transformers are not alike, the load
b. Lead markings. Standard rules does not divide equally between them,
specify that high-voltage leads be and one is overloaded before the other
marked H1 H2, and so on, and that low- is fully loaded. In extreme cases, a
voltage leads be marked X1, X2, and so current circulates between them and
on. Lead marking is shown on the causes overheating; as a result, the
transformer nameplate, not on the two transformers carry less load than
leads themselves. The H1 lead is one of the transformers alone.
brought out on the left side of the Caution: Before making final con-
transformer case when facing the low- nections to the low-voltage side of
voltage side. If H1 and X1 are on the the transformer, place 5-amp fuses in
same side of the transformer tank, low-voltage leads of one transformer
polarity is subtractive. If H1 and X1 as a final check on accuracy of con-
are diagonally opposite, polarity is nections. If fuses blow, check
additive. connections.
c. Test for polarity. If the b. Basic three-phase connections.
nameplate is missing, polarity can be The two transformer connections
found as follows: commonly used for three-phase service
(1) Connect one high-voltage are the Delta connection (fig 2-16 and
lead to the adjacent low-voltage lead. the Y or star connection (fig 2-17).
(1) Delta connection. The
(2) Energize high-voltage lead Delta connection, used for three-phase
with any reduced alternating-current three-wire circuits, is made by
voltage. connecting adjacent terminals of
(3) Measure voltage between transformers. The right lead of one
unconnected high- and low-voltage winding is connected to the left lead
leads. If it is higher than voltage of the next winding. Coil voltage
applied across high-voltage leads, equals phase-to-phase voltage of the
line. Coil current equals

2-12
2-13
line current in each phase wire nection is necessary. The open-Delta
divided by 1.73 (fig 2-16). connection delivers three-phase power
using only two single-phase trans-
(2) Y-connection. The Y- ormers. Removing one of the three
connection used for three-phase four- transformers reduces capacity of the
wire circuits is made by connecting bank to 58 percent of original
the three right (or left) leads to a capacity instead of 66 2/3 percent, as
common neutral (fig 2-17). The three might be expected.
left (or right) leads are connected to (b) The open-Delta
the phase wires of the lines. Coil connection is also used where there is
current equals line current in each a large single-phase load and only a
phase wire. Coil voltage equals small three-phase load. In this case,
phase-to-neutral voltage. Thus, when the transformer supplying the single-
three 2,400-volt transformers are Y- phase load is larger than the other
connected to a circuit which measures transformer and is grounded at its
2,400 volts from phase-to-neutral or midpoint. Only one such point may be
4,160 volts from phase-to-phase, coil grounded on the transformer bank. The
voltage is 2,400 volts. midpoints of both transformers must
not be grounded.
c. Connecting transformer banks.
Three single-phase transformers (3) Y-Delta connection.
connected to a three-phase circuit are (a) A bank of trans-
called a bank of transformers. Con- formers is Y-Delta connected when the
nections are made with a combination three primary windings are Y-connected
of Delta and Y-connections. and the three secondary windings are
Delta-connected. When a primary is
(1) Delta-Delta connection. A connected in Delta and the secondary
bank of transformers is Delta-Delta in Y the bank is Delta-Y connected.
connected when the primary windings (b) The Y-Delta
and the secondary windings are both connection continues to operate when
connected in Delta. one of the transformers is removed,
converting it to open Y-Delta. The
(2) Open-Delta connection. neutral point of the two remaining
(a) When one of the three transformers must be connected to the
transformers in a Delta-Delta bank primary neutral. This connection
fails, it can be disconnected entirely creates an unbalanced condition and
from the bank, converting it to an causes excessive current to flow in
open-Delta connection for emergency the neutral. It should be avoided
operations. No other change in con- except in emergencies.

2-14
 (4) Y-Y Connection. With the Y- f. Selection of transformer
Y connection both 120-volt single- connection. Selection of a transformer
phase lighting and 208-volt three- connection depends on voltage of the
phase power can be obtained from the primary circuit, voltage rating of the
four-wire secondary. available transformers, ratio of the
transformers, and the secondary
d. Three-phase transformers. voltage required. If both light and
(1) Three separate three-phase power are to be supplied
transformers built together and placed from the transformers, the secondary
in the same tank or wound on the same should be connected in Y to form a
core are three-phase transformers. three-phase four-wire system. In this
Connections between coils are made case, the lighting load is connected
within the tank and only leads which between the neutral and the phase
connect to the primary and secondary wires, and the power load is connected
are brought out through bushings. between phase wires only. Table 2-2
Three-phase transformers are light, gives the ratio between primary and
save space, and are more easily secondary voltage for transformer con-
connected than three single-phase nections discussed above.
transformers of equal capacity.
g. Reversed connections. A three-
(2) One disadvantage of the phase motor can be made to rotate in
three-phase transformer is that if one either direction by reversing two of
winding becomes unserviceable, it is the phase leads to the motor. Thus,
probable that the entire bank also when a bank of transformers is
would be unserviceable. When this replaced, all motors may run
happens, the whole unit must be backwards. If this occurs, reverse
replaced or service disconnected while two of the phase wires on either the
repairs are made. Single-phase primary or the secondary of the
transformers connected in a bank may transformers to correct the direction
use emergency open-Wye or open-Delta of rotation.
connections while the damaged unit is
replaced or repaired.

e. Paralleling three-phase
transformers. To parallel three-phaase
transformers, connect corresponding
leads to the same conductor.

2-15
 b. Lightning arresters.
(1) One of the chief sources
of trouble on overhead distribution
circuits is lightning, which results
2-14. PROTECTION in damage to wires, insulators, poles,
Since transformers have no moving and other equipment, particularly
parts, the chief causes of damage are transformer windings. There are two
electrical disturbances such as short ways lightning may affect the trans-
circuits or lightning. These disturb- mission or distribution line, either
ances damage insulation surrounding by striking the line directly or by
the coils or porcelain bushings induced effect. Unless these voltage
through which the coil leads pass. A surges are drained from the lines,
short circuit is an abnormal connec- they may enter the transformer wind-
tion, either deliberate or accidental, ings, puncturing the weakest points of
which permits excessive current flow. the insulation in trying to reach the
This heats the transformer coils to ground. The best protection against
such a high temperature that the damage by voltage surges is to install
insulation is cooked and becomes a lightning arrester as close as pos-
brittle or even carbonized. When this sible to the apparatus it is to pro-
occurs, the insulation is no longer tect. In protecting transformers, the
effective. high-voltage lead of the arrester is
a. Fuses connected on the line side of the cut-
(1) A fuse is an intentionally out; the lower lead is connected to a
weakened spot in an electrical circuit ground rod. This allows the energy of
which protects equipment from damage the surge to escape to the ground
by short circuits. The fuse melts or without allowing normal energy on the
"blows" when the current becomes too line to follow and sustain an arc,
large, opening the circuit and thereby forming a ground on the line.
preventing current flow. If not properly grounded, the light-
(2) Every transformer must be ning arrester will not function.
protected by an individual primary Careful attention should be given so
cutout (fuse) device located in the that a good low-resistance ground is
primary connection, between the secured. The path to the ground
transformer primary and the primary should be as short and straight as
line. possible.
(3) The size and voltage of (2) In a typical lightning
the transformer being protected arrester for distribution voltages,
determine the fuse size. Fuse the upper lead is connected to the
protection against small overloads on primary wire as close to the trans-
the transformer is not good practice former as possible. The lower lead is
since the fuse would blow frequently, connected to a ground rod, such as a
causing needless interruption to piece of iron pipe, driven 7 or 8 feet
service. Table 2-3 gives fuse sizes in the ground.
for use with a given transformer. c. Built-in lightning arresters
(4) All transformers should be and circuit breakers. Some
protected fuses in the primary transformers are protected
connection.
from excessive voltages and overloads
by lightning arresters and circuit
breakers which are an integral part of
the transformer. A heavy overload on
the secondary opens a breaker inside

2-16
the tank, disconnecting the trans- equipment are covered with insulating
former from the load. Overloads not material or approved rubber protective
large enough to damage the transformer equipment. The following safety
immediately turn on an indicating precautions apply to personnel working
light on the side of the tank. The on energized conductors and equipment
glowing indicating light shows that operating at 300 volts or less.
the load is too large and the (a) Tape or cover all
transformer must be replaced with a bare or exposed places on one
larger size or part of the load conductor before another conductor is
transferred to another transformer. exposed.
(b) When work is done on
2-15. MAINTENANCE building wiring, motors, belting,
Transformers require little shafting, blowers, or other machinery
maintenance because they have no (including shop machine tools), open
moving parts. A visual inspection is switches and remove fuses. Attach
usually enough to show whether work is hold cards to the switches.
needed. (c) When handling
a. Rust. Check for rust which portable electric tools or light
might lead to complete perforation of cords, do not touch steam or water
the case. Remove rust by scraping, pipes.
and apply paint. (d) Never leave joints or
b. Leaks. Dark spots on the case loose ends of wire untaped unless
indicate an oil leak. To locate the otherwise protected.
leak and repair it-- (e) When working in a
(1) De-energize transformer. building in which a fire has occurred,
(2) Wash surface with never turn on the current until the
engineer-issue solvent. wiring and other electrical equipment
(3) After it dries, dust have been inspected.
surface with chalk, cement dust, or (2) Intermediate voltage, 300
whitewash. Escaping liquid will show to 5,000 volts. Overhead lines oper-
as a dark spot. ating between 300 and 5,000 volts must
(4) Remove tank cover and be worked on with rubber gloves. Other
drain oil out of tank. lines and equipment carrying 300 to
(5) Weld or solder leak. 5,000 volts must be de-energized and
c. Oil level. Before grounded before any work is started.
installation, remove the transformer 2-16. GENERATORS
cover and check oil level in the a. Types of generators. The
transformer. If the oil does not come practical source of electric power is
up to the mark inside the case, add the generator, which converts
transformer oil. Unless there is mechanical energy into electrical
evidence of a leak, oil level in energy. All military generators are
distribution transformers need not be driven by a prime mover, which may be
checked after installation. Trans- a gasoline or diesel engine. Normally,
former oil must be free of moisture, gasoline engines drive military
even in small amounts. Take every generators under 10kw capacity; diesel
precaution to protect oil in storage engines drive the larger ones.
from moisture contamination. Some b. Generator characteristics. The
present-day transformers use special important characteristics of a
coolants. Such products should not be generator are its
put into transformers designed for oil kilowatt (kw) rating, the voltage and
nor should oil be put into trans- frequency at which it generates, and
formers designed for other coolants. whether it is a single- or three-phase
Follow nameplace recommendations when generator. The kw rating determines
adding coolant. the horsepower of the prime mover.
d. Safety precautions. Frequency depends on speed of rotation
(1) Low voltage, 300 volts. and the number of poles of the
Personnel may work on energized generator. Voltage also depends on
conductors and equipment operating at speed, but is varied within limit by
300 volts or less if all adjacent changing the strength of the magnetic
energized or grounded conductors and

2-17
field. The generator nameplate gives available in .5 thru 1.5 and 5 kw
the characteristics of the machine. capacities. They are used for small
2-17. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION lighting and motor installations.
a. Elementary generators. b. Three-phase generators. Tables
(1) An elementary generator of organization and equipment (TOE)
(fig 2-18) consists of an armature generators are three-phase generators.
coil rotating in a magnetic field These generator sets are capable of
produced by two field poles. During operating on two frequencies (50 and
rotation, the two sides of the coil 60 cycles) and, depending upon the
cut the lines of force of the magnetic unit, on voltage ranges 120/208, and
field, generating a voltage in the 240/416. Generators 15 kw and above
coil. Slip rings and brushes permit can be operated as a single unit or in
continuous electrical contact between parallel with other generator sets.
the rotating coil and the external When in parallel they increase current
circuit. capacity.
(2) A single coil rotating in a c. Nontactical generators.
magnetic field generates single-phase Special purpose barges, tankers, and
power. Three separate coils, each the nuclear powered Sturgis (10,000
displaced one-third of a revolution kw) are used for base power.
from the other two and rotating on the
same shaft in the same field, generate 2-19. COMBINATIONS OF GENERATORS
three-phase power. AND TRANSFORMERS
b. Practical generators. a. With high-voltage generators.
(1) In practical generators, High-voltage generators may be
the magnetic field is produced by connected for three-phase four-wire
direct current service or three-phase three-wire
service. Ordinarily, rated voltage
and normal hookup should be used in
practice. However, when the line drop
is excessive and voltages are low, the
generator may be operated at 2,400
volts instead of its rated 2,300 volts
to produce satisfactory voltages; or
three-phase transformer banks
supplying both lighting and power
loads may be connected to the 95-
percent tap; or the transformers
supplying a single-phase load may be
connected to the 100-percent tap.
Ground all secondary neutrals. Any of
these voltage-raising remedies may be
resorted to as a temporary solution.
However, such a solution, while
correcting low-voltage conditions

during heavy loads, may give such a

flowing in the field coils wound high voltage during the light loads
around field poles. Increasing the that the life of the lights and other
field current increases the voltage electrical equipment may be needlessly
generated. This is the method used to shortened. It might, therefore, be
control the voltage of a generator. more economical to have the voltage
(2) In small generators, the reasonably low during heavy loads so
field is stationary and the armature the voltage under light loads will not
rotates. In the larger ones, the be excessive. This procedure should
field rotates and armature coils are be followed only until a better
placed in slots in the generator arrangement can be made, such as
frame. installation of an automatic voltage
2-18. DESCRIPTION regulator.
a. Single-phase generators. (1) Generators connected for
Single-phase military generators are 2,300/4,000 volts. Use Y-Y-connected
transformers to supply three-phase

2-18
four-wire secondaries. Connect need to know the location of furnish-
transformer neutrals together and to ings, such as desks and workbenches,
ground. Ground generator neutral. so that lights can be placed to give
(2) Generators connected for maximum illumination where needed.
2,300 volts. Use Delta-Y-connected c. Installation. The next
transformers to supply three-phase objective is the installation of the
four-wire secondaries. wires and equipment. Your instruc-
b. With low-voltage generators. tions to the workmen must be clear and
To eliminate excessive voltage drop complete so they understand what is to
caused by supplying electric energy be done and how it is to be accom-
from low-voltage generators, install plished. Installation of electric
transformers near the generator. wiring must meet all safety require-
Connect generator leads to low-voltage ments as established by Department of
windings of transformers, energizing the Army policy. In electric wiring
high-voltage windings. Additional as in all other types of construction,
low-voltage load may be supplied you, as officer in charge, must exer-
directly from the generator without cise constant supervision and control.
going through the transformers. You should maintain proper coordi-
2-20. ELECTRICAL LAYOUT nation with plumbers, painters, car-
a. Electrical diagrams are usually penters, or other labor who may be
brief. It is impractical as well as working on the same building. When
unnecessary to show the details of this is the case you should maintain
connection for each lamp and switch. continuous supervision to keep all men
For this reason, a set of standard working without interference.
symbols has been adopted to indicate d. Testing. After the wires and
the different outlets and fixtures. equipment are installed, you should
The exact locations of the wires and test each circuit to be sure that it
cables are not shown in the electrical is complete and will operate correct-
plans. All that is shown is the ly. Only by close inspection can
sequence of connections and the switch hazards be detected and incorrect
layout for the operation of the lights installations discovered. Building
or equipment. The exact manner of wiring, if properly installed, re-
making the connections and placing the quires only a minimum of maintenance.
wires is left to the electrician. Engineer units are responsible for the
b. Electric power from civilian maintenance and repair of most
sources is used if available, unless electrical installations.
considered inadequate or subject to
frequent interruption. In areas where 2-22. LOAD ESTIMATION
it is not possible to connect to The entire layout of the distribution
existing power sources, portable system depends on load estimation.
military generators are used. Load estimation covers both magnitude
2-21. PHASES OF CONSTRUCTION and location of the load.
a. Collection of data. The first a. Location of load. To estimate
consideration is the collection of the load, first obtain a map of the
data. This includes a reconnaissance area to be served with electricity and
to determine the capacity of the locate and mark on it the various
source of electric power and the type, structures to be connected to the
size, and intended use of the distribution system. Identify each
building. The source must be large building, such as barracks, recreation
enough to supply the entire load. hall, warehouse, and shop.
b. Planning and design. The b. Determining connected load.
second stage is planning and design. Secondly, determine the connected load
If plans are available for the for each structure served. Connected
electrical layout, you must check load for a given building is the sum
them, as well as the specifications of the horsepower of all motors and
and bill of materials, for accuracy. the wattages of all lights and other
If such plans are not available, you electrically operated devices. It is
must know the locations of doors, usually expressed in kva. For load
windows, and partitions because these estimation, 1,000 watts of lighting
affect the placement of receptacles load or 1 horse-power of motor or
and switches. In some cases, you will

2-19
power load equals 1 kva. Table 2-4
gives connected lighting and power
loads for typical theater-of-
operations structures.
c. Demand load. Connected load
must be converted to demand load. The
terms load or demand, used alone, mean
demand load. Demand is the maximum kva
required to serve a given connected
load. Demand is less than connected
load because all connected equipment
seldom is operated simultaneously. The
ratio between demand and connected
load is the demand factor.

Demand = demand factor X connected

load.

Typical military demand factors are

given in table 2-5. Compute the
demand for each structure and record
it on the map at the proper location.
Record the type of service (three-
phase four-wire, single-phase two-wire
3-4W 102W) required for each
structure.

2-23. GENERATOR LOCATION AND CAPACITY

Selection of generator locations and
capacities follows load estimation.
a. Location. To reduce the size
of wire required, locate generators
near points of large demand, such as
laundries, machine shops, bakeries,
ice plants, and X-ray machines.
Select tentative generator locations
by studying the map on which demands
are plotted. Size of the area served
by each low-voltage generator depends
on type and loca-

tion of individual demands in that

area. As a general rule, small
demands such as barracks lighting are
served at distances up to 1,500 feet
(wire length); moderate demands, up to
1,000 feet. If the tentative
generator locations already selected
are too far apart, they may be

2-20
shifted. Additional generators may be surrounded by two current transformers
necessary should shifting result in is found. For satisfactory parallel
moving generators away from the large operation, compensating phases of all
demands. The final location should be generators should be connected to the
near a road and on firm ground. A same phase of the bus.
concrete foundation should be provided (3) Test for phase rotation.
for 30-kw generators and larger, if Phase rotation is the order in which
the generator installation is semi- phase leads from a generator are con-
permanent. nected to the bus. It is reversed by
b. Capacity. Generating capacity interchanging any two phase leads.
at each location is proportional to Phase rotation is established by test
the sum of individual demands in the when the leads from a newly installed
area served. The sum of individual generator are wired to the bus; no
demands is larger than generating further check is required.
capacity required, since demands do (b) To check phase rota-
not occur simultaneously. Furthermore, tion in low-voltage generators by
demand so obtained is measured in kva, means of test lamps, connect the gen-
while generators are related in kw. erator neutral to the bus neutral.
Table 2-6 gives generator factors used Connect the two non-compensating phase
in the following formula for leads of the generator through test
converting the sum of individual lamps to the two non-compensating
demands to generator capacity. phases of the bus. The test lamps for
Generator capacity in kw = each phase consist of two light bulbs
generator factor X sum of individual in series. (Combined voltage rating
demands in kva. of these lamps must equal or exceed
the rated voltage of the alternators,
unless transformers are used.) Leave
the compensating phase disconnected.
Start the new machine and close the
main circuit breaker. Adjust the
speed of the new machine until the
frequency and voltage of both machines
are approximately the same. When this
is done, the test lamps will flash on
c. Operating in parallel. and off. If lamps in one phase are
dark at the same instant that the
(1) Requirements. Two gen-
lamps in the other phase are bright,
erators are operating in parallel when phase connections are reversed and
the leads of both are connected to the must be changed. If lamps in the two
same electrical system and each is phases flash off together, phases are
supplying power. The most common use properly connected and phase rotation
of parallel operation is two or more of the new machine is the same as that
generators feeding a large common of the bus. Remove test lamps and
conductor called a bus. The phase connect all three generator phase
rotation, frequency, and voltage of leads to corresponding phases of the
generators must be the same before bus.
they are operated in parallel.
(b) To check phase rotation using a
(2) Compensating phase. A
three-phase motor, connect the bus,
current transformer, used to measure new generator, and three-phase motor
current supplied by the phase, sur- to a three-pole double-throw knife
rounds each of the three phase leads switch. Start the new machine and
of the generator. In addition, one close the main circuit breaker. Adjust
phase has a separate current trans- the voltage and frequency of the new
former which is connected to the machine until they are approximately
compensating resistor of the voltage the same as the voltage and frequency
regulator. The phase with two current of the bus. Throw the knife switch to
transformers is the compensating the left and note the direction in
phase. The other two phases are the which the motor shaft turns. Throw
non-compensating phases. The compen- the knife switch to the right and
sating phase is found by tracing wir- again note the shaft rotation. If it
ing from the generator until the phase is now turning in the opposite direc-

2-21
tion, interchange the two non-compen- roughly proportional to the kilowatt
sating phase leads of the new machine capacity of the generator. If all
at the knife switch. When the motor generators are same size, they should
turns in the same direction whether supply approximately equal currents.
connected to the bus or new machine, d. Number of generators. There are
phase rotations of the bus and new always several possible generator com-
machine are the same. Remove the binations which will supply required
knife switch and connect all three capacity. However, some of these sel-
generator phase leads to corresponding ections are inefficient. It is possi-
phases of the bus. ble to select one large generator to
(4) Synchronizing. Each time a gen- supply total required capacity. How-
erator is connected to an energized ever, this selection becomes ineffi-
bus by closing main circuit breaker, cient at night when the required power
it must be synchronized with the bus; is reduced. Since the generator will
that is, its frequency and voltage run at a constant output, much more
must be made the same as that of the power will be supplied than is actu-
bus. The generator which is to be ally required. Another possibility for
synchronized is called the incoming supplying the needed capacity is to
machine. There are two methods of combine generators of different sizes
synchronizing military generators, to obtain the required value, e.g.
depending on whether the control panel supply a capacity of 25KW with one 10
has synchronizing lamps. & one 15KW generator. This combination
(a) Machines with synchronizing requires repair parts for each of the
lamps. Start the machine as described generators and often excludes the
in (3)(a) above, except that main cir- possibility for interchangeability of
cuit breaker is OFF and synchronizing repair parts. Thus such selections are
lamps are ON. Voltage and frequency inefficient from a supply standpoint.
of the incoming machine and bus should Normally, 2 generators, each to supply
be as nearly equal as possible. 2/3 of the required capacity, or three
Synchronizing lamps will flash on and generators, each at ½ of the capacity,
off at a frequency dependent on the are good combinations to use. A stand-
difference between frequencies of the by generator should be provided so
incoming machine and the bus. Adjust that service will not be curtailed if
frequency of incoming machine until any operating generator fails. Selec-
lamps flash on an off slowly. At the tions such as the ones above will
instant lamps are dark, close main allow the operators to shut one down
circuit breaker, paralleling the at night when loads are at a minimum.
incoming machine with bus. This will
(b) Machines without synchronizing greatly assist in the performance of
lamps. Start the machine as described maintenance on this equipment.
in (3)(a) above, except that main e. Interconnection. Generator
circuit breaker is OFF. Voltage and locations in hospital areas are
frequency of the incoming machine and connected so that failure of
bus should be as nearly equal as pos- generators at one location does not
sible. In rapid succession, place interrupt service. The inter-
field switch in OFF position, main connection requires large wires and is
circuit breaker in ON position & field not justified for other types of load.
switch back in ON position. Divide the In addition to interconnection,
load equally as possible between the hospital should have enough extra
machines by adjusting the engine generating capacity so the load can be
governors until the ammeters show that supplied when the largest generator is
equal currents are carried by corres- out of service.
ponding phases of each machine. 2-24. TRANSFORMER LOCATION AND
(5) Adjusting load. Adjust the load CAPACITY
of machines operated in parallel by Transformers are required wherever
changing the governor setting. Turning utilization voltage differs from
the governor-setting knob in the in- distribution voltage.
crease-speed direction increases the a. Location. General principles
load carried by the machine. Adjust used in selecting generator locations
governors until ammeters show that apply to the selection of transformer
currents supplied by each machine are locations. Load centers, such as

2-22
machine shops, laundries, and a. Wire sizes. Common small wire
bakeries, normally require three-phase sizes are denoted by number, ranging
banks of transformers. Lighting and from No. 40, the smallest, to No. 4/0,
small-motor loads are served by the largest (table 2-7). The even-
single-phase transformer numbered sizes are the only types in
installations. common use. Sizes 6 or 8 are commonly
b. Capacity. The kva rating of used in pole-to-building wiring; size
the transformer selected is equal to 14 in building wiring; and sizes 16 or
kva demand of the load served. The 18 in appliance and signal wiring.
kva demand is not multiplied by the Sizes 10 to 4/0 are generally used to
generator factor, as in selecting the carry powerline currents. Wires
generator size. A 10-kva transformer larger than No. 4/0 are usually used
connected to No. 6 three-wire single- in power-station work and are listed
phase 120/240-volt 103W 120/240 volt and sized by their cross-sectional
secondaries is often used to supply area in circular mils. A circular mil
military lighting loads from primary is the area of a circle one thousandth
circuits. of an inch in diameter.
2-25. LINE LOCATION b. Stranded wire or cable. In
Distribution lines conduct electric large sizes, a solid wire would be
power from generators to using equip- stiff and hard to handle, so a number
ment. The lines radiate from gener- of smaller wires are twisted together
ator locations, branching and re- to make a cable of the same cross-
branching until they reach all sectional area as the single large
structures within the area to be wire. Number 6 wire and larger is
served. The lines generally are loca- usually stranded.
ted parallel to building rows, and are c. Insulation. Insulation around
supported either by poles, by masts current-carrying wires makes the wire
attached to buildings, or by buildings safe to handle at low voltages. The
themselves. High-voltage lines are wire is usually covered by and inner
not attached to masts or buildings. layer of rubber of fabric and a
2-26. WIRES AND CABLES reinforcing layer of cotton braid.
Most current-conducting wires and d. Selecting wire sizes. Wire
cables are made of copper. The copper sizes used in standard theater of
conducting wire is covered with operations buildings are given in the
different materials and varies in electrical notes of the drawings in TM
size. The size used depends on the 5-302. When installing wire in
current to be carried by the wire, the nonstandard buildings, tables 2-8
position and type of installation of through 2-10 can be used in selecting
the wire, and the importance of the wire sizes. Tables are based on
electrical line. The two most common approximately 3 percent voltage drop.
types of wire insulation furnished are Example: To supply a 220 volt 40
cotton braid and rubber. Cotton braid ampere load at a distance of 100 feet
is used for most common knob-and-tube (with no more than a 3 percent voltage
wiring. Rubber insulation is used in drop), what is the wire size?
wet places such as shower rooms to
minimize accidental grounding and
danger from shocks.

2-23
2-24
2-25
 Solution: From table 2-9 read in the plaster, but are mounted in
across from 40 amperes to 100 feet to outlet boxes. To avoid shorting and
find number 8, the wire size. crowding in the box, the number of
wires running into a box is limited.
2-27. OUTLET BOXES The wire capacity of various sizes for
Electrical fixtures, switches and typical boxes is listed below.
receptacles are never mounted directly

2-28. CONDUITS AND FITTINGS 2-29. WIRE SPLICES

a. Conduit is thin, steel pipe a. Removing insulation. Cut

which bends easily. It has smooth insulation the same as sharpening a
inside walls so wire insulation is not pencil; remove it and clean wire. If
broken. Two types of conduits are the outer braid covers wire, cut it 1 or 2
standard and the thin-walled. The inches back of first cut and remove
number of wires allowable in various braid. Take care on last cut to cut
sized conduits is shown in table 2-11. only outer braid.

b. Condulets are small outlet b. Pigtail splice. If wires are

boxes with threaded inlets to take not under tension, they may be spliced
conduit pipe (fig 2-19). by twisting them together in a pigtail
as shown in figure 2-20.
c. Bushings and locknuts are
fittings used to dead-end conduits in c. Western Union splice. To
standard outlet boxes (fig 2-19). splice two single-strand wires under
tension, cross them

2-26
(step 1) and then twist each wire at running wires, the first and last
least five turns on the standing part knobs on straight runs are partially
of the other (step 2), as shown in set, wires between the knobs are
figure 2-20. pulled tight by hand, and the knobs
d. Stranded splice. To splice are driven home. Other cleats or knobs
stranded wires under tension, separate are equally spaced between the first
strands (step 1); push two end and last knobs of the straight run.
together (step 2); and wrap each
strand separately around opposing 2-31. WIRING AND FIXTURE SYMBOLS
strands (step 3). By carefully
wrapping all strands, a neat, tight The symbols shown in table 2-12 are
splice is made (fig 2-20). used in electrical details of TM 5-
302, and other electrical drawings
2-30. SUPPORT INTERVAL prepared by Office of Chief of
Wires must be supported at least Engineers. A standard set of sym-
every 4½ feet (fig 2-21). When

2-27
 of-operations construction, and in
civilian work. It is safe and
durable, but requires more time and
materials to install than the knob-
and-tube system.

a. Description of armored cable.

Common armored cable is a flexible
wire consisting of two or more rubber-
covered wires enclosed in a spiral-
layed steel sheeting. Wires in the
cable are different colors; in two-
bols has not been set up to cover all wire cables, one wire is black and the
commercial drawings. Symbols for other white; in three-wire cables, the
wiring instructions included with third wire is red. In armored cable
various pieces of electrical equipment and conduit wiring, the white wire is
may vary. used as the neutral. The black and red
wires are the hot wires. The white
2-32. ARMORED CABLE WIRING wire can serve as a hot wire when
connected between three-way switches.
Armored cable is used for special When this is done, the ends of the
military installations, some theater- white wire

2-28
should be painted black to indicate wires are joined to another wiring
that they are not grounded. Cable system within an outlet box. Wire
size is designated by the number and entering the box must be protected by
size of the wires in the cable. For a loom. A special clamp can be used
example, a cable carrying three No. 6 to connect armored cable and knob-and-
wires is known as a 6-3 cable. tube wiring.

b. Making connections. Splices 2-33. MOTORS

are not permitted in armored cable
wiring. All connections must be made a. Rating. Motors are rated by
inside outlet boxes. In making horse-power, speed, and temperature.
connections, always connect white to The name-plate on the motor gives this
white, black to black, and red to red. information as well as the operating
voltages and currents and a wire-
c. Supporting cable. Where cable connection diagram.
runs across studs and joists, thread
it through holes drilled in the center b. Horsepower. The rated
of the stud or staple it to a 1- by 2- horsepower is the amount of power the
inch runner. Where cable runs motor can deliver continuously without
parallel to studs or joists, support damage to itself. For short periods,
it at least every 4½ feet by staples. the motor can deliver more than its
rated horsepower (table 2-13).
d. Making bends. To avoid kinking
and cutting the cable, the radius of c. Speed. The speed is rated in
bends should not be less than five revolutions per minute (rpm) while the
times the diameter of the cable. motor is running at full load. Some
motors are constant speed under load;
e. Cutting cable. Use a hacksaw other motors decrease speed as load is
to cut cable armor. Place saw almost applied.
at right angles to strip or armor and
cut through one strip. Take care not d. Temperature. Motors are rated
to cut wire insulation. To remove on the temperature rise permitted
armor, twist it slightly and pull it above room temperature. The rated
off wire. temperature is usually 100°F for
general purpose motors. A motor with
f. Armored cable or conduit to this temperature rating will be
knob-and-tube wiring. Knob-and-tube operating at 170°F in an ambient
tempera-

ture of 70°F. The motor will be too temperature of the motor will still be
hot to touch, but the running safe.

2-29
 e. Stator and rotor. The stator is f. Undercutting mica. To stop
the stationary part of the motor. The excessive brush wear or sparking, the
rotor is the revolving part. The mica separating the commutator bars
squirrel-cage rotor consists of a must be undercut about 1/32 of an
shaft on which are mounted laminated inch. To undercut mica, grind a
metal disks bound together by copper hacksaw blade to the thickness of the
bars and soldered or welded to a mica joint. Saw in the mic groove
copper ring at the end of the rotor. until the mica is cut approximately
The wound rotor consists of a shaft on 1/32 of an inch below the surface of
which are mounted laminated metal the commutator bar.
disks. Wire is wound in slots in the g. Emery cloth must never be used.
laminations. These wires are soldered The fine particles on the cloth are
to commutator bars on the end of the conductors and will short the motor.
shaft. Brushes mounted on the stator h. Overload. Motors should never
contact the commutator bars when the be required to pull a load higher than
motor is in operation. the rated capacity except for very
2-34. MOTOR CARE AND MAINTENANCE short periods. Overloading heats the
a. Dust. Fine particles of sand motor up and melts soldered joints or
and dust settling on the moving parts burns up insulation.
of the motor scratch and groove 2-35. MOTOR EFFICIENCY
bearing surfaces. Accumulated dust The nameplate of an electric motor
picks up oil forming a gummy mask that gives the output of the motor in
reduces the lubrication value of the horsepower; that is, the amount of
oil, and plugs ventilation spaces. mechanical power the motor is able to
Periodically dust must be wiped off deliver. The efficiency of a motor is
the motor and its moving parts. Dust the ratio of the output to the input
can be blown out of the windings with expressed in percent and based on the
compressed air at fairly low pressures following formula.
(not over 40 psi). Output
b. Oil. Oil lubricates and pro- Efficiency(in percent) = -------- x100
tects moving parts of the motor. Oil Input
must be kept in the bearings. Excess Output = Efficiency x Input
oil attacks the insulting material on Output
wires and combines with dust to form a Input = ----------
sticky gum that slows down the motor Efficiency
and causes sparking and shorting.
c. Removing oil and dust. Oil and Loss of efficiency in an electric
dust must be wiped off periodically motor result from several causes
and the motor should be cleaned with a including friction of the moving
nonflammable solvent. The motor parts. In the process of producing
should be allowed to dry after oil and power, the output of any electric
dirt are removed and the windings motor is always less than 100 percent
painted with insulating varnish. of the input. Input is expressed in
d. Moisture. Moisture should be watts; output usually in horsepower.
kept away from motors as much as One horsepower equals 746 watts. A
possible. Moisture has two effects on motor with an output of 3 horse-power
motors: or 2,238 watts, with an efficiency of
(1) Soaked insulation is non- 85 percent, for example, will require
insulating, causing shorts in the an input of 2,632 watts:
motor.
(2) A combination of water and
other elements rots insulating mater-
ial and causes rust and corrosion.
e. Wear. Dirt and grit collecting
on the commutator cause it to wear
unevenly and produce faulty motor
operation. A grooved commutator can
be smoothed by running the motor at
normal speed and holding 00 sandpaper
against the commutator.

2-30
 Output prevent the circuits being energized
Input = ------------ while line work is in progress.
Efficiency b. Test wires before starting
work. All wires being worked on
2,238 should be tested with
Input = ------ = 2,632 watts a voltmeter or test lamp to determine
.85 whether or not they are energized.

To find horsepower: c. Test lamp. A well-insulated

watts 2,632 weather-proof socket with 6- or 8-inch
Horsepower = ----- = ----- watts pigtails is often used to test
746 746 circuits. Pigtails must be carefully
insulated.
= 3.5 horsepower
d. Never test circuit with fingers
2-36. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS or tools. Bad burns and other
a. Cut off power when working on injuries can result.
circuits. Whenever possible, shut off
power before starting work (dead e. Insulated tools. Insulated
circuit). To shut off power, main tools such as pliers and screwdrivers
switches must be pulled and locked or are not certain protection for
tagged. Fuses can also be removed to electricians working on energized
lines. Taping plier and screwdriver
handles does not insulate them.

REVIEW EXERCISES

Note: The following exercises are study aids. The figures following each
question refer to a paragraph containing information related to the question.
Write your answer in the space provided below each question. When you have
finished answering all the questions for this lesson, compare your answers with
those given for this lesson in the back of this booklet. Review the lesson as
necessary. Do not send in your solutions to these review exercises.

1. Electricity is a form of energy. State the two methods by which it may be

generated. (Para 2-2)

2. What electrical term is analogous to the term "gallons per minute" used in
hydraulics? (Para 2-3f)

3. By the application of Ohm's law, what is the resistance in a circuit that

has a voltage of 120 and an amperage of 7.5? (Para 2-4a)

4. If the voltage in an electric circuit remains constant, how can the flow of
current, or amperage, be increased? (Para 2-4a(2))

5. What characteristic of single-phase current makes it unsuitable for

operation of some motors? (Para 2-5d)

2-31
6. Electric power systems may have two, three, or four wires. Which system
always carries single-phase current? (Para 2-6a)

7. What is the abbreviated notation used to designate a single-phase three-

wire electrical power system with 120 volts between either hot wire and the
neutral wire? (Para 2-6e)

8. Electrical fixtures can be connected in either series or parallel circuits.

Which type circuit is most commonly used in wiring? (Para 2-8b)

9. If the primary coil of a transformer has 800 turns with 10 amps of current,
and the secondary coil has 50 turns, what is the secondary current? (Para 2-9b)

10. Which type of transformer connection is used when there is a large single-
phase load and a small three-phase load? (Para 2-13c(2)b)

11. What is the most common method used to vary the voltage output of a
generator? (Paras 2-16b, 2-17b)

12. What is the maximum kilowatt capacity of single-phase generators normally

available to the military? (Para 2-18a)

13. What one factor has the most influence upon the layout of an electrical
distribution system? (Para 2-22)

14. What factor is of primary importance in determining the location of a

generator, or generators, in an electrical power system? (Para 2-23a)

15. Normal small wire sizes range from number 40, the smallest to number 4/0,
the largest. What size is normally used in building wiring? (Para 2-26a)

2-32
16. Referring to table 2-8, what wire size would you select to supply a 120
volt 60 ampere load at a distance of 75 feet? (Para 2-26d, table 2-8)

17. What is the maximum number of wires, size number 12, that you may run into
a 1½-inch by 4-inch square outlet box? (Para 2-27)

18. What type splice is used to splice together two single-strand wires that
will be under tension? (Para 2-29c)

19. No electric motor is 100 percent efficient. How is motor efficiency

determined? (Para 2-35)

20. When work must be done on an electric circuit what is the first safety
precaution to take? (Para 2-36a)

2-33
 LESSON 3

REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

CREDIT HOURS . . . . . . . .
2 . . . .
TEXT ASSIGNMENT. . . . . . . . . . .
Attached memorandum.
MATERIALS REQUIRED . . . . . .
None. . . .
LESSON OBJECTIVE . . . . . . . . . .
Upon completion of this lesson on
refrigeration you should be able to
accomplish the following in the indicated
topic areas.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1. Basic theory. Define heat and cold, explain the molecular theory, describe
the different temperature scales and how to convert from one to another.

2. Heat. Explain measurement of heat, heat transfer, sensible heat and latent
heat, and the measurement of refrigeration (ton).

3. Application of principles. Explain the effect and relationship of pressure,

vacuum, insulation, and condensation upon the refrigeration process.

4. Refrigerants. State the designations and characteristics of the

refrigerants most commonly used, giving the advantages and disadvantages of
each.

5. The vapor compression system. Explain the theory and functioning of the
vapor compression system to include the four essential parts of the system.

6. The absorption system. Define the basic elements of the absorption system
and the theory upon which it functions.

7. Operation and maintenance. Explain the requirements for operating

refrigeration systems, maintenance of the systems, and methods for detecting
leaks in a refrigeration system.

ATTACHED MEMORANDUM

3-1. GENERAL know the meaning of both. All things

physical are composed of matter.
a. Most engineer officers and Matter exists in only three forms:
noncommissioned officers should have the solid form, the liquid form, and
some knowledge of the fundamental the gas form. On the other hand,
principles of refrigeration. energy is a measure of capacity for
Engineers are responsible for the doing work.
maintenance, repair, and methods of
operation of fixed refrigeration c. Each substance is made of
equipment, and for the maintenance and molecules. A molecule is the smallest
repair of structures and utilities of particle that still retains the
refrigeration plants used for storage property of matter. Each molecule has
of subsistence. the same weight as the other and all
molecules behave exactly alike. The
b. Refrigeration deals with matter only difference between them as they
and energy. Therefore, you should exist in
their different states is due to a. Heat. Heat is a form of
energy, heat, and pressure. energy. As a body absorbs heat, its
3-2. HEAT molecules are receiving more energy,

3-1
and as a result, vibrate faster. If fore, ice melts at 32°F and water
all the heat is removed from a body, boils at 212°F (180° + 32°F) assuming
all molecular motion ceases. standard atmospheric pressures.
b. Cold. Cold is a relative term b. Centigrade temperature. The
used to explain the absence of some centigrade scale has wider divisions
heat. than the Fahrenheit scale and the zero
3-3. TEMPERATURE (0°C) of this scale is set as the
a. Heat intensity. Temperature is melting temperature of ice. The
defined as the heat intensity of a boiling point of water is fixed 100
substance. Temperature is an divisions above 0°C or at 100°C
indication of the degree of assuming standard atmospheric
warmth, or the degree of "hotness" pressure.
of a body. 3-5. ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE SCALES
b. Molecular theory. The molecular The point at which all molecular
theory states that temperature is motion ceases due to the removal of
related to the average speed of all the heat is called absolute zero.
the molecules in a body. It is Zero degrees on the absolute scale is
important to avoid confusion called absolute zero and is equal to
between the terms heat and --460°F or --273°C. When dealing with
temperature. Temperature is a the absolute scales we refer to the
measure of the average speed of temperature as Fahrenheit Absolute
molecular motion, while heat (FA) or Centigrade Absolute (CA) (fig
(energy) is a measure of the total 3-1). To convert the boiling point of
speed of all of the molecules water (212°F) to FA (Fahrenheit
present. Absolute) merely add 460. Water boils
Bodies of Equal
at 672°FA.
10lb of Temperature and 5lb of The formula is: °FA = 460 + °F.
steel Unequal Heat Content steel To convert the boiling point of water
of 300° of 300° (100°C) to CA (Centigrade Absolute)
F F merely add 273. Water boils at 373°CA.

The two bodies of steel (10lb and 5lb) The formula is: °CA = 273 + °C.
have each been heated to 300°F.
However, the smaller body possesses 3-6. FAHRENHEIT -- CENTIGRADE
less heat (energy) than the larger CONVERSION
piece of steel. More heat (and more Sometimes it will be necessary to
time) is required to raise the larger convert Fahrenheit temperatures to
body's temperature to 300°F. centigrade or vice-versa. Two very
3-4. TEMPERATURE SCALES simple formulas have been developed
The most common temperature scale for these conversions. Remember them.
used in the U. S. is the Fahrenheit a. Fahrenheit to Centigrade
scale (fig 3-1). The centigrade scale (°F - 32)
is used primarily in the European and °C = --------------
Asiatic countries. The Fahrenheit 1.8
scale is the one most used in the Example: Given 52°F, find °C.
refrigeration industry.
a. Fahrenheit temperature. The (°F - 32)
Fahrenheit scale is so fixed that it °C = --------------
divides the temperature difference 1.8
from the melting temperature of ice to
the boiling temperature of water into (52 - 32) 20
180 equal divisions and sets the °C = -------------- = ---
melting point of ice at 32 divisions 1.8 1.8
above the zero on the scale. There-
°C = 11.2 = 11 °C

3-2
b. Centigrade to Fahrenheit
°F = 18 + 32
°F = 1.8 (°C) + 32
°F = 50
Example: Given 10°C, find °F.
Figure 3-1 shows a comparison of the
°F = 1.8 (°C) + 32 four scales we have discussed:
Fahrenheit, Centi-
°F = 1.8 (10°) + 32

3-3
grade, Fahrenheit Absolute, and c. Radiation is the transfer of
Centigrade Absolute. heat by heat rays. Examples of this
are the heat from the sun and the heat
3-7. BRITISH THERMAL UNIT (BTU) felt near a flame. It should be
understood that heat rays do not heat
Temperature is measured in degrees the air through which they pass. They
with the use of a thermometer. Heat heat only the surfaces which they
quantity is measured in British strike.
thermal units (Btu). A Btu is defined
as the amount of heat required to 3-9. SENSIBLE HEAT
raise the temperature of 1 pound of
water 1 degree Fahrenheit (fig 3-2). Sensible heat is heat added to a
substance causing a rise in
3-8. HEAT TRANSFER temperatures but no change in state.
That is, any change in heat which
If the temperatures of two causes a change in temperature only is
substances are unequal, heat flows called sensible heat.
from the hot substance to the cold
one. Transfer of heat takes place by 3-10. LATENT HEAT
conduction, convection, and radiation.
The heat energy required to change
a. Conduction is the flow of heat the state of a substance without
from one part of a substance to changing its temperature is latent
another part of the same substance or heat. Changing the state of a
from one substance to another substance is accomplished by adding or
substance in direct contact with it. subtracting heat. When water is
A piece of iron with one end placed in boiled and then further heated, it
a fire will soon become hot end to changes to steam (evaporates). When
end. This is an example of heat steam is cooled (heat is removed)
transfer by conduction. sufficiently, it changes back to
liquid (condenses). When water is
b. Convection is the conveying of cooled sufficiently, it freezes and
heat from one point to another by the changes back to ice.
movement of some easily circulated
medium such as air. A common example 3-11. LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION
of this is the movement of heat-laden
air from a furnace into the rooms of a Latent heat of vaporization is the
house where it releases its heat and amount of heat which must be added to
then returns through the return air 1 pound of a
duct.

liquid substance to cause it to 212°F, 970 Btu of heat per pound of

evaporate completely to a gas. For water must be added to convert it to
example, water can be heated to 212°F steam. The temperature of the steam
and not boil. After water reaches will also be 212°F. The liquid is

3-4
converted to a vapor without change in
temperature. Latent heat of e. Effects of pressure.
vaporization of water is 970 Btu. (1) On volume. The exertion
3-12. LATENT HEAT OF FUSION of pressure on a substance will
Latent heat of fusion is the amount decrease its volume in proportion to
of heat which must be removed from 1 the increase of pressure. Three cubic
pound of a liquid substance to cause feet of gas is placed in a cylinder,
it to freeze completely to a solid and a piston exerting a pressure of 60
state with no change in temperature. pounds per square inch is inserted in
For example, 144 Btu are removed to the open end. If the piston is pushed
freeze 1 pound of water at 32°F to ice down into the cylinder and compresses
at 32°F. Conversely, the addition of the gas into 1 cubic foot, the
144 Btu will cause the melting of ice pressure exerted would have to be 180
at 32°F to water at 32°F. pounds per square inch. If the piston
3-13. PRESSURE were withdrawn so that there were 6
a. General. Pressure is the cubic feet of the gas, the pressure
amount of force exerted on a substance would shrink to 30 pounds per square
per unit of area. It is normally inch (fig 3-3).
expressed in terms of pounds per (2) On vaporization.
square inch (psi) and is calculated by Vaporization is the process of
dividing the total force acting on a changing a liquid to a vapor, either
substance by the total area on which by boiling or evaporation. Evaporation
it acts. takes place only at the surface of a
Pressure (P) = liquid. Boiling takes place throughout
Force in lb (F) the interior of the liquid.
--------------------------------- Absorption of heat by a liquid causes
Area in sq inches or sq feet (A) boiling and evaporation. Reduced
pressure lowers the boiling point of a
b. Atmospheric pressure. liquid. Increased pressure raises the
Atmospheric pressure is pressure at boiling temperature. For every given
sea level. It is expressed as 14.7 pressure acting on a liquid, there is
pounds per square inch absolute a corresponding temperature at which
pressure, or 29.2 inches barometric the liquid will boil. Reduction of
(mercury column) pressure. As one pressure on a liquid lowers the
ascends a hill, the atmospheric temperature at which evaporation takes
pressure will decrease; but below sea place. When a liquid evaporates, it
level in excavations or depressions, absorbs heat from warmer surrounding
it will increase. objects and atmosphere. This is the
c. Gage pressure. Gage pressure basic principle of refrigeration.
(PSIG) is used on all ordinary gage (3) On temperature. Absolute
scales. They read zero at atmospheric pressure of a confined gas at constant
pressure, and measure pressures above volume is proportional to absolute
and below atmospheric. temperature. Thus, if a given volume
d. Absolute pressure. Absolute of gas is confined in a container and
pressure (PSIA) is gage pressure plus subjected to changes in temperature,
14.7. the pressure of the gas will change so
Example: the quotient of pressure divided by
Absolute Pressure = Gage Pressure + absolute temperature is always the
14.7 same.
(PSIA) (PSIG) Note: A cylinder containing a
Gage Pressure = Absolute Pressure - given weight of liquid varies in
14.7 volume of liquid and volume of gas
(PSIG) (PSIA) with changes in temperature.

3-5
3-14. CONDENSATION conditions. Therefore, in order to
Condensation is the process of have a basis for comparing different
changing a vapor to a liquid. Removal machines with each other, conditions
of heat from a vapor causes it to under which the standard ton of
condense. Increase in pressure on a refrigeration should be measured have
vapor causes it to condense. been defined as follows:
Condensing vapor gives up its heat to (1) Inlet pressure. Suction
cooler surroundings and the or back pressure corresponding to an
atmosphere. evaporator gas temperature of 5°F.
(2) Outlet pressure. A
3-15. VACUUM discharge or head pressure,
When air is exhausted from a sealed corresponding to a condensing gas
container, pressure within the temperature of 86°F.
container is reduced below atmospheric b. In addition, the definition
pressure and a partial vacuum is also specifies the number of degrees
formed. Any pressure below of superheat that the gas should have
atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi) is when it enters the condensing unit,
indicated in inches on the vacuum and the number of degrees of
gage. Each 2 inches of vacuum is subcooling that the liquid should have
equal to approximately 1 psi below when it leaves the condensing unit.
atmospheric pressure. However, for our purpose, we may think
of a standard ton of refrigeration as
3-16. THE "TON" OF REFRIGERATION simply the refrigerating capacity of
a. The unit of capacity for 12,000 Btu per hour.
measurement of refrigeration equipment Note: A ton of refrigeration does
is the "ton". This is defined as the not necessarily equal one horse-power.
amount of heat absorbed in melting 1
ton (2000 lbs) of ice in 24 hours. It 3-17. INSULATION
requires 144 Btu (latent heat of a. Principles.
fusion) to melt 1 pound of ice at 32°F (1) There would be little
to water at 32°F. Consequently, in practical value in removing heat from
order to melt a ton of ice, 2,000 x a body if the rapid flow of heat back
144, or 288,000 Btu would be required. into it could not be prevented.
If this capacity is spread over 24 Efficient insulation is as important
hours, the capacity of such a machine to the overall economy of a
would be 288,000 ö24, or 12,000 Btu refrigerating plant as efficient heat
per hour. The capacity changes removal. The walls of storage spaces
somewhat with the operating should be constructed in such a manner
as to prevent the transfer of heat
from outside sources. Pipes carrying brine heat before they reach the area or
or other refrigerants should be covered to substance to be refriger-ated. Various
keep these cooling elements from absorbing substances which make good insulators are

3-6
available. Most of the insulators in use easily install-ed and conforms to any
owe their value to the fact that they irregularities in the construction. Batts
contain an enormous number of tiny air of rock wool and blankets of pulverized
cells. Air is a poor conductor, and its wood are examples of this practice. It is
circula-tion is reduced to a minimum by exceedingly important that all insula-
the smallness of each air cell. Air must tions that are hydroscopic (moisture
be confined in very small cells to be absorbent) be hermetically sealed. Even
effective as an insulator; for when it is those insulations not affected by moisture
confined merely between two walls where should be vapor sealed, as the insulation
convection currents may be set up, it has will lose much of its insulating value if
comparatively little insu-lating value. it should become saturated with moisture.
Should moisture from the air find its way To reiterate, the most serious problem
into the air cells and freeze there, the with any insulation is to keep the
insulation value is reduced because the insulation dry. The moisture that can
poor conductor, air, is replaced by a collect in insulation is always present in
solid, ice, having better conductivity. the air. When the air on one side of a
Expansion in process of freezing collapses structure contains more moisture than the
ad-joining cells, and disintegration of air on the other, the pressure difference
the insulation progressively results. For (vapor pressure) is quite high. The
this reason, insulation should be well moisture will then seek its way through
protected against the infil-tration of the smallest opening and condense on the
moisture. colder area if the temperature is below
(2) Of whatever material the the dew point temperature. Research
insulation is made, its value is largely organizations throughout the world have
governed by the method of installation. experimented to determine the factor of
Sheet and board material should be applied heat leak-age through walls, and
in two or more layers with staggered refrigeration companies have spent
joints, and tightly cemented together and considerable time perfecting means whereby
to the walls, ceiling, or floor. The outer we can be absolutely sure of the quantity
surfaces should always be vapor-proof-ed, of heat that leaks into a definite kind of
cement plaster or sheathing being the cold storage warehouse for refri-geration.
usual finishing material on the interior. The longer the factor, the more heat will
The tightness of doors and other openings leak through an insu-lated wall. The
in cold storage is a big factor in the standard time used for computation is the
efficiency of the plant. The thickness of 24-hour period. The difference in
insulation used depends upon the operating temperature is an impor-tant factor in the
tem-peratures, the exposure of the walls heat leakage of a container. The greater
and ceiling to external heat, and the the temperature difference the more heat
difference between the air outside the will leak through the wall. The thicker
compartment and that inside(heathead). the insulation, the less heat loss; twice
(3) The insulation must have suf- as much heat will leak through a wall that
ficient strength to support itself and not is insulated with 1 inch of insu-lation as
shrink or settle. It must not de-teriorate will flow through a wall having 2 inches
in the presence of moisture, must not have of insulation. The type of insulation or
any unpleasant odor, and must be vermin the material used is one of the most
proof. The type of insulation depends on important considerations in the
the method of application. For example, construction of cold storage warehouses.
bulk easy flowing insulation can be placed Cork, for instance, will insulate
between the studs or panels of the approximately four times better than wood
warehouse, while rigid insulation can be and eight or nine times better than brick;
used as a part of the warehouse wall, such on the other hand, some insulation is more
as plaster base or as a substitute for the costly than others and this must be taken
ship lap sheeting. Flexible insulation is into considera-

3-7
tion. The larger the external area of a (2) Mineral wool is made from the
cabinet through which heat may transmit a slag of blast furnaces with lime-stone
leak, the greater the heat flow. The added. The crushed rock is mixed with coke
common unit for determining heat flow and fed into furnaces at a tem-perature of
through a cabinet wall is the square foot about 3,000°F. As the mol-ten slag runs
of area. The area is always taken as the from the furnace, it is blown by high-
outside of the cabinet or warehouse. To pressure steam into a fleece-like fluff
bring toget-her the variables just through brittle mass.
mentioned, standards have been developed (3) Rock cotton, or rock wool, is
and are now being used by the various made as in (2) above, except that granite
refri-gerating companies. The variables and limestone are used. From 92 to 96
have been reduced to unit values, and the percent of the bulk of the finished wool
heat leakage of the wall is first consists of tiny air spaces. The wool is
determined for the unit values. The unit made into slabs about 1 or 2 inches thick.
or basic values are obtained from a slab (4) Vegetable cork is the most
of the insulation 1 square foot in area, 1 efficient and most commonly used insu-
inch thick, with a tempera-ture difference lating material for permanent instal-
of 1°F over a period of time of either 1 lations. It is commonly used in the form
hour or 24 hours. The values obtained of slabs, of 1-, 2-, or 3-inch
represent the heat flow through the slab thicknesses, and of varying width and
under the condi-tion and naturally vary length. It is prepared by cementing cork
with the kind of insulation. This material granules together under pressure by baking
has no air film or liquid film on either or by the use of cement. In this form, if
side. Insulation has this characteris-tic properly installed, it more nearly meets
due to the fact that it contains millions all the requirements of a perfect
of dead air cells. The ability to resist insulating material than any other
heat is commonly known as "K" factor. This material. It is light in weight, is a
factor is used to compute the heat leakage nonconductor of heat, and resists action
through a composite wall, such as a wall of fire and moisture.
made out of wood, cork, or metal. (5) The relative values of var-ious
b. Materials used for insulation. insulating or non-heat-conducting
(1) Very few materials meet all the materials (dry material, in thickness-es
requirements of an ideal insulator for of 1 inch, 1 square foot of surface with a
refrigeration purposes. Some in common use 1° differential), are listed herewith; the
are pumice, animal wool (in the form of rating is in Btu per hr.
hair felt), mineral and rock wool,
waterproof paper, metal foil sheets, Material Btu
redwood bark, kapok, rock cork, and Cork sheets, pure ............. .270
vegetable cork in granulated and board Cork sheet, asphalt cemented .. .300
form. In stationary cold-storage plants Air space ..................... 1.10
such materials are used in conjunction Rock wool ..................... .280
with thick walls of brick, hollow tile, Pine, white ................... .78
dead-air space, etc. In walls, a dead-air Oak, red ...................... 1.03
space large enough to allow circulation of Pine, yellow .................. 1.00
air was at one time considered a highly Brick wall .................... 5.00
efficient and cheap form of insula-tion;
but this method has now been entirely 3-18. REFRIGERANTS
discarded. Aluminum foil and many patented a. Definition. That body, gas, or
materials are used to insulate truck liquid which reduces heat is a
bodies. But practical-ly every insulating refrigerant.
material now used encloses air in cavities b. Principles. The principles of
small enough to prevent any circulation. mechanical refrigeration are based upon
This gives lightness to the material, a the ability of refrigerants to absorb heat
factor that is of prime importance while in the process of changing from
particu-larly in insulation of solids to liquids and from liquids to
transportation equipment. gases. Also, after those

3-8
gases have been boiled from a liquid with a boiling-point of --21°F at
and have picked up all their latent atmospheric pressure. It is nontoxic,
heat of vaporization, they can be noncorrosive, nonirritating, and
compressed by control of pressures, nonflammable. It is generally
and condensed by removing the heat of prepared by replacing chlorine in
compression and vaporization. Thus, carbon tetrachloride with fluorine.
they return to their liquid state and Chemically it is inert at ordinary
assume their heat absorptive ability. temperatures and thermally stable up
c. Requirements. There are to 1022°F. R-12 has a relatively low
certain desirable characteristics latent heat value and this is a
which a fluid used as a refrigerant decided advantage in the smaller
should possess. They are: refrigerating machines, because the
(1) Nonpoisonous. large quantity of liquid circulated
(2) Nonexplosive. will permit the use of less sensitive,
(3) Nontoxic. more accurate, and more positive
(4) Noncorrosive. operating and regulating mechanisms.
(5) Nonflammable. It operates at a low but positive head
(6) Leaks should be easy to detect. and back pressure, and with a good
(7) Leaks should be easy to locate. volumetric efficiency. It is only
(8) No undesirable action with oil. slightly soluble in water, and the
(9) Should operate under low solution formed is very slightly
corrosive to any of the common metals
pressure.
used in refrigerator construction.
(10) Should be a stable gas.
The addition of mineral oil to the gas
(11) Should have a small relative has no effect upon the corrosive
displacement to obtain a certain action, except possible to decrease
refrigeration effect. the amount of discoloration caused by
(12) Should have a well-balanced the free water. It has the following
latent heat evaporation value per unit characteristics:
of weight. (a) Nonflammable.
(13) Should have a minimum (b) Nonexplosive.
difference between the vaporizing (c) Nonirritating.
pressure and the condensing pressure.
(d) Nontoxic.
d. Classification of refrigerants.
(e) No odor even in fairly high
Refrigerants have been classified by
concentrations.
two different national groups. They
are the National Refrigeration Safety (f) Stable.
Code and the National Board of Fire (g) Noncorrosive.
Underwriters. The National (h) No effect on flowers,
Refrigeration Safety Code divides all fruits, vegetables, dairy products,
refrigerants into three groups listing furs, or other materials being
group I the safest, group II toxic and refrigerated.
somewhat flammable, and group III as a (2) R-22 (Monochlorodifluoromethane)
very flammable refrigerant. The refrigerant is a synthetic chemical
National Board of Fire Underwriters specially developed for those
has similarly classified refrigerants refrigeration installations that have
based mainly on their degree of a very low temperature cooling unit.
toxicity. There are six divisions in One example of this application is in
this scale. Class 1 is the most toxic fast freezing units which maintain a
while class 6 is the least toxic. temperature of --20°F to --40°F. The
e. Common refrigerants. R-12, R- operating pressures of this
22, and R-113 are good refrigerants refrigerant are such that it is not
for air conditioning. They operate at necessary to operate at below atmos-
moderate pressures and are easily pheric pressures in order to obtain
handled. these low temperatures. The boiling
(1) R-12 (Dichlorodifluoromethane) point is --41°F at atmospheric
is a colorless, almost odorless gas pressure. It has a latent heat of
93.6 Btu per pound at 5°F. The normal nontoxic, noncorrosive, nonirritating, and
pressure at 86°F is 160 psi. This nonflammable. Water is more soluble in R-
refrigerant is very stable and is 22 than R-12 by a ratio of 40:1. Water

3-9
must be kept at a minimum in these 3-19. LEAK DETECTION
refrigerants, so dryers or dessicants are a. Principles. In order for a
used to remove most of the moisture. refrigeration unit to operate efficiently
Because of R-22's affinity for water more it must remain perfectly sealed. Not only
dessicant is needed to dry it. must the refrigerant be held within the
(3) R-113 (Trichlorotrifluoromethane system, but air and moisture must be kept
CCl2 FCCIF2) is a low pressure refri- out. If a leak occurs the refrigerant will
gerant that is used chiefly with escape to the atmosphere. The most common
centrifugal compressor in air condi- cause of leaks can be traced directly to
tioning systems of large tonnage capacity. poor workmanship; improper flaring and
At 5°F it evaporates at soldering as well as aging and loose
27.92 inches vacuum, the gas occupies connections. Two other causes of leaks
27.04 cubic feet per pound, and the latent which can be traced to normal opera-tion
heat is 70.62 Btu per pound. At 86°F the are vibration and normal wear due to
refrigerant condenses at 13.93 inches friction, heat, etc. Vibrations from the
vacuum. R-33 can be tested for leaks by compressor motor are trans-mitted
warming the refrigerant to 200°F, which throughout the system by the rigid tubing
will produce a pressure of 39.96 psi. A used to carry the refri-gerant from one
halide torch or an electronic leaf component part to another. Very little can
detector is then used. At room temperature be done about vibration other than the
and pressure the refri-gerant is a liquid installation of shock absorbers at
and it can there-fore be carried in sealed critical points. The number of problems
tins rather than in cylinders. It is created by normal wear can be cut down by
classed as a Group I refrigerant as to period-ical maintenance. Units may come
fire safety, and as a Class 4 refrigerant from the manufacturer in a defective con-
as to toxicity. dition or they may be damaged in ship-
f. Changing refrigerants. It is not ment. It is important to thoroughly check
recommended that refrigerants be changed all units upon receipt from the
in a machine that has been designed for a manufacturer or after movement from one
particular refrigerant. However, if this point to another.
has to be done in extreme cases, the b. Methods of leak detection. There
following pointers may prevent are three methods used in leak detection.
considerable trouble. In general, it is They are classified as positive, non-
best to use expansion valves and a dry positive, or special.
system when substi-tuting refrigerant, (1) Positive detection methods. A
rather than at-tempt to recalibrate float positive leak detection method is one that
controls. not only determines if a leak is present,
Also it should be remembered that many but also indicates the exact location. Two
small engineering features that are commonly used positive methods are the oil
incorporated in a unit to promote bath and soap bubble method. Oil or a
efficiency for the particular refri-gerant soapy water solution is spread on the
selected will be lost if a change in the unit, particularly around fittings. If a
refrigerant is made. leak is present, bubbles will appear
g. Refrigerant sight glass. This device indicating its exact location.
is merely a short length of tubing (2) Nonpositive detection methods. A
containing a transparent section of glass. nonpositive leak detection method
The sight glass, inserted in a liquid indicates the presence of a leak, but it
line, enables the maintenance man to does not give the leak's exact location.
determine the state of the refrigerant at Two nonpositive leak detection methods are
a glance. The passing liquid should always the pressure and vacuum tests. In the
appear clear. A cloudy or bubbly flow is pressure test a positive pressure is built
usually indicative of an undercharge of up in the system and a
refrigerant.

3-10
reading is taken. After 24 hours 3-20. APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES
another reading is taken; any drop in a. Principle. Refrigeration by the
pressure from the first reading will vaporization of liquids and gases is
indicate the existence of a leak. In based upon the fact that, in the
the vacuum test a vacuum is drawn on absorption of heat units from a
the system; any rise in pressure over substance the refrigerant boils into a
24 hours will indicate a leak. gas and continue, to absorb heat units
(3) Special detection methods. in expansion. After the gas is
There are quite a number of special expanded, it is compressed, cooled,
detection methods in use. The popular and condensed back into a liquid, and
special method is the halide torch. is then ready for reuse.
The torch is lit and the alcohol or b. Effect of temperature on gases.
acetylene flame is passed over the For illustration, ammonia is used.
areas where the leak is suspected. If Figure 3-4 is a sketch of liquid
a small leak is detected, the flue ammonia (NH) in an open flask whose
flame will turn green and if a large base is inserted into an insulated
leak is present the flame will turn compartment. Since the boiling point
violet. The halide torch can be used of ammonia is at --28°F, it will
with any units charged with halogen remain inert if the insulated compart-
type refrigerants (R-12, R-22, etc) or ment temperature is at --28°F. But
with methyl chloride. For proper should the temperature rise even 1°,
results, it is important to remember the ammonia would began to boil or
that the torch must be adjusted to vaporize, absorbing about 591 Btu. Now
produce a small flame. The ammonia if the temperature of the insulated
swab may be used to detect leaks in compartment rises up to 0°F, the
units charged with sulfur dioxide. A ammonia will boil violently, absorbing
cotton swab is soaked in ammonia and about 618 Btu, until the compartment
passed over the system. If a leak is temperature is lowered to --28°F.
present the uniting of the ammonia c. Effect of pressure on liquids
fumes with those of the sulfur dioxide and gases. In figure 3-5 the flask
will produce a dense white smoke. The with ammonia has a stopper in the neck
sulfur stick and pink litmus paper and a valve which can be turned on and
tests may be used with systems charged off. The figure illustrates the effect
with ammonia. The sulfur stick is lit of pressure on the vaporization of
and passed over the unit. If a leak is ammonia gas. In the first sketch, the
present the uniting of the fumes will valve is open and the ammonia boils
produce a dense white smoke. The away, until the compartment is cooled
litmus paper method is used on ice down to --28°F. However, it is desired
plants where ammonia is the refriger- that the compartment temperature be
ant used. The pink litmus paper is cooled only to 0°F instead of --28°F.
placed in the secondary refrigerant In this case, the valve
(water). The paper will turn from its
natural pink color to blue if a leak
is present.

3-11
is closed, and as the gas vaporizes, 3-21. THE VAPOR COMPRESSION SYSTEM
it continues to absorb heat units
which cause it to expand. The a. Principle. Mechanical
expansion confined in the flask causes refrigeration utilizes the properties
the pressure to increase, which in and characteristics of refrigerants
turn causes the boiling point of the described above, and by controlling
ammonia to rise. Consequently, when the action of the refrigerant and
the pressure has reached 16 pounds inclosing it in a system, can cool
gage, the boiling point of the liquid substances and areas to within a few
ammonia will be at 0°F. When the degrees of the desired temperatures.
temperature of the compartment reaches The vapor compression cycle includes
0°F, the liquid will cease boiling and the compression and condensing of
become inactive until the pressure certain gases, which in evaporating,
drops or the temperature goes up. It absorb heat from an area or substance
can now be seen that the increase in and in turn give up that heat when
pressure has raised the boiling point cooled and condensed. There are four
of the ammonia. The pressure essential or basic parts of the vapor
increases in the flask, however, must compression system: evaporator,
be controlled if the temperature in compressor, condenser, and expansion
the insulated compartment is to be valve. This does not include the
controlled. No consideration has been various other valves, gages, pipes and
given to the fact that the pressure in fittings.
the flask might become greater than 16
pounds gage, in which case the boiling b. Equipment and functions (fig 3-
point of the liquid ammonia would rise 7).
to a higher temperature. In the third (1) The evaporator is where
sketch, the pressure has reached 25 the refrigerant boils in absorbing
pounds gage and the boiling point at heat. It is often called the freezer
this pressure is at 10°F. However, if and it does the same job as the flask
the valve is set to open with pressure of ammonia discussed above. The
above 16 pounds gage and to close evaporator is located in the space
under 16 pounds gage, the flask where cooling is to be accomplished,
pressure would be maintained at 16 and is arranged to provide for natural
pounds gage and the ammonia would or forced circulation of the
absorb heat units as long as tempera- refrigerant or heat carrier. Once the
tures above 0°F prevailed in the refrigerant vapor is drawn out of the
compartment. The behavior of ammonia evaporator, all we have to do is
has been plotted for a wide range of remove the heat it has absorbed.
pressures as shown in figure 3-6. Since heat is the only thing that
expanded the refrigerant from a liquid
to

3-12
a vapor, removal of that same heat compressor, it is still a vapor
will allow the vapor to condense back although it is now quite hot and ready
to a liquid again. to give up the heat it has carried out
of the cabinet. The condenser is a
(2) The compressor squeezes very simple device having no moving
the heat-laden vapor into a smaller parts. It does exactly the same job
space, concentrating, at the same as the familiar radiator in a typical
time, the heat it contains. In this home steam heating system. There, the
way, the vapor is made hotter without steam is nothing more than water
adding any heat. That is the only vapor. In passing through the
responsibility of a compressor in a radiator, the steam gives up its heat
refrigerating system. It is not and condenses back into water. The
intended to be a pump just for condenser and compressor will vary in
circulating the refrigerant. Rather, size with the volume of refrigeration
the compressor's job is to exert desired.
pressure for two reasons. Pressure
makes the vapor hot enough to cool off (4) The receiver, whether
in warm room air. At the same time, integral with or separate from the
the compressor raises the refriger- condenser, acts as a surge reservoir
ant's pressure above the condensing to supply needed refrigerant or to
point at the temperature of the room accumulate excess refrigerant. The
air so it will condense. usual method is the use of the
separate tank as shown in figure 3-7.
(3) The condenser is where the The liquid receiver is provided with a
latent heat in the vapor is given up. gage glass so that the quantity of
As the refrigerant leaves the liquid refrigerant may be readily

3-13
3-14
observed, and is connected by a pipe to a (1) Analyzer and generator. As the
purifier, which is used to remove foreign vapor rides through the analyzer, B, it
substances from the ammonia. passes through and over a series of
(5) The expansion valve is where baffles. There it meets and mixes with a
the pressure of the refrigerant liquid is strong ammonia solution which has been
reduced so that it can begin its process pumped into the analyzer from the
of absorbing heat in the evaporator. The exchanger, I. This strong aqua ammonia
expansion valve will be set to release solution trickles down over the baffles in
liquid at the pres-sure at which the the analyzer and cools the ammonia gas
refrigerant will absorb all heat units ascending from the generator, A. The water
above the tem-perature desired in the vapor con-denses and falls down again into
cooling space. Adjustment of the valve by the generator, while the now stronger am-
means of screw plugs, caps, or stems monia gas passes on to the rectifier.
capable of manual manipulation permits the (2) Rectifier. While the generator's
main-tenance of a definite pressure con- heating coils are evaporating the ammonia
dition in the evaporation. Any tendency gas, which then rises through the
toward pressure decrease would result in analyzer, most of the water in the vapor
the valve's opening wider and permitting a will be condensed out. But in order that
greater quanti-ty of liquid, until only dry ammonia gas will enter the con-
pressure approa-ches the valve setting; denser, the gas leaving the analyzer must
then the quantity admitted will decrease. pass over the cool-ing coils in a chamber
The fluctuation of quantity of refrigerant called a recti-fier, C. Here the small
admitted will vary with the refrig- amount of water remaining is condensed out
eration load. Since the expansion valve is and the gas passes on to the condenser.
a constriction, or regulating device, in The condensate flows from the separator
the high pressure line, it allows only back to the analyzer.
enough liquid refrigerant to flow through (3) Condenser. After passing from the
to equal that boiled off in the generator through the analyzer and
evaporator. Since the liquid under high rectifier, the hot dry gas goes into a
pressure in the high side of the system is chamber called the con-denser, D. This
permitted to enter the evaporator, it is contains coils through which cold water is
controlled either manually or by some running. As hot gas strikes the cold
automatic device such as an adjustable coils, it condenses to liquid ammonia and
valve spring, which may be set to maintain passes from the condenser in a tank, E,
a desired pressure in the evaporator. called the receiver.
3-22. THE ABSORPTION SYSTEM (4) Receiver. The liquid ammonia from
a. Principle. Water readily absorbs the condenser is stored in a tank, which
ammonia gas, forming aqua ammonia. This is usually set up at the base of the
property is fundamental in the absorption condenser so that the liquid can run from
system and gives it its name. Water and the condenser by gravity, even though the
ammonia vaporize at different system is constantly under pressure. From
temperatures. Consequent-ly, if heat is the receiver, the liquid ammonia is
applied to aqua ammo-nia, the ammonia gas released to the evaporator by means of an
(which boils at a low temperature) will expansion valve.
break away from the water. When the water
in the sys-tem is saturated with the gas, (5) Evaporator. In all systems
it is called "strong liquor". After the employing the expansion of gas as a
solution has been heated and the gas is refrigerant, the
driven off into the system, the remaining
solution is called "weak liquor". The weak
liquor is then carried to an absorber,
where the ammonia gas, after being used in
the evaporator, is returned to the water.
This process creates a strong aqua ammonia
or strong liquid.
b. Apparatus. A number of different
parts are necessary for the distil-lation
and absorption of ammonia gas in the
absorption machine because the expanded
ammonia must be returned to the liquid
state at high pressure for reuse. The more
important parts, exclusive of various
valves, gages, pipes, and fittings, are as
follows (fig 3-8):

3-15
3-16
3-17
evaporator, F, is the means of convey-ing inspection of the proper gages to assure
the refrigerant to the point at which it efficient operation within the system.
will do its work. The evaporator also
places the refrigerant in contact with a b. Starting. It is essential that the
carrier of secondary refrigerant which has operator know how to perform every
been piped to the area or point, and which operation which the unit is capable of
after performing its function, returns to performing. For starting, follow the
the evaporator to release its absorbed procedures as specified in the opera-ting
heat load. The absorption and vapor instructions for the specific unit.
compression systems are alike in the
principle and operation of the evapor- c. Maintenance.
ator. As the ammonia liquid from the
receiver enters the evaporator, it will (1) Maintenance as discussed herein
absorb its latent heat of vapor-ization will be considered only in the light of
and flow on as a gas to the absorber, G, adding oil or refrigerant to the system.
where it is brought into contact with a Maintenance of systems employing ammonia
weak aqua ammonia solution and is is similar to maintenance of most other
absorbed, creating a strong liquor. systems. Because ammonia systems are, as
(6) Absorber. The gas flowing in from a rule, larger and of more varied design,
the evaporator comes in contact with a periodic routing preventive maintenance
weak ammonia solution passing from the operations must be carried on. Maintenance
generator through the exchanger, and schedules are of the greatest importance.
together they fall over cooling coils in
the absorber, where the ammonia gas is (2) Oil may be added to ammonia
absorbed by the weak solution which then compressors of the enclosed vertical
becomes a strong aqua solution. This single-acting type by utilization of the
strong solution is now pumped through the suction effect of the oil pump itself. It
exchanger, I, to the analyzer. may also be added by manipulating the
valve manifold in such a way as to produce
(7) Exchanger. The cool, strong aqua a partial vacuum within the crankcase, and
ammonia being pumped from the absorber is then applying this vacuum to a hose or
carried to a cylinder enclosing heat pipe that extends into the container of
exchanging coils. There it is warmed oil. On horizontal double-acting com-
before entering the analyzer and resuming pressors that have forced-feed lubri-
its cycle. The warm or hot weak ammonia cation, the suction effect of the pump is
solution moves through the coils in the utilized as described for the ver-tical
exchanger, passes off its heat to the single-acting compressor. A num-ber of
strong liquid, and flows into the absorber horizontal double-acting com-pressors use
to contact the warm strong gas from the gravity oil feed, where the addition of
evaporator there becoming strong liquor. oil involves only the simple procedure of
pouring a contain-er of oil into the oil
(8) Gages. A panel is usually supply tank.
installed and is provided with pressure
gages to indicate the ammonia pressure in (3) The addition of refrigerant
the generator, absorber and cooler. There liquid to an ammonia system has become a
is also a gage to show the pressure of the standardized operation. The liquid added
stem in the generator. Each gage should is supplied directly to the liquid supply
have a valve in the line that connects it line of the system between the receiver
with the apparatus. A liquid level gage "king valve" on top of receiver and the
should be placed on the genera-tor, expansion valve. The refrigerant cylinder
condenser, cooler, absorber, and liquid is tilted so that the valve outlet is
ammonia receiver. down. The cylinder is rolled over until
the nipple within the cylinder itself
3-23. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE points down, thus making certain that only
a. General. Operation of practi-cally liquid refrigerant will come out. The
all evaporator compression systems is plant operator must be able to determine
automatic. Operation consists primarily of when it is necessary to add refrigerant to
the system.

3-18
He must observe carefully the suction insulated fuse pullers, etc., should
pressure gages indicating operating be periodically scrutinized for their
conditions within the evaporator and serviceability. Grease spots or oil
also the height of liquid appearing in puddles should never be permitted to
the receiver gage glass. One remain on floors. Supplies, tools,
indication of a need for additional and equipment should be neatly stacked
refrigerant is a lowering of indicated at all times, for good housekeeping
discharge or head pressure and an helps make a plant efficient as well
increase in the temperature of the as safe. The correct tool for the job
liquid line at the expansion valve, should always be used. For example,
which, of course, will melt frost on pipe wrenches should not be used on
the expansion valve. nuts or bolts because they produce
d. Safety precautions. sharp burs which may later cause a cut
(1) Refrigerants are stored in and an infected hand for someone else.
cylinders, and in order to quickly and Wrenches (particularly of the open-end
easily determine what refrigerant is type) that have split and do not fit
in which cylinder, the cylinders are the proper nut or bolt should be
color coded. R-12 is in an all orange immediately discarded. Safety for
cylinder; ammonia cylinders are orange personnel cannot be overemphasized.
with a yellow band and brown top; R-22 (4) Safety of mechanical and
has an all light green cylinder; R-113 electrical equipment is adequately
is light green with an orange band. provided for by the manufacturer or by
(2) Extreme care should be installation specification
used when working with refrigerants. requirements. These safety devices,
Carelessness can result in serious among which are the previously
injury and possible permanent damage mentioned pressure-relief valve,
to the body. First aid for exposure fusible plugs, overload release
to refrigerants involves normal devices, fuses, overcurrent release,
treatment for frost bite (slow warming temperature release, etc., are often
of affected area) and application of subjected to such mistreatment as to
an ointment. Medical attention should make them useless. A safety device
be sought immediately. If ammonia is that fails to function is worse than
involved first aid for a chemical burn no safety device at all, because the
should also be used. operator, relying upon it for
(3) Guards should never be protection, will neglect his
removed from the bands or pulley equipment.
wheels while the machine is in motion, e. Salt and ice mixtures. Where
and should be replaced before the the temperature required is lower than
equipment is started. This applies that of the melting point of ice, and
even to the smallest pieces of no power supply or equipment is
equipment. Insulation material such as available for producing refrigeration
rubber mats in front of switchboards, mechanically, some mixtures of salt
rubber gloves for switch operators, and ice will produce temperatures as
low as --30°F.

REVIEW EXERCISES

Note: The following exercises are study aids. The figures following each
question refer to a paragraph containing information related to the question.
Write your answer in the space provided below each question. When you have
finished answering all the questions for this lesson, compare your answers with
those given for this lesson in the back of this booklet. Review the lesson as
necessary. Do not send in your solutions to these review exercises.

1. Explain the difference between heat and temperature in terms of molecular

motion. (Para 3-3)
2. The point at which all molecular motion ceases is called absolute zero. At
what temperature does this occur? Give both the fahrenheit and centigrade
temperature. (Para 3-5)

3-19
3. Convert 78° fahrenheit to degrees centigrade. (Para 3-6)

4. Convert 25° centigrade to degrees fahrenheit. (Para 3-6)

5. Name and describe briefly the three methods by which heat is transferred.
(Para 3-8)

6. Define sensible heat. (Para 3-9)

7. Define latent heat. (Para 3-10)

8. It takes one British thermal unit (Btu) to raise the temperature of one
pound of water one degree Fahrenheit, (sensible heat). How many Btu's are
required to turn water to steam with no increase in temperature, (latent heat)?
(Para 3-11)

9. What effect does a lowering of pressure on a liquid have upon the boiling
point of that liquid? (Para 3-13e)

10. What are the two condition changes that will cause a vapor to condense?
(Para 3-14)

11. Define a "Ton" of refrigeration. (Para 3-16)

12. State briefly the principles upon which mechanical refrigeration is based.
(Para 3-18b)

3-20
13. Upon which of the undesirable characteristics of refrigerants has the
National Board of Fire Underwriters based their refrigerant classification
system? (Para 3-18d)

14. How does the maintenance man usually determine whether or not the
refrigeration system is fully charged? (Para 3-18g)

15. In ice plants where ammonia is the refrigerant used, what is the normal
method used to detect a refrigerant leak? (Para 3-19b(3))

16. Describe what happens to ammonia in an open container as its temperature

rises above -28° F. (Para 3-20b)

17. What is the boiling point of ammonia if it is in a closed container and the
pressure reaches 16 pounds gage? (Para 3-20c)

18. What are the four essential or, basic parts of the vapor compression
system? (Para 3-21a)

19. What is the basic principle upon which the absorption system of
refrigeration is based? (Para, 3-22a)

3-21
20. If the expansion valve in a vapor-compression refrigeration system becomes
clear of frost during operation, what conclusion can be drawn? (Para 3-23c(3))

3-22
 LESSON 4
WATER SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
CREDIT HOURS . . . . . . . . . . . 2

TEXT ASSIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . Attached memorandum.

MATERIALS REQUIRED . . . . . . . . None.

LESSON OBJECTIVE . . . . . . . . . Upon completion of this lesson on water

supply you should be able to accomplish the
following in the indicated topic areas.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1. Corps of Engineers responsibilities. Define the Corps of Engineers

involvement in the supply of water and the various levels of responsibility.

2. Definitions and formulas. State the common terms used in water supply along
with their definitions. Give the formulas and factors used in determining flow,
pressure, head, and head loss.

3. Distribution systems. Describe the three basic types of distribution

systems to include open channels, pipes, storage facilities, treatment, and
distribution.

4. Water requirements. Determine water requirements for the various types of

installations and activities.

5. Pipeline design. Explain the sequence and considerations in pipeline design

to include reconnaissance, surveys, layout, availability, and simple and
compound systems.

6. Operation and maintenance of systems. State the essential points in

operation and maintenance of water supply and distribution systems.

ATTACHED MEMORANDUM
4-1. INTRODUCTION 4.2. PLANNING, DESIGN, AND
An adequate supply of palatable, CONSTRUCTION
safe water is an essential prerequi-
site for the health, general welfare, a. Phases. The work of planning,
combat efficiency, and morale of designing, and constructing utilities
troops. The supplying of this water is divided into the following phases:
is one of the primary functions of the (1) Preliminary investigation.
Corps of Engineers. Hence, this (2) Engineering layout and
lesson is for the engineer officer design.
confronted with the task of providing (3) Scheduling construction.
potable water for small and medium (4) Supervising construction.
semi-permanent military installations.
It contains minimum information b. Planning guides. Planning of
required for designing a stationary utilities for a project is based on
system to provide safe water. Department of the
Army general policy and is guided by (1) Theater construction policy
the theater construction policy and is issued by headquarters to establish
the job directive. uniform construction practice and to

4-1
conserve labor, equipment, and work, such as excavations to be made
materials. The policy sets maxi-mum or concrete to be placed, are taken
standards for initial, temporary, and from the engineering plans and work
semi-permanent construction, and sheets.
recommends typical designs. (6) Priorities and stages of
(2) Job directives are issued by construction. Priorities establish
higher headquarters to initiate the the order in which construction of the
project and define the construction by various individual utilities must be
establishing the following: completed. Stage construction, the
(a) Location of construction procedure followed when a project is
site by limiting coordinates with completed either by units or by levels
reference to a known point, aerial of improvement, permits early use of
photograph, or map. items of high priority, such as water
(b) Enumeration of major and electricity.
facilities and basic requirements. (7) Forecast of working
(c) Priorities of construc- conditions. Working conditions,
tion for the various facilities. including climatic conditions,
(d) Required dates of usable interference due to use of the project
completion. before completion, and effects of
c. Responsibilities of the officer enemy action are estimated before
in charge. To carry out the various construction begins.
phases of work successfully, the of- (8) Schedule of operations.
ficer in charge of installing utili- Construction operations are scheduled
ties for a camp, hospital, or other to show the sequence of operations and
installation must plan and perform the the time allotted for each work item.
following tasks in their proper Sequence is the order in which
sequence. operations must begin. Work items are
(1) Site reconnaissance. A perso- specific tasks for which the work
nal reconnaissance of the site is made output of men and equipment is known
to obtain information on its physical or can be estimated.
characteristics and other factors (9) Supervision of
affecting the proposed construction. construction. Supervision of
(2) Preliminary field investi- construction requires the control,
gation. Plane and topographic surveys, coordination, and adjustment of
soil borings, stream-flow measure- construction schedules and operations
ments, and the like are made for engi- to insure that the work is done
neer planning and designs as required. according to plans in an efficient,
(3) Inventory of available expeditious, and safe way.
resources. The officer in charge (10) Accident prevention. All
inventories the materials, labor, hazards to safety observed during
equipment, and other available preliminary investigations, construc-
construction facilities and takes tion, and operation of utilities
steps to secure all items required for should be eliminated or a positive
the completion of the project on control provided.
schedule. (11) Maps. As construction
(4) Engineering designs. progresses, maps showing the location
Layouts and designs are prepared and of all utilities and their important
used as a basis for constructing all component parts are prepared for use
utilities installations. in future operations and repairs.
(5) Quantity survey. The lists 4-3. COMMONLY USED TERMS IN WATER
of materials that must be ordered or SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
requisitioned and the estimates of the a. Discharge. The rate of flow or
principal items of volume of water passing a given point
in a conduit or
channel in a given time is discharge
(Q). It is usually measured in cubic Where: Q = discharge in cfs.
feet per second (cfs), gallons per A = cross-sectional area of
minute (gpm), or gallons per day conduit or channel in square feet,
(gpd). Discharge is expressed by the V = average velocity in feet
basic formula: Q = AV per second (fps).

4-2
 difference between unit pressures at
b. Atmospheric pressure. any two points in a liquid at rest is
Atmospheric pressure varies slightly found by first computing the unit
from time to time depending on pressure at each point and then sub-
weather. It also varies with tracting one value from the other. For
elevation above or below sea level. example, if one point is at a depth of
Except in computations requiring 20 feet below, the surface of a body
extreme accuracy it is assumed to be of water and the other point is at a
14.7 pounds per square inch (psi). depth of 30 feet below the surface,
c. Pressure. Pressure is force the intensities of pressures at the
exerted on an area. It may be points are 8.36 psi (20 x 0.433) and
expressed in various units, such as 12.99 (30 x 0.433), respectively. The
pounds per square inch, pounds per difference in pressure between the two
square foot, or grams per square points is 4.33 psi. This same rela-
centimeter. A column of water 1 foot tionship applies to other liquid under
high exerts a pressure of 0.433 pound pressure, whether it has a free sur-
per square inch (psi) regardless of face or not, primarily because the
the diameter of the column. intensity of pressure at every point
d. Relationship of pressure and on the surface of the liquid is the
head. Pressures are expressed in same. In other words all points in the
pounds per square inch (psi) or in same plane perpendicular to the verti-
feet of water depth. The depth of cal line of gravity have the same
water required to produce a given pressure exerted on them whether the
pressure is termed head. overlying liquid is under pressure or
not.
Example:
62.4 pounds per cu ft(weight of water)
--------------------------------------
144 sq in. (1 sq ft)

= 0.433 psi per ft of height or head.

144 sq in. (1 sq ft)

----------------------
62.4 pounds per cu ft

= 2.31 ft of height or head per psi.

In other words; a column of water 2.31
feet high exerts a pressure of 1 psi f. Absolute and gage pressures.
on its base. Conversely, 1 psi exerted Pressure intensities may be expressed
on the base of a column of water will with reference to either of two bases;
raise it 2.31 feet. Thus, to convert absolute zero pressure such as exists
pressure in psi to head in feet, in a complete vacuum; or atmospheric
multiply by 2.31; and to convert head pressure, which at sea level averages
in feet to psi, multiply by 0.433. 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi)
e. Difference in pressure. If the above absolute zero pressures. Abso-
tank in figure 4-1 is full of water, lute pressures are used primarily with
the head of water at point A is 5 ft. steam and are always positive. In
The pressure exerted is 5 x 0.433, or water supply and distribution,
2.165 psi. Points B, C, and, D are however, it is more convenient to use
calculated in the same way. The atmospheric pressure as the base or
zero pressure. Pressures which use absolute pressure. Conversely, a gage
atmospheric pressure as the reference pressure of--5 psi is equal to 14.7 --
point are called gage pressures. Gage 5.0, or 9.7 psi absolute pressure.
pressures above atmospheric pressure g. Relationship of gage and
are positive; those below atmospheric absolute pressures. The theoretical
pressure are negative and are written relationship between absolute pressure
with a minus (--) sign. Accordingly, and gage pressure is illustrated in
for example, 5 psi gage pressure is figure 4-2 which represents a water
taken to equal 5.0 + 14.7, or 19.7 psi barometer. If it is assumed that the

4-3
space above the water in the tube g = acceleration of gravity = 32.2
consists of an absolute vacuum, with feet per second
no pressure from vapor, the surface x- h = head
x of the water in the tube will be
33.9 feet above the free surface d-d, Example: A stream of water is flowing
which is exposed to atmospheric pres- through a channel, whose cross section
sure. If a certain section y-y is 14.0 is a semicircle, at a velocity, V, of
feet below x-x and 19.9 feet above d- 15 feet per second. The head required
d, for example, the absolute pressure to overcome the inertia and increase
is equal to the weight of the over- the velocity to 30 feet per second,
lying water, which is 14.0 feet. The assuming no loss due to friction,
gage pressure at the line y-y is nega- would be:
tive, however, because this section is V22 - V12 302 - 152
above the level d-d at which there is h = ---------- = ---------
full atmospheric pressure. The amount 2g 2 (32.2)
of this negative pressure is equal to 675
the height of the section y-y above = ---- = 10.5 feet
the free surface d-d, or 19.9 feet. 64.4
Therefore, the gage pressure is equal (2) Friction-head loss is
to the negative head of the volume of equal to the energy required to
water, or overcome the friction between the
surface of the channel of pipe and the
moving water. Many formulas have been
designed to determine the friction
loss. The most common formula used in
American practice for calculating
friction-head loss in pipes is the
Hazen-Williams formula:

V = 1.318 CR063 S054, in which

V = velocity of water in ft per second
C = coefficient of friction (120 is
recommended for clean new pipe; 60
for old tuberculated pipe; 100 is
recommended for design),

-19.9 feet. As indicated in c above--

19.9 times 0.433 equals -8.6 psi.
h. Head losses. To start and
maintain a flow of water in either
open channels or pipes, energy is
required, the amount of which is
measured and expressed by loss of
head. These losses are termed
velocity-head and friction-head
losses.
(1) Velocity-head loss is
equal to the energy required to
overcome inertia in starting the flow
or increasing its velocity. In a
gravity system this loss is evaluated
by the formula:
V22 - V12
h = ---------, in which
2g
V1 = initial velocity in feet per
second final velocity in feet
per second
V2 = acceleration of gravity = 32.2
feet per second per second

4-4
 S = loss of head per foot of pipe, loss may always be overcome by raising
R = hydraulic radius (by the water source an amount equal to
definition, the hydraulic radius is the height of the loss in feet of head
the cross-sectional area divided by in the pipe.
the wetted perimeter or one-half the (4) Figure 4-3 is a chart from
inside radius of a completely filled which you may read directly the
pipe of circular cross section). friction-head loss per 1,000 feet of
Example: Find the head required to various size pipe (using C = 100),
overcome the friction per foot of pipe when you know either the quantity of
if the water is flowing at a velocity flow in gallons per minute (gpm) or
of 25 feet per second through a pipe the velocity of flow in feet per
whose inside diameter is 2 feet and second (fps). For example, for a flow
coefficient of friction is 100. of 300 gallons per minute in a 4-inch
V = 1.318 CR0.63 S0.54 pipe, with C = 100, the friction head
is 80 feet per 1,000 ft of pipe. This
is determined by finding the 300-gpm
line on the vertical scale, following
this line across horizon-tally to its
intersection with the diagonal line
representing 4-inch pipe. The
V1.85 1 friction-head loss, 80 feet, may be
S = ------------ X --------- read on the horizontal scale directly
C1.85 R1.17 1.3181.85 below the point of intersection. If
log S = 1.85 log V - 1.85 log C - 1.17 the velocity and pipe size are known,
log the head loss in feet can be read on
R - 1.85 log 1.318 the horizontal scale directly below
log S = 1.85 log 25 - 1.85 log 100 - the point of intersection of the
1.17 2/4 velocity lines and pipe-size lines.
- 1.85 log 1.318 For example, a velocity of 7.1 fps in
log S = 1.85 (1.398) - 1.85 (2) - 1.17 a 4-inch pipe, with C = 100, would
(-1.699) - 1.85 (0.12) produce a friction-head loss of 80
log S = 2.58 - 3.7 - 1.17 (9.699 - 10) feet in 1,000 feet of pipe. Interme-
- 1.85 (0.12) diate values and measurements not
log S = 2.58 - 3.7 - 11.35 + 11.7 - actually shown by lines on the chart
0.22 are determined by interpolation.
log S = 14.28 - 15.27 = -0.99 (5) Other head losses are
log S = 1 log .99 caused by changes in pipe sizes and by
1 pipe fittings, such as bends, tees,
log S = -- = 0.10 ft head loss per ft and crosses. Such losses are included
99 in all calculations by substituting
of pipe the length of straight pipe which
(3) When water is received from would produce an equivalent amount of
a source which is higher than the head loss (fig 4-4).
point of distribution, the available i. Static head is the pressure
head created by a difference in height occurring when all valves are closed
may be used to overcome friction in and the water is not flowing. The
pipe and also maintain a given head at amount of pressure during flow is
the point of distribution. For exam- obtained by subtracting velocity,
ple, if a source of water was located friction, and other head losses from
18 feet above the point of distribu- the static head.
tion and if the head required to pro- j. Suction head is the term used to
vide adequate pressure at this point
indicate negative gage pressures. It
was 5 feet, 13 feet of head is avail-
is measured at the inlet flange of
able to take up the friction-head
pumps set above the elevation of the
loss. Friction-head loss as calcula-
reservoir, lake, or stream from which
ted by the Hazen-Williams formula is
water is drawn. Flow to the pump in
expressed in feet of water. The head
such cases is caused only by the

4-5
atmospheric pressure on the reservoir
surface. You have learned that k. Suction lift is the vertical
atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi and distance in feet from the level of the
that this is equivalent to a head of water source to the pump (fig 4-5).
33.9 feet (14.7 x 2.31). Theoreti-
cally, water can be "sucked up" (in l. Velocity is the speed of flow
reality, pushed up) 33.9 feet to the of water, usually expressed in fps.
pump, but because of velocity,
friction, and other losses in the pump m. Quantity is the amount of flow
and intake pipe, satisfactory of water expressed in cubic feet per
operation cannot be maintained in second (cfs) or in gpm.
excess of about 20 feet.

4-6
4-7
 two and one-half times deeper than the
4-4. OPEN CHANNELS expected head on the weir (fig 4-7).
a. Surface-velocity method. To The top edge of the weir should be
determine discharge in open channels approximately level.
by the surface-velocity method, (3) Head measurement.
proceed as follows: (a) Measure the distance from
(1) Find the cross-sectional top of weir to water surface on the
area of the stream in square feet by upstream face at two points, each
multiplying the average stream depth point about 1« feet from the weir
by the width. notch (fig 4-8).
(2) Find the average velocity (b) Average these two
of the stream. To do this, observe the measurements.
time required for a floating object to (c) Subtract the average of the
travel a given distance, and compute two measurements from the notch depth.
the surface velocity in fps. Assume This gives the head on the weir.
the average velocity is three-quarters (4) Discharge. From the head on
of the surface velocity. the weir, determine the discharge
(3) Compute the discharge (Q) (table 4-1).
using the discharge formula, Q = AV. c. Manning's formula method.
b. Weir method. The 90-degree V- (1) The discharge of an open
notch sharp-edge weir is a convenient channel may be determined by
and accurate way to measure flows from computation using Manning's formula.
5,000 to 9,000,000 gpd. Weirs are eas-
ily improvised in the field and read- 1.486 r2/3 √s
ily transported to the point of use. V = -------------
(1) Construction. Construction n
details for the 90-degree V-notch
sharp-edge weir are shown in figure 4-
6.
(2) Installation. Install the
weir as part of a dam so the water
backs up at least

4-8
4-9
Where: V = average velocity in fps.
r = hydraulic radius (the
cross sectional area in
square feet divided by the
wetted perimeter in feet).
s = slope of channel in feet
per foot of channel
length.
n = coefficient of roughness
which varies for different
channel surfaces as
follows:
n = .012 for smooth planed
timber or smooth ce-
ment mortar.
n = .013 for smooth brick-
work, smooth concrete,
or vitrified tile.
n = .014 for average con-
crete.
n = .015 for rough brick-
work.
n = .020 for rubble mason-
ry or canals in firm
ground.
n = .025 for canals or
rivers with sides in
good condition.
n = .030 for canals or
rivers with some
stones or weeds.
n = 0.50 for rivers with
channels obstructed by
stones and weeds.

(2) After finding the average

velocity by Manning's formula, compute
the discharge (Q) from the discharge
formula, Q = AV.
discharge using the figure, the pipe
4-5. PIPES size, condition of pipe interior, and
the loss of head in feet per 1,000
a. General. Flow of water in a feet of pipe must be known. Loss of
given length of pipe depends on pipe head in feet per 1,000 feet of pipe is
size, a friction factor C indicative found by dividing the difference in
of the interior roughness of the pipe, pressure head in feet at the two ends
and the difference in pressure head of the pipe by the apparent pipe
(head loss) between the two ends of length in thousands of feet.
the pipe. Difference in pressure head is caused
by difference in elevation or by a
b. Finding discharge. pump. For pipe without obstructions
such as valves, bends, fittings, and
(1) Discharge may be found
enlargements or contractions, the
from the nomograph shown in figure 4-
apparent length equals the measured
9. To determine
length. For pipe with obstructions,
the apparent length equals the
measured length plus the equivalent
length of each obstruction (Tables 4-2
and 4-3).

4-10
4-11
4-12
 (2) Normally, the effect of agent, but, in some cases, oxygen or
obstructions is small and may be iodine may be used.
disregarded, the apparent length being b. Description.
taken as the measured length. However, (1) Basic systems. There are three
in short systems having many obstruc- basic types of water supply and
tions, the effect of obstructions distribution systems.
should be included in the apparent (a) Gravity. Storage reser-
length. voirs of gravity distribution systems
4-6. SUPPLY LINES AND DISTRIBUTION are usually located high enough to
SYSTEMS develop required pressure and flow.
a. Function. Supply lines carry Storage tanks may sometimes be gravity
water from the gravity intake, pumping filled from springs located at a
station, treatment plant, reservoir, higher elevation than the water level
or storage tank to the distribution of the tanks, but are usually filled
system which conveys it to the outlet. with pumps. Because of their relative
(1) An ample supply of safe water elevation, the storage tanks eliminate
for drinking, cooking, and bathing is need for continuous pumping.
essential for every Army installation. (b) Direct pumping. Direct
It is desirable that the water be pumping systems usually have no ele-
clean, colorless, and odor-less, and vated storage tanks and water must be
that the system be capable of deli- pumped into the distribution system
vering it without interruption. No from ground storage reservoirs, wells,
water from natural sources is chem- or the distribution system of a muni-
ically pure, but safe water has only cipality or other source, at a rate
limited amounts of harmful chemicals depending on demand. Therefore, con-
and no pathogenic bacteria. A water- tinuous pump operation is necessary.
supply system includes a source, in- (c) Combination of gravity and
takes, convey-ances, facilities for pumping. A combination system can be
storage and/or treatment, and a dis- used, with the primary mains being
tribution system consisting of mains, supplied from the two sources mention-
submains, valves, branch lines, and ed above.
service lines (see fig 4-10). (2) Pipes.
(2) Sources of water include natu- (a) Classification. The net-
ral or impounding reservoirs, streams, work of pipes should be arranged so
wells, catch basins for rain, and large primary mains feed smaller
bodies of salt water. secondary pipes. Service pipes carry
(3) Intakes are used as a means of water from the main to the buildings.
obtaining water from its source. This Mains carry water from the source to
may be done by pump, gravity flow, or the service pipes.
by a combination of pump and gravity (b) Arrangement. Distribution
flow. Screens are used on intakes at systems may be arranged as a dead-end
surface sources to keep fish and system or as a loop system. In dead-
floating debris out of the water end systems, the flow is not continu-
system. In wells they are used to keep ous. In loop systems, the ends of all
out sand. mains are connected so water circu-
(4) If the source is distant from lates continuously, while it is being
the point of consumption, aqueducts, drawn from any point on the loop.
pipelines, or open channels are needed c. Design. The design of a
to convey the water. In rare instances distribution system is based on the
mobile water-transport units must be known requirements and on the physical
used. data obtained from reconnaissance,
(5) In all military and most civi- surveys, and maps.
lian systems, a treatment plant is 4-7. REQUIREMENTS
required. Normally, chlorine is used a. Demand. The distribution system
in these plants as the disinfecting should deliver enough water to meet
the

4-13
4-14
maximum rate of demand (peak demand) from the tanks or sumps by a fire
for drinking, cooking, personal pumper or skid-mounted pump.
hygiene, and other authorized uses. (3) Water-consumption data. In
(1) Peak demand. The size of planning and designing water-supply
the distribution main serving an area and distribution systems, the type of
depends on the total peak water demand project to be supplied and its size,
for that area. Service connections and based on the expected population, are
mains must be large enough to deliver the primary considerations. If
the total peak demand under the consumption data are known, basic
available pressure. The factors for requirements can be calculated from
determining peak demand, in gpm, for table 4-5. Water-consumption data are
any area serviced by a single main are also necessary for development of the
given in table 4-4. source and storage facilities, design
(2) Fire protection. Normally, of the distribution system and pumping
distribution systems are not plants, and selection and design of
constructed large enough to supply the treatment plants. Storage facilities
large demand required for fire should be designed to hold at least 50
protection. It is best to provide percent of 1 day's water requirements.
ground storage tanks or sumps at (a) Areas without sewers. In
strategic points so all buildings can Army installations without sewers, the
be reached with not over 1,000 feet of basic per capita consumption is 5
hose. Water is pumped gallons per day.
(b) Industrial areas. In
industrial areas, requirements average
about 100,000 gallons per acre per
day.
(c) Family quarters. Each
resident of permanent Army instal-
lations requires a minimum of 60
gallons per day, including an allow-
ance for waterborne sewage. In the
average family-quarters area, minimum
consumption occurs on Sundays and peak
consumpton on Mondays. The highest
demand for water occurs from 0700 to
0900 and from 1700 to 1930. Minimum
demand occurs at 0400 hours.
(d) Calculating consumption.
When calculating consumption require-
ments for systems such as company
bathhouses or hospital utility build-
ings, the number of water outlets and
shower heads should be considered. The
peak water demand for any area or
building served by a distribution main
is determined by allowing 1 gallon per
minute for each shower head, and 1.5
gallons per minute for each of the
other outlets. Theoretically, at an
allowance of 1.5 gallons per minute
per outlet, a peak demand would equal
outlets times allowance per outlet.
But experience indicates that the
greater the number of outlets, the
lower the probability of their all
being used simultaneously. Therefore,
for design purposes, peak demands are
reduced in a

4-15
ratio to the total number of outlets. distribution systems. If any two
The peak water demands for a given factors in a nomograph are known, a
number of outlets (excluding shower straightedge placed across them, as in
heads) are contained in table 4-4. figure 4-9, indicates the unknown
Service connections in buildings must factor.
be capable to supplying the peak (4) Doubling the diameter of a
demand. The size of distribution pipe increases the cross-sectional
mains serving several buildings is area four times, and increases its
determined by the total shower demand, capacity between six and seven times.
plus the total demand of all other c. Friction losses. Friction
outlets. Service connections and losses in service connections and
mains should be large enough to distribution mains are normally based
deliver the required flow under the on the use of iron or steel pipe,
available pressure. using a C coefficient of 120. If the
b. Pressures. installation is expected to be in use
(1) Working pressures for more than five years, the coefficient
conveying water through mains vary of 100 should be used.
with the permanency of the instal- 4-8. SURVEYS AND MAPS
lation and the equipment available. The need for surveys is established
In the field, pressures from 20 to by reconnaissance, by the extent and
70 psi are ordinarily satisfactory. accuracy of existing maps, and by data
(2) Distribution lines should needed to complete designs.
deliver peak water demands to areas Topographic maps should be prepared to
served by individual mains with at a horizontal scale of 1 inch equals 10
least a 20-psi working pressure at the feet, with 1-foot contour intervals at
service connection. Working pressures intakes, pump stations, and treatment
above 100 psi increase the breakage plants. Allowable horizontal error in
and maintenance on fittings and alinement and profile surveys is 1 in
fixtures and water hammer may occur at 5,000. Vertical levels are read to
100 psi. Excessive distribution one-tenth foot on the ground or one-
pressures may be reduced by pressure hundredth foot on bench marks, turning
reducers and pressure relief valves. points, and existing permanent struc-
(3) Nomographs and similar tures. If Government bench marks are
scales are used for designing water- not convenient, an arbitrary reference
point must be estab-

4-16
lished. Locations and layouts of all feet is the permissible head loss in
pipelines and structures are plotted feet per thousand feet. If the
on profile sheets and topographic pipeline is short, the effect of
maps. Established pipeline profiles fittings should be included.
and hydraulic grade lines are plotted (3) Economical velocity. To
on profile and map sheets, or may be avoid excessive pump horsepower, usual
separate drawings. flow velocities for pumping systems
4-9. TYPE AND SIZE OF PIPE are between 3 and 6 fps. For gravity
a. The design of mains and service systems, velocities are limited only
pipes for theater of operations by the available head.
distribution systems is limited by the b. Simple pipelines. A simple
type and size of available pipe. pipeline is the same diameter
Working pressures and other features throughout its length and does not
of the supply and distribution system have any branch lines. Simple
must be established by the designer to pipelines may be designed by using the
suit the characteristics of the nomograph in figure 4-9.
available pipe and pumps. c. Example.
b. Pipe is shipped overseas in a Given: Gravity system; water surface
limited number of standard sizes and at outlet 100 feet below water surface
types. Interior plumbing and service at inlet; required flow 500 gpm;
pipes of steel or bitaminized fiber length of line 16,000 feet; new iron
may be available in 3/4-, 1- 1 1/3 2-, pipe (friction factor C = 120).
4-, 6-, and 8-inch sizes. Find: Pipe size.
4-10. PIPELINE DESIGN Solution: permissible head loss is--
Pipeline design consists of
determining one of the following 100
factors when the other two are known: ---- = 6.25 feet per 1,000 feet.
head, pipe size, and discharge. 16
a. Definitions.
(1) Available head. The The nomograph (fig 4-9) shows an 8-
available head is the head causing inch pipe is satisfactory.
flow through a pipe. It may be d. Compound pipeline. Compound
obtained by gravity, by pumping, or by pipelines (fig 4-11) may be a series
a combination of both. compounded, parallel compounded, or
(a) In a gravity system, series-parallel compounded. Different
the difference in elevation between size pipes connected in series are
the water surface at the inlet and at series compounded. Pipes of the same
the outlet is the gravity head, and size or of different sizes connected
constitutes the entire available head. in parallel are parallel compounded.
(b) In a pumping system Parallel compounded lines connected to
on flat terrain, the pump discharge either simple or series compounded
head is the available head. lines are series-parallel compounded.
(c) In a pumping system In solving problems involving compound
on uneven terrain, the difference in pipelines, first reduce the compound
elevation (gravity head) between the pipeline to an equivalent simple pipe-
pump and the outlet of the pipeline line. In other words, find the pipe
must be included. Where the outlet is of a given diameter which gives the
lower than the pump, the available same total head loss as the compound
head is the pump discharge head plus line. Flow problems are then solved
the gravity head. Where the outlet is as for the simple pipeline. Table 4-6
higher, the available head is the pump gives factors for converting a pipe
discharge head minus the gravity head. length of a given size to an
(2) Permissible head loss. equivalent length of another size.
The available head in feet divided by Figure 4-12 shows a branching pipeline
the length of pipeline in thousands of system where discharges are known,

4-17
 and figure 4-13 shows a system where
pipe sizes are known.

4-11. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

a. Importance of maintenance.
Failure of water supply systems often
is attributed to defective equipment
when improper plant operation and
maintenance by unqualified
personnel are the true causes. Pump
operators must be familiar with the
mechanical features and safe operation
of their equipment; treatment-plant
operators must understand the physical
processes of water treatment and have
some knowledge of the chemistry
involved; and all operators must be
alert to detect and correct sources of
trouble before they occur.
b. Pumps. Operation, maintenance,
lubrication, and parts manuals are
available for all standard types of
depot-stocked equipment. In general,
pump operation consists of pumping
against the full head that gives the
highest pump efficiency; pump
maintenance consists of lubrication,
and eliminating air or

water leaks. Vapor or air locks in displacement-pump systems to

reduce or stop the output and may prevent breakage due to increasing
cause pumps to overheat. The pressure pump pressure caused by line shutoffs.
gage on the pump outlet, which Any increase beyond the normal maximum
indicates line pressure, must be pressure should be counteracted
watched closely. Head loss due to a immediately by reducing pump speed or
line opening or an increase in stopping the pump entirely and opening
pressure caused by a stoppage or a the waste valve. The trouble then can
closed valve is quickly indicated on be located and corrected.
the gage. The power unit must be
fueled, lubricated, and provided with
cooling water. In freezing weather,
precaution must be taken to prevent
ice from bursting the equipment or
causing stoppages. The pressure-
release valve must be working properly

4-18
 c. Treatment plants. Plant filters should be enclosed in a heated
operation and maintenance necessarily building.
vary with the type of installation. d. Pipes and distribution systems.
Operating manuals for the mobile and The pipe and distribution system
portable purification units are useful should be patrolled regularly to de-
in operating all systems, but in tect leaks or unauthorized connections
larger fixed installations each and to test the operation of valves.
process must be studied carefully to Sludge and organic growth which accu-
determine the most efficient operating mulate in low velocity line should be
procedure. The physical processes and flushed out occasionally by increasing
chemistry of purification are pressure during a low consumption pe-
explained in TM 5-700. riod and then opening blowoff valves
(1) Rate of flow, length of the to obtain a maximum velocity of flow.
retention period, accumulation of Various types of mechanical cleaners
sludge, and the amount of chemicals are used to remove rust and other in-
used in coagulation and disinfection crustation. Such processing is usually
must be checked closely. not required for several years after
(2) In freezing temperatures, the line is laid. Valves at branch or
adequate velocities must be maintained main intersections must be adjusted
to prevent ice formation. In properly to equalize pressures and
extremely cold climates, tanks and assure service to the ends of the
line.

4-19
 REVIEW EXERCISES

Note: The following exercises are study aids. The figures following each
question refer to a paragraph containing information related to the question.
Write your answer in the space provided below each question. When you have
finished answering all the questions for this lesson, compare your answer with
those given for this lesson in the back of this booklet. Review the lesson as
necessary. Do not send in your solutions to these review exercises.

1. Prior to the development of detailed plans for the construction of a water

supply and distribution system in a theater of operations, what guidance must
the responsible officer consider? (Para 4-2b)

2. Stage construction is the procedure followed when a project is completed

either by units or by levels of improvement. How is stage construction useful
in a utilities project? (Para 4-2c(6))

3. The depth of water required to produce a given pressure is termed "head."

How many feet of head are required to produce a water pressure of fifty pounds
per square inch? (Para 4-3d)

4. In a column of water having a thirty foot head, what is the difference in

pressure between the mindpoint and the bottom of the column? (Para 4-3e)

5. Explain the difference between atmospheric (or gage) pressure and absolute
pressure. (Para 4-3f)

6. Ignoring increase in friction loss, how many feet of additional head will
be required to increase the velocity of flow from 16 fps to 28 fps? (Para 4-3h
(1))

7. What is the friction-head loss in a 2,500 foot length of six-inch pipeline

carrying 100 gallons per minute? (use C = 100) (Para 4-3h, fig 4-3)

4-20
8. Pipe fittings such as bends and tees also contribute to the head loss in a
water distribution system. How are head losses for these type items calculated?
(Para 4-3h(5), fig 4-4)

9. Give the definition of static head. (Para 4-3i)

10. Using the surface-velocity method, what is the discharge in cubic feet per
second in an open channel six feet wide if the average stream depth is 1« feet
and the observed surface velocity is 4 feet per second? (Para 4-4a)

11. What head in inches will be required to discharge 1,000 gallons per minute
from a triangular weir having a 90ø notch? (Para 4-4b(4))

12. What discharge can you expect from a new 6-inch iron pipe (C = 120) at a
maximum permissible friction loss of 4 feet per 1,000 feet? (Para 4-5b, fig 4-
9)

13. What is the velocity of flow in the pipe described in exercise 12? (Para
4-5, fig 4-9)

14. What is the most essential requirement of the water supplied to an Army
installation by any water-distribution system? (Para 4-6a(1))

15. Name the three basic types of water supply and distribution systems. (Para
4-6b)

16. What are the primary considerations in planning and designing water-supply
and distribution systems? (Para 4-7a(3))

17. When preparing topographic maps, for use in laying out water supply and
distribution systems, what horizontal scale should be used? (Para 4-8)

4-21
18. Working pressures of water supply and distribution systems in a theater of
operations will usually depend upon what factor? (Para 4-9a)

19. Velocity of flow in a pipe is dependent upon available head. When the head
is provided by pumping, what velocity range should be observed for economical
reasons? (Para 4-10a(3))

20. If the gage on the pump outlet indicates a pressure beyond the normal
maximum, what action should the operator take immediately? (Para 4-11b)

4-22
 LESSON 5

PLUMBING INSTALLATIONS AND BILLS OF MATERIALS

CREDIT HOURS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

TEXT ASSIGNMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . Attached memorandum.

MATERIALS REQUIRED . . . . . . . . . . None.

LESSON OBJECTIVE . . . . . . . . . . . Upon completion of this lesson on

plumbing you should be able to
accomplish the following in the
indicated topic areas.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1. Description of plumbing system. Describe a plumbing system, including all

fixtures and equipment involved, and define all special terms used in plumbing.

2. Planning. Explain the fundamentals of planning for a plumbing project, the

layout, determining water requirements both hot and cold, and selection of pipe
sizes to be used.

3. Waste disposal. Explain the housedrain plan including the purpose for and
location of traps, vents, cleanouts, and any other appurtenances.

4. Plumbing materials. State the type of material used in pipe as related to

the use and location of the pipe, weights and strength of pipe, types of joints,
fittings, and fixtures.

5. Bill of materials. Describe the procedure to be followed in developing an

accurate and useful bill of materials for a plumbing project.

6. Safety. Cover safety rules as applicable to plumbing projects.

ATTACHED MEMORANDUM

5-1. INTRODUCTION a building; (2) to remove the liquid

a. The plumbing system for a build- wastes and discharge them into the
ing plays a very essential part in sewer or other disposal installation.
today's living. It includes all pipes, The waste system, in turn, must pro-
fittings, and fixtures which are used vide quick removal of the wastes with
to provide water and to remove water- minimum chance for stoppage of drains
borne sewage. The supply pipes of the and must keep vermin and sewer "gas"
system bring into the building a sup- out of the building through the use of
ply of wholesome water, and the drain- properly vented traps.
age pipes carry off the used water. c. Sewer "gas" is not actually a
Sanitation and health as well as com- gas of definite chemical composition
fort and convenience are served. Be- but air which has come into contact
cause of the health hazards resulting with decomposing organic matter. The
from impure water and improper drain- sewer air may contain some of the
age, care and knowledge must be exer- gases which are the results of
cised in installing a plumbing system. decomposition, and which, in some
places such as unventilated sewers or
b. Plumbing has two objects: (1) to sewer manholes, may overcome workmen.
furnish water to the various parts of Numerous

bacteriological tests have shown that infection need be feared from sewage
sewer air is as free from bacteria as bacteria floating into houses with
ordinary air, and that no disease or sewer "gas". But the matter cannot be

5-1
dismissed lightly. No one can say with highest possible water level in a
certainty, for example, that long fixture with fitting supplies.
exposure to sewer air will not have (9) Backflow. Flow of water
some harmful psychological or, per- into a water supply pipe from any
haps, physiological effects. Hence, source except its regular one. An air
both safe practice and good sense gap will prevent backflow.
dictate that sewer air be prevented (10) Stack. Vertical pipe of
from entering buildings. the soil-, waste-, or ventpipe system
d. A plumbing system, in its sim- (fig 5-3).
plest form, consists of one supply
pipe leading to a fixture and one
drain pipe taking the waste water away
from the fixture. In most cases the
fixture is supplied by two pipes, one
for hot and one for cold water, and
the drain pipe is usually vented. An
increase in the number of fixtures in-
creases the complexity of the drainage
system and frequently requires the
installation of additional vent pipes.
When the functions of these supply,
drainage, and vent-pipe systems are
understood and each is considered in-
dependently of the other, a plumbing
system becomes easier to comprehend.
e. Definitions of terms are as
follows:
(1) Building plumbing. Water
supply and sewage disposal fixtures,
equipment, and pipes used to distri-
bute water and collect drainage and
sewage within a building and 5 feet
outside the building (fig 5-1).
(2) Building main. Water
supply pipe and fittings from the
water main or other source of supply
to the first branch of the water-
distribution system (fig 5-1).
(3) Building sewer. Sewer
pipe extending from a point 5 feet
outside the building to street sewer
or other disposal system (fig 5-1).
(4) Building drain. Lowest
horizontal piping of the building
drainage system receiving discharge
from soil, waste, and other drainage
pipes. It is connected to the
building sewer (fig 5-1).
(5) Branch. Any part of a
water supply system other than the
main used in the building (fig 5-2).
(6) Fixture branch. Supply
pipe between a fixture and the build-
ing main or building piping (fig 5-2).
(7) Fixture drain. Drain pipe
from a fixture trap to the main drain
pipe or building drain (fig 5-2).
(8) Air gap. Vertical
distance between supply fitting and

5-2
5-3
 (11) Vent. Pipe open to the (15) Cleanout. Plug or similar
atmosphere, which provides ventilation fitting to permit access to traps or
for a drainage system and prevents sewer lines. Cleanouts are usually
trap siphonage or back pressure (fig used at turns and other points of
5-3). collection (figs 5-5 and 5-8).
(12) Soil pipe. Pipe carrying (16) Stub-in. Temporary
discharge from water closets and fitting which caps a pipeline running
similar fixtures. It may serve as a to a fixture until the fixture is
waste or vent pipe at the same time installed (fig 5-6).
(fig 5-3). (17) Fixtures. Receptacles
(13) Waste pipe. Pipe carrying such as basins, or sinks, that receive
water from wash basins, sinks, and and discharge liquid or waterborne
similar fixtures. wastes (fig 5-7).
(14) Trap. Fitting that (18) Fittings. Parts and
provides a water seal to prevent sewer materials of piping system used to
gases and odors being discharged back make bends in pipe-lines, branches,
through fixtures (figs 5-4 and 5-8). and connections; to seal pipes; and to
attach fixtures (fig 5-8).

5-4
 are classified by angle of direction
change; bends, by the portion of the
circle which they form. Thus, 90°
elbows are quarter bends, 45° elbows
are eighth bends, and so on (fig 5-8).
(20) Roughing-in. Installing
supply and waste pipes without
installing fixtures. This minimizes
damage to fixtures during construc-
tion.
(21) Water closet. Term used to
indicate standard issue toilet (fig 5-
7).
(22) Water supply. Plumbing
for water supply includes the building
main, supply piping to fixtures and
faucets, and necessary valves,
fixtures, and fittings (fig 5-4).
(23) Drainage system pipework.
The building drainage system includes
waste pipes, vent stacks, floor
drains, and building lateral to sewer.
Vent stacks are usually run outside
the building. In cold climates, the
stack size should be increased to
prevent freezing (fig 5-8).
(24) Riser. A riser is a
vertical water supply pipe which
carries water to branches in upper
stories.
(25) Fixture unit. A fixture
unit is a factor so chosen that the
load-producing values of the different
plumbing fixtures can be expressed as
multiples of that factor.

5-2. PLUMBING FUNDAMENTALS

Basic practices which apply to any
plumbing job are as follows:
a. Save material, eliminate
unnecessary branch lines, and run pipe
on shortest practical path.
b. Lay pipe where it is accessible
for repair and cleanout.
c. Keep bends and fittings to a
minimum to avoid loss of pressure and
to prevent clogging.
d. Install horizontal drainage
pipes with at least a ¼-inch fall per
foot for 2-inch pipe, 1/8-inch fall
per foot for 4-inch pipe, and 1/16-
inch fall per foot for 5- to 8-inch
pipe.
e. Do not run water or drainage
(19) Elbows (bends). Fittings pipe electrical equipment unless
which change pipe direction. Elbows equipment is protected.

5-5
 f. Do not install drainage pipe minimizes interference with other
over an uncovered water supply tank or work, and helps to insure a safe
food-processing area. and sanitary installation (fig 5-9).

g. Do not install cross connection b. Piping diagrams. A piping or

between a water supply system carrying riser diagram gives a relatively
drinking water and a water supply complete picture of the plumbing
system carrying water of lower system (fig 5-10). It is usually a
sanitary standards. drawing showing all pipe, fittings,
and fixtures as nearly to scale as
5-3 PLANNING possible. It may be schematic and
show connections of all fittings. When
a. Layout. The layout of a used with a plumbing layout, you can
plumbing system, within the scope of estimate the amount of pipe required
the job directive, should be simple for any plumbing installation.
enough to make fixtures and units
accessible and, at the same time, c. Tempered lines. The piping
flexible enough to permit future diagram in figure 5-10 shows only one
expansion. Proper layout facilitates line to the showers and lavatories.
the preparation of accurate estimates, This is known as a

5-6
tempered line, in which hot and cold example, a system designed to supply
water are mixed in a master valve with 300 gallons of water in 8 hours
a thermostat control. Its chief differs in many ways from one with a
drawback is the lack of a temperature requirement of 300 gallons per hour.
adjustment at the fixture. Remember
that tempered lines are expedient e. Hot-water systems. Hot-water
measures to save pipe and fittings, systems vary in design according to
and that separate hot and cold lines the function of the building. In each
to fixtures are preferred if materials system, the circulation is continuous.
are available. Cold water enters the bottom of the
tank and is drawn off at the top.
d. Design considerations. The Each heater has a temperature-and-
appropriate distribution of water pressure-relief valve (also known as a
within a building is of paramount safety or pop-off valve) and a drain
importance. You must determine, from valve. Unions are provided to
studies of water-requirements tables facilitate the removal of the tank for
and from estimates based on factors repairs or replacement. Hot-water
included in table 4-4, paragraph 4-7, systems use coal, electricity, fuel
of lesson 4, how much hot and cold oil, or gas as a source of heat. The
water is required for a particular capacity of a hotwater heater is
installation. These requirements, are measured by its output of hot water
prerequisite to the layout and design in gallons per hour. For example, the
of any water-supply system, since, for re-

5-7
5-8
quired capacity of a heater for a a. Sizing the water service.
company messhall is 50 gallons per
hour, while that for a company (1) Factors. Among the
bathhouse is 300 gallons per hour. factors which determine the size of
the water service in a plumbing
f. Persons per fixture. Table 5-1 installation are the types of flush
shows permissible number of persons devices used on the fixtures, the
per fixture. pressure of the water supply to the
building in pounds per square inch,
5-4. DETERMINING PIPE SIZE the length of piping in the building
(creating friction loss), the number
Water supply and drainage pipes of fixtures installed in the building,
must be large enough to provide water and the probable use factor of these
and adequate drainage of wastes yet fixtures. When a liquid flows through
not exceed the size required for a pipe, particles of the liquid stick
maximum flow. Sizes available in a to the pipe wall and do not move.
theater of operations are 3/4-, 1-, Other particles moving past are slowed
1¼-, 2-, 4-, 6-, and 8-inch diameter down
pipe.

5-9
when they rub against the motionless
particles. The stream of water in a pipe
can be pictured as made up of a series of
layers moving at different speeds, with
the center moving fast-est. The resistance
to flow caused by the rubbing together of
the particles in these imaginary layers is
called pipe friction. Pipe friction causes
a drop in the pressure of the water
flowing through the pipe. In a small pipe
this friction loss may be over-come by
supplying water at a higher pressure than
would otherwise be required. In a location
where higher water pressure is not
available, fric-tion loss may be reduced The method for determining the factor of
by increasing the size of the pipe. The simultaneous use is discussed below.
two most important factors in sizing the
water service are the determination of the (3) Factor of simultaneous use. The
maximum fixture demand in gallons and the factor of simultaneous use, some-times
determination of the factor of referred to as the probable demand on a
simultaneous use. The maximum fixture given installation at a given time, is a
demand in gallons is the total amount of conjectural figure which must be
water which would be required to supply estimated. A rule of
all fixtures in the plumbing installation thumb for estimating the probable demand
if they were operated simultaneously for a for average residences is 30 percent of
period of 1 minute. Since it is highly the maximum fixture demand in gallons.
improbable that all fixtures will be Table 5-3 contains data for estimating the
turned on at once, a probable percent-age probable demand. To use table 5-3, take
of the fixtures which will be in use at the actual number of fixtures installed,
any given time must be determined. This is not the fixture unit value. Use the higher
the factor of simultaneous use. This portion of the percentage ranges for the
figure is not exact, but may be esti-mated lower portion of the number of fixtures
closely. The more fixtures installed in a ranges. For example, five fixtures would
building, the smaller the possibility that have a probable demand of about 50
all of them will be in use at the same percent, while 50 fixtures would have a
time. Therefore, simultaneous use factors probable demand of about 25%.
decrease in proportion to the increase in
the numbers of fixtures installed.

(2) Maximum fixture demand. To

determine the maximum fixture demand in
gallons, the number and type of all
fixtures in the complete plumbing
installation must be known. Table 5-2 is
then used to obtain the maximum fixture
demand. For example, assume a plumbing
installation of three uri-nals, two water
closets, one slop sink, two shower stalls,
(4) Selection of pipe size. The flow of
one kitchen sink, one laundry tray, and
water in pipelines is impeded by a number
four lavatories. From table 5-2 it may be
of factors. This impedance causes a loss
determined that the maximum fixture demand
of pressure as the water flows through the
is 315 gallons per minute. The probability
line. Complicated calculations are
that all of these fixtures would be used
required to consider all the factors
at the same time is remote. Under ordinary
affecting loss of pressure in a complex
circumstances only a small percentage
system. Such calculations are beyond the
would be in use simultaneously.
scope of this subcourse. For simple
systems, such as the military plumber will
encounter, approximate figures are
satisfactory. Tables 5-4 and 5-5 for
galvanized iron pipe and copper tubing,
respectively, may be

5-10
5-11
5-12
5-13
5-14
used with the maximum fixture demand
and the factor of simultaneous use to
determine the correct size of pipe for
the water service line. The minimum
size for the water service line is 3/4
inch, and that size should be used
when calculations yield a smaller one.
To continue the example is (2) above,
the 14 fixtures would have a factor of
simultaneous use of about 35 percent.
Since the maximum fixture demand was
determined to be 315 gallons per
minute, the water service line must
have a capacity of 35 percent of 315,
or 110 gallons per minute. Assuming a
length of pipe of 60 feet and a
pressure at the main of 40 pounds per
square inch, from table 5-4 or 5-5 it
can be determined that either a 1½-
inch galvanized iron or a 1½-inch cop-
per tubing water service line would be
adequate.
b. Drainage pipe.
(1) Horizontal drainage pipes.
Drainage pipe size is based on the
fixture unit values of the fixtures
connected to the drainage pipe (table
5-2). Table 5-6 gives the capacities
of horizontal drainage pipes.
(2) Stacks. Table 5-7 lists the
maximum number of fixture units which
may be connected to each size stack.
5-5. LAYOUT AND INSTALLATION FACTORS
a. Layout. Figure 5-11 is a plan a 3/4-inch line will also supply the
view of a typical hospital utility urinals. Three-quarter-inch pipe is
building showing the location of adequate to supply the four sinks.
partitions and plumbing fixtures. This d. Hot-water piping. Hot-water
building is designed to serve the piping is laid out like the cold-water
needs of personnel in two 20- by 120- piping except that dead ends are unde-
foot hospital wards. sirable, and paralleling cold-water
b. Outlets. There are four showers; lines should be avoided if possible.
eight washbasins; eight water closets, Hot water in dead-end lines cools
including six in the toilet room, one rapidly and water is wasted at the
in utility room No. 1, and one in the fixture until hot water arrives.
nurses' toilet; and two urinals. Uti- Similarly, cold-water lines are
lity room No. 2 contains a hot-water heated by parallel hot-water lines,
heater, a storage tank, and a sink. and water is wasted until cold water
The kitchen contains a scullery sink, arrives. Connections between heaters
and both the examination-and-treatment and hot-water storage tanks should be
room and nurses' toilet have a sink. as large in diameter and as short as
c. Cold-water piping. By running possible to minimize friction, since
one 3/4-inch line to each wall of the circulation in this loop depends on
shower room, the four showers will be the small differences between the
adequately supplied. A 3/4-inch line specific gravity of hot and cold
to each of the benches in the lavatory water.
will supply the eight washbasins and 5-6. WASTE DISPOSAL INSTALLATION
a. Size of building drains.
Practically all water supplied to a
building is carried away

5-15
5-16
by the building drains. Also, the flow in b. Soil pipes. A soil pipe carries the
drainage pipes is by gravity and not by discharge of water closets, with or
pressure as in the case of supply lines. without the discharge of other fixtures,
It is obvious, then, that waste pipes must to the house drain.
be larger than supply lines. c. Traps. A trap is a fitting con-
b. House-drain plan. Figure 5-12 shows structed to prevent the passage of sewer
the house-drain plan. The waste line from gases and odors back through it without
the showers and lavatories will tie into appreciably affecting the fix-ture
the soil line from the water closets and discharge. Traps are of various designs,
urinals. This line may either run out to all of which form a water seal. The four
the sewer, or run across to tie into the most common traps are as follows:
waste line from the sink in the utility (1) P-traps. The P-trap (fig 5-13)
room. An-other waste line will run from is used on a fixture when the outlet of
the sink in the kitchen to the sink in the the trap runs into the wall at a 90-degree
examination and treatment room, thence angle to the outlet of the fixture. The P-
either directly to the sewer or to a trap is used with
connection with the drain from the lavatories, sinks, urinals, and drinking
showers, as shown. Wastes from scul-lery fountains. It is used in some instances
sinks must pass through a grease trap with shower baths and in other
before entering a soil or drain pipe. A installations which do not require the
single grease trap of proper size may be rapid discharge of large
used for a battery of scullery sinks, and volumes of waste water.
is preferably located above the floor and (2) S-traps. The S-trap (fig 5-13)
under or alongside the sink. In no case is used when the trap outlet runs through
should the floor. One of the diffi-culties with
wastes from fixtures other than scul-lery the S-trap is that com-plete stoppage may
sinks pass through the grease trap. Traps, occur in a short
vents, and cleanouts are installed as time. This trap is almost obsolete for
described in this lesson. Army installations.
c. Junctions. Junction of fixture (3) U-traps. The U-trap or running
connections or laterals with horizont-al trap (fig 5-13) may be used for multiple
runs of the soil or drain system will be installations such as sinks or urinals.
made with a sanitary Y-branch (par 7f). This type of trap has its inlet and outlet
Cleanouts should be provid-ed at strategic continuing in a straight line in the
points on horizontal runs to facilitate direction of flow of the pipe to which it
the removal of obstructions. Connections is connected. Previously, U-traps were
from the building soil or drain system to installed in connection with house traps,
the sewer should not be less than 6 inches or where area drains were trapped within a
in diameter, and are usually laid on a building, to prevent freezing. This
straight line at right angles to the practice is no longer followed.
sewer. Ordinarily, there should be one (4) Drum traps. The drum trap (fig
such connection per building. It is 5-13) is used instead of a P-trap on
desirable to keep connections to the sewer fixtures which pass a large volume of
to a minimum, because the connections must waste water in a short interval. The drum
be cut in after the sewer is completed and trap derives its name from its large
a weak point is created in the sewer. diameter. Its resealing
d. Building-sewer deign. Most building- quality is greater than that of a P-trap
sewer systems are 4-inch, cast iron pipe, but it has the disadvantage of being large
and are sloped ⅛ to ¼ inch per running and cumbersome.
foot.
5-7. WASTE-DISPOSAL FITTINGS d. Vents. A trap controls offensive
a. Waste pipes. A waste pipe car-ries odors effectively, but it does not control
the discharge from any fixture, except air pressures built up in the sewer line.
water closets, to the soil or waste Therefore,
stacks, or directly to the house drain.

5-17
5-18
you should connect each trap to a vent sewage. They also prevent the accumu-
pipe or vent stack running to the room lation of solids where the branch
to carry away sewer gases. Since the joins the main. It is good practice
vent is open to the atmosphere and to install an extra Y-branch to
allows air to enter or gases to escape provide a cleanout at the ends of
the system, it equalizes any existing straight runs. Obstructions in sewer
air pressures and prevents both trap lines are removed by force cups, wire
siphonage and back pressure. Vent brushes, closet augers, cleanout
pipes are 2 inches or more in claws, scrapers, and screws.
diameter, and extend at least 1 foot 5-8. PLUMBING IN THE THEATER OF
above the roof of the building. Where OPERATIONS
low temperatures and heavy snowfalls a. General. In the theater of
are frequent, the vent pipe should be operations, plumbing is installed only
a least 4 inches in diameter, and in messhalls, hospitals, bathhouses,
should terminate above the maximum and other special-purpose buildings.
depth of snow. You may connect any Drainage pipes should be so designed,
number of fixtures to one vent pipe constructed, and maintained that waste
(fig 5-14) if it is large enough to is conducted from the fixture to the
allow free air passage and to carry place of disposal at velocities which
the maximum waste discharge. Traps prevent fouling and clogging. No
installed more than 5 feet from a vent water or drainage piping should be
will not function at full capacity. located over electrical machinery or
e. Air gaps. Air gap is the equipment unless adequate protection
vertical distance between the supply is provided against drip. Drainage
fitting and the highest possible piping should not pass over water-
liquid level in the fixture being supply tanks, reservoirs, or food-
supplied. To prevent pollution processing or food-storage areas
through siphonage of waste water into unless these facilities are covered or
the water-supply line the vertical otherwise protected. Each plumbing
distance of an air gap should be at item must satisfy the maximum number
least 2 inches. of uses. This has been accomplished
f. Branch lines. The sanitary Y- by reducing the number of types,
branches (fig 5-14) are used to sizes, and capacities specified on
connect branch lines to the building standard drawings to a minimum.
drain in order to provide minimum Figure 5-15 shows part of a typical
resistance to the gravity flow of the theater of operations installation.

5-19
5-20
 b. Installation.
(1) The portions of a water-supply
system that are likely to freeze when an
installation is not occupied should be
graded to allow complete drainage during
these periods.

(2) All drainage piping should

pitch downward in the direction of the
flow.

(3) There should be end vents on

the drainage system, although venting of
each individual fixture is not usually
necessary.

(4) Unions should be used only

where necessary for final connections.

(5) Valves should be installed on

the main water-service line inside each
building, or in wooden boxes outside the
building below the frost line.

(6) There should be no physical

connection between a water-distribution
system and a drainage or waste system.

(7) Standard pipe sizes are shown

in the illustrations and tables in this
lesson. Pipes and fittings of other sizes
(except nipples, bushings, and reducing
couplings) are not for theater of
operations construction.

(8) The following unit values of

weights designate the loads (water
consumed plus waste water discharged) of
different kinds of fixtures, and are
useful in estimating total loads:
Sink and lavatories .............. 2
Service or scullery sink ......... 3
Shower ........................... 4
Urinal ........................... 5
Water closet ..................... 10

c. Water service. The water service

pipe should be large enough to furnish an
adequate flow of water to meet the
requirements in the building at peak
demand.

d. Floor drains, traps, and cleanouts.

Floor drains should meet only the actual
need. Traps should be provided for each
fixture or battery of fixtures. There
should be pipe cleanouts at or near
vertical soil and waste stacks and in each
90-degree change in direction of the
drainage piping.

e. Hot-water systems. Water heaters

should be installed complete with flue
extending through roof. Flues shall be
properly isolated from wood and should be
flashed and capped. Valves must not be

5-21
installed on circulating piping between used as substitutes. Bailing wire,
heaters and tanks. Recovery capacity of salvaged steel straps, or scrap lumber may
water heaters for bath-houses should be be used for bracketing, suspending, and
from 2.5 to 3.0 gallons per hour per supporting pipes. Elbows and nipples may
person, based on 50°F rise in temperature. be used as substitutes for return bends
Storage capacity for bathhouses should be and traps when such items are not avail-
from 0.75 to 1.5 gallons per person. Esti- able. Roof openings between pipe and
mates of water-heating requirements for flashing may be sealed with a mastic
buildings other than bathhouses should be cement. Showers may be built without
based on the per fixture method. The rate conventional shower heads by crimping the
of flow to fixtures may be determined as end of pipe, by using drilled pipe caps,
shown in lesson 4. Direct water heaters or for showers outside buildings, by
are installed punching holes in the bottom of available
with range boilers or storage tanks. Hot- POL drums.
water generators are a combination of the
coil-type heater and storage tank. Each 5-9. PLUMBING MATERIALS
square foot of heating surface in Various materials are used in the
instantaneous water heaters and hot-water manufacture of pipes and fittings. Water
generators will heat 65 gallons per hour pipes within buildings are made of
with a 100°F rise in temperature at a wrought-iron, plain or galvanized steel,
minimum steam pressure of 75 pounds per brass, or copper. The fittings used on
square inch. steel, brass, and wrought-iron pipe are
tapped with a standard pipe thread,
f. Substitute construction. Since pipe whereas the fittings used on copper are of
clamps or pipe hangers are not included in the sweat joint variety. Soil and
the bills of materials and are not drainage pipe are made of cast or wrought
furnished for theater of operations iron, plain or
installations, nails driven into firm
bearing and bent around the pipes may be

galvanized steel, with threaded or and military TO installations.

calked joints. Neither plain nor Galvanized-steel pipe is most commonly
galvanished steel pipe should be used used for water-distribution systems
for underground soil pipe. within the walls of a building.
a. Steel and wrought-iron pipes b. Copper and brass pipes. Copper
(1) Steel and wrought-iron and brass pipes in various weights and
pipes are available in various weight lengths are normally used in cold-
classifications. These weight classes storage installations and in places
are referred to as standard, extra- where temperatures and certain
heavy, and double-extra heavy, or as chemical conditions are critical.
standard, extra-strong and double- c. Cast-iron pipe. Cast-iron pipe,
extra strong. The current trend in which is manufactured in 12-foot
civilian practice is toward the lengths primarily for use as drainage
adoption of a schedule numbering pipe in plumbing systems, is not
system. Standard pipe roughly cor- available for overseas shipment.
responds to schedule 40, extra- d. Joints. The use of bell-and-
strong (heavy) approximates schedule spigot joints is common in plumbing
80, and double-extra strong (heavy) is work. The type of pipe does not
roughly equal to schedule 160. In any require such accurate cutting and
case, this weight classification re- fitting as threaded pipe, but more
fers to the wall thickness. The skill is required in making joints.
outside diameter remains the same Threaded joints are neater in
throughout the various weight class- appearance and can be installed
ifications for any given pipe size. more quickly than bell-and-spigot
(2) Standard pipe sizes come in joints. Drainage pipe with bell-and-
random lengths of from 12 to 22 feet. spigot ends is jointed by calking with
Each section may be supplied with one oakum and lead, or cement. Cementing
coupling. Standard-weight pipe is the of joints is common practice in under-
most common weight used in domestic- ground drainage and waste systems.
type installations. The heavier e. Fittings. Figures 5-16 through
weights, extra-heavy and double-extra 5-20 show some of the more common
heavy, with sizes up to 8 inches in fittings. The fittings in figure 5-16
diameter, are used in both industrial have been joined together to emphasize

5-22
the different connections. Table 5-8
is an explanation of the fittings
shown in figure 5-16. Figure 5-21
shows additional details of some of
the fittings used in water-supply
systems, together with brief
descriptions of their functions.
f. Symbols. Symbols used in piping
drawings vary. The most common are
shown in figure 5-22. Study the
symbols carefully.
g. Fixtures. The more common fix-
tures used in plumbing installations
include sinks, lavatories, showers,
water closets, urinals (fig 5-7), and
drinking fountains.
h. Codes. Plumbing codes are set up
by state and local governments to
insure that safe and sanitary stan-
dards for plumbing are maintained.
5-10. PLUMBING LAYOUT
A plan drawing for a company
bathhouse is shown in figure 5-23.
This drawing gives details with
respect to plumbing layout.
5-11. PREPARING A BILL OF MATERIALS
a. Table 5-9 is a bill of materials
for the plumbing requirements for the
company bath-house in figure 5-23. To
prepare a bill of materials, each item
on the drawing is checked, listed by
name, and recorded by its stock number
and size. A definite starting point
and procedure is used for each group
of materials. The cold-water lines are
traced, for example, beginning at the
source, and each item in the line is
checked and recorded. Then the hot-
water lines are traced and all items
checked, and recorded in the same way.
Always select a starting point, and
then proceed along the line, checking
off each item as it is recorded.
b. For example, tracing the cold-
water lines on figure 5-23 from the
source to the

5-23
5-24
5-25
5-26
 may be substituted for others in short
supply. For example, reducing coup-
lings and bushings may be substituted
when reducing fittings are not
available.
5-12. MEASURING PIPE LENGTHS
Threaded pipe may be measured in
any one or any combination of several
methods. It is important to know
which method is being used in any
given measurement and to allow for
fitting dimensions (end-to-end or end-
to-center) and for length of thread
engagement (table 5-10).
a. End-to-end measure. End-to-end
measure (1, fig 5-24) is the full
length of the pipe including both
threads.
b. End-to-center measure. End-to-
center measure (2, fig 5-24) is used
for a piece of pipe having a fitting
screwed on one end only. The pipe
length is equal to the measurement
minus the end-to-center dimension of
the fitting plus the length of thread
engagement.
hot-water heater and to the fixtures c. Face-to-end measure. Face-to-
and other outlets shows that the end measure (2, fig 5-24) is also used
fittings required are as follows: for a piece of pipe having a fitting
Number screwed on one end only. In this case
Item Size required the pipe length is equal to the
measurement plus the length of thread
(a) gate valve 2" 1 engagement.
(b) angle gate d. Center-to-center measure.
valve 2" 1 Center-to-center measure (3, fig 5-24)
(c) tee 2" x 2" x 3/4" 3 is used for a length of pipe which has
etc a fitting screwed on both ends. The
c. Again, tracing the hot-water pipe length is equal to the
lines from the storage tank to the measurement minus the sum of the end-
fixtures and other outlets, the to-center dimensions of the fittings
fittings required would be itemized as plus two times the length of thread
follows: engagement.
Number e. Face-to-face measure. Face-to-
Item Size required face measure (3, fig 5-24) is used
under the same circumstances as in d
(a) elbow (90°) 2" 1 above. The pipe length is equal to
(b) angle gate the measurement plus two times the
valve 2" 1 length of thread engagement.
etc f. Measuring offsets. When it is
d. After tracing all lines and necessary to run an offset with
determining the kinds and number of threaded pipe, use Figure 5-25 and the
fittings in each branch, consolidate following procedure. For example,
the figures into one bill of materials assume that a 45° offset with a 3-inch
similar to the one in table 5-9. pipe is to be measured, and the
e. To conserve critical materials, distance between the parallel runs A
certain military construction items center-to-center of pipe) is 40
inches. Then, from

5-27
5-28
5-29
5-30
5-31
5-32
figure 5-25, distance C (center-to-
center of the 45° elbows) is 40 times
1.4142, or approximately 56.57 inches.
A standard 3-inch 45° elbow (125 lb.
cast iron or 150 lb. malleable, screw 5-13. VALVE PROTECTION
type) is 2.17 inches end-to-center,
a. Use wrench on hex head near
and from table 5-10, requires a 1-inch
joint to prevent damage to valve.
thread engagement. Deduct 4.34 inches
(2 x 2.17) and add 2 inches for two b. Install valve in closed
thread engagements which results in an position. Chances of damage to working
end-to-end length of pipe of 54.23, or parts will be minimized.
54¼ inches. Table 5-11 gives end-to- c. Support pipe on either side of
center dimensions for 90° and 45° valve to relieve strain on the valve.
screw type elbows of 125 lb. cast iron d. Thread pipe to standard length,
and 150lb. malleable metal having so pipe will tighten before striking
nominal diameters ranging from ¼ inch valve seat.
to 6 inches. End-to-center dimensions e. Put joint compound on pipe
for elbows of other type, size, and threads, not on valve threads.
degree of bend may be found in any f. Use short wrenches to repair
good pipefitters handbook, or may be valves. A few taps with a hammer are
measured in the field. The center of better than a heavy, constant,
the elbow for this purpose is consi- twisting pull.
dered to be at the point of inter- g. Consult maintenance manuals for
section of the centerlines of the two repair procedures to avoid damaging
straight runs of pipe being connected. valves.
g. Copper tubing. Copper tubing h. Open valves part way to flush
is measured in the same way as out foreign matter in the seat. Open
threaded pipe. Allowance is made for valve wide, then turn back one-quarter
fitting dimensions (solder or turn to prevent jamming. Never close
compression type) and for the distance valve with one fast turn, as this will
the tubing is inserted into the cause water to hammer on valve.
fitting. Offsets for rigid type tubing i. Use globe valves for throttling
are calculated in the same manner as fast flows. A full flow around seat
for threaded pipe. It is generally will balance disk support in valve.
unnecessary to use fittings for j. Install automatic check valves
offsets with flexible tubing since in an upright position.
this type is easily bent.
5-14. SINGLE SHOWER

Install hot- and cold-water lines

on shower wall and globe valves in
each line. Connect long nipple and a
90° bend to each valve. Then, connect
two long nipples by a union to a tee
and connect the cold-water line to the
tee. Install tempered-water pipe in
tee and install the quarter bend,
pipe, 3/4 by ½-inch street elbow, and
shower head so shower head is 1 foot 6
inches from wall line and 5 feet 9
inches to 6 feet 1 inch above floor
(fig 5-26).

5-15. GROUP OF SHOWERS

The hot- and cold-water lines are

connected to the tempered-water line
in the same way as described for the
single shower. Connect each shower
head to the tempered-water line with a
tee. The shower head is attached to a
short nipple, chain valve, and a
street elbow. Each shower head has a
ball joint used to vary direction of
water flow.

5-16. WATER HEATER WITH

VERTICAL WATER TANK

Installation of the vertical tank

varies from the horizontal tank
installation only in the
position of the tank. The drain pipe
is connected with a tank nipple. c. Blowtorch and hot lead.
Careless handling of hot lead and
5-17. WATER HEATER WITH blowtorches may result in serious
RANGE BOILER burns. When pouring hot lead, wear
heavy, protective clothing; do not
This heater and boiler are bring hot lead near inflammable
installed similarly to the vertical materials; and keep out from under
and horizontal storage tank and hot-lead joints while they are being
heater. Cold-water supply pipe is poured.
installed in the tank using a
circulator-boiler fitting. Bottom end d. Protective clothing. Cut and
of cold-water pipe should open into bruised fingers and hands can be
range boiler approximately 8 inches avoided by wearing heavy gloves when
from bottom of boiler (fig 5-27). handling pipe. Heavy coveralls and
shoes and leggings will protect the
5-18. SAFETY RULES plumber from hot lead.

Plumbing is not a hazardous trade, e. Ladders. Ladders must be

if the plumber and his assistants are strongly constructed and in good
careful. By observing and enforcing a repair. When using a ladder, the base
few simple safety rules, time loss due must be held firmly by an assistant,
to accidents can be cut to a minimum. the siderails must be buried 4 or 5
Pick up scrap pieces of pipe. Keep all inches in the ground or supported by a
tolls and materials not in use off the block nailed to the floor, or the base
job. Keep floors dry, cover oily must be held in position by a rope.
floors with sand. The base of the ladder should be
placed one-quarter of the length of
a. Stockpiling materials. the ladder from the wall.
Stockpile materials far enough from
job so they do not interfere with f. Scaffolds. Serious accidents
installation. Stack materials may result if scaffolds are not well-
straight; brace and block stockpiles built and securely anchored. Select
carefully to prevent them from scaffold planks and bracing carefully.
falling. They should be free of knots, checks,
and cross-grained sections. To test
b. Maintenance of tools. Keep scaffold planks, block each plank 1
tools in good condition. Replace all foot off the ground and load it with
worn tools. Loose wrench jaws may three times the weight it must
cause a bad fall or broken knuckles. support. At the least sign of
Check hammer handles frequently. weakness, the plank should be
Never use hammers with broken or discarded.
cracked handles.
 REVIEW EXERCISES

Note: The following exercises are study aids. The figures following each
question refer to a paragraph containing information related to the question.
Write your answer in the space provided below each question. When you have
finished answering all the questions for this lesson, compare your answers with
those given for this lesson in the back of this booklet. Review the lesson as
necessary. Do not send in your solutions to these review exercises.

1. The plumbing system in a building has two purposes, one is to supply water
to various parts of the building. What is the other? (Para 5-1b)

2. In the waste system where does the building drain connect to the building
sewer? (Para 5-1e(8)(4))

3. What is the name of the fitting that prevents sewer gases and odors from
backing up through fixtures? (Para 5-1e(14))

4. In the design of a plumbing system why is it desirable to keep bends and

fittings to a
minimum? (Para 5-2c)

5. What documents are essential to making an accurate estimate of the amount

of pipe
required for any plumbing installation? (Para 5-3b, fig 5-10)

6. In the design of a plumbing layout for a temporary installation, what can

you do to reduce the amount of piping and fixtures required for showers and
lavatories? (Para 5-3c, fig 5-10)

7. Assuming availability of pipe sizes is not a problem, what are the two most
important factors in sizing a water service? (Para 5-4a)
8. Determine the maximum fixture demand for a plumbing installation which will
include four urinals, two water closets, two slop sinks, three shower stalls,
one laundry tray, and six lavatories. (Para 5-4a(2), table 5-2)

9. While many factors must be considered in determining pipe size, there is a

minimum size specified for the water service line. What is this minimum size
specified? (Para 5-4a(4))

10. Why is it undesirable to design hot water systems with dead ends? (Para 5-
5d)

11. All wastes from a building drain system pass through the building sewer to
the street sewer. What is a peculiarity of the drain-plan of a scullery sink?
(Para 5-6b)

12. Why is it necessary that vents be installed in conjunction with traps in

waste lines? (Para 5-7d)

13. You are designing a bathhouse to serve a maximum of 250 troops in a theater
of operations. What will be the minimum hot-water storage requirements in
gallons for this bathhouse? (Para 5-8e)

14. Bell-and-spigot joints are used commonly in plumbing work. What advantage
does this type joint have over threaded joints? (Para 5-9d)

15. Explain the best procedure to follow in preparing a bill of materials, to

insure that no items are overlooked. (Para 5-11a)
16. State the procedure you would follow in determining the length of pipe to
cut in an offset situation, with threaded pipe. (Para 5-12f)

17. In a plumbing system, what type of valve is used for throttling fast
flowing water? (Para 5-13i)

18. In the installation of a water heater with range boiler, where should the
cold water supply pipe open into the boiler? (Para 5-17)

19. When stockpiling materials at a plumbing job site, what should you consider
from the safety standpoint? (Para 5-18a)

20. To be in its safest position, how do you place a ladder against a wall?
(Para 5-18e)
 LESSON 6

SEWERAGE SYSTEMS

CREDIT HOURS . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

TEXT ASSIGNMENT. . . . . . . . . . . Attached memorandum.

MATERIALS REQUIRED . . . . . . . . . None.

LESSON OBJECTIVE . . . . . . . . . . Upon completion of this lesson on sewerage

systems you should be able to accomplish
the following in the indicated topic
areas.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1. Characteristics of sewerage systems. Define the characteristics and

estimate the quantities of sewage that will be produced by a military
installation.

2. Methods of disposal. Explain the methods of sewage treatment and disposal

most commonly used at military establishments, including dilution, primary and
secondary treatment, and chlorination.

3. Cesspools and septic tanks. State the characteristics and the differences
between cesspools and septic tanks.

4. Planning and design. Developed a basic plan for a sewage disposal system
based upon known requirements and criteria. From the basic plan, complete a
detailed design of a sewage disposal system.

5. Operation and maintenance. Outline all steps and procedures to be followed

in operation and maintenance of the sewage disposal plant.

ATTACHED MEMORANDUM

6-1. INTRODUCTION sewage make treatment difficult and

Personnel responsible for the petroleum vapors create an explosion
planning, design, construction, hazard in manholes and pipes. If the
operation, and maintenance of sewerage volume of such waste is small and
systems must be familiar with the other means of disposing of it are not
characteristics and quantities of practical, a combined sand and grease
sewage from military establishments trap may be used to clean the
and the methods of disposal and petroleum-contaminated water before it
treatment of the sewage, including enters the sewer system.
dilution, primary and secondary
treatment, and chlorination. b. Collections. Sewage collection
pipes are called sewers and, depending
a. Sewage. Sewage is the liquid on their function or location, may be
waste from latrines, showers, wash termed house-connection, lateral,
trays, and kitchens. Sewage collected branch, main or trunk,
in a pipe system may contain ground
and surface runoff waters, although
they are excluded from sewerage
systems in military installations as
far as possible. Waste water
containing oil or gasoline generally
should be excluded from the sewerage
system, since petroleum products in

6-1
bypass, or outfall sewers (fig 6-1). offensive appearance and odor.
Relief sewers generally parallel and Untreated sewage can be discharged
relieve excessive loads on existing into bodies of water if dilution is
lines. such that no nuisance health hazard is
created. The effluent from treatment
c. Disposal. Sewage must be plants may be disposed of similiarly
disposed of because it endangers or may percolate into the soil through
health. In populated areas, the irrigation and leaching systems.
method used also should eliminate Treated sewage also may be evaporated
into the air from surface irrigation
systems and oxidation ponds.

6-2
 d. Treatment. Where dilution is ample water supplies may use more.
insufficient to safeguard health, raw For airfields, cantonments, and the
sewage must be treated to eliminate like the average flow varies from 25
offensive conditions in the receiving to 50 gcd and for hospitals from 50 to
stream or body of water or to permit 85 gcd. This figure includes sewage
later use of the diluting water. of all medical personnel. Examples
and designs in this lesson are based
6-2. CHARACTERISTICS on 25 gcd, and must be varied if
a. Content. Waterborne sewage is sewage quantity estimates are changed.
99.8 percent or more water. The
remaining offensive matter is mostly 6-4. DILUTION
organic and consists of finely divided a. Stream flow required.
particles in suspension and solution (1) Stream flow required for
about 50 to 60 percent of the disposal of sewage by dilution depends
suspended solids and 35 percent of all on the strength and quantity of the
unstable matter, measured in terms of sewage, the density and nearness of
its biochemical oxygen demand, can be population to the streambank, and the
removed by settling in properly industrial or domestic use of the
designed tanks. Biochemical oxygen stream water below the outfall. A
demand, (BOD) is the amount of oxygen stream overloaded with sewage develops
which is required for stabilization sludge banks and surface scum, is un-
of the decomposable organic matter sightly, and emits an offensive odor.
through biological action. The BOD Table 6-1 is a guide for determining
remaining after primary settling can, the quantity of sewage that may be
be removed by the biological processes discharged into a stream, provided the
that take place in trickling or sand stream water below the sewage outfall
filters or in oxidation ponds and is not used for industrial and
other bodies of water. However, the domestic water supply.
BOD is normally not reduced to zero in
the facilities.
b. Strength. The strength of sewage
is measured by the amount of suspended
solids and by the amount of biochemi-
cal oxygen demand. BOD is usually
measured as oxygen demand in pounds
per million pounds of sewage over a 5-
day period at 20°C. Sewage strength
varies with the amount of water used.
The following figures are average
amounts of suspended solids and BOD
for theater of operations installa- (2) Military standards for
tions: dilution and sanitary conditions are
Item 1,000 people the same as those used in civilian
practice. If military expediency
25,000 to 50,000 necessitates substandard sanitary
Sewage flow __________ gallons/day conditions, they are corrected as
Suspended solids rapidly as possible.
(dry weight) ______ 270 pounds/day b. Disposal points.
BOD (5 days at 20°C)__ 200 pounds/day (1) Oceans and lakes. Sewage
6-3. QUANTITIES outfalls (discharge points) in oceans
The quantity of sewage that must be and lakes should be located as far as
disposed of varies with the number of possible from water supply intakes and
troops in the camp and the restric- swimming areas. Prevailing currents,
tions placed on the use of water. tides, and winds also should be con-
Flows generally range between 15 and sidered, so the sewage is carried away
50 gallons per capita per day (gcd), from the shore and intakes and
although permanent installations with swimming
areas. For best distribution, the (2) Rivers and streams. The
outfall should enter the body of water principles followed in locating
at the deepest portion. outfalls in rivers and streams are the

6-3
same as those for oceans and lakes. removed periodically, usually by
The discharge of the outfall should be pipeline, to sludge drying beds.
in the swiftest part of the stream, b. Secondary treatment. Secondary
not in the slack water close to shore. treatment (fig 6-3) is accomplished by
Where streamflow varies with the further treating the effluent after
season of the year, it may be primary treatment to obtain a higher
necessary to combine treatment with degree of purification. This does not
dilution during low summer flows. produce a clear and potable water, but
gives a product that can be discharged
6-5. TREATMENT into streams or ground water without
If treatment is required, the type contaminating them enough to make
of treatment and plant depends on the their purification difficult. The
quantity of sewage, soil conditions, secondary treatment of effluent is
materials and labor available, and the accomplished by one or more of the
climate. The Medical Department is following methods:
responsible for determining the degree (1) Irrigation.
of treatment required before disposal. (2) Oxidation ponds.
Treatment may be primary only or (3) Trickling filters with
primary and secondary, depending on final settling tanks.
the conditions controlling the (4) Sand filters.
disposal methods. (5) Leaching cesspools (a form
a. Primary treatment. Primary of irrigation).
treatment (fig 6-2) consist of
separating suspended solids from the 6-6. TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL OF SOLIDS
liquid sewage by settling, and The following processes are used in
stabilizing these solids by digestion, the removal of solids:
drying, or both (para 6-6b). Septic a. Screening and settling. Large
tanks, cesspools, Imhoff tanks, plain floating or suspended solids can be
settling tanks, separate sludge removed by a bar screen (fig 6-10).
digestion tanks, and sludge drying Primary settling tanks (figs 6-4 and
beds are used for various processes of 6-11) are used to settle out the
primary treatment. The effluent from settleable solids. The sludge is
the tank is disposed of by dilution or withdrawn from the tank bottom at
irrigation. The digested settled frequent intervals, and digested in
solids (sludge) in digestion tanks, separate sludge digestion tanks (fig
Imhoff tanks, or septic tanks are 6-4), and then conveyed to sludge

6-4
drying beds. However, in most military unless the soil is impervious enough
installations, preliminary screening to maintain a satisfactory liquid
and plain settlement are omitted and level. Tanks constructed of concrete,
the raw sewage is discharged directly steel, or wood are more common and are
into a septic or Imhoff tank that more satisfactory.
combines settling with sludge diges- (3) Septic tanks, Imhoff
tion. The sludge from Imhoff and tanks, and cesspools combine
separate sludge digestion tanks settlement and digestion and may be
contains about 95 percent water and is open or enclosed, as required by odor,
drawn off, following digestion, to the fly nuisance, and temperature control.
sludge drying beds. Sludge from (4) Following digestion, the
septic tanks is difficult to dry on moisture content of the sludge is
beds. It usually is pumped or bailed reduced to about 65 percent by air-
out, hauled from the site, and buried. drying on porous beds (with or without
underdrains). The dried sludge can
b. Digestion. be handled with a fork or shovel and
(1) Digestion is essentially a used in fill or as fertilizer.
controlled rotting or putrefaction
which changes the settled solids from 6-7. TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL
a complex organic material to a stable OF LIQUIDS
and inoffensive earthlike material.
(2) The simplest type of The effluent from settling tanks
digestion tank is an earth pit which (settled sewage) may be directly
can be used when odor control is not disposed of by dilution, irrigation,
essential. When earth pits are used, or evaporation and percolation; or may
they should be lined with concrete be further treated in oxida-

6-5
6-6
tion ponds, trickling filters, final cesspool (para 6-8) is required to
settling tanks, or sand filters, remove grease and suspended solids.
before disposal. The small quantity of The length of time the system can be
liquid (supernatant) from separate used depends on the permeability of
sludge digestion tanks is usually the soil and the preliminary removal
returned directly to the plain of grease and solids. In time, the
settling tanks at the inlet. ground and distribution system may
a. Irrigation. Settled sewage is become clogged and the area must be
disposed of by surface or subsurface abandoned, unless a thorough flushing
irrigation (fig 6-5) as follows: or cleaning permits further use.
(1) Surface irrigation. b. Oxidation ponds.
(a) Method. Where soil (1) Method. An oxidation pond
conditions are suitable and there is is a relatively large, shallow, arti-
no danger of contaminating ground ficial or natural pond into which set-
water or surface water supply, settled tled sewage is discharged for purifi-
sewage may be distributed over pervi- cation by sunlight and air. Single
ous ground and allowed to evaporate ponds or ponds in series may be used
and percolate into the soil. (fig 6-6); a series of three or more
(b) Recommended uses. is recommended. Bacteria feed on the
Surface irrigation requires a larger organic compounds in the sewage, the
area than other disposal methods. An supporting oxygen being absorbed from
arid climate with a high rate of the air in contact with the surface of
evaporation is favorable. It is the pond. This action converts the
practicable only where the soil is sewage into stable compounds free of
reasonably pervious. Surface irriga- annoying characteristics. Such ponds
tion is recommended especially for use may discharge into a natural waterway
in desert and wasteland areas having or may depend entirely on evaporation
sandy loam to gravelly soils, and and percolation for final disposal.
located far enough from populated (2) Recommended uses. Oxidation
areas to prevent any nuisance caused ponds are simple and economical and
by flies and odors. are recommended for use under the
(2) Subsurface irrigation. following conditions:
(a) Method. Subsurface (a) If complete treatment
irrigation avoids the odor and fly is required.
nuisance caused by surface irrigation, (b) If suitable location
but requires laying an underground is available ½ to 1 mile from
tile-pipe distribution system. An arid habitations.
climate is not necessary, but the soil (c) If prolonged freezing
must be pervious enough for does not occur.
absorption. c. Trickling filters.
(b) Recommended uses. (1) Method. A trickling filter
Disposal of the effluent from a septic (figs 6-3 and 6-4) is a bed of crushed
tank or leaching cesspool by subsur- stone, screened gravel, slag, clinker,
face irrigation is particularly suited or similar material which receives
to small installations because it settled sewage discharged from fixed
avoids above-ground sewage works and spray nozzles or a moving distributor.
eliminates long pipelines to the dis- As the sewage trickles down through
posal area. Such a system is easily the bed, the organic matter is stabil-
enlarged by adding septic tanks or ized on the film coating the filter
cesspools and extending the tile material through the action of bacter-
drains. In loam or sandy soils, a 16- ia. This film is normally a dark green
foot-deep, 4-foot-diameter leaching color on the surface, but it is a gray
cesspool normally provides sewage dis- gelatinous coating below the surface.
posal for four persons for about 4 Brown and black surface films are
years. indicative of poor performance. The
(c) Limitations. Some type effluent passes through
of primary treatment such as a septic
or settling tank or a leaching

6-7
6-8
6-9
the stone and is collected in a system of liquid is oxidized by the action of air
underdrains. Periodically some of the and bacteria in the gelatinous growth on
slime coating of the stone loosens and is the surface of the bed.
carried off with the filtered effluent. (2) Operation. Sand filters are
Final settling tanks are omitted in some operated in intermittent dosing, at least
cases but are desirable to settle out this 16 hours being needed between dosings to
slime and give a higher degree of allow the sewage to percolate through the
purification. bed and to permit air to fill the voids in
the sand. For continued operation, the
(2) Recommended uses. Trickling filter should be divided into 3 or more
filters are recommended for use in sections.
theaters of operations when complete (3) Limitations. While a high
treatment is required, provided the degree of purification is achieved by sand
following conditions are met: filters, the high cost and large space
(a) Required equipment is requirements limit their use. When such
available or spray nozzles can be obtained filters are preceded by Imhoff tanks, it
or improvised. is estimated that ¼ acre of sand filter
(b) Suitable crushed stone, bed 3 feet deep is required per 1,000
screened gravel, slag, or clinker is population; when preceded by septic tanks,
readily available. about 1/3 acre per 1,000 population is
(c) Simpler treatment methods, required.
such as oxidation ponds, are not (4) Recommended use. Sand filters
practical. are recommended for use where a high
degree of purification is required and
d. Final settling tanks. Final settling where natural sand beds that require only
tanks are used where the small quantity of leveling and the installation of drains
slime that accompanies the flow from the are already available.
trickling filter must be removed. They
reduce the velocity of flow to allow 6-8. SEPTIC TANKS AND CESSPOOLS
settlement of the slime and unsettled sol- In a cesspool (fig 6-7), the sewage is
ids. These are removed frequently to allowed to stand, the solids settle to the
prevent their becoming septic and are bottom and are digested, the grease and
disposed of with the sludge (par 6-6). floating materials rise to the top forming
a heavy mat, and the liquids percolate
e. Sand filters. through the side walls into the soil.
(1) Description. A sand filter Excess liquids are sometimes piped to a
consists of a bed of uniformly graded .01- subsurface irrigation or other system.
02-inch sand, a pipe or open-trough system Solids must be cleaned out periodically by
for distributing the effluent over the pumping or bailing. A septic tank
surface to a depth of 1 to 4 inches, and a (fig 6-7) is essentially the same as a
drainage system for removing the filtered cesspool, except that liquid does not
effluent. The sand beds are usually 2 to 4 percolate through the walls into the earth
feet deep, with open-joint-tile or and constant liquid level is maintained.
perforated-pipe drains surrounded by The sewage enters at one end and the
graded gravel and spaced at 12-foot solids settle to the bottom as the sewage
centers along the bottom of the bed. As slowly flows through the tank. The solids
the settled sewage seeps through the sand, at the bottom form a sludge that digests
most of the fine suspended matter stays on and is removed from the tank periodically.
the surface or adheres to the grains near The liquid is disposed of by dilution or
the surface. This matter develops into a irrigation, or is further treated as
gelatinous growth which is necessary for described in paragraph 6-5b.
proper treatment because it supports
growth of microbic organisms which break 6-9. CHLORINATION
down the organic matter. The gelatinous Chlorine can be applied to raw,
growth occasionally becomes a hard mat and settled, or treated sewage for
for this reason, the top layer of sand disinfection and purifica-
must be scraped off occasionally. The
dissolved organic matter in the

6-10
6-11
tion, to retard BOD, to reduce odors, (2) Location, grade, and
and to control the breeding of flies. required capacity of all lateral,
It is often used to disinfect the branch, trunk, and outfall sewers.
effluent during periods of reduced (3) If treatment is required,
flow in streams used for dilution and decision as to treatment method to be
during periods when a treatment plant used and location of treatment plant
must be bypassed for cleaning and (para 6-5).
repairs. Chlorine also can be used for (4) Method and point of final
continuous treatment where dilution is disposal.
inadequate. c. Preliminary investigations.
6-10. BASIC PLAN AND DESIGN Preliminary investigations are carried
a. Basic plan. Before beginning on while the basic plan is being
actual construction of a sewerage formulated and must be completed
system, a basic plan is prepared. This before final designs can be prepared.
plan, which is first drafted in sketch These investigations include:
form, shows the layout of the collec- (1) A study of existing
tion, treatment, and disposal facili- civilian or military maps and aerial
ties. In preparing the plan, the photographs with respect to natural
following must be considered: and artificial terrain features
(1) The oral or written job affecting layout and planning of the
directive, issued by higher head- system.
quarters, specifying that waterborne (2) A site reconnaissance to
sewage disposal will be provided. It check the results of the map study and
may furnish additional data on to provide additional design data.
anticipated population and other (3) Soil borings, if necessary,
requirements of the system. to locate the water table and rock or
(2) The requirements of the underground structures which would
sewage disposal system, determined by affect the excavation of trenches and
the answers to the following the elevation of the sewer.
questions: (4) Topographic surveys as
(a) Are all units of the required for the location and design
installation to be served by one of sewers, treatment plants, and
sewerage system or will two or more disposal systems.
systems be required? (5) Profiles along all proposed
(b) Is enough water sewer lines with elevations of
available for the operation of a critical house inlets.
waterborne sewage system? d. Design of component units. The
(c) What is the final design of units of the sewerage
anticipated sewage-contribution system, such as sewer lines and
population and what is the daily treatment plant, is completed after
quantity of sewage which must be the basic plan is formulated and the
disposed of (para 6-3)? preliminary investigations are made.
(d) Can the sewage be Military sewerage systems are designed
disposed of by dilution only or will for the most simple construction and
treatment be required (para 6-4)? operation. Only prefabricated equip-
(e) Is there an existing ment that is known to be available is
civilian system which can be considered. The elaborate processes
rehabilitated and used in connection common in civilian treatment plants
with the proposed military system? are not used in temporary military
b. Elements of the basic plan. The installations.
basic plan must include the following 6-11. SEWERS
information: a. Capacity.
(1) Location of all buildings (1) Sewer capacity is deter-
which are to be connected to the mined by the number of people the
sewage system. system serves, based on flow per cap-
ita per day (para 6-3). An allowance
of three times the average flow
is made in the design of all sewers and gcd is used in the design of the sewers,
channels within the treatment plant for the peak flow is computed on a 75-gcd
peak flows in the morning and late basis. Average flow is used in the design
afternoon. Thus, if an aver-age flow of 25

6-12
of plant units, including settling tanks when such design eliminates pumping or
and filters. excessive excavation. However, higher
velocities are more efficient, less liable
(2) In choosing pipe sizes, the to stoppage, and permit the use of smaller
time interval between peak flows and the pipes. Table 6-2 gives required pipe
rather large reservoir capacity of the sizes and slopes for various quantities of
sewers should be carefully considered. The sewage at the minimum velocities of 1.5
time interval between peak flows is and 2 fps.
frequently long enough for one peak flow
to pass from a lateral into an interceptor (b) Pumping. Pumping is
before the next peak flow begins. The necessary if the slope does not produce
capacity of the lines to hold part of the required velocity or where sewage must be
load as the flow increases also reduces lifted to a higher elevation. Sewage can
the peak loads on the interceptors and be pumped through pressure lines (force
outfall. Careful study of these factors mains) regardless of their slope, or it
may reveal that considerable economy in can be raised high enough at pumping
the selection of pipe sizes is possible. stations so gravity provides the required
velocity. The hydraulic principles in
(3) Ground water seeping into lesson 4 are used to determine the size of
sewers increases the required capacity. the pipe, the velocity of flow, and the
The amount of ground water that finds its horsepower requirements of pumps. Non-
way, into the sewer depends on the clogging centrifugal sewage pumps are most
tightness of sewer joints and manhole satisfactory for pumping sewage or, if the
construction the height of the ground- quantity is small, pneumatic ejectors can
water table, and the permeability of the be used. In emergencies, open impeller
soil. Where the sewer is below the water type centrifugal water pumps can be used
table, the infiltration may reach 10,000 for pumping well-screened sewage. Pumps
gpd per mile of pipe. are usually set in pairs to give 100-
percent standby service during maximum
b. Size. The size of sewer required to flow. When the sewage in a sump reaches a
carry a given capacity depends on the predetermined depth, a float switch starts
slope of the sewer and the resistance to a pump. When the sump is almost empty an
flow caused by the interior surface of the automatic switch stops the pump. The
pipe. The sewer should flow full at design starting-switch control of the standby
capacity. Pipes less than 4 inches in pump is set to start at a slightly higher
diameter are not used because they clog water level than the first pump and to
and require frequent cleaning. Four-inch stop at the same low-water level. Starting
pipe may be used on house connections; switches are set so pumps operate
however, six-inch pipe should be used if alternately, or the switch mechanism is
available. Lateral sewers must not be changed at frequent intervals so each pump
less than 6 inches in diameter and should operates about the same length of time.
be 8 inches or more. Pump motors are located so they do not
become flooded if they fail to function,
(1) Velocity. The flow, in a or a shutoff valve is provided to stop the
sewer must be rapid enough to prevent flow when the water level endangers the
suspended solids from settling on the drive unit. Pump stations may be entirely
bottom. Velocity in a sewer depends on manually controlled.
its size, depth of liquid, slope, and
coefficient of roughness of the pipe. (2) Resistance. Resistance to
flow offered by the interior surface of
(a) Slope. A sewer having a the sewer depends on the pipe material.
slope steep enough to produce a minimum Average resistance values have been
flow of 2 fps when flowing full is determined for various materials and are
generally desirable, although sewers may allowed for in pipe-flow charts and tables
be designed for a minimum 1.5-fps velocity (table 6-2 and fig 6-8).

6-13
 c. Type. Sewers may be built in Where sewers connect, a Y-channel is
many shapes and of many materials. formed in the base of the
Vitrified-clay, asbestos-cement, and manhole. If the flow is at least 3
concrete pipe are most common for mil- fps, lampholes (fig 6-9) are sometimes
itary work, although cast-iron, wood, used instead of manholes at the ends
steel, and bituminized-fiber pipe also of laterals and at alternated manhole
may be used. Cast-iron pipe may be locations where no junctions are made
used for shallow sewers placed under with incoming lines.
roadways, since there is a danger of 6-12. TREATMENT PLANTS
crushing other type of pipe. When a. Site. The main consideration in
pumping is necessary, the force main selecting the treatment-plant site is
should be cast-iron, steel, wood- the location of the final receiving
stave, or asbestos cement pipe. Sewers ground of diluting water. The treat-
can be improvised from local materials ment plant should be down-wind of
such as stone, brick, timber, or con- populated areas and far enough away
crete laid in trenches. They should be to avoid odor nuisance. Other factors
covered and made watertight to prevent influencing site selection are eleva-
infiltration of ground and surface tion above floodwater level and ground
water and to avoid unpleasant odors. slope for gravity operation. Unless
d. Layout. To avoid deep excava- there is a 10- to 15-foot drop through
tions, sewers are located along complete treatment plants to provide
natural drainage lines. If possible, gravity flow, sewage must be pumped.
they are not laid longitudinally under b. Layout. Figure 6-2 shows the
roadways. Road crossings are kept to a layout of a standard type treatment
minimum. Where necessary, road cross- plant. All treatment plants should
ings are reinforced by placing a have a bypass for use during repair
low-grade concrete in the trench to a and maintenance. Plants serving more
level of 4 inches above the top of the than 10,000 persons generally are
pipe. In traffic areas, sewers should built with multiple tanks, filters,
be covered with at least 2 feet of and other facilities; and piping is
well-compacted earth. Connections arranged so parts of the plant can be
adjoining buildings may need only 1 bypassed for cleaning and repair with-
foot of cover. Manholes (fig 6-9) are out putting the entire installation
located at each change of direction or out of operation.
slope, also located at every change in c. Capacity. Designs of tanks,
pipe size; and generally are placed at basins, and other units within a
the end of each lateral. On straight treatment plant are based on the
sections of sewers, the maximum dis- average anticipated flow for the
tance between manholes is 400 feet if required retention period. All pipes
the sewer is less than 18 inches and and channels within the plant are
600 feet if greater than 18 inches. designed to

6-14
6-15
6-16
carry the peak flow at velocities not less septic tanks at small installations. A
than 2 fps. typical layout for subsurface irrigation
is shown in figure 6-5. The main
d. Materials. Concrete, brick or distributors are laid with tight, but not
masonry are the best materials for necessarily waterproof, joints. The tile
treatment-plant construction. Local stone pipe of the laterals, usually 4 to 6
and similar building materials should be inches in diameter, is laid with a ¼- to
used where economical. Light steel tanks 3/8-inch gap between sections, the top
are suitable where anticipated period of two-thirds of the joint being covered with
use is short. It is recommended that wood roofing paper. If perforated bituminized
be considered in planning temporary fiber pipe is available, it is laid with
installations be-cause of the saving in split collar joints and perforations
cost and labor. However, wood construction downward. Laterals are laid in a gravel
requires more maintenance than masonry or filled trench with about a 6-inch fall per
concrete. 100 feet for unregulated flow and about a
4-inch fall per 100 feet where a dosing
6-13. SURFACE IRRIGATION system is used. Laterals are spaced 5 to
100 feet long. The length of tile drain
a. Rate of application. Disposal rates system is computed using a test hole dug
of sewage by surface irrigation vary with to the depth of the proposed tile drains
the permeability of the soil, ranging as (para 6-13 and table 6-4).
high as 60,000 gallons per acre per day.
To estimate the rate of application, dig a
hole 1 foot square and 1 foot deep and
fill it with water. When the water has
seeped away, but the bottom of the hole is
still wet, pour 6 inches of water in the
hole and note time required for water
level to drop 1 inch. Use table 6-3 to
determine rate of sewage application.
Surface irrigation areas are operated on
the principle of intermittent dosing.

b. Ground recovery. Ground used for

surface irrigation must be rested. With
use, the surface will clog and must be
scraped off. Allowance for resting,
recovery, and rainfall is included in
table 6-3.

6-15. SCREENS

Screens (fig 6-10) can be used for

removing large solids from sewage before
it enters pumps or treatment plants. For
rough screening, bars are installed
longitudinally in a channel, 1 to 1«
inches apart, clear measurement. The bars
should have a slope of approximately 1
vertical to 2 horizontal. Screens with 1-
inch openings collect 1 to 3 cubic feet of
screenings per million gallons of sewage.
Screens are usually built with an overflow
bypass so a clogged screen does not cause
a stoppage. Screens are cleaned by hand.
6-14. SUBSURFACE IRRIGATION 6-16. PLAIN SETTLING TANKS
Settled sewage can be disposed of by Plain settling tanks (fig 6-11) permit
subsurface irrigation, a method commonly settling of the suspended solids in
used in conjunction with cesspools or sewage, a

6-17
6-18
6-19
process called plan sedimentation. and liquid are removed from such pits
Sewage is detained in the tank long by gravity flow if possible, otherwise
enough and at velocity low enough so by pumping.
suspended matter settles out. However, b. Design procedure.
if retention period is too long, the (1) Tank dimensions are deter-
settled solids will decompose. Sludge mined by the following calculations:
from these tanks goes to separate (a) Detention period in
sludge digestion tanks, while the hours times gcd times contributing
effluent is usually further treated in population divided by 180 equals cubic
trickling filters, sand filters; or feet of tank capacity required.
oxidation ponds. (b) The required tank
a. Design factors. Factors consi- capacity in cubic feet divided by the
dered in designing settling tanks are depth, which should not exceed 10
the quantity of sewage to be handled, feet, gives the surface area.
velocity of flow, length of detention (c) In rectangular tanks
period, the dimensions required, me- the ratio of length to width should
thod of sludge removal, and available not exceed 5 to 1 and is preferably
materials. about 3 to 1.
(1) Velocity of flow. The (2) Additional allowances are
average velocity through the settling necessary in the design of a tank to
tank should not exceed 1.25 feet per provide free-board and allow space for
minute at the peak rate of flow and the sludge. Slopes of the sludge
preferably should be less. hopper should be at least 1½ vertical
(2) Detention period. Detention to 1 horizontal.
period within the tank varies from 2 6-17. SEPARATE SLUDGE DIGESTION TANKS
to 3 hours for average flow, 2 or 2½ Raw sludge from settling tanks may
hours being recommended. be discharged into sludge digestion
(3) Dimensions. tanks for septic decomposition. The
(a) Typical tank dimen- solids, when first deposited in the
sions, exclusive of sludge space and tank, form a thin low-density sludge.
freeboard, based on 2½-hour detention As decomposition progresses, digested
and 7-foot depth, are-- material settles to the bottom. As the
10 by 25 ft for 5,000 population depth of sludge increases, the solids
12½ by 40 ft for 10,000 population in the bottom compact. Thus the sludge
20 by 50 ft for 20,000 population in the tank varies greatly in fluidity
(b) Tank depths vary from from top to bottom. The rate at which
5 to 10 feet, 7 feet being average. digestion and the resulting change in
(c) Inlets and outlets fluidity take place depends on temper-
must be large enough to carry peak ature and alkalinity, which should not
flows. Baffles should be used at in- fall below a pH value of 6.8. In
lets so flow is distributed through- temperate climates where the average
out the tank and weirs at outlets so temperature is about 60°F, sludge
effluent is drawn from the surface for tanks should provide storage for 2
the full width of the tank. The outlet months. This period of digestion
flow is regulated by an adjustable produces a well-digested, inoffensive
weir. sludge that dries rapidly.
(4) Sludge removal. Some tanks a. Design factors. Separate sludge
have hopper bottoms (fig 6-11) facili- digestion tanks should provide 3 cubic
tating sludge removal by the water feet per capita in plants using
pressure of the sewage in the tank. partial treatment only, and 4.5 cubic
Sludge must be removed daily. feet per capita in plants that return
(5) Materials. Brick or stone the sludge from final settling tanks
masonry, gunite, sheet metal, or wood to the plain settling tank or directly
may be used to construct settling to the sludge digestion tank. The
tanks. In firm ground such as clay, an design basis allows a reasonably deep
unlined pit may be feasible. Sludge stratum of clarified
supernatant which is withdrawn from facilities, tank capacity may be
the digester. In tropical climates or reduced to two-thirds of the above
in installations having sludge-heating volumes. Sludge tanks are preferably

6-20
15 to 25 feet deep, but practical
construction may limit the depth to 10
or 15 feet.
b. Types of tanks. The simplest
type of digestion tank is an uncovered
earth basin which receives the settled
sludge from the settling tank by
gravity flow. Digested sludge is drawn
off at the bottom, which should be
cone or hopper shaped to facilitate
the outflow of sludge. Concrete-lined
tanks are preferred, although brick or
some masonry, gunite, sheet-metal, or
wood tanks may be used. In firm ground (1) Dimensions. Tank capacity
such as clay, an unlined pit from should be about two-thirds of an aver-
which the sludge and liquid are age day's flow which will give a nomi-
removed by pumping may be feasible. nal 16-hour retention. Tanks holding
The scum and hard mat that forms on less than 500 gallons are not practic-
the surface should be broken up and able. Septic tanks are usually rec-
forced down into the sludge. tangular in shape, the length being
6-18. COMBINATION SETTLING AND two to three times the width; depths
DIGESTION TANKS vary from 4 to 12 feet. 7.48 gallons
a. Leaching cesspools. Leaching equal 1 cubic foot.
cesspools (figs 6-7 and 6-12) are (2) Baffles. Baffles are placed
closed or covered pits, usually with near the inlet and outlet to diffuse
masonry walls without mortar and an the flow and to prevent scum from
unlined bottom through which liquids passing out with the liquid effluent.
percolate into the surrounding soil. (3) Sludge removal. Large tanks
Solids settle to the bottom of the pit are designed with a sloped or hopper-
where they are digested. Occasionally, shaped bottom which aids in the con-
it may be necessary to pump or bail centration of the solids in the
the pit out with a bucket. Size can be removal of the sludge. The sludge is
determined by the test described in removed periodically through gravity
paragraph 6-13 and table 6-5 although drain lines or by pumping.
this test is strictly applicable for (4) Dosing.
settled sewage only. Leaching cess- (a) A dosing chamber with an
pools range from 4 to 6 feet in dia- automatic siphon is desirable in large
meter and from 6 to 20 feet deep. tanks when the effluent is disposed of
Masonry-lined walls are laid dry with by subsurface irrigation. The capacity
open joints to the high-water line. If of the dosing tank is usually about 80
more than one cesspool is required, percent of the volume of the tile
they are connected in series and are drain system it serves. A dosing
located at least 20 feet apart. chamber has two purposes: it permits
b. Septic tanks. Septic tanks (fig discharging the effluent at intervals,
6-13) are normally not used when popu- thus allowing time for one dose to
lation exceeds 500. They are generally enter the soil and for air to fill the
watertight and discharge their efflu- pores before another dose is received;
ent into subsurface irrigation sys- and it distributes effluent uniformly
tems, oxidation ponds, leaching cess- over the entire area.
pools, or directly into a waterway. (b) The action of the dos-
Solids settle to the bottom of the ing siphon is as follows: As liquid
tank where they are digested. rises in the dosing chamber, air trap-
ped in the dome covering the outlet
siphon is compressed and forced
downward through the longer leg.
Further

6-21
6-22
6-23
rise in liquid level forces the air static head of 4 to 6 feet. In open
around the bend, allowing it to escape channels, a 1:40 slope is adequate.
through the shorter leg. Water rushing b. Drying beds without drains.
into the dome to replace this air Natural sludge drying beds without
starts siphon operation, which con- underdrains are constructed by
tinues until liquid level drops below building earth dikes. They should
bottom rim of dome, breaking the provide 3 to 4½ square feet of surface
siphon action and stopping the flow. per capita, depending on climate and
Adjustment in flushing head is made by permeability of the soil. Liquid
changing the length of the nipple on sludge from the digestion tank is
the air vent pipe. applied about 12 inches deep. When
c. Imhoff tanks (figs 6-14, 6-15). dried, it contains about 65 percent
(1) An Imhoff tank consists of an moisture and forms a cake about 4
upper compartment for settling out inches thick. This cake is removed
solids from the slowly flowing sewage with a fork or shovel.
and a lower compartment for digesting c. Drying beds with drains.
the sludge. The upper compartment (1) Underdrain sludge drying
forms a channel with an approximately beds (fig 6-16) consist of a surface
8-inch slot in the bottom. Sides of layer of sand 6 to 12 inches thick, a
the slot have a 1 horizontal to 1½ 6- to 12-inch layer of gravel below
vertical slope and are overlapped to the sand, and underdrains below the
prevent gases formed by digesting gravel layer. The underdrains should
sludge from escaping into the upper or be 4- to 6-inch open-joint or perfor-
"flowing-through" compartment. With an ated pipe spaced 10 to 20 feet apart
average flow, solids settle in the and should be laid in a V-shaped
upper compartment in 2 to 2½ hours, trench and surrounded with coarse
pass downward through the slot, and gravel. The required area of a sludge
settle to the bottom of the lower bed is 1 to 1½ square feet per capita;
compartment where they are digested. the maximum length is about 100 feet.
Accumulated solids are removed peri- The bed is subdivided into sections by
odically through a sludge drawoff pipe wood or masonry curbs spaced midway
having its inlet about 1 foot above between the drain pipes.
the tank bottom. (2) Characteristics and handling
(2) Design of the upper of of sludge are the same as for natural
"flowing-through" compartment is based beds. Drying requires 2 to 4 weeks,
on the retention period. The lower or depending on humidity and rain-fall.
digestion compartment is designed to Sand removed with the sludge must be
hold 3 cubic feet per capita below a replaced when the thickness of the
plane 18 inches beneath the bottom of sand layer is reduced to 4 inches.
the slot. If sludge from secondary 6-20. TRICKLING FILTERS
settling is returned to this compart- A trickling filter (fig 6-17) is a
ment for digestion, the capacity of bed of stone constructed with under-
the compartment must be increased to drains and equipped with sprinklers or
4½ cubic feet per capita. a distributor to spread settled sewage
6-19. SLUDGE DRYING BEDS evenly over the surface. The size of
a. Lagoons. Sludge from Imhoff and the filter bed is determined on the
digestion tanks can be disposed of in basis of about 0.35 cubic yard of
lagoons or can be dried on natural or stone per capita. Desirable hydraulic
artificial beds. Sludge lagoons should head between the lowest liquid level
be about 6 feet deep and large enough in the dosing chamber and the center
to provide a 6-month storage capacity, of the rotary distributor arm is 10 to
about 4 cubic feet per capita. The 12 inches. If sprinkler nozzles are
sludge is removed from the lagoons by used, head should be sufficient to
hand or by mechanical loading equip- discharge the maximum flow at the low-
ment and buried. Sludge pipes should water level in the dosing tank. This
have at least a 3-percent slope plus a usually requires a 6- to

6-24
6-25
10-foot head from the high-water level b. Underdrains and main discharge
in the dosing tank to the sprinkler- channels. Underdrains may be either
nozzle outlet. whole or half tile laid with open
joints, or a grillage of 2- by 4-inch
a. Filter material. Crushed stone timber laid on edge. The underdrain
is the best filter material, but system must be constructed so all
gravel, coke, clinker, broken brick, parts of the filter bed are
or slag can be used. To permit maximum ventilated.
voids for passage of sewage and air
for ventilation, filter material c. Distributing systems. Settled
should be reasonably uniform in size sewage must be distributed evenly over
--1½ - to 3-inch stones are best. The the filter surface. Rotary
filter layer should be 5 to 8 feet distributors generally are used. The
deep. force of the sewage leaving the

6-26
distributor causes it to rotate, d. Dosing tanks. A dosing tank with
spreading the flow evenly over the an automatic siphon or an impovised
surface of the bed. Recovery periods float valve is essential to filter
should about equal discharge periods. operation. Dosing tanks must be large
enough to handle peak flows.

6-27
6-28
Rest periods between doses vary with a. Disinfectants, such as liquid
the flow; under peak flows discharge chlorine or calcium hypochlorite, may
may be continuous. be added to sewage in emergencies to
6-21. FINAL SETTLING TANK safeguard health and prevent odor and
The effluent from trickling filters fly nuisances. They are sometimes used
should be passed through final settl- during periods of low stream flow when
ing tanks to remove the bacterial gel there is not enough stream water for
which forms on the filter stone and proper dilution. They also may be used
peels off into the effluent. Sludge when a part of a plant is bypassed
obtained from final settling tanks is during cleaning or breakdown.
about one-half the volume obtained b. Chlorine effectively delays BOD
from primary settling tanks. It can be and sometimes is used to delay the ox-
run directly to drying beds or prefer- ygen demand until the sewage reaches a
ably returned to the digestion tank. body of water large enough to provide
Final settling tanks should be large the oxygen required. It is effective
enough to provide a 2- to 2½-hour also in killing disease-producing
detention period at the average rate organisms if the contact period and
of flow. The sludge should be removed the chlorine concentration are suffi-
daily to prevent septic action. The cient and if all particles are finely
slope of the hopper bottom is 1 to 1 enough divided to permit chlorine
or steeper. Side water depth of final contact.
settling tanks should not be more than c. Should conditions be such that
10 feet. Other details of construction through failure of power or equipment
are the same as for plain settling there is a possibility of contaminat-
tanks. ing a water supply with raw sewage,
6-22. OXIDATION PONDS provisions should be provided for
The design of oxidation ponds is chlorinating at a rate of 200 pounds
governed by the following factors: per million gallons at the 4-hour rate
a. Capacity of the pond is based on of sewage flow. In other cases where
a 30-day storage period. At a 25-gcd chlorination is required, provisions
average flow, the required volume per should be made for chlorination at a
capita is 100 cubic feet. rate of 125 pounds per million gallons
b. Only the volume of the pond at the 4-hour peak rate of sewage
above a 2-foot depth is considered flow. The 4-hour peak rate is consi-
when the total ponding area is 5 acres dered to be 175 percent of the average
of less; when the ponding area is daily rate of flow. Chlorine can be
larger, only the volume above a 3-foot applied by mechanical chlorinators or
depth is considered. contact chambers.
c. Use 50 square feet of surface 6-24. SEWER MAINTENANCE
area per person for ponding areas less Sewer maintenance consists of
than 5 acres and 33 square feet per repair and cleaning.
person for larger installations. For a. Repair. Sewer repair consist
best results, three or more ponds principally of replacing broken man-
should be used in series. They may be hole covers and ring assemblies and
separated by narrow dikes or may be cracked or crushed lengths of pipe. To
more widely spaced, depending on the install sections of bell-and-spigot
terrain and economy of construction. clay pipe, chip off half the bell of
Where it is possible to construct the the length to be inserted and the up-
ponds at different elevations, the per portion of bell on the section of
flow from one to another should be pipe below the gap. Insert and turn
over a wide and shallow weir to permit the new section so the unchipped half
maximum aeration and oxidation of the of the bell is on the bottom. Complete
sewage. Where topography permits, a the joint mortar or mastic.
series of weirs, usually called a b. Cleaning
cascade, is used to secure maximum (1) Stoppages. Clearing stoppages
aeration. is the most important item of sewer
6-23. USE OF DISINFECTANTS mainte-
nance. Tree roots often penetrate scum, or sewage backed up in a manhole
pipe joints and clog sewers. Large indicate that repair or cleaning is
objects and deposits decrease or stop required.
the flow. Sluggish flow, accumulated

6-29
 (2) Methods. observe and aid the other if
(a) Sewers are cleaned by necessary. A rope may be tied around a
wooden push rods, flexible steel rods, man before going below ground to lift
wooden balls, or flushing (fig 6-18). him out if he becomes unconscious. If
Push rods 4 feet long are joined chemical detectors for carbon monoxide
together and pushed through the sewer are not available, a caged bird
from manhole to manhole. Special tools lowered into a manhole may be observed
can be attached to the first rod to for the effects of gas or a deficiency
clear deposits or cut tree roots. Use of oxygen. A strong concentration of
of rods is difficult when the distance carbon monoxide makes a man uncon-
between manholes is over 300 feet. The scious almost immediately, and death
flexible steel rod is pushed into a can be avoided only by artificial
sewer in a manner similar to the push respiration. Oxygen deficiency has
rods. It is rolled when not in use. effects similar to carbon monoxide and
(b) Wooden balls of one- is treated in the same manner. It is
half or three-fourths the diameter of overcome by opening manholes and
the pipe can be used to clean deposits forcing in air with a blower.
from sewers. They are placed in the d. Dangers to health. Sewer workers
sewer and recovered by placing a are exposed to many infectious
coarse screen in the manhole diseases through skin abrasions and to
downstream. The sewage backed up waterborne diseases such as typhoid
behind the ball escapes around it at fever, paratyphoid fever, and amebic
high velocity, scouring out solids dysentery. Personal cleanliness and
deposited in the pipe. immunizations as directed by local
(c) Sewers can be flushed medical authorities are the best
out by damming the outlet in a manhole health protection for workers.
with a sandbag, and then removing the
bag with a rope after the manhole is 6-25. MAINTENANCE OF TREATMENT PLANTS
partically filled. This releases back- a. Cesspools and septic tanks.
up sewage, scouring out deposits. Care Large cesspools and septic tanks
must be taken not to back up sewage should be inspected for depth of
into fixtures and inlets in buildings. sludge. They should be cleaned and the
(d) Discarded fire hose sludge pumped or bailed out when it
also can be used for slushing. Water exceeds one-quarter of the tank
pressure makes the hose stiff enough depth.
to be pushed through short lengths of b. Surface-irrigation. Surface-
pipe. irrigation disposal areas are scraped
c. Accident prevention. Sewer gas, by machine or by hand when the surface
methane, hydrogen sulfide, or gasoline becomes clogged. The extent of clog-
and oil drained into sewers may ging is determined by the time requir-
produce explosive mixtures which are ed for drainage. A caked surface is
easily ignited. Carbon monoxide is cleaned to keep the sewage solids from
particularly dangerous because it working down into the bed, and then
is often present in sewers and is not plowed or harrowed if necessary.
perceptible to the human senses. It c. Screens. To prevent clogging,
may cause a slight headache preceding screens must be frequently inspected
unconsciousness. Although some of the and cleaned whenever necessary. Bar
lighter gases can be removed by and coarse-mesh screens can be cleaned
opening manholes, the weight of carbon by raking out the debris, which is
monoxide is about the same as air and then dried, and burned or buried.
it can be removed only by using a Small-mesh screens can be changed when
blower. Sewer repair men should work they become clogged, since they are
in pairs, one staying above ground to usually in removable frames.

6-30
 d. Plain settling tanks. The e. Imhoff tanks.
sides of plain settling tanks must be
kept free of scum. Sides can be (1) Scum in Imhoff tanks is
washed and cleaned with a rubber-edged removed from the flow channel in the
squeegee. A scum shovel can be made same way as from plan settling tanks.
from a coal shovel bent at right The slot is cleaned by dropping a
angles to the handle. A skimmer made chain through it and dragging the
from ¼-inch wire-mesh screen is also chain along the slot. Sludge is
useful. Sludge is drawn off at least withdrawn frequently in small amounts
once a day, preferably more often. rather than at long intervals and in
Sludge removal is stopped when sludge large quantities. Ripe sludge is
becomes thin. black, nearly odorless, and granular.
Brown or gray sludge is not completely
digested and should not be withdrawn. Sludge is withdrawn more frequently in
warm weather to provide maximum dry in 2 weeks. Sand lost by removal
storage space for winter operation of sludge must be replaced when it is
when sludge digestion is slow. The reduced to a thickness of 4 inches.
sludge should be kept at least 18 Sludge discharged onto a bed that has
inches below the slot at all times. not been cleaned does not drain or dry
properly.
(2) The most common difficulty
in the operation of Imhoff tanks is h. Trickling filters.
foaming or boiling, which causes a (1) Dosing tanks and siphons
violent disturbance and mixing of feeding trickling filters must be kept
sludge in the digestion compartment. clean to prevent clogging. Slime is
Foaming may be partially controlled by cleaned from distributor nozzles with
applying the following methods: a stiff brush and sticks and branches
are removed. Distributor arms are
(a) Always keep some flushed once a week by opening the end
digested sludge in the tank. gates. The distributor arms can be
(b) Break the surface scum raised or lowered to secure even
by wetting it down. distribution. For cold-weather
(c) Push the scum down operation, dosing tanks are tightly
into the digestion compartment. covered to prevent freezing.
(d) Punch 3-inch holes in Distributor arms and filter walls can
the scum at 2-foot intervals and apply be kept free of ice by a coating of
up to 10 pounds of hydrated lime per heavy crankcase oil.
1,000 population daily. (2) Clogging or pooling of
trickling filters can be relieved by
Caution: Too much lime will stop washing the surface with a hose and
digestion and make conditions worse. moving the stone with iron rods or
(e) Add enough chlorine forks. An application of 8 to 10
to the sewage before it enters the pounds of chlorine per 1,000 square
Imhoff tank to provide a residual of 3 feet of filter surface will relieve
ppm at a point near the inlet. clogging in some cases.
(3) The fly nuisance, common
f. Separate sludge digestion in warm weather with trickling filters
ranks. Separate sludge digestion tanks having tight walls, can be controlled
function similarly to the sludge by plugging the filter outlet and
compartment of Imhoff tanks. Raw flooding the filter to drown the fly
sludge should be added and digested larvae. However, flooding removes the
sludge withdrawn frequently in small slime on the filter stone, which
amounts. Keeping the scum moist by overloads the final settling tank and
wetting it down aids digestion. produces a polluted effluent. An
Digestion is aided by controlling alternate method of controlling filter
feeding, temperature, and optimum pH flies is to add enough chlorine to the
control. settled sewage to give a residual of 3
g. Sludge drying beds. Sludge ppm, or to apply 100 pounds of common
should be run onto drying beds to a salt per 1,000 square feet of filter
12-inch depth or to a depth that will surface. As the life cycle of the
filter fly is 7 days, control measures
must be taken weekly.

REVIEW EXERCISES

Note: The following exercises are study aids. The figures following each
exercise refer to a paragraph containing information related to the question.
Write your answer in the space provided below each question. When you have
finished answering all the questions for this lesson, compare your answers with
those given for this lesson in the back of this booklet. Review the lesson as
necessary. Do not send in your solutions to these review exercises.
1. Under what conditions, if any, may untreated sewage be discharged into a
body of water? (Para 6-1c)
2. The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is the amount of oxygen required to
stabilize the decomposable organic matter in sewage by biological action. How
is it measured? (Para 6-2b)

3. What minimum flow in cubic feet per second, would be required to dilute the
effluent from a partial treatment sewage plant serving a 5000 population
installation in an otherwise sparsely populated area? The water below the
sewage outfall will not be used for industrial or domestic use. (Para 6-4a,
table 6-1)

4. Sewage may receive primary treatment only, or both primary and secondary
treatment. What does primary treatment consist of? (Para 6-5a)

5. In connection with sewage disposal, what is meant by secondary treatment?

(Para 6-5b)

6. Settleable solids are collected in a primary settling tank, then

transferred to a sludge digestion tank. What takes place during the digestion
process? (Para 6-6b(1))

7. The effluent from settling tanks may be disposed of, or further treated, in
several different ways. If disposal is to be made by irrigation, what soil
characteristic is essential to both surface and subsurface irrigation? (Para 6-
7a(1), (2))

8. Explain the function of a trickling filter in a sewage treatment plant.

(Para 6-5b, 6-7c)
9. What is the main difference between a septic tank and a cesspool?
(Para 6-8)

10. In addition to construction materials, labor, and time, what other

essential item must be found available before a waterborne sewer system should
be considered. (Para 6-10a(2)b)

11. In designing a waterborne sewer system you have determined that the average
flow of sewage from a military installation will be 30 gallons per capita per
day (gcd). What design capacity will you use for sewers and channels in the
system? (Para 6-11a(1))

12. What size pipe will be required to carry 1,000 gallons of sewage per minute
at a minimum velocity of 3.0 feet per second with a ground slope of 0.8 percent?
(Para 6-11b, fig 6-8)

13. What is the velocity in feet per second of an existing 10-inch sewer line
on a 0.5 percent slope? (Para 6-11b, fig 6-8)

14. A 12-inch sewer pipe is laid on a 3.5 percent slope. What is its discharge
capacity in gallons per minute? (Para 6-11b, fig 6-8)

15. List five situations, of conditions, which would normally require the
construction of manholes at certain points along a sewer pipeline. (Para 6-11d)

16. Assume that you have made the soil permeability test outlined in paragraph
6-13a and the water level lowered at the rate of one inch in five minutes. How
many acres would be required to dispose of sewage by surface irrigation if you
estimate it to be generated at the rate of approximately 240,000 gallons per
day? (Para 6-13a, table 6-3)
17. What is the approximate required capacity, in cubic feet, of a plain
settling tank for an installation of 12,000 population, if the average flow is
25 gallons per capita per day and you require a 2-hour detention period? (Para
6-16b)

18. What is the reason for installing baffles in septic tanks? (Para 6-18b(2))

19. What is the minimum area in square feet, that should be provided for a
sludge-drying bed with drains, for a sewage contributing population of 14,000?
(Para 6-19c(1))

20. In a cesspool or septic tank, at what depth of sludge accumulation must it

be pumped or bailed out? (Para 6-22a)
 LESSON 7

REHABILITATION OF UTILITIES

CREDIT HOURS . . . . . . . . . . 1

TEXT ASSIGNMENT. . . . . . . . . Attached memorandum.

MATERIALS REQUIRED . . . . . . . None.

LESSON OBJECTIVE . . . . . . . . Upon completion of this lesson on rehabilita-

tion of utilities you should be able to
accomplish the following in the indicated
topic areas.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1. Planning and estimating. Developed a preliminary plan and estimate materials

required for the rehabilitation of utilities damaged by demolition or combat
action.

2. Water supply. Prepare detailed plans and supervise work involved in

rehabilitating existing damaged water supply systems. Developed water
distribution systems and priorities, to include the local civilian population.

3. Sewage, garbage, and refuse. Make such plans and arrangements as are
necessary to insure that sewage, garbage, and refuse are disposed of in such a
manner that they do not result in contamination, disease, or other hazard.

4. Electric power. Plan and execute the rehabilitation of damaged civilian

electric power systems in combat or communications zones.

ATTACHED MEMORANDUM

7-1. INTRODUCTION 7-2. EXTENT OF WORK

a. This lesson covers the general The extent of rehabilitation by the

problems encountered in rehabilitating Army is governed by two factors.
utilities damaged by demolition or
combat action and suggests solutions a. Immediate military need. The
for these problems. The primary first consideration in rehabilitation
concern is the rehabilitation of muni- is the need of our own troops. Early
cipal utilities. However, in certain rehabilitation of such facilities as
cases it is also advantageous to port and transportation systems,
rehabilitate small private utilities, industrial plants, and repair shops is
such as those connected with vitally important to the military
industrial and manufacturing plants. forces. The supply of water and power
to repair and operate these facilities
b. The material in this lesson is must be provided as quickly as
confined to water supply, sewerage possible. The work can usually be done
systems, garbage and refuse disposal, most efficiently by local civilians
and electric power. Detailed planning familiar with the systems.
to determine materials, equipment,
troops, priorities, and the like can b. Civilian needs. Although civilian
only be made for specific operations. authorities are responsible for all
rehabilitation
not essential to the military effort, civilians from becoming a burden to
the Army must be prepared to furnish the Army through outbreak of disease,
those utilities necessary to prevent uncontrolled mass migrations, or other
economic problems. If civilians repaired more efficiently to meet
abandon a city before it is occupied, wartime requirements by modifying the
the selection and number of persons original system and substituting
permitted to return depend on their materials and equipment. Extent of
value to the military effort and on damage, possibilities of cannibali-
the available housing and sanitation zation, and available local stocks of
facilities. repair parts and materials are
7-3. PLANNING governing factors.
Normally, initial planning for b. Expedient repair. If time is the
rehabilitation of utilities is made limiting factor in the repair of
before physical reconnaissance. Basic certain utilities, completion of the
factors of preoccupation planning are job is more important than economy of
as follows: labor, materials, and equipment.
a. Reconnaissance data. All avail- c. Improvised repair. In making
able information regarding the area to improvised repairs, any suitable
be occupied should be gathered and material or equipment at hand is used
pertinent data extracted before the to meet immediate needs. Improvised
actual occupation. Sources of informa- repairs are improved as time and
tion are maps, aerial and ground supplies permit.
photographs, plans and specifications, d. Cannibalization. Utility systems
publications, intelligence reports, having identical or similar units may
and interviews with personnel familiar be restored sufficiently to meet mili-
with the area. Preparation of the tary requirements by robbing parts
reconnaissance report is simplified by from some damaged units to repair
using a form applicable to utilities. others.
b. Damage inventory. An estimated e. Use of civilians. Civilians
damage inventory is prepared from familiar with local installations are
reconnaissance data, showing the per- used to operate local systems, assist
cent of total destruction requiring in repair, furnish maps and charts,
all new material, the percent of par- and locate warehouses, stockpiles, and
tial destruction which can be repaired the like whenever possible. Their
by use of local material and cannibal- value in this respect cannot be over-
ization, and percent of minor damage. emphasized. Civilians employed for
c. Repair estimates. Priorities for, this work must be controlled by mili-
and extent of, repairs are based on tary authorities to prevent rehabili-
their value to military operations. tation beyond immediate military
Estimates of troops, equipment, and necessity. They must be carefully
material needed to make necessary selected to avoid possible sabotage.
repairs should be detailed. Plans for f. Local materials and supplies.
delivery of material and equipment are Local materials are used whenever
based on and coordinated with the possible so shipping space can be used
priorities schedule established for for more essential items.
the repair work. Provision must be 7-5. MINES AND BOOBYTRAPS
made for a stockpile of material and Mines and boobytraps are anticipa-
equipment in the occupied area. ted in any area previously held by the
7-4. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF enemy. When planning rehabilitation
REHABILITATION WORK work, it is reasonable to assume that
Some of the more important basic any installation will be mined or
principles for wartime rehabilitation boobytrapped. Therefore, the instal-
work are as follows: lations, surrounding area, and access
a. Substitution. Under some roads must be checked by trained per-
circumstances, damaged utilities, sonnel for mines and boobytraps. Civ-
particularly foreign systems, may be ilians can aid in detecting boobytraps
by recognition of irregularities.
7-6. WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS contamination, and lack of water for
a. Effects of damages. cooking and hygienic purposes results
(1) Damaged water supply systems in the use of untreated sources. The
produce conditions favorable to the more common diseases attributed to
outbreak and spread of disease. contaminated water are typhoid fever,
Damaged water mains are subject to cholera, and dysentery. Diarrhea may
also be caused by contaminated water.
An epidemic of any of these diseases reliable supply of water is necessary
seriously hampers military operations. for fire protection. If the available
rate of flow does not meet fire pro-
(2) Damaged water supply sys-tems tection demands, independent storage
may prevent the Army from using tanks or sumps must be located near
industries which would aid the mili- plants and facilities which have a
tary effort, but which are dependent military value. Basements of bombed-
on a supply of water for operation. out buildings may be used to store
water to meet firefighting require-
b. Procedure. The rehabilitation of ments. Salt water may be used for
a water system requires-- firefighting.
(1) Determining military and
minimum civilian water requirements. 7-8. TEMPORARY SUPPLY TO CIVILIANS
(2) Establishing a temporary Troops advancing into a damaged area
supply, pending restoration of service carry water and purification equipment
through the normal distribution to meet their own needs, but not
system. enough to supply a large number of
(3) Estimating the damage to the civilians. Therefore, if the civilian
normal system. water system is nonproductive, civil-
(4) Planning the rehabilitation of ian requirements must be temporarily
the normal system. provided by the Army until the normal
(5) Requisitioning and storing system is rehabilitated. This tempora-
materials and equipment, and securing ry supply may be provided by special-
labor needed. ly equipped units, such as the engi-
(6) Making the repairs. neer service teams, or by making tem-
(7) Testing and disinfecting the porary local arrangements. In either
system before returning it to use. case, a water source must be selected
and a distribution system set up.
7-7. CIVILIAN WATER REQUIREMENTS a. Selection of source. It is
a. Domestic use. For small communi- usually feasible to use the normal
source. However, if extensive engi-
ties or towns, a supply of potable
neering works in the system are
water for drinking and cooking is
destroyed, it may be more practical to
usually all that must be provided. For
select a new source. Operators of
large communities and cities, water
local systems can assist greatly in
must also be supplied for per-
selection.
sonal hygiene and waterborne sewage
disposal. Minimum requirements to meet b. Treatment. Water for temporary
these needs are as follows: 1/3 gallon civilian use must be treated to
per capita per day (gcd) for drinking prevent the spread of waterborne
only; 4 gcd without a piped system or diseases. Normally, disinfection with
waterborne sewage disposal; chlorine meets these requirements.
14 to 20 gcd with waterborne sewage When amebic cysts are suspected,
disposal. moderately clear water with a pH of 7
b. Industrial use. When estimating or less can be disinfected by adding
enough chlorine to produce a residual
water requirements for an area, the
slightly greater than 2 ppm after a
supply of water to industries is
30-minute contact period.
limited to those which can directly
aid the military operation. c. Distribution methods.
(1) Water distribution points.
c. Fire protection. An adequate and (a) Minimum civilian
requirements
of 1/3 gcd can be met by setting up (b) If water is available in
temporary water distributing points certain portions of the damaged
from which civilians may draw their system, hydrants on the edge of the
water. If a source is available at damaged area may be used to fill tank
each distributing point, the problem trucks which carry the water to resi-
is relatively simple. However, water dents of the damaged area. Users draw
must ordinarily be transported from water directly from the trucks or from
the source to the distributing point tanks set up at convenient points.
in tank trucks or cars or in temporary
pipelines.
 (2) Limited normal service. The debris should be removed and earth
distributing-point supply system surrounding the crater should be
should be abandoned as soon as the inspected for stability, as water from
normal system is repaired sufficiently leaks may cause the sides of the
to provide minimum needs. crater to cave in.
d. Contamination.
7-9. PLANNING FOR REPAIR OF (1) The retreating enemy may
NORMAL SYSTEM deliberately contaminate water supply
The thoroughness and detail invol- systems by placing bone oil, refuse,
ved in planning rehabilitation of the bodies, lubrication oils, or other
existing system determine the speed materials in wells, springs,
and effectiveness of repair. Local reservoirs, tanks, or the distribution
technical personnel, labor, and mate- system.
rials, and cannibalization of existing (2) A water system is easily
equipment, must be used to full advan- contaminated when water mains and
tage. All records of local systems, sewers which are close together are
such as distribution-system maps, fractured. If the water mains and
valve records, legend of symbol, and sewers are on a steep gradient, sewage
comprehensive maps, aid in rehabilita- may enter the water mains with enough
tion. Symbols are shown in figure 7-1. head to flow to the consumers' taps
below. Contamination may result when
pressure within the system is reduced
7-10. DAMAGE TO BE EXPECTED by broken mains, heavy draft for
a. Sources. Wells are usually firefighting, valve closures, and
partially filled with debris and walls supply failures which often occur
are damaged. Damage to springs or during enemy attack. Contamination may
galleries is usually confined to the also be caused by filth entering open
collecting system. mains through open ends or fractures
b. Storage facilities. during repair operations.
(1) Elevated tanks are generally
damaged beyond repair if toppled from 7-11. MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT
high supports. a. Pumps. Pumps are selected to meet
(2) Normally, small reservoirs are the head and discharge require-ments
totally destroyed, while damage to of each installation. The type and
large reservoirs is confined to dam number of pumps vary with the source
control works, intake structures, of supply and the system to be
walls, levees, or dams. operated. Tables 7-1 and 7-2 give the
c. Distribution systems. Damage to capabilities of deep-well and surface
distribution systems is normally pumps based on 24-hour operation.
confined to pumps, valves, aqueducts, Allowances must be made for time lost
and mains. Aqueducts and mains may be by shutdowns. If use of wells over 200
broken in one or more places. Hidden feet deep is anticipated, deep-well
leaks may occur at some distance from pumps must be selected carefully, as
the point of explosion, and may flow those sent overseas have a maximum
unnoticed into sewers and other under- head of 250 feet or less.
ground channels. When located, they b. Well-drilling machines. All wells
are repaired or bypassed. Before 8 inches or less in diameter can be
personnel enter a crater, overhanging drilled with
 valves for pump installations are
necessary.
(3) Adapter sleeves or couplings.
Two sleeves or mechanical couplings
for each open pipeline break per mile
and two per mile for miscellaneous
repair are needed.
(4) Tees. One tee of correct size
for each 5 miles of piping is
required.
(5) Elbows. One 45-degree and one
90-degree bend for each 3/4 mile of
piping are required.
(6) Wooden plugs. Breaks may be
stopped temporarily with wooden plugs.
(7) Dispensing units. Until the
normal distribution system is
repaired, provisions must be made for
dispensing water into hand-carried
containers. A 2-inch header with four
3/4-inch taps on each side spaced 10
feet apart serves 8,000 to 10,000
persons with an emergency supply.
Units should be installed at points
standard Army equipment. Special where water is available under
equipment is required for larger pressure. These units are usually
wells. made up to meet local needs.
c. Purification plants. The only new (8) Tanks.
equipment normally required to
(a) Requirements. Tanks are used
rehabilitate purification plants is
advantageously where continuous
pumping units and chlorination
pumping operation is not practical.
equipment. Coagulants can be intro-
Enough tanks must be set up to provide
duced into the water with a device
½ gallon of water per
similar to the expedient chlorinator.
capita for 5 percent of the population
d. Storage facilities. Normal
of cities. If sources are polluted,
construction materials and equipment storage tanks are also required for
are needed for repairing reservoirs, treatment and filtered-water storage.
dams, tanks, and galleries.
(b) Types. Tanks are usually
e. Distribution systems. Pumps,
standard prefabricated bolted steel or
valves, mains, and aqueducts usually standard knockdown wooden tanks.
require repair. All pumping equipment
7-12. REPAIRS
should be brought in. Stocks of pipe
As soon as the tactical situation
and valves are usually on hand locally
permits, work should be started on
but they may vary considerably in
restoring water supply, since water
size. Unless better information is
supply systems have a higher priority
available, a reasonable allowance to
in rehabilitation than other utili-
be brought in, based on miles of
ties. Suggested procedures for
piping and population served, is as
repairing municipal water supply
follows:
systems are given below.
(1) Pipe. Enough pipe is required
a. Location of pipes and valves.
to repair one 30-foot break per mile
Pipes and mains, valves, and pumping
of pipe in system. If pipe size is not
stations can be located from existing
known, pipe size selected is
maps. Local tech-
determined by anticipated volume of
pumps.
(2) Valves. One gate valve for
every 5 miles of system piping, one 2-
inch threaded valve for each 4,000
population, and suction and discharge
nicians can assist greatly in more than working pressure before they
interpreting maps and data. Mines are covered. To avoid tying up traffic
detectors can be used to locate mains by repairing long sections of a
and valves. system, it may be necessary to make
b. Repair or mains. repairs a block at a time. In this
(1) Repair difficulties. Water case, the line can be capped and
mains may be difficult to repair for tested by blocks.
the following reasons: 7-13. DISINFECTION
(a) Debris and craters may block The importance of disinfecting water
the approach for repair equipment. systems before returning them to
(b) Valves may be difficult to service cannot be overemphasized.
locate because of debris or because During disasters when the system is
reference points are destroyed. most likely to become contaminated,
(c) Craters may be filled with there may be a tendency to overlook
debris and water. disinfection.
(d) Subsoil under the main may be 7-14. SEWAGE AND GARBAGE
loosened by explosion or flooding. a. Effect of damage. Human wastes,
(2) Repair equipment. Standard garbage, and refuse must be properly
engineer construction equipment and disposed of in occupied areas to
materials, such as power excavators protect troops and to prevent epide-
and ditchers, compressors with acces- mics among civilians. If sewage enters
sories, pumps, dozers and shovels, a water supply, an outbreak of intes-
pipe-cutting and pipe-joining equip- tinal diseases such as typhoid, cho-
ment, and shoring and sheathing are lera, dysentery, and diarrhea is al-
usually adequate for most main most certain to follow. To prevent
repairs. such outbreaks, which hinder military
(3) Materials. operations, the Army may have to
(a) Mechanical joints and rehabilitate existing sewer systems
couplings are generally desirable and aid in disposing of garbage and
because they are quickly and easily refuse.
installed and because they resist b. Army responsibilities. In sewer
vibration and settlement. rehabilitation, the Army provides a
(b) Cast-iron pipe with mechan- minimum of equipment and materials,
ical couplings, iron or steel pipe may and only enough troops for supervisory
be used for making repairs. Steel pipe duties. Highly populated urban areas
is preferable to cast-iron pipe such as apartment-house districts
because it is stronger and lighter, depend almost entirely on water-borne
can be fabricated in longer lengths, sewage disposal systems, while smaller
has fewer joints, and is easier to communities can use temporary
transport and handle. Fire hose may latrines. Job priorities for the
also be used for temporary bypasses. overall sewer rehabilitation plan are
(4) Temporary repairs. Temporary based largely on the density of
repairs are made to control water population served.
wastage, maintain essential flow, and c. Classification of sewage. Sewage
permit the reopening of valves. These is divided into three classifications,
repairs may consist of plugging or according to its source. These
capping fractured mains or shunting classifications are given different
water around breaks with fire hose degrees of consideration in rehabili-
connected to the fractured pipe or tating a disposal system.
fire hydrants. However, permanent (1) Domestic sewage comes from
repairs should be made as soon as residences, institutions, and business
possible because bypasses interfere buildings and must receive first
with traffic, are likely to freeze in consideration in the rehabilitation
cold weather, and may not provide program.
sufficient supply. (2) Industrial waste is the liquid
(5) Testing. Repaired lines should resulting from manufacturing or
be tested for leaks under slightly industrial pro-
cesses. Disposal of these wastes is (3) Storm sewage is the runoff
the responsibility of the plant from during or immediately after storms.
which they originate. Disposal of storm sewage is considered
only when it may hinder military unimportant. Destruction of one would
operations by flooding critical areas. effect only one or a small number or
d. Classification of sewerage properties. Their wide dispersal
systems. Sewerage systems are classi- provides a large measure of safety.
fied according to the type of sewage
they carry. Sewers carrying domestic 7-16. MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT
sewage and/or storm sewage or indus- a. Pumps.
trial waste are combined sewers. Those (1) Portable, skid-mounted,
carrying only domestic sewage are centrifugal, gasoline-engine-driven
sanitary sewers. Storm sewers are pumps are the most suitable type for
those which carry only storm sewage use in rehabilitating sewerage
and surface runoff. systems. They must be of nonclog
e. Procedure. The rehabilitation of design capable of handling unscreened
a sewage disposal system requires-- sewage. Pumps with 4-inch intake and
(1) Choosing and establishing discharge are the most adaptable,
priorities for the areas in which since they can be used for draining
waterborne sewage is essential. craters, pumping around blocked
(2) Planning the rehabilitation of sections of sewers, and temporarily
sewage systems within the selected replacing damaged pumping stations. As
areas. many of these units can be installed
(3) Estimating the damage to as is necessary to handle the sewage,
sewers and sewage disposal systems. but if large amounts of sewage are
(4) Requisitioning and storing anticipated, larger pumps should be
materials and equipment needed. requisitioned.
(5) Making the repair. (2) Some smaller diaphragm pumps
should be included to move small
7-15. SEWER DAMAGE TO BE EXPECTED amounts of sewage or to drain numerous
a. Sewers. Most damage to sewers re- small craters. An estimate to the
sults from bombing or artillery fire percent of existing pumps which can be
and may occur anywhere in the system. restored by cannibalization can be
Deliberate demolition by the enemy is made from reconnaissance data.
usually limited to junction manholes b. Pipe and materials. Normal sewer
or large mains. Stoppages caused by construction requires clay products,
debris being blown and washed into which are usually available locally.
sewers can be expected. If no sewer pipe is available locally,
b. Pumping stations. The enemy may masonry or timber can be substituted.
destroy pumping stations deliberately Cement is brought in for masonry work.
because they are key points, are more A limited amount of steel pipe and
accessible, and are most difficult to hose for pump suction and discharge
repair. They are not likely to be lines used in bypassing, draining
damaged seriously by bombs or craters, and the like is brought in.
artillery fire since they offer a Pipe less than 4 inches in diameter
relatively small target. should never be used for sewage.
c. Treatment units. Treatment units
may be damaged by the demolition of 7-17. EMERGENCY REPAIR
machinery and other key equipment. a. Sewers. Sewers are the most
They are not profitable bombing essential item in a sewage disposal
targets. system. If the situation is critical,
d. Cesspools and septic tanks. service can be restored temporarily by
Damage to cesspools and septic tanks pumping from an upstream manhole,
from sabotage or bombing is relatively around the damaged section, and into a
downstream manhole. If the sewer is

completely stopped or badly damaged, b. Treatment plants. If treatment

an open channel can be built. Where plants are severely damaged, it may be
storm and sanitary sewers are necessary to bypass them. Settling and
separate, it may be possible to divert digestion tanks and filters can
sanitary sewage through a storm sewer usually be repaired with standard
to a suitable outlet. construction materials. Sludge beds
are practically indestructible.
Machinery must be repaired by 7-20. PRIORITY OF POWER ALLOCATION
cannibalization or improvised methods. Power is generally provided accord-
If compressed air is used in an ing to the following priority system:
activated sludge process, replacement a. Essential military needs, such as
of air compressors is difficult. hospitals, ports, and shops.
However, the activated sludge plants b. Essential public needs, such as
can be operated as sedimentation or water pumping, hospitals, and
septic tanks. Such treatment, together necessary sewage pumping.
with chlorination, gives a reasonable c. Industries beneficial to the
degree of purification. military effort.
d. Industries essential to civilian
7-18. GARBAGE AND REFUSE DISPOSAL health and welfare.
a. Problems. During wartime, refuse e. Nonessential military require-
disposal in a city be interrupted by ments, such as troop housing.
the enemy taking away or damaging the f. Civilian requirements.
collecting vehicles and equipment used
at sanitary fills. Incinerators are 7-21. RECONNAISSANCE
relatively unimportant as compared to a. Small isolated plants of
other utilities and may not be factories or large buildings should be
damaged. reconnoitered in addition to the major
b. Disposal. Garbage and refuse is plants. Often these plants escape
usually disposed of by incineration, enemy demolition because they are
sanitary fills, dumping, sale, or small and widely dispersed, and may
contract. furnish enough power to meet military
c. Plan of rehabilitation. requirements, since these requirements
(1) All available transportation do not need the total output of the
is listed and allocated. major system.
(2) Railway sidings are designated b. Initial reconnaissance is limited
for daily shipment of garbage and to obtaining information on enough
refuse to fills or incinerators, and equipment to supply immediate military
river or ocean barges are allocated demands. Complete reconnaissance is
for hauling and dumping into the the responsibility of civilian
ocean or other suitable body of water. agencies.
(3) Garbage-disposal contractors c. To aid in ordering repair parts
are instructed to use horse-drawn and in determining equipment which may
vehicles if enough motor vehicles are be shifted to another location to
not available. replace similar pieces of
(4) Equipment or transportation
should not be requisitioned until a
survey is made of requirements.
(5) Householders must burn or bury
their own refuse until adequate
disposal facilities are rehabilitated.
A common burial pit can be used for
apartment-house districts.

7-19. ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS

The following paragraphs describe
policy for rehabilitating damaged
civilian electric power systems in
combat or communications zones. All
military services coordinate their
electric power requirements through
the Corps of Engineers. Civilian
agencies are responsible for restoring
and maintaining the electric service
to fulfill civilian needs. Civilian
labor is used to meet these
requirements.
destroyed equipment, the complete Busses and connections ……... 40%
name-plate data are secured for each
piece of equipment. The extent of 7-23. MATERIALS, EQUIPMENT AND
damage to each piece of equipment is PERSONNEL
determined and the time and material Initial military needs are supplied
required for repair is estimated. by portable generator sets. In
d. Information regarding the extent rehabilitating electric power systems,
of damage and repair necessary can be cannibalization is the main source of
obtained from civilians. However, the supply. General items of equipment
Army must control such civilian aid to such as wire, insulators, and hardware
curb tendencies toward maintaining necessary to rehabilitate power
civilian standards in repairing systems supplying facilities needed
equipment. Maps and charts of trans- immediately by the Army (dock cranes
mission grids and distribution lines, or other harbor installations) should
showing location of substations, closely follow the assault troops. Ma-
switching stations, generating plants, terial and equipment for use in later
transformers, and oil circuit stages, or of less immediate
breakers, are useful in the initial importance, should not be shipped
stages of rehabilitation. until physical reconnaissance is
completed. Personnel should be
Caution. All circuits must be provided to make the reconnaissance as
thoroughly examined for soon as the tactical situation per-
enemy mines before they mits. Some new supplies and equipment
are energized. are always needed. A small number of
key personnel are required to operate
7-22. POWER DAMAGED TO BE EXPECTED and perform first and second echelon
a. Power centers. Damage is usually maintenance on portable generator sets
concentrated at the power centers and installed to furnish electric power
particularly at power sources. Typical for military and essential civilians
type of damage to be expected include- needs and to operate and maintain
(1) Punctured steam boilers. transmission and distribution lines.
(2) Smashed control equipment. Tables 7-3, 7-4, and 7-5 give approxi-
(3) Broken turbine blades. mate key personnel requirements.
(4) Damaged speed- and load-
control governor of turbines. 7-24. RESTORATION PROCEDURES
(5) Broken penstocks supplying a. Full advantage is taken of repair
hydro-electric stations. part stocks which each power plant
(6) Shattered insulators and maintains. Help is obtained from
bushings. former civilian plant employees. Key
b. Transmission and distribution men usually report voluntarily and
lines. Transmission and distribution solicit the aid of others.
lines normally receive little damage b. Oil from damaged transformers
in comparison with power stations. must be filtered before being reused.
c. Extent. Extent of damage to Motor oil is not satisfactory for
electric power systems for preliminary transformer use. A highly refined
planning can be based on the following mineral oil free from moisture of
average estimates: impurities must be used. The
transformer must be thoroughly dried
Installation Damage before filling with oil.
Power stations .....………..... 40% c. Wrecked buildings must be cleared
Transformer stations ……….... 35% of unstable walls and other hazards to
Switch gear .........……….... 30% protect repair personnel.
Transmission and distribution d. Holes in the tanks of the
lines .........……………………………………….... 5% transformers can be patched by
Transformers ......………...... 20% welding. Bushing can be
improvised and the transformers equipment by operating machines and
returned to service after the lost switches manually.
transformer oil is replaced. If the
coils are damaged materially, it is f. Damage to transmission lines,
not feasible to repair them. To test usually caused by artillery fire or
the coils and core of a transformer, bombing, is spasmodic, whole stretches
apply approximately one-fourth of the of good line being found between
rated voltage to the low-tension damaged sections. Towers are often
coils, and observe the transformer for repairable or new ones can be impro-
15 minutes. A fault is indicated by vised from available structural
abnormal heat, noise, or smoke. pieces. Conductors are spliced
together using wire-rope clips.
e. Remote-control equipment is Missing conductors can be replaced by
easily damaged. However, a plant may robbing unimportant lines.
be used without the remote-control

REVIEW EXERCISES

NOTE: The following exercises are study aids. The figures following each
exercise refer to a paragraph containing information related to the question.
Write your answer in the space provided below each question. When you have
finished answering all the questions for this lesson, compare your answers with
those given for this lesson in the back of this booklet. Review the lesson as
necessary. Do not send in your solutions to these review exercises.

1. Under what circumstances would the Army in combat, rehabilitate utility

systems for the local civilian population? (Para 7-2b)

2. An estimated damage inventory is prepared from gathered reconnaissance data.

What are the three categories into which damage is classified? (Para 7-3b)

3. When may it be appropriate to perform a utilities rehabilitation project

without regard to economy of labor, materials, and equipment? (Para 7-4b)

4. When preparing to rehabilitate a damaged water pumping station in an area

previously occupied by the enemy, what precautionary measure should you take?
(Para 7-5)

5. Evidence of an outbreak of cholera in a recently occupied city in enemy

territory would lead you to suspect what type of utilities problem? (Para 7-6a
(1))

6. For planning purposes, what is the minimum amount of water you must provide
for a small civilian community for drinking purposes only? (Para 7-7a)
7. What is the minimum daily water requirement for a city of 100,000
inhabitants, the city having waterborne sewage disposal? (Para 7-7a)

8. In planning of the water requirements for a city about to be occupied, what

criteria governs the amount of water to be allowed for industries? (Para 7-7b)

9. Upon occupation of a war damaged city you find it necessary to make

arrangements for temporary supply of water by tank trucks to distributing points
in the city. At what specific point in the water supply system rehabilitation is
the tank truck delivery discontinued? (Para 7-8c(2))

10. You are planning the rehabilitation of a water distribution system in an

area you are about to occupy. All you know is that there is 12 miles of pipe in
the system and it has undergone a normal amount of damage. How many feet of pipe
do you estimate you will need to repair this system? (Para 7-11e(2))

11. In the rehabilitation of a damaged water supply system, what very important
action must you take in addition to the repair or replacement of the damaged
parts? (Para 7-13)

12. Sewage is classified according to its source as domestic sewage, industrial

waste, or storm sewage. Which of the three must receive first priority in
rehabilitation of a disposal system? (Para 7-14c)

13. Sewerage systems are classified according to the type of sewage they carry.
Name the three classes and give the type of sewage each carries. (Para 7-14d)
14. What is the minimum size (diameter) of pipe that should be used for sewage?
(Para 7-16b)

15. If, in rehabilitating a sewage treatment plant you discover that the air
compressors used in the activated sludge process are destroyed beyond repair,
what action can you take to continue sewage treatment through the activated
sludge plants? (Para 7-17b)

16. What is probably the most common difficulty you will encounter in the
disposal of garbage and refuse in a city which has just recently been occupied?
(Para 7-18a)

17. Pending rehabilitation of adequate disposal facilities, how should

individual householders handle their refuse problem? (Para 7-18c(5))

18. Reliable information indicates that in the large, industrial city you are
about to enter, the major, municipal electric generating facilities are severly
damaged and repair parts are unavailable. What plan would you follow to try to
provide minimum requirements of electric power in the shortest time? (Para 7-
21a)

19. In rehabilitating electric power systems, what is the main source of supply?
(Para 7-23)

20. When testing a rehabilitated transformer, what observations might you make
if it is not functioning properly? (Para 7-24d)