npn BJT Amplifier Stages: Common-Emitter (CE)

1. Bias amplifier in high-gain region Note that the source resistor RS and the load resistor RL are removed for determining the bias point; the small-signal source is ignored, as well. Use the load-line technique to find VBIAS = VBE and IC = ISUP. 2. Determine two-port model parameters
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Small-Signal Model of CE Amplifier

The small-signal model is evaluated at the bias point; we assume that the current gain is o = 100 and the Early voltage is VAn = 25 V: gm = IC / Vth (at room temperature) r = o/ gm = 10 k ro = VAn / IC = 100 k Substitute small-signal model for BJT; VCC and VBIAS are short-circuited for small-signals

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Two-Port Model: CE Amplifier

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Common-Base Amplifier
Input current is applied to the emitter (with a bias current source) and the output current is taken from the collector

Use transconductance amplifier form for model (not mandatory) Rin = r, Rout = ro || roc, Gm = gm by inspection

Compare with CS amplifier inferior input resistance superior transconductance about the same output resistance (assuming ro dominates)

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Common Base Two-Port Model

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Common-Collector Amplifier
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See text for details of nodal analysis R in 1 g m , R out r oc [ r o ( 1 + g m ( r R S ) ) ] , A i = o ( 1 + o ) 1

Circuit configuration

CB stage is an excellent current buffer

Biasing: if transistor is on (i.e., not cutoff), then VBIAS - VOUT = 0.7 V. Plot --

Comparison with the CG stage: note the effect of the source resistance on the output resistance if RS is much greater than r, then the output resistance is approximately: Rout r oc [ r o ]

Alternative name ... emitter follower

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Common Collector Two-Port Model

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Summary of BJT Single-Stage Amplifiers

Why no pnps?

Two-port model: presence of r makes the analysis more involved than for a common drain

Note 1: both the input and the output resistances depend on the load and source resistances, respectively (note typo in Fig. 8.47 in text) Note 2: this model is approximate and can give erroneous results for extremely low values of RL. However, it is very convenient for hand analysis.

Comparison with CD stage: CCs input resistance: high but not infinity CCs output resistance: generally lower (but watch out for large RS)

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Single-Stage MOS and BJT Amplifier

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DC Voltage and Current Sources

Output characteristics of a BJT or MOSFET look like a family of current sources ... how do we pick one? specify the gate-source voltage VGS in order to select the desired current level for a MOSFET ( specify VBE exactly for a BJT) how do we generate a precise voltage? ... we use a current source to set the current in a diode-connected MOSFET

(wait a minute ... where do we find IREF? Assume that one is available!)
2 W i D = I REF + i OUT Cox ( v OUT V Tn ) -----2 L n

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DC Voltage Sources
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Totem Pole Voltage Sources

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Solving for the output voltage

Define a series of bias voltages between the positive and the negative supply voltages.

I REF + i OUT v OUT = V Tn + ------------------------------W C ----- 2 L n ox If ID = 100 A, n = 50 AV-2, (W / L) = 20, VTn = 1 V, then VOUT = 1.45 V for IOUT = 0 A.
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Stack up two diode-connected MOSFETs

In practice, output currents are small (or zero), so that the DC bias voltages are set by IREF

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MOSFET Current Sources

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MOSFET Current Sources (cont.)

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Bias the n-channel MOSFET with a MOSFET DC voltage source!

Output current is scaled from IREF by a geometrical ratio: 2 I REF W i OUT = i D 2 = ------ n C ox V Tn + ------------------------------- VTn 2 L 2 W ------ C 2 L 1 n ox ( W L ) 2 I OUT = ------------------- I REF ( W L ) 1

Intuitively, VREF is set by IREF and determines the output current of M2 I REF V REF = V Tn + ------------------------------= V GS 1 = VGS 2 W ----- n Cox 2 L 1 Substituting into the drain current of M2 (and neglecting (1 + nVDS2) term)
2 W C (V i OUT = i D 2 = ----- V Tn) 2 L 2 n ox GS 2

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MOSFET Current Source Equivalent Circuit

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The Cascode Current Source

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Small-signal model: source resistance is ro2 by inspection

In order to boost the source resistance, we can study our single-stage building blocks and recognize that a common-gate is attractive, due to its high output resistance

Combine output resistance with DC output current for approximate equivalent circuit ... actual iOUT vs. vOUT characteristics are those of M2 with VGS2 = VREF

Adapting the output resistance for a common gate amplifier, the cascode current source has a source resistance of r oc = ( 1 + g m 4 r o 2 ) r o 4 g m 4 r o 4 r o 2

Penalty for cascode: needs larger VOUT to function

The model is only valid for vDS = vOUT > vDS(SAT) = VGS - VTn

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MOSFET Current Mirrors

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Two-Port Parameters for Single-Stage Amplifiers

Amplifier Type Common Emitter Common Source Common Base Common Gate Controlled Source Gm = gm Gm = gm Ai = -1 Input Resistance Rin r infinity 1 / gm 1 / gm, (vsb = 0) -otherwise1 / (gm + gmb) r + (ro || roc|| RL) infinity Output Resistance Rout ro || roc ro || roc roc || [(1 + gm(r||RS)) ro], for gmro >> 1 roc ||[(1 + gm RS)ro], (vsb=0) -otherwiseroc || [(1+ (gm + gmb)RS) ro] both for ro >> RS (1 / gm ) + RS / 1 / gm if vsb = 0, -otherwise1 / (g m + gmb)

n-channel current source sinks current to ground ... how do we source current from the positive supply? Answer: p-channel current sources...?

Ai = -1

By mixing n-channel and p-channel diode-connected devices, we can produce current sinks and sources from a reference current connected to VDD or ground.

Common Collector Common Drain

Av = 1 Av = 1 if vsb = 0, -otherwisegm / (gm + gmb)

Note: appropriate two-port model is used, depending on controlled source

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Sinusoidal Function Review

Sinusoidal functions are important is analog signal processing v ( t ) = v cos ( t + ) amplitude (half of peak-to-peak) phase (degrees or radians) frequency (radian) ... = 2 f = 2 (1/T)

Frequency Response
Key concept: small-signal models for amplifiers are linear and therefore, cosines and sines are solutions of the linear differential equations which arise from R, C, and controlled source (e.g., Gm) networks.

The problem: finding the solutions to the differential equations is TEDIOUS and provides little insight into the behavior of the circuit!

v 1 ( t ) = v cos ( t ) v 2 ( t ) = v cos ( t 45 ) 2 = -----T T vs(t)

vout(t) R C

1. EECS 20/120: periodic functions can be represented as sums of sinusoids functions at different frequencies. 2. The response of a circuit to a sinusoidal input signal, as a function of the frequency, leads to insights into the behavior of the circuit.

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Phasors
It is much more efficient to work with imaginary exponentials as representing the sinusoidal voltages and currents ... since these functions are solutions of linear differential equations and d- ( e j t ) = j ( e j t ) ---dt How to connect the exponential to the measured function v(t)? Conventionally, v(t) is the real part of the of the imaginary exponential v( t) = v cos ( t + ) Re ( ve
(j t + )
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Circuit Analysis with Phasors

The current through a capacitor is proportional to the derivative of the voltage: d i( t) = C v(t) dt We assume that all signals in the circuit are represented by sinusoids. Substitution of the phasor expression for voltage leads to:

) = Re ( ve e

j j t

v(t ) Ve

jt

Ie

j t

j t j t d = C ( Ve ) = j CVe dt

where v is the amplitude and is the phase of the sinusoidal signal v(t). The phasor V is defined as the complex number
j

which implies that the ratio of the phasor voltage to the phasor current through a capacitor (the impedance) is

V = ve

V 1 Z(j ) = --- = ---------I jC Implication: the phasor current is linearly proportional to the phasor voltage, making it possible to solve circuits involving capacitors and inductors as rapidly as resistive networks ... as long as all signals are sinusoidal.

Therefore, the measured function is related to the phasor by

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v(t) = Re ( Ve

j t

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Phasor Analysis of the Low-Pass Filter

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Frequency Response of LPF Circuits

The phasor ratio Vout / Vin is called the transfer function for the circuit How to describe Vout / Vin? complex number ... could plot Re(Vout / Vin) and Im(Vout / Vin) versus frequency polar form translates better into what we measure on the oscilloscope ... the magnitude (determines the amplitude) and the phase
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Voltage divider with impedances --

Bode plots : magnitude and phase of the phasor ratio: Vout / Vin

Replacing the capacitor by its impedance, 1 / (jC), we can solve for the ratio of the phasors Vout / Vin

range of frequencies is very wide (DC to 1010 Hz, for some amplifiers) therefore, plot frequency axis on log scale range of magnitudes is also very wide: therefore, plot magnitude on log scale Convention: express the magnitude in decibels dB by

V out 1/j C ---------- = ------------------------V in R + 1/j C multiplying by jC/jC leads to V out 1 ---------- = ----------------------1 + j RC V in

Vout V out = 20 log ------------------V in dB V in phase is usually expressed in degrees (rather than radians): V out Im ( Vout V in ) ---------- = atan ----------------------------------V in Re ( Vout V in )

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Complex Algebra Review

* Magnitudes: Z1 X1 + Y 1 Z1 - = ---------------------- , where ----- = -------Z Z2 2 2 2 X2 + Y 2 Z 1 = X 1 + jY 1 Z2 = X2 + Y2
2 2

* Phases: Z1 Y1 Y2 ----- = Z 1 Z 2 = atan ----- atan -----Z2 X1 X2

* Examples:

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