PUNCTUATIONS

HYPHENS
The hyphen is used to link the parts of some compound words. It also links the parts of a word begun on one line and finished on the next. Consult a dictionary if you are unsure about how to hyphenate any given word. 1. Use a hyphen to link the parts of compound nouns that begin with the prefixes ex-, self-, great- or that end with the suffix elect.
ex-partner self-esteem president-elect

2. Use a hyphen to link the parts of compound nouns that include a prepositional phrase.
son-in-law man-of-war jack-in-the-box

3. Use a hyphen to link prefixes with proper nouns or adjectives.

pro-American post-impressionist

NOTE: Many compound words are not hyphenated. Some are two separate words (tennis court), but some are written as a single word (basketball).

4. Use a hyphen to link the parts of a compound adjective when it precedes the noun.
coal-mining equipment grease-stained jeans

NOTE: Do not use a hyphen if the adjective follows the noun or if the first modifier is an adverb ending in -ly (quickly heated soup).

5. Use a hyphen to link parts of a fraction used as an adjective. two-thirds empty one-half finished

NOTE: Omit the hyphen if the fraction is used as a noun.

One half of the bus was empty.

6. Use a hyphen to link the parts of a compound number between twenty-one and ninetynine.
forty-five seats thirty-four years

7. Use a hyphen when a word is divided at the end of a line. Place a hyphen between syllables only. Do not hyphenate a word if doing so would leave just one letter on either line. If a word already contains a hyphen, divide it only at the hyphen.
Today many people are still interested in the trapper's independent life style. Everyone seems to be interested in electronic gadgetry and stateof-the-art computers.

8. Use hyphens to distinguish between two words that are spelled similarly and might be confused.
m-e-e-t is not the same as m-e-a-t

9. Use a hyphen to further clarity and readability.

re-cover (as opposed to recover) de-escalate

COMMAS Use commas: 1. To mark the breaks between items in a series.

EXAMPLES: The alumni's spirit was evident in the loud cheers , the spirited songs, and the rousing music. For the best results, be sure to include flour, eggs, and butter.
NOTE: If items in a series already contain commas, then use semicolons to separate the main elements. EXAMPLE: The winter weather in Seattle was rainy, windy, and cold ; the driving was fast, furious, and courteous, yet all was forgiven with a glimpse of the mountains. NOTE: There is no hard and fast rule regarding the comma before the "and" in a series. Some prefer to omit the comma. Others feel that using the comma makes the reading clearer. In any case, be aware of your professor's preference and, above all, be consistent in your use.

2. Before the coordinating conjunctions and, but, so, for, yet, or, nor to join independent clauses.
EXAMPLES: None of the partners wants to dissolve their assets , nor do any agree to the bankruptcy proceedings arranged by the attorney. The telephone rang many, many times, so John answered it even though he was at Tiffany's house.

3. To mark the end of a long (four or more words) introductory element.

a. Use commas after long introductory prepositional phrases, but usually not after short phrases.
EXAMPLES: In a little cabin at the edge of the woods across the river, lives an old man with his twenty-seven cats. (After the succession of four introductory prepositional phrases, a comma is needed to separate them from the rest of the sentence.) In the morning I will call my boss. (A short prepositional phrase needs no comma after it.)

b. Use commas after introductory clauses unless they are quite short or have no special emphasis.
EXAMPLES: After Sue had finished playing, the piano was rolled offstage. (Note that without the comma, you might tend to read this sentence, "After Sue had finished playing the piano..," which would be very confusing.) Whenever I see her, I admire her courage in the face of adversity. Considering how much she has already learned, Marcie was surprised at how poorly prepared she was for her new position.

4. To separate an interruption from the rest of a sentence.

EXAMPLES: The crowd, however, was cheering after the scoring drive despite the flag on the field.

The winter's chill, despite the shining sun, was enough to bring the children home early.

5. To separate quoted words from the rest of a sentence.

EXAMPLE: "The whole idea is ludicrous," Jonathan thought after hearing the proposal.

6. To separate items in an address or date.

EXAMPLES: Her address is 1916 First Avenue North, Apt. 604, Austin, Texas, for the rest of the semester. He was born on June 26, 2004, in the middle of a heat wave.

7. To set off non-restrictive clauses (a group of words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence).
EXAMPLES: Mr. Hoffer, whose family lives in Germany, will be our guest this weekend. Mr. Johnson, whose son attends the University, is our friend.

8. To set off an appositive (a group of words renaming the subject).

EXAMPLE: Jen, a computer security specialist, completed her third 100-mile cycling event in a month.

SEMICOLONS
Knowing when to use semicolons is easier if you follow a few simple rules. 1. Use a semicolon to join two related complete thoughts (sentences/independent clauses) without using a conjunction.
The thunderstorm began just as the audience was leaving; Janet was glad she had taken her umbrella with her to the concert.

2. Use a semicolon to join two related complete thoughts when using conjunctive adverbs (sometimes thought of as transitional words or phrases). Note that a comma follows the conjunction.
The thunderstorm began just as the audience was leaving; consequently, Janet was glad she had taken her umbrella with her to the concert.

3. Use semicolons to separate items in parts of a series that already contain commas.
The menu included brisket, chicken, and pork barbeque; potato, garden, and fruit salads; cherry cobbler, apple pie, and banana pudding for dessert.

APOSTROPHES

An apostrophe is primarily used as part of a word with the letter s to show possession or to indicate that letters in a contraction have been omitted. POSSESSIVES (indicating ownership): 1. In English, the apostrophe (') plus s forms the possessive singular of all nouns and the possessive plural of all nouns not ending in s.
singular: man's role plural: men's role John's party children's playground

2. Use the apostrophe alone to form the plural nouns ending in s.

dogs' fur boys' pants Aguilars' house* Joneses' cars

*NOTE: If an s is added to a surname to refer to the whole family's belongings or as a greeting card signature, do not include an apostrophe: ex., The Aguilars (or Smiths or Joneses) live there. Season's Greetings, The Highsmiths

3. To form the possessive singular of indefinite pronouns, use the apostrophe plus s. everyone's success one's leg somebody's house anybody's home
NOTE:

a. Use the -s possessive with nouns referring to persons and living things. Use an "of" phrase for the possessive of nouns referring to inanimate objects. Awkward: The chair's back was broken. Improved: The back of the chair was broken. b. Nouns or pronouns which modify gerunds are usually possessive. Mary's singing irritated Tom. John's laughter attracted attention. c. When forming the possessive, avoid unpronounceable duplication of sound. Awkward: conscience's sake Improved: conscience' sake Awkward: Claudins's feast Improved: Claudins' feast

CONTRACTIONS: Contractions are two words condensed into one by replacing a letter or group of letters with an apostrophe. (Remember, in formal/academic writing contractions should not be used.)
I am it is will not should have you are they are I'm it's won't should've you're they're you are he is they have there is we were who is you're he's they've there's we're who's