CURZON SUFI SERIES

S6i6 Editr: Io Richdd Ndun Pto!8d oI Aflhi Studiz\ of t2eds UniMiA The Curzon Sufi Seri6 prcvidd short htroductioG to a Eiety of f@ts of the subjct, which de accsible hotfi to the gl:Mal rcadd ud the stu<lert md 6chol4 i. the field. Each hok wi be eithd a syntheis of existing of the knowledge or a distinct onhib{tion to, od dtnsioo ol hwledge principls of *E Ssi6 m eund partield topic. The two mio.6d6lying *holaship md radabiJity BEYOND FAITH AND INFIDELITY The Sufi Pct y od Taching of Mahnud Shabistai Izmrd ln;hn AL-HALLAJ H6b6t W M6n

Sflfi Ritual
The Parallel ljniverse

RUZBIHAN BAQLI Mysticim andthe Rletoric of Sainthood in Pmian Su6m

Ca W Eftt

Ian Richaril Netton

A3DULI,AH ANSARI OF HERAT An Edy S!fi ]!{ster

A G Rdun Fdddi THE CONCEPT OF SAINTHOOT' IN EARLY ISLANIIC MYSTICISM Band Ranthcand lohn o Kare SUHRAWARDI AND THE SCHOOL OF ILLUMINATION Mehni Amin Pwtui PERSIAN SUFI POTTR) An Introduction to th Mystrcal U* of Clsiol J.T.P dz Btlijr AZIZ NASA-F'I LI4td Ridgm SUI 15AND ANTI SUFIS The Defmce, Rethinling md Rejdtioo of Su6sm in th \'lod.n world EIAalEth S,ireh Pms

CURZ O N

For Sue with much love

The moral ;ght of the auihor La beena*rted Fnst Published in 2000 by Cuzon Pr6 Richnond, Surey htrp://\/w.curzonpls co uk O 2000 ld Ri.lEd Netton Typesetin Horley Old Style by LmerScript Ltd, Mitchm, Surey Prined md boMd in CHr B ain b/ Biddls Lrd uub.biub..o.rk All .ights rseed. No part of this btuk may be repriotdl or reproducal or utilired iD any fom or by Dy .lehonic, mehuical. or othd meos, now lnown or hqeafttr inventd,including photeopying md re.ording, or in ay inJormation storageor retridal system,without permissionin witing ftom the pub[shds. Bntish LibrLry Catal!ryrinAi^ Publicatim Datd ,{ cataloguerecord of this b@l is availablefton the Bntish Libruv Libar! of Cnwe$ Catalosxinsin Pxbliarion Datl A calaloguero.d for this bek ha b.en requested

Othd 8@16 by lan Ri.hard N.,ron Ados the Meditnoean Frontids (Edito. with D A Agius) Allah Trm$eodnt: StudiesiD the Structure and &miotics of lslnic Pb;losophy,Theology ad (losmology Arabia md the Guli From Tr.ditional Saiety to lvloddn States(Editor) At Farabi md His s.h@l Golden R@ds: lflgralion, Pilg.irug ud Travel in Mediaevatmd \'lodern Islm (Editor) Hunld of the Edt (Vol. 1) (Edrto, Middle Eist lvlaterialsin United Kiogdon and I;sh Lib.aries: A Drtory {Edito4 iddle East Sou.cs (Editor) )vlusiim Noplationists: An Introduction to the Thought of the arethren of Purity A Populr Dicriona.y of klam lieek Knowledge:Thoughr dd 1;avel in rhe House of Islah Text Md Trauma: An Edt'West Primr

lsBN 0 70071242t hbk ISBN 0 7007 12;42pbk

Contents

PreJaceond Acbnmledsen'en* At Ltrexir'tiol:-r 1 Introduction 2 Mapping the Sacred 1: The Ni'matullahi 2.r Origins 2.2 Rituals and Practices 2.2.1 Organisation and Hierarchy 2.2.2 ldtiarjoi 2.2.3 Rule of Life 2.2.4 Ljnrrgy 2.2.4.1 Dhihr u\d Santa' 2.2.4.2 F;hl 2.2.4.3 Mwa4aba 2.2.4.4 Mul-wba 2.2.4.5 Wid Order

xi I

21
27 25 25 30 32 34 35 39 40 43 47

3 Mapping the Sacred 2: The Naqshbandi Order 3.1 Orisrns 3.2 Rituals and Practices 3.2.1 OrganisatioDand Hierechy 3.2.2 Initiation 3.2.3 Ruleof Life 3.2.4 Liturgy 3.2.4.1 Dhihl 3.2.4.2 Sann' 3.2.a.3 Mwaqaba ann Rab;ta 3.2.+.4 Srhba 3.2.4.5 Wird

o1 72 ?3 75 77 79 79

85 86

SOF' RITUAL

4 Unveiling the Sacred1: The Five Ari.an :1.1 Theotogy

1.2 4.3 4.4 Phenomenology Aothropology Seniotics

103
103 123 127 1:t0

Preface andAcknowledgements

5 Unveiling the Sacred2: The ParallelUniverse of S.fi Ritual 5.1 Theology

5.2 5.3 5.4 Phenomenology Anthropology Semiotics

145 145 156 161 175 This book attempts to lift the "veil" to which Fitzgerald's paraphrase of the Rabaiyat of Omar Kho1yam alludes, at least insofar as it may be referred to th arena of snfi ritual. It examines both the sphr of mainstram Islamic ritual, as artiorlated prirnarily n the arhnn, and the more arcane and lesser kno*'n 6eld of ritual h ta;awuuf. The book makes comparisons both within Aar al Islon and between that tradition and th rituals of other traditions. It neither attempts ro be inclusive and to cover every single aspect of Safism and its rituals, nor to cover every single Snfi Order. Two Orders have been taken as case studies and in the process of examining them, I have exarnined their origins, rituals and practices, organisations and hierarchy, initiation pmctices and what may be termed here their 'Rules of Life'. Particular attention has been paid to liturgy as it is to be found especially in dhihr and sdmz', and the rlated practices ol fhr, muraqaba, nuhasaba, rnird., rahta, and shba. The word "ritual" itself has been deployed loosely but not in such a cavalier fashion, I hope, as to offend the purists among the anthropologists. Four primary lens have been used, for comparativ and analltical purposes: those of theology, phenomenology, antbropology and semiotics. It is the contention of this book that the Factice of snfi ritual leads, paradoxically, to a tundamental alienation which is, nonetheless, devoutly to be wished for, at least by the ardent sufi As always, I have incurred many debts in the writing of this volume. I thanl, firstly, Dr Javad Nurbakhsh, present Master of the Ni'matullrhi Order, for his generous hospitality to me on two occasions in the N;'rufidlahi Khand"qah ln London. Except

6 The Alienated Sufi? Alienation o Ritual Paadox 6.1 6.1.1 Alienation 6.1.2 FaM' 6.1.3 Ritual as Shield 6 Alienation 6.1.4 Ritua.l A Paradigmof Slfi Alienation 6.2 Bibliosraphy of Worhs Cited Index

t76 t79 180 181 147 205

S!Fi RITUAL

where I have quoted from, or referred to, his many works on Sufism, he is not responsible for what is *Titten here. I am grateful to other members of that Klanaqah, and others, who would rvish to remain nameless, for wise advice and encourage ment. The writings of Professor H Algar have proved an invalr:able guide in walking through the veritable forests of materials dealing with the Naqshbandiy-ya. He is acknowledged in my footnotes. Finally, I thanl my wife and family for their indulgence and patience as I completed yet another book; I an grateful to thm for keeping me earthbound as I explored the arcane highways of snfi ritual.

Abbreviations

Ef EIS .lSS Q RB SOAS

buaclopaedia of klan, second edition ShorterEnqclopacdiad Islam lumi of Sanitic Studies Q*"a" Rule of St Benedict School of Oriental and African Studies, Univrcity of I-ondon

Introduction

There was a Dmr to which I found no Key: Th"ft w a V.il pdstwhich | ..uld nor se( Somelittle talk awbneof I{E &d THEE Thcre s@ d md lho no moreor THI- t "nd \le Even after the achievement of the scholar,sufi Abu Hamid al Ghazal (1058 1111) in'largely removing th tension between SuEsm and the "Islamic sciences"'.2diverse other Muslim scholars have continued to view Sufism with the deepest suspicion.i The 'dama" have frequently pittd themselves against the sufi shaykhs and pirs, each group often seeking religious conhol, power and authority by virtue of bookish or gnostic learning.a Professor Michael Gilsenan, while doing research on the safi mystical brotherhoods in Eg}pt between 1964 and 1966 was assuredby shaykhsat the Azhar University in Cairo 'that these brotherhoods had nothing to do with Islam at all and dnt [he] was not only v/asting lhisl time but giving a false impression of what the true religion is.'j With others, suspicion has given way to a bemused, and perhaps surface, tolerance. As Ronald Eyre put it in his book On the Long Search: 'The orthodox N{uslim community, after a great scholar arose to allay their more extravagant fears lsurely a reference to al-Ghazali?1, appear to have accep@d the solitary quest, but only as an extension of commudty worship. Anci they are alert for signs of morbid inwardness in those who undertake it.'6 The suspicion from mainstrcam Islam comes in manv forms as do the s-nfi orders themselves- In the course of Islamic history gnfts hav appared in nearly every corner of the globe where the message of Islam has been preached; indeed, they were

5 [fi r{ rrL \L

Is*TRODUcTIo\

often responsible for bringing that message to what had been non-Islamic lands, in the first place. This book suneys different manifestations of the ritual aspects of Sunsm, taking two major Orders as case studies_ While the state of Sufism in contemporary Britain is not its primary focus, there will be some references to the British scene by way of illustration. Arrd since ntual is the principal ropos, sali spiituality in its diverse aspects such as states (ahual) and stations (mdqarnat),7vhile occasionally touched upon, will not be explored in great depth or detail. It witt be instructive to note in passing the manifold sources of alienation, catalvsts for charge and reasonsfor rhe reinfor.emenr of soiritual iJenritv The phenomenonof religious chalge ; responseto a ne* culture is by no means a new one. Indeed, as George Chryssides stresses, 'when a religion migrates from one culture to another, quite radical changes often occur. 3 He cites the examole of the move of Buddhism to arers like Ctuna, Tibct and Japanwhere the religion assumed a rather different form from traditional Theravada Buddhism and he asks: 'Did the tust Tibetan Buddhists fail to notice the plethora of deities, esoteric rituals and supernatura.l beings which were introduced into Buddhism's world view?'e Chryssides identifies three potentiallv problematic areas where odapration may be required oi adherents of an immigrant religion: dependence on the native population, ritual practiceand discrimination.'0(lt is, of course. the second area that will concern us most in this book). The outcome may be apostasy, adaptation or accommodation, or, finally, ar insistence 'on raaining [a] fully distinctive identifu'r1 Chryssides characterises the last response as 'renewed vieour'.1: Such remarl. ar-e of inreresrboih when we conside' rhtrole of Islam within an'alien'society and the role of Su6sm within the society of Islam. The role of Islam in Britain, its impact on British society and the problems of culture-clash which have sometimes manifested themselves, have all been dealt with in a varietv of oublicarions 'Such maners will nor be coveredhere asan in anv depth. W}lar is worth stressrng,however, is rhai white the pnctice of Snfism in the Islarnic world is a miDorirv activitv

within a cornmunity or communities which still adhere to the same basic faith systm, the practice of Slfrsm in a state like Britain is a minority activity within a minority religion.ra Not only can there be a cutture clash btween Islam and other religions, but there is what I will cal a 'countr-clash' within Islam itsell btween diverse articulations of that faith, some of them mutually hostile. There is, then, scope for feelings of the profoundest alienationrt and isolation resulting from disparagement by a local Muslim populace 16and a largely uncomprehending non, Muslirn milieu. Such feelings have the potntial to bond snfi commrmities more closely together but also to pressurise them into changing, reforming or even diverging from the classical rituals and structures of their origins. Sromeof the adherents of Islam in Britain in the very lat twentieth century exhibited attitudes akin to those cited earlier by Gilsenan and Eyre- Reviewing Cyril Glass6's Concise bqclopaedia of klom,17 Dr Hesham El Essauy had this to say: Like moy conve.tsfrom the excessively materialistic societyin the West, trtr Glass6 smsDor attracted to the excessively sp;itual mysticism of Sufism.In fact, the book readsmor like a ltr4o's Wlo of the SuG world thd eything else. I hau a problen with Slafffi: ffi. can mjor the6p, tut the higheryt fl1, th. nwe detuhed rot getJron theyound.l8 Dr El-Essawy goes on to stressthat 'the thing is that Islam is really a political, religious and socio economic system whose business is not just the establishment of physical or spiritual rituals, but .ather worship through living a good life.'le This, indeed, reflects more closely the ideal of Muslims the world over whos path or goal, by and large, is not a sufi quest ending in mystical union with the Divine. And the majority of Muslims in Britain, as elsewhere, ar:enot srlfis. Many Muslims settled in the UK, however, ofter\ rcluctantlJ shar the sense of detachment or alienation characteristic ol and beloved by, the snf/o, feelings which are neithr chosen nor mjoyed but which arise from a variety of circumstances over which the lvluslim may have littl or no control. He may 6nd

SUfi RITU L

I N T R U D U C T I ON

that in British society he or she is ar1involuntary practitioner of 'solitude in a crowd'.r1 A-rrd while for the s'1fi, as for a Plotinus or a.n Augustine, alienation is a 'state in which contemplation and ecstasy are identical' and one where the 'human soul or spirit is elevated and reaches its goal which is the union with the divinity'," it is hardly an exaggeration to say that th average alienated Muslim youth in Britaia today does not share in such a high-flown perception of his state. The sufi may willingly deviate from minstream Muslim society and glory in the resulting a.lienation, but the youths of a minority religion such as Islam in the United Kingdom today may rather perceive their alienation as oppressive-23 Thus he or she may become westernised but 6nd that they are not accepted by the culture to which they aspire and become alienated both from it and from their own Muslirn culture.2a Muslims of all ages find a further alienating factor in the reality that the cultural articulation of Islam in Britain today varies according to ethnic origins.rt As Raza neatly puts it: 'The cultural fabric of the lr.Iuslim comrnunity reveals an intricate web.'26 There may, indeed, be different perceptions of the nature of Islam itself: '\{any young N{uslims in Britain are confounding their parents by their attempts to separate the essentials of the faith from cultural or historical additions. Values cherished by parents as part of their cultural and relieious identity are now coming under attack, not from the expected directions of the indigenous culture, but from their children who declare them to be unlslamic.'27 Other causes of alienation from either their own Muslim society, or non'Muslim British society at large, may include racism, the British class system:3 and the difficulty of becoming assimilated into it, and sectarian Muslim divisions.re The latter factor will rarely be appreciated by the native British poptrlation: 'Closed views typically picture Islam as undiffer, entiated, static and monolithic, and as intolerant of internal pluralism and deliberation.'3o Furthermore, 'closed views see total difference ttween Islam on the one hand arrd the non Muslim world, particularly the so'calledWest, on the other. Islam is 'other'. with few or no

similarities betwen itsel{ and other civilisations and cultures and with few or no shared concepts and moral values. Further, Islam is seen as hermetically sealed off from the rest of the roo(s and no borro*rng or miring in world, with either direction.'r1 It is clear. of cours. that while such diverse factors of alienation may srve to depress and further divide, they may alm serve as a bond to unite or bring togethd movements or groups (like the sofi orders) which have common goals and require shelter from a climate of frozen alienation. A good example of a non- suff movement akin to Sofism which provides exactly this ki:rd of spiritual and emotional hospitality is the Tabligh i lawAt or 'Faith N{ovement' founded by Mawla.na that'the Lewis st!sses Muhammad Ilyas (1885 1944).3'?Philip striking and innovativ featu.e of Tablighi Jama'at33 was its expectation that all Muslims should devote time to door to door revivalist activity tidt r0o d. connibute to creating an Isla'rr.ic enuiroffivnt Its discipline, mutual service, congrega tional worship, prescribed study and shared activity created the movement's distinctive style of self reformation, u.dthin a sLtppoltbe and egalitar;An context. Its minimalist six point programme rcflcts its e$ ethos.'r{ The Tabliqh'i lamaat has become strong in Britain with major centrs in Bradford and Dewsbury.35 Such groups and movemenlsgo some way iowards counter' ing the confusion of the older generations as they wonder ' how to respond to an emerging Muslim youth culture, a hybrid of in music. mdgazines British and South Asian forms. expresqed and local media,'36 and soothing worried Muslim Parents who find thar the'r offspring have no hesiration in questioning. or even rejecting, 'aspects of their inherited culture which they took for granted as Islamic.'r7 In all these matters, institutional St6sm too. can bond, soothe,sustain and consolein much the sa]n way as the'Faith Movement'. In the 1970s and 1980s Sttum remained prominent in British Muslim life, even though, technically, it was the activity of a minority. However, it was responsible for bringing many converts to the faith, lack of acrive sirfi dr ua.r" a general despire

StII

RITUAL

INTROTJ!:CTION

The final paradox in ajl this, which both alienates and embraces the Muslim community in Brirain, is one of identiry and nationality. lt is perhaps convenient, but false, to speak of Muslims on the one harrd and British society on the orher, as if they were two ent;ely different entities- As Yasmin Ali rightly reminds us: 'The myth of retum to one's homeland, which many hrst generation migrants ciung to for comfort has little aspirational meaning for most oftheir children and grandchildren . . . young South Asians in Britain are B?ir6[. Then identities, however distinctive, are British identities, and the culturai, social, political and economic contributiorx which they mal ro society are fundamentally contributions to Britain and to Europ.':r'l We noted earlier that the principal theme of this boot is snfi ritual. The theme of alienation will, however, provide a sub text, and we will reved to it especiatlyin our conclusion. A variety ol methodologies wili be employed; not leasr among these will be the phenomenological approach, an approach which was used to such excellent effect in Annemarie Schimmel's magisterial work, Decipheringthe Signsof God: A Phenomenological Approach to /slanr.{o It is worth pausing here, bielly, to survey how this approach *'as used by Professor Schimmel although, as I say, a variety of approaches will be used in this presentvolume of mjne. In Deciphering the Sigru o/ Godll Annemarie Schimmel announcedher belief that: the phnonnological approach is well suited to a bertr undrsta.ding of Islam, especiaily rh modetwttrctlFriedrich Heilrr? developed ... he triesto eDt.rinto the he&t ofrel;gion by studying lirst the phenornenaDd then deeperad deeper layersof hurnanresponses ro the Divhe until he reache the rnneimost sacred core of each relig;on, the ceDtre. the Numinous,the &6 dbs.onditus .. Culti. and ritual dutiesroo couldbe interpreted beyondthei external rnpurld,c as srsns towardssohetlDng higher.ll Such an approach is eminently sujted also to th mystical dimension of Islam, Stfism, with all its diverse rituals and practices. And we do not need a model of concenrric ringsr{ ro

illustrate the truism that, for the sufi as for the non s,:fi, at the heart o{ the 'Sacred Objec.' or 'Sac.ed [ritual] Act' is the Deus Abscondituswho is, nonetheless, for the latter, closer to man than his own jugular vein (Qur'an 50:16), and who is, for the s[fi, in addition, the desned Divine Focus of mystical union. The surface reality of the object or ritual veils a deeper rality whosearticulation will vary accordingto a Muslim's mysticai or other disposition. Annemarie Schimmel divides her material in Decipheing the Signs of Cod into seven main areas, each covered in a single clayxer Chapter On, entitled 'Sacred Aspects of Nature and Culture', illustratesvery well Schimmel'sadopted methodology which is designed to lead 'ftom the external encounter of the sacred to the innermost core of religion.'at She surveys 'the phenomena of nature' which humanity has observed 'from day to day'{6 in its working and living environment, and divides her matrial, neatly,into three main blocks of'Inanimate Nature',{7 'Plants and Animals'{3 and'N{an Made Obiects'.{q Under the fust heading she concentates on the elemental aspects of Nature, seeking and drawing out the religious and cultic associations and evocations of all that she mentions. References to stones inexorably provoke mention of the Black Stone in the Ka%a and that beneath the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, in which the Prophet Mubammad's footprint is impressed, as well as the stoning rituals characteristic of the lujj. Here too, we flrd the traditional Empedoclean elements of which the purincatory aspcts of water are stressd: water is used for external puriGcation as well as being a symbol of life, purity and purification. It is used in the ritual ablutions, found and revered in the Well ol Zarnzatr' at Mecca ard will be enjoyed by the Blessedin Paradisewith its four rivers, springs or fountains. Schimmel reminds us that both God and the Prophet lvluhammad have ben characterised as 'oceans'.io Of cours, another of the four Empedoclean elements is 6re, and this is the name in Arabic siven to Hell itself, dl-Nar. In this section reference is also made to light, arrd the famous Qur'anic imagery of light, as well as to other related phnomena like the sun, moon and stars and the symbolism of colour.

s o F l ttT u l L

I N T R O D U C T I ON

Under the second heading 'Plants and Animals' Schimmel reminds us that Paradise has its special trees, the l-ote Tree for example, and that gardens on earth are replicas or mirors of Paradise. She surveys some of the animals mentioned in the Qur'an and refers to the Prophet Mu[rammad's liking of cats. Finally, her third heading,'Man-Made Objects', embraces such topics as Islamic weaponry and armour, mnrors, pictures and garments. With regard to the latter, Schimrnel &aws attention, intet alia, to the Prophet's striped cloak, izrda, the patched garmnt of the sufi, the nuraqqa', ard the role of Yusuft shirt in St?d ylsut Schimmel stressesthat'God Hirnself appears as the master weaver and tailor, as He is the suprerne master of everything.'s1 The following six chapters of Deciphering the Sisn: of God continue this phenomenological approach but it is now articulated at a less elemental level. Chapter ?'uo on 'Sacred Space and Time't2 ranges from the cave of the initial Qur'anic revelation on Mount Hira' through the idea of rhe mosque to the mausolea,tombs and shrines of Islam (Space); and surveys (Time), the times of feasts and sacred months before concluding with a discussionof the symbolism and sacredness of certain numbers. However, as Schimmel clearly recognises, Islam is a religion basedon good or right deeds as well as faith.ir There is no room here for a prototype Protestant justification by faith alone. Thus Chapier Threeis consecrated to 'SacredAction'.;r After a brief survey of the concept of tribal and Prophetic Sunna, Schimmel moves on to consider the Via PurEttiua, the Via Ill minatilja a'Jd the Vid Unitiva. She defines the hrst as 'the different ways of purifying oneself ir one's attempt to get in touch !,'ith the sacred, the Divine, the Numinous.':i The second is characterised by 'new attempts to become unified, or at leastto come closeto the object of devotion or the power that is hidden in it. The simplest way is to touch the sacredobject or the saintly person. tahanrhat\ for blessing'ssake ... The believer touches sacrd objects such as stones, tombs or the threshold and, most impo.tantly, the copy of the Koran . . .'s6 Schimmel goes on to remind us that'certarn prachces are 8

restrictedto only a segmentof the believers,and are disliked by oihers. One of thes is the sacreddance . ..' She notes that the sama', the mystical or spiritual concert, 'was institutionaiised only in the lvlevleviyya lorder of Dervishes].'57Finally, the third and last of thes three daz, the Via Unr'tira, is that which is only fully achieved'in death when the soul is hnally rer:nited with God.'i3 lslam as a religion is underpinned by, and founded upon, the sacred text ofthe Holy Qur'an. Thus it is entirely logical that Chapter Four of Srhimmel's book should dwell at length on 'The Word and the Script'.5eHere are discussed, not only the is to be expected, but also such topics as and as Hadith Qur'an potry, names, mlths, sagas,blessings and curses, ritual prayers, and the snfi dhihr or litany Of course, unless a pe$on is a hernit, he or she does not live or function solely in a vacuum. Man is part of an mna, a community of believers. Schimmel's Choptzr Fi,e on 'Individual and Society'r'u acknowledges the intrinsic sanctity' of man's body, and stresses that 'the most important 6gure with religious charisma' is the Prophet.br However, prophets are sent to particular groups of people and 'the community of the believers is central in normative Muslim thought, hence the aversion of some Muslims to the Westrn interest in exotic figures such as Sufis and the like . . .'62In this chapter Schimmel also surveys some of the structures and institutions of that community such as the four Sumi $chools of Law; she concludes with a brief survey of the sectarian branches of Islam, and the Sufi Orders, noting how some have'attmcted sveral important Western converts to Islam.'or ln Chaptet Silr, 'God and His Creation; Eschatology', Schimmel moves her study of religious infused phenomena from the sublunary to the supernatural sphere. Where the 6fth chapter concentratd on the phenomena of earthly and earth bound institutions the sixth surveys the phenomena of the Divine starting, indeed, with God Himself, both as He is revealed in the Qur'an and as He is interpreted in poetry and elsewhere by His creation. Reference is made to the anseloiogy of Islam, and the often terrifying details of death, judgement, Heaven and Hell are outlined.

S. FI RiTUAL

I\TROI)UCTIO\

Schimmel's Chapter Snm, the last in her book, is called 'How to Approach lslam?'. It is prelixed by a quotation from Strd 41:53 ofthe Qur'an: And we shall show them Our signs in the horizons and in themselves.'6{ This signalsthat here she intends to bring to a climax or close what has flowed and developed from the beginning of the book. ln other words, following Heiler, she has attempted 'to enter into th heart of religion by studying first the phenomena and then deeper and deeper layers of human responsesto the Divine' until the 'innermost sacredcore' of Islam is revealed.6s Schimmel'sbook from start to finish is a masterly illustration of rhis methodology. She began with the raw elemental material of stones and water, moved through concepts of space and time, Iooked at mar as an individual arrd a creator of institutions and structurcs before concluding,logically,with the Creator ofman Himself, God, and the te.rorc of the Eschatological. For Schimmel, God's sisns have indeed been present in all the phenomena she has surveyed as well as in man himsell Schimmel suggests that it is the city that offers us a lileness of Islam, which can be symbolized as a house, based on the Koranic expressiondar al Isiam.' but she asks 'where is one to 6nd the builder and owner of the house?6',She answerswith a quotation from Ruml in which Reason is compared to a moth and the Divine Betovedis like a candle. Go<t is the One who immolates the seekerand annihilates him, and no reason can comprehendHim.'6t Such is, of course,the classicresponseof Sufism down the ages. In this book of mine, whose subject matter is snfi dtual and practice, with some (but by no means exclusive) referenceto Britain, and whose inspiration is the volume just surveyedby Annemarie Schimmel, I have also, like her, atrempted 'to enter into the heart of religion by studying fust rhe phenomna.' However, th phenomena which I propose to survey are not th stons, water or physical and huma.n institutions which led Annemarie Schimmel rneluctably to the Divinity at the heart of lslam but rather those ituals and practices of Snfism whicl might be described as the outward manifestarions of the inner spirituality of Snlism. Thus, while the Divine Object or Subjct i0

the phenomenasurveyed, at the end is the same in both cases, while relatd in some cases. are different. In each of the two Orders surveved as case studies in this volume we will examine th organisation of the Order, its hierarchyand siisildtogtherwith the conduct ofthe snfi house, rbe bLw&qah ot 2auitt Rites arrd ceremonies of initiation will also be studied, as will the Rul by which the snfis of each Order live their lives. The most notable aspectsof the qnfi the dhi&r ard sama",will be analysed.We will liturgy, especially conclude with an attempt to linl the rituals of Srlfrsm with the theme of alienation. Snfi rituals may all be characterisedas signsi they are the signs ofa way of life, a tdnqd, and they are signs ofthe goal of that taniqa which is (iod Himsell The rituals are not practised or undertakm for their own sake but alwavs mirror, or are directed towards, a deeper Realiry Thus the human hierarchyofa sufi Order or house,with the Shaykhor Nlaster at the top and the humble mund or novice at the bottom, mirrors a divine hierarchy whose pinnacle is, of course, God. And while the truly humble s':fi Shaykh would never, under arry circumstances, compare himself to the Deity, his presencein the Order or house is a sign of a nonetheless greater Autho.ity. Obedience to the Shaykh or Master is obedience to God. This is powerfully and evocatively confirmed by one prominent 20th century sifi \4aster ard Shayln who etates:'The Master (... lit "the desired one") is a person who guides travelers on the path of the "passing away of self in God (fana I'llah) and leads them towards "eternal life Becauseof the difficulties and through God" lbaqa bi'llah).'63 temptations of the sufi path, a master is absolttely essential for the sufi.beRumr had this to say on the ideal Master'Disciple relationship: 'Anyone who obys the orders of the master is liberated from darkness,and becomesilluminated.'to Ifthe human snfi hierarchv in the Order is one rnirror ofthe divine hierarchy,and an agncyof salvationthrough the Master ofthe Order, then the silsiia,or chain of spiritual authorities,is another such mirror. Contemporary Shaykhsor Masters today are lid<ed to the founder(s) of their Orders and, often, to the
l1

INTRODUCTION

great figures of early Islam like 'Ali b.Abi T-alib and others, by a 'chain ofspiritual descent.'7r The Shaykh'is the spiritual heir of the founder, whose qualities and powers become inherent in him upon his succession. He is called shat&has satddd (master of the prayer-mat, or skin) .. . since he inherits that oI the founder as symbol of his authority . . . Successionto the sojjad/l is spiritual and the shaikh was not necessarily a descendant of the founder though in time lineal succession tended to become the rule.'7']This siisiiaof authoritiesand leadersgoing back to a founder mirrors, on a spiritual as well as a physical plane, the ordinary link between the Creator,God arld created man: for the snfi, a.rld indeed every \4uslim, the latter owes his very existence to the Former by an unbroken chain of created ancestors which began with Adam, whom tb Qur'an characterises as God's h[al& (2:30). Ofcourse, the $nft \4aster or Shaykh is in no sensea creator but, as has been emphasised above, he has a creative responsibility to lead the brthrcn towards the 'errinction of selllood and worldly desires(/ar,,al and 'subsistence in God' (boqal;3 A third example of the djvine order and reality being mirrored and articulated in some way in sufi ritual lis in the gufi dfiibr and sanz'. The Qur'an makesit clear that one of the functions of the angels is to praise God unceasingiy day and night (2:30, 21:19 20). Commentingon Strd 2:30, al-Tabari rcminds us that 'all remembrance of God according to the Ambs is praise arrdprayer . . . and it has been said that praiseis the prayer of the angels.'t1 In a very real sense the snfi dirhr may be said to rnirror the perpetualangelicpraiseofGod. Indeed. the Qur'an commands the believer to remember God often and slorify Him at dawn and dusk (33:a1 42) ir a pbrase nuch beloved by the sufis.;3 N1arlhas a positive duty of gratitude and praisto God (31:12, 25 26). And the sufis articulate that sratitude and praise not only in the dhibr but the sd'na'as well, the iatter being an extension,or extm dimension, of the former. Marietta Stepaniants reminds us that 'the propriet! of consideringdhiLr 'the main meansof attaining God s nearness' was upheld by numerous hddiths like l{ubamnadt 'He who T2

recollects God among the negligent is like a fighter in the midst of thoswho flee,like a gree.n tree in the midst o{ dry trees.'The l'rophet was asked what action was most virtuous. He rnswered, 'That you should be dying and your tongue should recollea Allah the Mighty, the Omnipotent.' The Prophet said, 'Praising Allah ... in the morning ard in the evening is better than erecting mosques in Allah's name or generous sacifice of In th lnfi interpretation of dreams we are told that 'th bam-owl symbolizes aspnation confined to remembrance ... rnd nightly visil and seclusion' while 'the nightingale rymbolizs aspiration conined to love, audition (sarr') and music.';i Dh[r is 'prescribed by the \{aster of the Spiritual Path,in order to cure his disciplesofthe disease ofthe selfand its desiresand fears i3 while sorna' 'is listening with the ear of poetry, the heart to music in the most profotnd sense melodies,tunes, and rhythmic harmonies while being in a rpecial state so deeply plunged in Love that the.e is no taint of relf left within awareness.'7q From all ofthe above statements whicl we have quoted, it is clear thai the s[fi practicesof diiLr and sana' are designedto uticulate a spcial semiotics of Love which takes its inspiration from the Qu'en and broadens and expounds the archetypal vrsesto manifest and expound a dgorous path towards the l)ivine Beloved for the sifi aspirant. The two Orders whose rituals and practicesare discrssed in this book have not been chosenat random but for th Duroose of illu"trating a rery uiJe Jiversrtv of pro.,l"" ,na ,yp". Furthermore, it is certainly not claimed that these a-re the dnb tofi rituats and, though some conclusionswill, of course, be drawn, it is not claimed that these are the onf' conclusions which may be drawn from a study of snfi ritual. Finally, while it i! true that the liturgical aspectsof both the Ni'matullahi and Naqshbandi Orders discussed in this volume are surveyed undr five main headings, no artifrcial nrmerical parallelism with the five arban is intended. Humility, poverty and asceticism are often key features in the Diritualities and vocabularies of the snfi Orders which a-re 13

SUI'i ITITUAL

INT(UL]t

LTI!,N

This dos by a lack of ostentation.so frequently characterised without inlluence have been however, that the Orders not mean, Order, for down the ages. The paradigm of the Sanusiyya example,in Libya where on Christmas Eve, 1951 .. the Head of the Sanllsi Order Sayyid Idris, son of al-Mahdi, becamean independent constitutional king of the United Kingdom of Libya'3r is the ultimat proofofthat. ln Britain N may not the foundation in 1963 by Pir Maroof Hussain Shah,u'ho arrived in the UK in 1961, of t\e lani'dt-i Tabhghal Idan (Association for the Preachingof Islam). Philip Lewis has emphasisedthe commitment of this Association to the spiritualit)' propagated by leadersof the Qadiri, Chishtr, Naqshbandi and Suhrawardi Orders. 'Pir Maroof's first love,' Lel'is tells us. 'is idrduuut Islamic mysticism.'3r Noteworthy too are the activities in Britain of the Deobandis whose founders I-ewis characterises with their veneration as'reformist suiis'83 and the Barelwis3r for the Prophet l{ubamrnad. and thejr srlfi stress on shrine, 3! Their shaykh and intercession Qadiri {ounder was Ahmad (1E56 1921).'d Ra-za Khan Islam today in countries like llntain manilests a lascinating fabric of sometimes harmonious and sometimcs conflicting strands- We note, for example, the mutual anathemas pronounced by the Deobandis and the Barelwis in the early part of last century and the consequentlegac],of antipathy and hostility betweenthe tu'o groups in contemporary Britain.st Geaves has rightly drawn attention to the fact that 'the arrival ofsubcontinent Muslims in Britain hastransplantedmto this country all the divisions and cont.oversieswhich have historically split the community in India and Pakistan.'33 Notable among those disputes was that over the characterand role of Sufism. The syncretic,rural subcontinentalbrand often emphasised 'popular devotion, the intercession of saints, barobha tsicl. shrines, tombs of holy men. pecular powers and miracles, singing and dancing and. above all. the food, candles, importance of the pirlmurid relationship.-A.sian are all used water and amulets offerings, holy incense, rosewater the sick. to in religious worship. These may be used to cure secure the birth of a male child. or even to protect the
t.l

uorshipper from magical forces such as evil jinn.'3e This style of Islam has been attacked by others, especially the reformers.eo The sufi Ordzrs as such often maintain a lower prohle. Furthermore, the extent to which they have been vehicles of hermony and tolerance'qr rather than conflict will become rpparent in the course ofthis volume. This may be due, in part .t least, to the sense of unity of quest which is at the heart of $0fism. Origins and ethos may differ; the actual a-rticulation of common rituals lile the dhi[r may vary; but such fundamenta.l rituals remain in so many of the Orders, linking and uniting $em in their sacred quest. Victor Danner puts it like this: The dAiAr can be manifested ir a vaiety of forms derived from the Queic rcvelation, these forms depending on the petspec tiv6 of the different Sun sch@ls, the inspirations of particular masters,and other conditions; but this variegatedmmifestation in no way dehacts from the fundmental chracter ofthe dliAr Consequendy, the elements of the ranqdA remain the sme after ihe days of the Prophet, to be sure, but their amb;nations and .xprcsim .an wry fron mtlster to m6ter and em uithin the liJetitu ol o e n4srer Indeed, it would seem thai one of the importmt functions of Sufrsm has ben to furnish these elements of the path to its seekers in th .ight proportions dnd in motturce uith the i?e& of ea.h gmerction.',

Notes

| (My italics) Edv&d Frtzse.ald (tns), The Rubabat of Omat (,u)aan, (London: The Folio Striery 1970),v 32. The endnotes to this first version of Fitzgerald's hanslation (on the last, .rnnunbered page) expldn lrlE and THEE' as a reference to the 'mysticalddt;ne of Unity qith God. 2 W \.fontgomry Watt, M6lia InteUat@l: A Stud! oJ al Ghazdli, (Fninbug.ir EdinburghUnivenity P.ess,1963),p. 179. J see John \\blff, 'Fragmented Univdsality: Islm and lr4uslins' Ln (ierald Paens (ed), 'Ihe Gtutth ol RelisioB Dtuersir*: Biirain Jtom I94i: \tohN r, Trajiioro, (London: Routledgein association with the Open University,1993),p. 138. 15

5I]Fi RITlJ,\L

I N T R o D L ( ] T ION

s Vichael G;lsenan, Recosnizins kLdtu: AnAnthrcpoloEits In6oducti6. (London & Sydney:CrooD Helm, 1982,repr 198.1), p. ll 6 Ronald Eyre, On the Lons Searci, (Londor & clasgow, Collins, Fount I'aperbacks, 1979),p. 1,18 7 For theseterms,seethe enries l*,wel and '\taqamat in lan Riched Netton, A Popular Dictiotury of Islan, (London: Curzon. 1992), pp. 2 4 ,1 6 1. 'Britajr's ChangingFdths, Adaptat;onin a New 8 GorgeChryss;des, Environmdt in Gerald I']arsons(ed), Tie crouri o/ Rdlisiou Diaersitt: Britain Jtotu 1915: Valume2: kslei, (London: Roltledge in aNociationwith the Open UD;vrs;ty, 199.1), p 5t 9 Ibid. 10 Ibid., p. 58 11 lbid., pp. 58 59. 1 2 lbi d ., p . 5 9 l:l Por two rcent surveys,see \lobammad S Raza klan in Bntaia: P6t, Prdent dnd.rhe Fftwe, (Leicester:Volc o Press.l99l) dd Ph;l;p l,eeis, lslatuic Brlldin. Rltston,Politics ard lrldt;\ dtuns Bririrft Mulins Btud.Jodin the 1990s,lLoDdoD & \e\' \brk: L B. Tauris, 1994). 14 SeeRaza,Iddft itr B'itdin, p li Lwis, lslanic B'ir&fl. p ri 15 For a discussion of alienadonin tbe context of Islan. culture-cloh md Wsternisation, seRua, isidn in Britain. pp ;t E.l !e.le Woltre, 'FragnentedUnivdsalib', pp. 156. 161, 16l. I.rq 16 For intemal divisionsin the Bri*h Nfuslim conrmun,t!.*c \blffc, 'Fragmented U versal;ty',p 1a2 17 lrndon: Sta.ey Intrnational,1989. 18 (lvly italics) The Independznt,3rd l\'ta! 1989 19 I b;d 20 See Javad Nurbaksh, Slt Srnlokn. ilondon & \es \brk: Khmiqahi Nimatullahi Publications, 1s87r.\i)l I rp 8t 8l 21 Se J. SpencerT;m;neham, The Sul Ordzr In iJidn. roxford: C la re n d on P r es , 1971)p. , 203 22 Nathan Rotenstreich, Alienotion: The Con ept dnrl Ik Rec.ptaa, Philosophy of History md Cultlr, \irl 3. (l-cidon & New Yorl: E. J. Brill, 1989),pp 3 4 2 3 lbi d ., p . 1 11. 24 See Raza, LLM in Btitair, pp ;7 ;9i se. also K;m Knott & Swa Sinsh Kalsi. The Advent ofAsian Relis'ons in .\l;sta; \{N,n (ed), Rdligiorin Lee&, (Shoud:Alan Sutton, 199.1r. pp lto 171. 2s Raza, in Drndin, pp. 1 s. ^lan 26 Ibid., p. 1. 27 Ron Geaves, Se.tarian Infu.nces uirhin isian in Btnain. uith ReJetence ta the Corcerts oJ Unnah and Connurtl, . \fonograph

li.ies Comhmity RelieionsProject,no s, (Leeds:Depanment of Theology dd Religlous Stud;es, UniversiR of Leds,1996),p. s9. .ln lbid.. pp. 66 68. )'t Raza,Islan 1n Bntdin, pp. 6, 10, 11 24. Io Ru.nrnde -frust Comnission on Brit;sh \luslims and lslmopho l1;^. Isld^ophobia: A ChLlknse Jar LIs Ali, (London: Runnymede Ttust. 1997).SePhil;p I-Nis, Facinsdown the bogeymu oflslan', (;hlr.h Tines, .l.lth October 1997,p i. .ll klatuphobid. p. 6. .l,l Lewis, Britdi', pp. 3E :19 For the life and work of Mawlana Ilyu, see ^idni. lvl Anw&ul Haq, The Faith MaLenflt of Maulana Muha@nwAIb6, (Londor: Anen & Unwin, 1e72). Fo Tabligh.i Sectdridn Injrdc*, pp. 1i2 131 JaMf, sealsoGaves. J.i An alternative tresheration. l{ (Mv italics) Le$is, Islamic Britdifl, p. 39 See also Wolffe, 'Fragmented Univdsality . p. 1.11. .f5 trris, lslanic anam, p. 90 Note the activities in Btita;^ of lM'dt,i Ishni (founddby Nlawlana\lawdudi ln 1911).Seethe impo.tant article by R A Geave, 'The Reproduction of Jdat i Islmi in B.itaiD', klart nnA ChrctianM6lin Rela,im, !bl.6:: (1995), pp. 187 .210. .16 t wis, Irlaui. Bnrdm. p. 8. .U Ibid. SeeSteveBoggd & Peter Popho, 'The Arragement Tfr. lndapddat: fusdq Retitu',21st July 1998.p. 1 J8 WollTe Fragmnted Universality, p 155. .r9 \'6nin Al;, 'ldentity and Community: YoungBrnish SouthAsios in fbe 1990s in David G Bosen (ed), Tn Sdtdni. Wra: BrdlJud (Ilkley: Brad{ord ad Ilkley Community CoLlege, Respondr, 1992), pp 6; 66. SeGeavs. Se.dndn lnjrmc,s, p 58 rtt Fiinburgh: Ldinburgh University Press,1994. {l A versiono{ the brief critique which follows sas lirst publishedas a book .evieu in the Jarnal ot ,lp Roldl Asid,i. So.i.rrr 3 Sr , \bL. pp 418 4:01 6:3i \ovember 1996), 12 1892 196;. S.himel refrsto his E sch einungsr{rrrun und Wrm der (Stuttgdt: Kohihanmer, 1961) Relieion. ..f \hlnrmel. Daiphcnae th? \,rru ul /1"J. pr r r $ri i4 l*e ibid . pp rvi-xvii. 15 lbid.. p. xiv {6 lbid., p. 2. 17 Ibi d.,pp .l 17 .18l bi d., pp. 17 :8. a9 l bi d, pp l 9 -rl 50 lbid., p 8 5l Ibid., p .10. 52 lbid., pp. 47 87. 53 See,to. ermpl, q s;,7

16

1;

5CFI FI TLAL

INTRODUCTION

Schimnd, D..ipltdns tl. SisB oJ Gdd, pp 89 111. lbid., P' 90. Ibid., pp. 102 103. Ibid., p. 104. Ibid., p. 106. I bid ., p p . 113 176. Ibid., pp. 177 218. lbi d ., p . 1 87. Ibid., p. 201. lbid., p. 213. Ibid., p. 243; she follows the tres. by A. J. Arberry, Ihe Koar I'ierp'erd (London: Allen & Unwin/New York: M&mille, 1971), Vol. 2, p. 191. &e Ian Richdd Netton, Ailah Trarucrn&trri Stldia ir the Sttrcbtr. a d Snioti's of klni Philosophy. Theolog ud Cosoloer, (Lndon & Nd Yoik: Routledg, 1939), p. :121 65 Schmmel. D"ciphmnq ttu SicB of Co,l. p. xii 66 lbi d ., p p .255- 256. 67 lbid. p. 2s6. 68 Javad Nubaksh, 'Mcta md Disiple in Javad Nurbaksh, tr rtu (LoDdon: KhaniqahiTddn oI Rdn: Sda Esays @.S1iq. Nimatlllahi Publiotio6, 1978), p. 111. N'.B. Dr NurboAhsA's m fiaBqtdatim Jm Arubi. an/J Pdsian arc pr.*tud in ,he qbtat;tu lron his m uuhl 69 S ei b i d .,p p. 119- 123. 70 Trans. in ibid., p 131. 71 Trimrghd, The Srj tldes ir Is|Zn, p. 311. 72 Ibid., p. 173. 73 Se arts. 'Fma" md Baqa'' in Netton, Poplldt Di.tiotuD oJ lslr , pp .7 9 ,5 1 -52 7,1 J. C@pr (t^s.), The C@MtoD on the Qtr'an b! Abn la"fN M&antud B. Jdffi dl-Tahan, (Oxford: Oxford tjniversity Pres, 1989), Vol. 1, p. 225. For the Ahbi. text se al Tabut ToIfl 4lIabad, ed Mahmod Mu].'allnad Shekir, (Cairo, D,r al Ma',rif 196 0 ), Vo l . 1, p. 472. 75 SeL. Gardet,dt.'Dhilr', EI', Vol. 2, p. 223. 76 Mariefta T. Stpaniants,Suj Wisdon, SUNY Seriesir lslo, (,Albmy, NY: StateUnivebity of New Yorl Press,1994),p. 6l 77 Javad NrbaltBh, Th. Psrcholw oJ SL/.6n, (trndon & New York: Khaniqahi Nimatulahi Publi.atioG, 1992), p. 6i. 78 ldem, 'Sulisn' in iden, In the Toutn ol Rtin. p. 7; se ale idd, In the Patudiv oJ ile Sds, (London & New York: KhmiqahiNinatuliahi Pubiications, 1989), pP 29 ,18 79 ldm, 'SdM' in idd, Jn thz TM oJ Rtin, p. 321w ate ;den, .Sd (Lndon: Synbolim: Ttu NrrbalJsn Etut.lrpeaia of Suf TMiDl,s! Khmiqahi NimtuIani Publiotioc, 1984), Vol. 1,pp.9s 98,188 191. s4 s5 56 57 58 s9 60 61 62 63 64 18

l0 Sce Ja"ad Nurbathsh, Spiritul Pole,ry in S!,sn, (London: Khoiqahi-Nimatullahi Pubiicetion,, 1984), esp pP' 1 38. See.lso A J. Arberry (t@s.), Discd's.s oJRrna (Richmond: Curzon Press, 1993), p. 1s4. F6 th Persiu tat, se Jat.i al,Din Rnmi, Kirab fili n Frhi,ed Badr" al Zamam hurnzanfd., 'lehe'r.. e,plh"Da Majl'.. 1330),p. 1,15. ff Nicola A. Ziadeh, Sdnanldl: A Sady ol a Raitalkt Motmmt ia r'bn, (Liden: E. J. Brill, 1e68),p. 124. ae kwis, Isbnn lritain, pP. 82, 81. 13 lbid-, p. 37, w pp. 89 101; se Ceaves, Seci4ror lqqkn..s, W 141 152,159 1t-9. lslanu &riuia. p a0: S.. Cedv6 \".latua lnflw^ce'. 14 &e tsis.

pp.91 129 13 Seean 'B&clwis in Nellon, Popub Dictionar!oJlsldn, pp.52 53 16 Seetois, /siamt Brnain, p. 40. 17 &e ibid-, pp. 40, 84. $ Gav6, sardnd Itrf@ces, p. 6s. tl lbid. l0 rbid.
Tolaoce is a key fature, for exople, of one of the c6. siudies which ;s a ftu.e ot this tek, the Ni(natulldhi Order. md it is powdftlly strGsed by the ddvishd of that O.de.. Iodeed, Alm A. Godla notes that 'Dr Nurba.khsh puts love ahad of intellect s the ley to spiritual advd.ement (dt. 'Ni"matulahr.yah' in John L. EsPslrr (ed), The &f6d En .tclopudia of the Moden lslanic \Vorld, (Odord/New Yo.k: Oxford Unive.,ity Prss,1995),Vol. 3, p 2s2. The E*ly Dwelopment of Sufisn in :12 (My italics) Victo. Dun6, &yyed Hcsein Nar (d), blda; Spi;tdlitJi Foudaiioro, World Spi.ituality: An Encyclopaedic History of the Religious Quest, Vol. 19, (l,ndon: Roltledge & Kega lraul, 1987),p. 263. ll

Mappingthe Sacred 1
The Ni'matulldhn Order

2,1Origins
And hold fct, All togetha, by the Rope Which God (stretches out For you), od be not divided Among yourselves; And remembd with gratitude Cod's fauow d ral [nftut Allahlt For ye were oemies And He joined your hearts In love, so that by His crace Ye became bredren; And ye wre on the brinl (X the Pi of F;e, And He saved you from it. Thus doth God male His sig* clear to you: That Ye may be gdded. (Qu"an 3:103)'

The founder of the Ni'matullahi Order, Nor al Dm Sheh Ni'rratullah Wali, was born in Aleppo on the 14th of Rabi. al Awwal 731A.H. (A.D 1331).,His fatherwasArab and his mother was Persian-rThe reasons why his family had movat to $ria are unlnown 'but all the early accounts of Shah,slife report his birth in Aleppo'.4
2l

SUFi RITTJAL

ShaI Ni'matullah has been characterised by Trimingham as a 'proli6c writer of Sutr ephemeras,both prose and ftetry,.: Rather more enthusiastica y, Javad Nurba_khsh .ff" irirn ,if," qutb (axis) of those who realise Oneness, the bst of thos perfected' and 'one of the greatest rnaste$ and most renownd mystrcs of the Sth and 9th centuries A.H. (14th and 15th centuriesA.D)' who 'bestowedfresh radianceupon the light of Sufism in his own time'.6 His eloquencewas such that When ShahNi.natallel bse to speak Even the ugels descended to I'sten.; Hr,.eju611;.' included rhe .tudv ot 6qh. rheroric, and scholaslrc.rheosophv and rheoloqy as well as worls by lbn Sina and Ibn al-Hral'r 3 Two meetings marked the early life of Shai Ni.matullah: the nrst may be compared in significance to that btwen the youthtul Prophet Muhammad and the Christian monl Bah[a;, the second may be compared in its huge impact to the famous encounlp, betueen lhe young lbn al Arabr and tbn Rushd in Lo'dovd, " or rhdr berween Jataldl - Drn Rr:rruand Shamsal Drn Myha:'.nna9._Jabili in Konya.rrBoth these meetings in the eady life of Shai Ni'matullah wilt be adumbrated here. In the fust, at the age of 6ve, the Shah was taken by his suli ^ father to^a,sufi meeting. The father recounted an episode at the Battle of Uhd in A.D. 625 in which live of ihe tropher Muhammad's teeth had been broken. The contempoiary hermrt, Uways aJ-Qarari.who lireJ rn rhe yemen. rmmediarety brote aJl t*,1.',r The story ctearty puzzled rhe young ::: ..ymparhy.. Nr'marull;i for there had been no rlirine Lnstru. don for thI hermit's action. However, later, Uways appeared to him that mght n a dream ard interprcted th dream for him: .In love of )ouf ancestor (Muhammad) I broke the thirty teeth ofavarice for thrs^uorld and rhe next . Thus, juql as Bdlur; rdentiGed and conJumedthe propherhoodof \luhdmmad. so rhe five yea, old drpamerhad his own turure missionemphcised. As pouriavady anJ wrlson remindus Like KhiJr or the Hidden lmam ofrhe Shi'ites, Uways is an everJiving spiritual force (atthough untike them, he did suffer physical death); he appars in visions and ).2

IfAPPINC THE SACREI] ]

ofers initiation or help in spiritual difliculties. Thus this .rpe.ience of the five year old Ni'matullah was mor than a childish drearn - it was a mark of his future spiritual rank'.r3 The second major encounter of Sh,-h Ni.matullah,s early life was that between himself at the age of twenty four in Mecca and the srfi 'Abdullah al,Ye6'i (1298-1367).ra Al ya6t. who bclonged both to the Shadhilr Order and the yefit bra.nch of the Qadirirya, acceptd Ni'matullah as his disciole,rs and later lhaly'a.16 The accounrofsha} Ni marutlehs ttrsi meerbe w,rh lhis Shaylh is borh porgnanr and poerrc He encounrered rl-Yafii in a mosque teaching hadith and he telts us that ,lll at once perceivedmyself as a drop. and rhis man as the Oce,r, . Ni'matullah acknowledged the Shalh as his masterl3 and for rcven years he studied rasaruru/ with him.rq Therea{tea following a tradition shared bv manv collectors of [adrth. slfis and other scholars. of rravelin searchof knou tedee $hla ft lalab ol- ilm1.i Shah Ni mamllsh emb"rked on a series of favels, visiting, inter a.Iia, Egypt, Persia, Transoxania, Samarqand, Shraz, Kirman and M.han.?] He met, and was later expelled by, Trmnr-i Lang.22 In Herat he married the granddaughter of Amir Husay'n Harawi (died c 1320 13291.23 The last twenty 6ve years of his life were spent between Mahan lnd Kirrrr.in and the former became the focal point of arr expanding Order as well as the place ofcomposition ofmany of his writings.za While on a visit to Knman. Shah Ni.matullah died in A.D 1431 having already designated his son Khalilu an (died 1455) as his successor.2s His cof6n was car.ied to Mahan .nd intrred in the centre of that town_ A mausoleum was .rected over his tombr6 and this became the focus of much pitgrimage ' By the time of his death, Shah Ni'matullah's posthumous rpiritual fame was assured. The people of Samarqand had sought him out to such an extent that he had had to escaDto the mountains rn the deprhs or wrnter for some pedce dnd solitude.2s Javad Nurbaksh quotes .Abd al-Razzaq a.l-Kirmani writing of him that 'his honour was outstanding among the great people of his time in the area of discourse and exceptional among the mastersof spiritual combat of his dav'.re 23

tri F l R rT U ,l L

N1APPINGTHE SACRID ]

'I'he Ni'matullau- Order spread ro India in the life of Shah \;'marulieh rhrough rhe aqency of his grandson, Shah Nurulldnri and, unsurprrsingly, became extremety active in Iran.31 Today, blancqatu of one branch of the Order are to be found as far afretd as the citis and rowns ofthe United States. Western Europe (including England), Australia and Africa. It is thus no xaggeration to say that the Ni.matullahiwa is now an internationaltdriqd wilh an inrernarionalfollowi;; from manv rutrons.I' It has already been stressd earlier that it will not b the task of this volume to survey and evaluate the spintualit! of the Ordersunderdiscussion. Our concern wilt be much more with their ritual practices. However, we should not leave this brief survey of the life of Shah Ni.matullih without notine. as Graham does.rhar Sh;h Ni malu ;hs origrnalconrribttion consists in his making of Ibn 'Arabi's enunciated doctrine an applied science. Where Ibn .Arabi was fundamentally a thinker and a teacher, Shah Ni.matullah was first and foremost a practrtloner, a master, concerned with the zuidance of disciplesot rhe ranqa. Ibn 'Arabr's reachings provided rhe theoretical background for Shah Ni.rnatullah s piog-n--e of training' rr Il J:c9nt times stress has been placed on the openness of -. Shah Ni'matullah: 'He did not consider Sufism limited to a certain group of peopl. In contrast with other Sufi masters of his time, who accepted only some seekers of God and reiected others as unworrh), he lefr hi. door open to alt se;ke,s. instructing in the way oflove (nahahbat\ all those in whom he perceived a longing for the school of Unity. .Strah Ni.not AIIah regarded all people as beins equally daseroinganl. in need of the school of 9l4f.srr'. He said, "All those whom the saints have rejecrrd. I willaccepr. and. accordrngio rheir capacity. I witl periect them. J'These remark" clearly underline r}e Ni,ma tullaii Order's stress on tolerance, frarerniry and equality as well as service. The latter is, ofcourse, rnost apparent within rhe hhanaqah itself.3s

2.2 Rituals andPracticcs

The 'method' of the Ni'matullahi Order has been characterised I being symbolically bet,reen the East and the West. The latter b representative of total 'externa.l activity' and the former of 'total inward attention'.36Man's world has an inner and an outer dimension and Slfism seeks a balance between the two. $Ofism itself has a dual dimension: one which has a public face rrtd one which is much deeper and 'resffed for the 6lite'.37 This section eyplores the rituals and practices of that public frce. Before we embark on this erploration, however, it is worth dtessing, with Potrrjavady and Wilson, and against Triminglnm and Ivanow,33 that the Ni'matulle+f Order is not, and nlver has been, an aristocratic Order, or one dirccted at only dre class of society. It may however, fairly be characterised as an urban Order.

2.2.1 Organisationan<lHierarchy At the heart of Ni'marullahr Sufism, and its hidden and complex spiritual hierarchy, is the concept of the Qrrb or Pole. Eheh Ni'matullah, among others, holds this rank.3eHis poetrv hre beenseenas indicarine his revelation of himself.s; Qutb vhile on earth.ao In this corporeal life the spiritual Qurb is mirrored by a human Qutb and he is the Master of the Ni'matullahi Order. Not only is Dr. Javad Nurbakhsh (born 1926) considered to be the present Qurb of the Munisiyya branch of this Order, but h is the tust 'modern' Ni'matullahi Qtrt6, having gained a medical doctorate, studied at the Sorbonne aad been a Professor of Psychiatry at Teheran University aad Head of the Department oi Psyciiatry there. In him are fascinatingly reflected the East and the West, the ucimt and the modern, the theological and the thmsophical.al The Order has no doubt about the absolute need for a eood Master.' Theliteofshah Ni marullah Wali himsellprovrJes a ttcet paradigm in the shape of the young man seeking instruction in things divine from many shaykhs until finally 25

24

STJFI RI'I-UAL

I{APPINC TTIE SACRED1

he encounterd Shaykh .Abdulleh al yaf.i in Mecca, as we lav1. sgel a!ove,l3 Arrd the N{aster, whose .sayings, states and qualiries not be quesrjoned by ;h"-di".,pt". i. .should symbol'sed by rhe wjnesellerwho is a profound irnage of rhe nu'shid in r he sufi vocabutaryof wine. Shan Ni,matult"ah calted tumsett (-omrnander of rhe Winesellers_r{ In the rr-i'matullaht Order Mastership cannot sirnply be _ Llaimed:,'Jr musr be anajned rhrough rraining under perfecr a masrer. I he true masrerimurAd)is tinked ro rne spiritual chain ol masrerswhich extends back to the propher . . the masrer must have travelled the path and come to know the path before he can lead orhers on rhe way'.a. paraltet wirh this is Lhe posrtronoi rhe novj{e or disciple rnridr 'who witnesssin his hean rhe spLrilualbeaur! ot the masterand inrmedrarely falls rn love with thi: beauty'.s Indeed, a whole etiquette or adab of di"ciphship' governs rhe rel,rionship between Masrer and Novrce. and nu/id: and rhe unquestioninq ruture of the 'nurdJ obedrencero be exhibited by the laner towards rhe former is based on rhe arrherypal Qur,;rJc paradrgm enshrrned rn rhe encounterbetweenMoses and al_Klidr.a3 Thts .muradtnutid rclarionshjphas beenanicularedat grarer , rength m dn essayentirled .Vasrer and Disciple. by Javad " Here the aurhor surveysrhe un;Uur"s *ru.h )r'ilb$ should be po-ssessed bv the Masrer, rhe eur,ani. subsratum or roundalron ior Mastershp. and rhe need for a Master by a seekeror traveller. The laner poinr is elaborared ,rd"; ;A; he-adrngs uhich include reference ro rhe obsracles aind diflculties of the journey, the disease of self, gUa** tf,r""gi spiritual sbres ,nd wirnessmgs and the desrrucrion of the ego. es$y concludes wrth a surveyof the responsibiliries of;he .lne Mdsler towards lhe drsciple, lisLedunder niner.een poinrs. and rhe^twentvJour duries of rhe discrple towards his Mashr. \h.n Nr marullah desigrarrd his successor. his son K}ali . lullah. before his dearh'0and the ldfer becamerhe secondeud ol rie Ord:, I While such designarjonp,ovrdes,ds rr were. an roearpdradrgm lor rhe succssion. this was nor always rhe case m rhe hisrory of rhe Order. For example,white Nur ,Ali Shah rd,edl7g7)and \4asr AIShahrt;Sj t8.t7,wered"sisndkd by 26

'Mnnis 'Ali Sh.n U873 19531 never their predecessors,t2 rctually officially named a successor [aJId so] there was a great deal of confusion at his death. According to one source, thirteen Fople claimed to be Qutb'.s3 This whole matter of successionblings us natly to the siisila of the Ni'matullahi Order. The close relationship between the Ni'matullahi silsila and that of the Shadhiliyya Order has been ooted. It is believed by some that these two Orders are among a minority which have 'spread to the West in recent years in an ruthentic and unaduiterated nanner'.sa Shah Ni'matullah Walr traced his silsila back through his own master Shaykh 'Abdullah al-Ya6'i and his master, Shaykh Selih Barbad, through such luminaries as Ahmad al-chazali, al Junayd sl-Baghdadi, and al-Hasan al Basri to'Ali b. Abi T:lib and the Prophet Muhammad himsellss The present head of the Mnnisirya branch of the Ni'matullahiyya, Nnr 'Ali Shah 11 Dr Javad Nurbalhsh, traces his silsiia back to Shah Ni'ma tullah Wah56 and thus, through him, also to the Prophet Mr.rhammad. The hhandqah is at the heart of Ni'matullait spirituality and itr mystery That senseof mystery, together with a typical lack of ostentation, was well evoked by Yann Richard, after his visit to a Rnch &frandqah: For the Ftench, Rosny-sous-Bois, m urban junction in the suburbsof Paris,is more likely to bring road travel to mind tho Shr'ite mvsticism. Neverthelss, that is where I have m appointment, in a hor:sethat is spaciousmd modern, though not ccessively luxurior:s, set in flower plmted grounds.Happy to hav rea.hed this haven after the labyrinth of freeway intelcheges,I discover the signwritten in lalgeleiters, in both Frenchmd Persia, that intrigles the uninitiatedpassers,by: Houe of the Su6s, Khaneqah.e Ne'tutollahi.,? This is a Barthian scenario where place is made sacred by action. Akin to this is the description of the bhanaqah by Pourjavady and Wilson, written in 1978, which lays an equal stressor its spiritis or mystery of placeand concomitant lack of ostentation. They characterise Persia as 'the place of the
lt-

! LFi RI TLAL

VAPPINC TIJE SACRED 1

secret'se and rmind rhe curious visitor that if he seks dervishes and sufi activity on rhe strets of Teheran. a citv \rith so many dervrshes. he will find none. He js direcr; instead to a door in a small alley of Old Teheran. One enters a garden, and sees roses, a fountain in a courtyard and ,a new buildingin an ancient style': the senseofny*ery presence an.r profound peace is discernible from the writilq.oo lf rhe mosque is representariveof the exiernal asoecrsot Islam then he hhanaqah represmts t}|at retiejon s inner dimen'ions which protect rarher rhan oppose rhe enemals ol relrgron.'I Enrrv into rhe Afi,ina4alshould be spiritual as well as phvsical.c2 lrq enrire focus is tove in Ni.maruliah rheory, The hhaniqahis then rhe place of sin@ty, where norhins is dr.cus"ed errepr rhe tteloved tt is rhe Houseof Low, wrrhour folly, variety or dceiq where there is no difdence betwena bggd and a kns All that .emains rhde is the selflessneas of the spiritual srate,the divirc Light in eachman. There evryone follows the rituals ofth sharfah, md h6 attainedvnious levels of the tariqal. There are always false &antqarr! wh,e fals masterscarry out their dseptioN, bur if the method of th true bian;qah were ever forgottdr the very hose of the world itslf would be ruined.6r The mediaeval and mo dern hhanasa]$ have lllustrious DroDhe tic anrecedenr": Josephs lfiana4al was r-hewe : Jonans was rhe bell) ot lhe whale: Vuhammad s was Lhe Ka ba afrer he had cleansed ir ofits idols. Muhammad then described that Ka$a as 'the Academy of Annihilation'.6a There is an ;nteresting sifi typology in operation here akin to rhar in Christianitv which seesrhe slorv ofJonah rhe belly of rhe whale as a 6pe of 'n Chri.t in rhe romb for rhree daysafter rhe cruciGxion. One of the principal practices of the bhanrlsah is dhib, and _ the Ni'matullahi dfiiAr will be surveyed in due course. It is worth noting here, however, that life in the ifitndadl is strictlv governed and conrrolled. lr is nor r place of spjritua| indiscipline and chaos but a place of learning. Javad Nuriatlstr has surveyed the manners, the adnb, of the Ni.matullahi hhanagah in an essay eotitled 'The Rules and Manners of the

Khaniqah'.6s 'these otab will be surveyed as what might b tetmed the 'rule of life' of the Ni'matullaru- dervishes after a brief examination of the initiation ite into that Order. Comparisons will also be made between this rule and the classic Chistian rule laid down by St. Benedict.66 Already, however, we may note interesting resemblances between the 1!ff lilarrdqah and the Christian monastery in terms of purpose .nd goal. Our previous characterisatiol of the hhanaqah as a place of love may be brielly compared with the following from the Prologva of the Rule of St. Bmed.ict: Constituenda est ergo nobis dominici schola servitii. In qua iistitutione nibil asprum, .ihil grave, Dos constituturos speiamus;*d et si quid pau, lulum restrictius, dictante aequitatis ratione, propter eme.dationem vitiorun vel conservationemwitatis pro cesserit ... Prcesu vao con versationis et fidei, dilatato @rde innanabili ditectionis dulcedine curritur via mmda tol:le Dei.6t Therefore we intend ro establish a school lie monasterylfor the Lord's swie. In drawins up its regulations,we hope to set doM nothing harsh, nothing burdosm. The goo,C of all conccned, howeveamay prompt us to a litde strictness in ordr to mnd faults and to safeguard love . .. But as we progressir this way of [monasticl life od in faid! we shall run on the path of cod's commandments,our hearts overflow;g with the ine4res sibledelightof love.63

The love of God and man, and humility, which should reign in the hhanasAh should also reign in the Benedictine monastery; the R e oJ St- Benedict reinfo.ces th need for these virtues in a uariety of places: Clmt fra&6, etuItat hmiliat nobis scriptura divina, diens, Omni qui se ldnilinb'hlr et ryi se exaltiqtut6e Brothers,divine Saipture calls to us saying: Whoaer enhs hins?IJ shal be hrnbled, and uhodet h|'r.bleshinself shallbe
exalted.lo

29

S [ ' FLAI TU \ L

NlAPIINC THE SACRED I

Calitateh fraternitatis caste impendmt, amore Deurn time dr. dbbalem er humili caritatediligmt.;!

To their fellow monks they show the pue love ofbrcthen; ro Uod lovirs

Initiation into th sufi life cin take a variety offorms. The rites are more elabomte in some areas and some (Jrders than others. They can include being clothed in the lhirqa (suft ga.rment), an oath of allegiance, receiving secret words, the drinling of water or oil, investiture with garments addit;onal to the hhirqa. allo.arron ota personal dfiibr and orherprayers.:r It must be stressed that the tr-i'matullahis are by no means opposed to the exoteric aspects of Islam_ Thus, before the Ni'matullalt initiation ceremony, both the non,I,{ustim and Muslim aspira.nts to the sufi path are obliged to mate a ritual adherenceto Islam.;J Pourjavady and Wilson de6ne initiation as 'outwardly ... a ceremony whereby tne aspranr swearsto obey the trIaster and is received into the tan-qah'.;5 Prior to the initiation, the candidate must formulate a correct intention.t6 ard then undertake five ritual ablutions as follows: each of these ablutions has an exoteric and an esoteric dimension: fustlv come\ th? ablution oJ ppc,rdn c wirh which rhe aspiranr reoents pasr ol mi"deeds.Of rhe rhree kind. of repenranie. Lhebes rs clearlythar ofthe.ufr who dresro all thar is not Cod.: Then comes the ablfiion of flb'rlission or lslam referred to above. This involves tota.l outq'ard a.rld inward surrender to the will of cod. Islam too has three dimensions embracing the verbal profession of fajth, 'initiation through the herrt' and firratty, that which is clearly the best, 'the initiarion tbrough the Root of the Root of lslam, which is surrenderand resignationand satisfacrion*,ith both Union and separation'.i3 The third ablution is the a.blution of spi'itl:.l,I pou'rt: in rhis the outward cleansing mirrors the inner purity. It signifies rhe l0

need for God.tq Fourth of the five ablutions cones the ablution of pilgnmage (ie to the Master). Just as one purfies or washes oneself and puts on clean clothes before visiting the dignitaris of this world, so one should be clearsed outwardly before visiting the l\,faster to receive directions for inner purification and pilgrimage via the snfi path.3o (The Arabic and Persian word ziyArc being translated as 'pilgrimage' here by Dr. Nurbalhsh could equally be rendered as simply 'visitins'.) Finally, the 6{ih ol the five ablutions is terned the ablation of fil-ltlrnent. The aspirant prays to be allowed to reach 'the Station of the Perfect Man' and the joy of eternal life in Paradise.3i Five gifts, symbolic of spiitual poverty, are then prepared and these are Fesentd to the Master by the aspirant. These gifts comprise a coin, a white shroud, a ring, sweets and nutmg. Each of these objects has a mystical significance: the coin symbolises the wealth of this world arrd its presentation to the Master symbolises acceptance of an inner spirit of poverty; the sbroud rcpresents the seker's total surrender to God and acceptance of asceticism; the ring signifes the binding of the aspirant's heart to God; the sweets are a sign of the second birth of the disciple as he enters the realms of spiritua.l povertyi 6nally, the nutmeg is symbolic of the discipte's head which is presented as a mark of devotion to the Master.3? The initiation qualifies the seeker to enter the hhdna.qahand it is stressed in the literatur that this must be both a ohvsical and a spirirualentry.3'I hu., beforerhe.eeler enterswhar is termed 'the circle of Spiritual Poverty',3{he is required to make 6ve commitments to his Master: he must (1) undertake to follow and obey the Sfidn'd, testifying, if Islam has not been embraced before, with the traditional terms of tF'e shahad.o. and adding th furthef testimony that ''Ali is the Saint ofGod'; (2) make a cornmitment here to being kind to all God's creatures; (3) pledge himself to keep the secrets of the Path; (4) agree to 6erve and oby the Master unquestioningly; and finally (5) male an inward declaration of sacrifice and prepare a special meal from a sheep for distribution among his fellow dervishes.35 TVo points may be stressed here: although, for the sake of convenience I have written the above with reference to men. it is 3l

,\CFi RITUAL

I"IAPPIN(; THE SACRID

clear that women are equally welcome on the Ni.matullfi snfi path. NurbaLhsh specially indicates this when he refers .he to or .he unda the headings The Five Symbols ofspirirual poverrv. ano t he rrve Uornrrutmenrs no Setondjy, rhe fad thar the process of initiation involves fle rituat abtutions, gifts and fza Jnue commrtments, coupled with the fre major principles espoused by dervishes of the Ni.matualtahiyya,riiodi.ut"" ihut the number FIVE is a favourite of the Order. ihe emphasis here is aI in ro r harplaced, for exampte, bv rhe tkhwanal Sala,onrhe number Four.s The lh-hwanexptained rhat rheir predilecrjon lor the number tour was because rhe Crearorhad designedmuch of His creation in groups of fours. This arrangement of the natural phenomena mirored the four main spirilal principles Creltor, Universal Inteltect, Universat Soul and prime 9{ Matter.se Some clue to the predilection of the Ni.matuallalut tor groups off?,es is to be found in The Nurbahhsh Enqclopedia of Suf Terninolog where reference is made to ,the five Lyers . . of manifestationwhich are the 6ve realms ...'. The lowest of these, we are told, is the realm of Humaniryeo Thus, for the snfi, the grouping of such things as rituals in 6ves within the mrcro, o.rmrr srrucrure oI the hhhnaqahmirrors or parallels the broader reality of rhe spirirual nranoros,n of rhe coimos.

2.2.3Rule ofliIe Once the aspirant or seekerhas beerr initiated and gained formal admrttance to rhe [hand4n[, it is his duty to follow the rule of the touse and become proficient in its manners or nlzb. To guide them in this, modem Nilnatultdhr dervisbes have a written mle which, though by no means as lensthy as that, for example, of St. Benedict, does nonetheless nave some rnterest_ mg points in common. The Ni'marullehi Rule is based on the twin pilla$ of mnsideration of God and consideration tor ones telow dervish.q The bldna4al is defined as both .the p.i te quarters, of the quft and 'a place where those of spiritual states can assemble,the school oftheir innerjourney towards perfection,.e2 32

Nurbalhsh reminds the snfi of the need to observe the manners GAab) ot the hhnna4ah a\d outlines the secular and spiritual advantagesof visiting it.q3 He surveys those who have authority in the blrdndsah and their functions; for example, the duties and quali6cations of the Shaykh are outlined. The latter must have been chosen by the Qrtb and be a dervish of at least twelve yea-rs standing.el The duties and qualifications of the dervish who assisti the Shavkh. the Counsellor. are also covered as are those ofanother important dervish in the Hr,anaqah, the Tea-Master.ei The Rule then moves on to survev the servitors: these are sufis of spcial merit and capacity for adab who are chosen to serve in the hhanaqah.'fhey merit respect from the other dewishes whom the servitors must, in turn, serve devotedly. The lalter are not to show favouritism to any dervishes because of wealth or social standing.'6 Below the rank ofthe servitors are the 'ordinarv' suirs, all of whom also have particular duties to the bldndriah, the offrcers of the hhauqah and their fellow dervishes. These sofrs are counselled, inter alia, to dress neatly, forget secular aflairs on ex,te;ng the hhanaqah. attend the $nfi gatherings on Sunday and Thursday nights, remain silent and respectful when the Shaykh is present and tell the latter their dreams, obey the orders ofthe Counsellor and eschew arrogance, conceit and supedority.qi Next the position of the travelling dervish in the hhanaqah is considered. He should bring a gift, and the gist of the regulations is that he shor.rld behave with the utmost courtesy, consideration and respect within, arrd towards, the &Aandqah where he is a guest and not attempt to take unfair advantage of his fellow dervishes.e3 The Rule concludes with instructions for the conduct of a sufi gathering which is deined as an assembly which takes place whn the Qrrb or ShayLh is prcsent. Rules of posture, all of which have a symbolic significance, are adumbrated, and ar insistence is placed on silence and concentration on God. Certain rituals also govern the cloth spread on the foor for meals and the meal which is eaten from it.ee The penultimate chapter of the Rule outlines the qualifications required ol and duties incumbent upon, the Stewards of the bhanaqah. Between

suFI RITU]\L

selT o,l r.hese may be appointed by rhe Shayhi. t he :lrT iid ot all,is verv.shorr and appear" under rhe simptt 1::f:pl" Lrenerat ruDlc Advice Here rhe snfr is reminded of Lhe need trld Inendliness ro peopte who belong to all l::,"p*":* nations and ret,gions(hospirdliry ro one s fellow man;,La rhe neeoDtor rhe lover to concenlrare dll fus or her lhoughrson God lne beto\edrhospiralir\, ro one.s(;.rlrran

MAPPING THE SACRED 1

is nol, ot course, suggesred in any wayrhatrhe lrom the former.but simptyrhat rhe two Ruics, 111"'T'-Td path\ lo Ljod. haremanyfeatures or in commonl.

rn au rhese areas rhen.we rnaynorevery reat 11-lTl*'* between rhe rwo Rulcs of Sr. Benedic, anl rhe Ili"-t1'.5' r\rmrtullahis. (lr

. .'l l"-l:J"Trlu, wirn anorher Kutp hom anorher radition, rhat of rhe mediaevi nnsirct ot Nursratc 480 mrd or-hcmt.r Lile rhe modem Rule or ue \r mdtu_ahiyva adumbrared above. the Rulc of rhe Dmeorcrrnes is ruU ot lvildom and sheermmmon sense for rhe successfulnrnning and governanceofa monastc hous ofprayer: as we have seen, the pmto&" stresses the p,,p""" Lf im monasreryIr.is for rhe Lord s .ervrce alld l" .fl"_.r"riJ* f ." rhc comrnmrdroJ nores, .rhe monastery rs place a ]11,-, reafn how ro servethe Lord and adudlly ]::^: ii:ff*'Ph (ro so.'" I he qudtjtiesard duties of LheAbbor ur" su*"yoJ in several pa.rts of the Rubro2 as are those f* iil Dedns ot rhe monateryr,rand the pnor.rtr "i "*i"t "t", rc;r.f,* rr" c.nosen everv $eek and no one is excusedfiom "-** service in rhe reasons. of sicknessor imponanr monastery "I:p,^'"j i::l: Dusmr:ss. I he^Kdpmsisrslhar.such ser!ice incra*" ,e*"rd ,rd rosrers..tove.,"' Indeed, all lhe monks of the monasrery are coumelledin rhe wavs of perfecrJon rhroughour Benedicr,sh"; ,nkrdlrd. lhey musr & obedientlo rher super;or.ru^ resLrajned in atlenr,vero the Divrne uf{ice,aa and humbte "' in T,"i:p*:l

and irsrructive. 10(ompare alt Lhisbnefl1

of this frvefold obligation will be surveyed here under the general heading of'Liturgy'. These principles compriser (1) (Remembrance Dhihr (ZeAr)r11 or Recollection)called 'the heart of sufi practice';rr?(2) Fib (Fehr) (Reflection or Contemplationl; (3) Mufiqaba (Moraqebeh) (Meditation, Watching, Spiritual Communion with a saint or a guide);r13 (4) Muhasaba (Mohasebeh)(Examination of conscience); (.5) Wird (.Vrd) (lnvocation, 'Office' of an Orderl.tta We should sbesshere, in Fssing, that this set of 6ve has never been intended to replace the frve uhan.

22.1.1Dhihr ond. Sana' Under this headingwe will considerthe practiceofthe sdma'as well as the Ni"matullahi dii[r itsell Waley notes that one of the features of dfrihr 'is that it represents dndmnesis,the 'unforget ting'ofthat which, in our deepestcore, we already know. God deated us for this purpose'-1l5And the act of dhih can take many different forms and styles.lr6 Pourjavady and Wilson confirm Waley's remarks about dhiAr: 'Ma.n'spresent low state of spiritual sleepstemsfrom forgetfulness; invocation ldhiAr] is simply the act of constantrecollction'.rr7 The wise old man in the story is citd as insisting that 'by lepating his dfiihy the pupil invokes God so as to acquire God's attributes, so that after annihilation of self all that remains is God. As the pupil settles into the practice ofdhi&r, it begins to 'say itself instead of him saying it, and the remembererbecomesthe Remembered'.r13 Like other rituals and aspcts of the Ni'matutldhi hhanaqah, dhiir has its o*n rules and manners (adab).An earlier Shaykh ofthe Ni'matullahr O.der, Majdhub, 'Ali Shah Hamadam (died 1823)r1e specified thirteen conditions in order that the dhiAr might be properly performed.r2o JavadNurbalhsh sets out rn which he characterises as the dldb of dhihr:121There is an emphasis on th ritual purity which results from the normal ablutions the worshipper undertakesbeforethe live-times a day prayer (1). As an adjunct to this it is necessary to wear clean clothing which constituts, as it were, an outer mirror or symbol 3i

2.2.+ Lilrrgy
Themarull;hr Order, . haracterisrica y, ,denrifiesjL,e pllncrpres -\r wlxch eachdervish should pracrise.ro Each "specr 34

I I A P P I N G T H E SAC R ED1

of inner purity of mind and heart (2). A third dirnension of the need for purity, outer and innr, lies in the disciple smelling pleasant (3). The latter should face the qibia in the nomal fashion for prayer (4) and his or her eyes should be closed (s). Paralleling the need for risht intention in so much of mainstream ritual, the disciple during the dhifrr should mentally invoke his Master's aid. The link with, and need for guidance from, a sufi l\,Iaster is thus brought rieht into the arena of the dnihr itself (6). A specilic posture is to be adopted which stresses in symbolic form the nothingness of the snfi and the latter's rejection of the ego. This is powerfully articulated in a body posture wherein the arms and legs form the Arabic word 'la' ('no' or'not').r']? Once againwe havean outer reflectionof an inner attitude of self abnesation(7). During all this the soF is required to empty his or her mind o{all worldly proccupations and 611it sirnply with thoughts of Cod (8) in silence(9) with gratitude and acceptance that any feelings and experiences encounteredduring the dfiilr are from Cod Himself (10). Two types ofdhi&r may be identified: Vocal' (dhitr1ab) and 'Silent' (dhilr hiufr. The filst may be performed, often loudly, by snfis in their hhandqah or at a sufi gathering. It is practised by such Orders as the Qadiri''ya.1r3And while it is true tha. vocal dhi&r may be undertaken when the Shaykh is present gatherinss, or on special occasions, the during Ni'matullah preferred mode of dhiAr among Ni'rnatullrhis is the silent vaiety.r2a Furthermore, the practice of silent dhilr in the middle of everydayactivities is much comrnended.rzi In their book, Kings oflove, Navoltah Pourjavady and Peter Lambom Wilson describe a typical dhi&r in Old Teheran. Between one hundred arrd fifty and two hundred tale part in a on a Thursday evening. The dervishes sit during the 'naji; chanting of the snfi poetry and a simple vocal dhihr, based on the Arabic shaiada, is performed. This is done in absolute darkness. The dhibr ends with a prayer from the l\'{aster. As the lights go on he prays for God's guidance,help and succourr:r Beyond tbe dhilar lies the sama', the mystical or spiritual conced. Chant has a.lwaysben permitted in mainstream Islam in the realms of the adJratland ,4ju,td, but other forms of singing 36

and the use of musical instruments have o{ten incurred the *rath of the theoiogians and rhe law schools.l2i Owen Wright notes that the later importance that music acquired in $rlli ceremonial 'depended upon its being interpreted symboli cally'.r':sSymbolic or not, the sdma'has givn rise to massive conhoversy not only among non-sifts but within s,lfi circles themselves.l2e The debate has continued into modern times. Philip Lewis cites a notable Indian Muslim scholaras counting among the signs of the Day of Judgement 'the abundance of singing, dancing and revelries' 130Many centuries before, the early sufi al-Hu.iwiri (died c.1075),'r' famous for his work The Disclosrre of the Concealed (Kash/ al-Mahj ),1rr counselled against too much pnctice of the sano' and he laid down a number of conditions for the pmctice of the sama" to avoid abuse: a Shayhh was to be present, only initiates were to be present, the dervishes were io rcmain in a state of absolute sobriety, and whn they were spiritually moved during the samd' they were to avoid disturbing others who were participating in the sona'.131 N{usic and the sama' became a normative part of the sufi way. The rationale for the sona'was that it produced 'a state of ecstasy in the listener who [wasl properly prepared, becauseits non verbal, non categorical meaningfulness prefigureldl the absolute beauty which [wasl the Suli's q6al'.t:+ Here we a-re reminded of Wright's words, cited above, about the symbolic rnture of sufi music. As far as the Ni'matullahr Order is concerned, music was used as early as the majiliis of Shah Ni'matullah Wah but it 'accorded, in his opinion, with the Shari'ah', and eschewed dancing and whirling. The sarnZ" compriseda simple diribr with clapping and, sometimes,the use of the tambourine and reed flute.l3: Later Nlasters of the Order developed a whole vocabulary of s,[fi symbolism which embraced 'Wine, Music, lr,fystical Audition (Sama'), and Convivial Gatherinss'.r36 Sdna'has been denned as'a mysticai state experiencedby the Sufis when affected by sweet singing and enchanted melodies.In this state of selflessness, Sufis may exhibit cetain movements which onlookers may suppose to be a kind of 3t'

S.Fi RITI]AL

\IAPPINO THE SACRED ]

dance'.r37 For, it is stressed, sdma. means .the realization and discovery of mystical states whiclr is necessarily accompanied by th loss of the faculties of retention and judgement in one s r33 intemal consciousness'. ln their sdna' today, the dervishes ofthe Ni.matullall- Order bd\e a rnajor rreariseon Lhe subject by Javad Nubal}rsh for their gurdance.rro Rrght ar the beginnineof tfus ir is suessed thar the. ecstasy which is the product of the sand. is not something which is superficial, and that the sdfi dance is not pedormed foi mere idle amusement.r'uRarher.sdr.;. puts man rn roucb wirh 'the dngefic of suprasensble world rrheMalahur).111 Following,Shaykh Rnzbihan Baqh Shnazi (1128 1209),14, . three types ofrdnz'are idertified: that which is suitable for the ordnary people, that Fopr to the elect, and that which is for those vr'ho are classified as.the elect among the lect,.rr3 Followins al cha2eh, tawfut and unlawful kinds of sama. are .ategorised ard rh rredrr"e rhen lays down twenty rules ol conducl whrch musr golern rhc sd,?Z rr4 These include rhe need for sp-ontaneity, infrequent practice, the presence of a sufi Maste.r or Shaylh, lack of pretence, correct posture and a pure heart focussed solely on God. An explanation ofwhy dnilrs and poetrv rarher lhan_vers5 from rhe eur'an are used during rhe sana' rs provided, '' and it ,s emphas,sed thrt in anangi;C a sdmd 5essron, one musr consider rhe time. the place, and the people, takrnq par'rb Wh,iJe the pradice of .dnz, brings unoour'red benehrs, rhere are certrin situations in which rt should not be practised.l+7 Spa:ial reference is also rnad to rhe musical instruments employed in the sarna..ra3 The trearr.elhen moves ro d lengthy exposrtionof rhe rh_ree statrons ot idmd' which are identiied as undersranding,ual (which can loosely b translatd here as ecstasyl ano move menr.'" The kinds and terels ol wajd ate jdenLiied and de"cnbed. rhs includes a comparisonbetween rhe uajd ot the begrnner ard rhe ad!anced dervish. Under rhe rubric of Morement (Dancing), tt is noted that .sometimes the movments of su6s in Wajd are Jike dance movements. This indicares a very advanced degree of Wajd'.r50 The dervish may be s&ed with yearning for God and sramp his feet and clap in the .Dance of 38

Oneness'.rn True sufi dance, according to Nurbakhsh, is alwaysinvoluntary-lt2Finally, the treatiseconcludeswith a brief eurvey of the sami:" practices of Shah Ni'matullah Wali,1s3a tubject to which we have already briefy referred. Although the rules goveming the sdma'specify that 'the general public, or those not on the path, should not be presnt'1saduring the sarna', some flavour of the singing and the musicianship may be gleaned from the occasional public concrts such as those mounted by th Nimatullahi Sufi Music Ensemble at the School of Oriental and African Studies, University o{ London, in the evening of 5th December 1990 during the thre day intmational conference on Classical Persian Sufism entitled Tlre Legacy of Mediael)al Persian Sufvn;rii and that performed by the same Ensemble, directed by Muhammad Reza Lotfi, in th Lisner Auditorium of the George Washington University campus in the evening of 11th May 1992 during another three day international conference mtitled Persian Suiyn from its Origiru to Rrmi.1s6

2.2.a.2 Fihl The Ni'matullahi dervish embraces the Divine Beloved by means offLr and other sirnilar practices.r5TFor him the practice offhr leads to that form of contemplation which results in indeed is certitude about things divine.li3 Waley reminds us that the practice of contemplation was by no means restricted to the sifisrie and he draws attention to Abu Hamid al Ghazalt's important chapter on meditation (Bab al-Tafahhuil in hrs farnous magnum opus llya" 'IJItLm ai Dm.160 In the latte. a.l-Ghazalr stresses the merits. nature and beneits of con, templative meditation, distinguishing between various types of . introspective thought.l6l He examines the appropriate subject matter for such refection and argues, in one place at least, that ft; is more beneficiat than dhibr.t62 As we have already noted, flr is one of the five principal practices incumbent upon the Ni'matullehi dervish. God is the absolutesnfi focus oftiz, with the mind emptied of all else.r63 39

SUFi RITUAL

MAPPINC TflE SACRED 1

Sufif&r is infused with love and transcends that of the saee or inrellectual r'anf who attempts to reach God rht"ueh th" medium of knowledgerb':'While "ratronal contemplation is woven. heart-based conremplaiion is ro be found.rt' The former is motivated by reason but the latter is motivated by God.'66 The Nilnatullahrs identify three distinct kinds of 'heart-based' contmplation: there is the restless contemplation of rhe seeker who lacksa Master and a par-hbur beeins; rhinl about the need for a spiritual guide; ther is the contemplation of the initiate who has embarked on the spiritual road in which that initiate perceives the Master's 'spirirual h"ty'; thirdly, and 6nally, there is the fh', the contemplation of'th -rd Advanced Su6' in which the soul is 'plunged into the Divine Unity' and contemplation becomes wisdom.r6t From all this it is clear that, for the Ni"marulla{n dervish, the heart ranls above the mind, and that love is rnore powerful and more potent than the intellect.

fudgenrent and Divine Destiny (oI qa,l.ar).Again the strarger hpressed his approral of what Muhammad had said and thn ded for a definition ol or information about, illsan. He was bld that this involvedworshippingGod as if you could seeHim, urd evenifyou could not seHim, He could seyo.u(.n ttL'I du Allah ha amaha tafihu, Ja in lam tahlm tarahu, fa-ivahu jaraha). The strdner'sfinal questionwas about the Last Day, chancterisedin this batrth as TheHnr (al-Sa"a),and the 'Signs of the Hour'. When the stranger finally leaves,'Urnar, in his complete to a quetion fiom the Prophet,confesses response about the questionerand is informed by Muhammad iSnoranc that it was the angelJibn1, in disguise,who had come 'to teach you your religion .r7o
From the prspective ol mwaqaba, al-Qushayri's particular interest was in the Prophet's definition of r'llsan;al-Qushatrr says that 'this is an a.llusion to al' mlraqoba, for nuraqaba is the rervant's knowledge of his Lord's (be He glorfied) watchfulness of Him. Such knowledge is extmded tbrough rn'raqaba (watch ful contemplation) of his Lord'171 Waley stressesthat 'in this pessageQushayd explains muldqabd as a mutual 'keeping watch' between the Creator and the seeker on the Sufi Path'.172 Elsewhere we leam that 'adent love' has five degrees: 'The 6nal degree is "contemplation" ... of the Beloved, being the finest and most intense of stations'.173 This quotation clearly underpins the spirituality of the third of the frve principles of the Ni'matullahi Order which the dervish should practis, that and so we will turn now directly to the of muaqrbq Ni'matullair articulation of this principle. In his book ln ttu Paradie o/tfie Sujs, Dr. Javad Nurbakhsh introduces the subject with the following chaiming phrase: 'Mutaqebeh is two pople taking care of and protecting each other The sagesof the Path have said about moraqeleh that jirst as God takes care of and protects man, so man in his heart must tale care of and protect God.'r74 This links up neatly with al-Qusha1,n's exegesisof the Prophetic defrnition of il6an in the Hadnh of Gabriel cited above and underlines Nurbakhsh's insistence that there are two directions of mutaqaba: 'from God to the creatioq and from the creation to God'.1ts
41

2 2.a3 Mtaqaba Waley translates nurA4aba as 'conremplative vigilance' and 'contemplative watchfuiness'.163He notes that the sufi Abn 'l Qasim a.l-Qushayri (died 1072) interpreted a very famous hadtth as a direct reference m mura.qrbLl,e The hadrth is worth summarising in full for one can then appreciate it context tlrc profoundly sufi gloss that al,Qushayn gave part ofil in terms of muAqaba. The second Uraiifz 'Umar b. ai Khattib relates how he was sitting one day with the Prophet Muhammad when they were approached by a man wearing extremety white dothes and having jet-black hair. H sat down by the Prophet and proceded to ask him about Islam. Muhamrnad then characterised, or summarised, Islam in terms of the five pittars (artaa) of lslam. The stranger told the Prophet, to the amazment of those arcund him, that h had spoken truly. Then the stranger asked about -rrnanand was told by Muhammad that this embraced belief in God, and His ansels, books, messmgers, rhe Day of

SI]FI RITUAI.

\IAPPIN(]

THE SACRED 1

In describing the first, 'From cod to the Crcation, under the specrfiLheading fhe Divine Moraqebehrowardsrhe Whole or Crearion , Nurbakhsh t learly espouses a form of whar is called 'atomism' in mediaeval Islamic philosophy. Using thoroughtv Aristotelian terminology, he holds that substanc"" only .erin; in existence by virtue of the accidents which sustain them. The lading of the latter would mean the automatic extinction of the forme., were it not for the fact that the All_Watchful God tales c"re to create a new accident when one fades so that the substances are maintained in being. It is suggested that this is the real sense of the Qur.enic verse At every momenr He is hvolved with creation'. (Q 55,20;.,tu Nurbakhsh foliows this sratemenr immediately with Shaykh Ruzbihan's defnition that 'moraqebeh is God'";u,"r""""" ;,r". every partjcle of the creation from the Divine Throne to the lowest phenomenon, and His overseeing of all the attributes for the purpose of granting them qrace,.t;; Atomism, also called Occasionalism, .was a thory in medieval Islamic theotosy according to which absolutely everything (except cod) was made up of atoms and perishable accldents(a",il). The theory stressed the continuou;interven, tion by God in the affairs of the world and hurnadty. It was embraced (though interpreted in its derail in different wayst by.many medreval rheotogians inctudrngrhe \lu.razilire ALu -r Hudhdvl al 'Allaf tborn berueen ;j2l.t ;48lq, d,ed btween 8.10,/1 849,/501 and rhe Ash.arite theologian al-Baqilleni ldied 10131'.r'3 The seconddirecrron of nwasaba tnoruq?beht..norr. $e Lredrion ro Cod. ;s div;ded inro thar of rhe Shar.r, thar or Farth and rhe Divine Voraqebeh. rhe laner being possibleontl for Cods sainrs. " Dr. Nurbathsh conctudes rhar rhe mosr pefect lorm of conremplation for the sufi is where the latter moves itom_a parrJalro a complereprception of Realiry.r3o He qoeson to delrneare lhe physicalcondirronsnecessarv for rrying to achievethis. -the muruqabashould be in aa empry. unfrequenred place. perlormed m a srale of quietude. To avoid all personal distractions one's body should be clean, comforrable and free 12

hom smells. Stch muraqaba has its own dddb or ritual code: for ?rampl, it should be preceded by the ritual ablution, the mditator should sit on the ground facing the qi6la, completely rtill with closedeyes,ard the mind should be focussed entirely on God. An attempt should be made to lose all sense of individuality or desire. Three particular positions are favoured fot nuraqaba and these are iliustrated in ln the Parad(e of the Sufs which is both a manua.l for the novice as well as a prceptive guid for the initiate and advanced sufi. Indeed, all three may benefit ftom muriutraba.l31The whole object of tturaqabd, Dr. Nurbalhsh insists, is to become a stranger to this uorld with its dualism of'l' and 'You'. God makesman die to relf and he is then revived in God.r32

2.2.41Mthasaba The Arabic word mlharaba comes fiom a root embracing such conceptsas'sttling a.naccount', 'calling (someone) to account', 'getting even (with someone)'and 'holding Gomeone)responsible'.r3r lt has thus been variously rendered as 'accounting', 'bookleeping', and, in theology and $nfism, 'examination of conscience'.r34 The word clearly has both a profoundly secula-r, materialistic dimension and a profoundly spiritual dimension. Waley rendersthe term as 'self-examination'and notes its very important association with Herith b. Asad al Mubasibi of Baghdad (died 857).135 He also reminds us of the oft quoted gdfi saying, which has been attributed io the fourth &i4lrfd "Ali, to the effect that one should call oneself to account bfore someonelse lcod?l called one to accotnt.l36Som years ago Margaret Smith claimed al Muhasibi as 'the real master of primitive Islamic mysticism ; she maintained that an examina tion of his writings revealedhirn to be one of Islam's 'greatest mystic theologians.rsTAl Muhasibi may also be countedas one of the earliest, and perhaps the foremost, of the apostlesof mthdsdbd. His very name derived from his frequent practice of examinaxion of conscience or seli Another explanation given for his name, which perhaps parallelsrather than replacesthe .13

5[ ' Fi RI TL AL

\IAPPING TrlI SACRED I

latter, is 'that he did not prcnounce a single word without having reflectedthorougbly on it'-r33 Al Muhasibi believed that rnan's motivations in selfexamination were a m;ture of hope and fear and such selfexamrnation constituted the basis of godliness or pietv Itd4.,{i).r30lt $as exrremely necessay if one were to espousc the kind of rigorous ascetical thmlogy which al Muhasiti did and avoid talti-nginlo serious.or even venial, sin.roolr was rhe key to the Lind of mortfication proposed by al Hasan al Basn {042 728i in which the worshipper tried ro avoid aI r}ut deh! offend Cod in word or deed by rhe hean or LhemembersoI Lhe body and to refuse all that might incur His disapproval.rqr AlMuhas'br counselledhis brerhrenro examineth" a-*," of rhei, he,rrs and purrfv them from such sins as hdte, "itr"*"fr""* ard suspicion,dll of which devouredones eood aclrons.iu: Such ua" al Vuha<ibr's enrhusiasm for mutrrisaba that he wrote an entire trearise known both as Sirarh aI Ma.rifa wa Badhtat Nasiha tAn Eatawtnn oI lcnosrrl Knowteaae ina *t Giring of Good Ad.uice) awJ Kinb Muh*abat al Nufrs (T[e Booh of the Souls' Examhation of (bscience).1e3 In this book the master asctic provides a summary of the way in which tlle mortification of self allects the soul of the ascetic, both fmm an exterior and an interior perspective and enables it to undertale a I qa classicalmeranoiaThis almost obsssive insistence by al-Muhasibi on muhnsaba, and its pervasive rticulation in both his life and name, has become a paradigm for other softs and sufi Orders.re5 The grear scholar snf' Abn Hamid al Gha*tr himself was no exception;r'q6and Orders tike the Ni'matullahiyya have not only followed suit but, as we have noted, rnade mrhtsdba one of their The Ni'matullahis insist that the principle has a dear Qur'anic foundation (cf. Q, 59:18) and is supported in hadrth; as we have sen above, it is sanctioned by many of the great slFrs in historylei Ttree kinds of muhasaba are identified for the Ni'matullaru- dervish: that of the Self, that of the path and that of the Divine. With regard to the fust, the snfr is advised ro examine his conscience for a few minutes every night and go

wer all the negative and positive deeds of the day. If the former outweigh the lattr, he should resolve to make up for this the next day. Hovever, an excess of positive deeds should not be a source of pride.1e3 Muh*aba of the Path constitutes a much more advanced type of self-exa.rnination in which the snfi attempts to break free of the chains of what is chamcteised as 'multiplicity' and achieve a more unitive state.re' H should walk both in the presence of God and that of the Master of the Order or hhanaqah, and be truly aware of his promises and commitments to both.2ft The highest, and what must clearly be reckoned the most sublime, form of ndasaba for the Ni'matullahl $nfi is that of the Divine. This is directed at the 'shaikh of the Path'. In a kind of Minor fm Princes way, the rubrics here give good and clear advice about how the Shaykh should comport himself in terms of his differnt relationships such as that with God and those with his fellow human beings, in terms of the claims which he makes and the awarenessof his responsibilities both to God and to his disciples. One of the best defnitions of 'fluhdsaba provided for the Ni'rnatullahr dervish is that by Shah Ni'matullah himself, cited bv Nurbaksh: Moha*beh, in the beginning, is a balancing of accounts between negative ad positive acts. At the end, it is th actualizationof pure Unity . . .'?01 Thus the types of mrt,asabaparallel the stageson the sufi path itseli from the lnst hesitant steps of the murtd to the sublime goalsof fanA" and baqA'.It is recognised,of course, that there are ahrays spiritual dangers on the path and the sufi adept will be aware of those prtaining to nuhtuaba: the attempt to corect oneself may create a veil between oneself and the Divine because one is concentnting on a being other than God properly, one Himself.2o2If, however, one practisesmuhasaba may perhaps become one of the 'Servants of God'. For the 6ufis, such servants 'rep.esent theophanis.. . of the Names, as ones who have realised the reality of one of the Divine Names and become adorned with the realitv of that Name bv 45

S. FI RI l' U, { L

MAPPING THE SACRlD 1

way of an Attribute'.ro3 Thus the excellent and worth,, practiljonero[ muhixobamav become The Servantof the Xecloner I Abd al Hdsibrdnd one ro whom ( iod hasgranted control over his nafs, as well as over his own brcath, so"rhathe keps account . . . of his own nals and that of each of those who follow him' 204 At the basis of rhjs wholemysrical nadirion,ot course. tiesa ver) srmpleconcepr. rharof malinq oneself awareofone,ssin. .examindtion and larrrngs throuqh a regular inrrosperrive ot cons\rence the prdcri.ein ils essnce rs by no meansuniquc to Islam although some of the more esoteric urra _ysti.ut articulations of it may be. Christian moral theology, for example,.at rhe simplesr levelshasalwavsinsrsred on frequenr oeiore the sacramentof confessionand during daily evenine 0 nril recenrty prayels: in manv tases. rhe Chaprer of Fautrs . ! at whrch,mino'. rnfringemenrs of the Rule.and smallsins,were core\sed pubrrrly rn monasreries and convenLs before rhe entre community, was a regular feature of many Christian monasbc and conventualorders. A similar procedure is enshrined in the Rrle of the _ Benedictinemonks in Chapter +6;
Si quis dm in labore quovrs, in co{luina. in celiario, jn mrn rste rro, in pis t lino, ;n horto, rn arte aliqua dum laborat, vel in quocumque loco, aliquid deliquerit, aut fregerit quippim aui pddj derit, vel aliud quid dcessdit ubiubi, e! non venims conti nuo dte abbatm vel congre gationem ipse ultm satisfecerii et prodjderit delictum suum If sommne comnits a fault while at my work wh;le workrng in the kitchen, in the storercom, rn seruing, in rhe bakery in the gaden, in Dy c.aft or anluhere else eithr by breaking or losing sone thing or ftling in my other way in any other ptace, he nust at once come before tbe abbot and olruunit] and of h,s oq! acco.d admir his faul! ad male satislaction . . _ro;

forgiveness of sin ard striving towards perfection that we have observed as a characteistic of Strfrsm. It was universally rcognised that a major step on the path to God, whether stfi or otherwise, lay in an awarness of self and the capacity of that ielf to sin. Mlrftdsdbd unlocked the dools to that awa-reness.

2.24.5Wid

We saw earlier that uird could be translated both as ';nvocation'203 and the 'oflice' of an Order.20e Trirningham's latter definition brings to mind the Divine Ofiice or Liturgy of the Hours of Christian monasticism with such set piece devotions as Lauds, N{atins, Vespersand Compline, to name a few, timetabled into the monastic routine. However, Trirningham also provides three other defnitions: 'a phrase, pattemed devotion', a 'collect, and 'the order itself'.2lo The Arabic dictionary gives such definitions as 'specilied time of day or night devoted to private worship (in addition to the Iive prescribed prayers)' and 'a section of the Koran recited on this occasion'.2rr However, u,ird (.plural aurad) may also be translatedsimply as 'litany' and, as Waley notes, 'the practice of.eciting drrrzd, or litanies, can be traced to the teaching of the Prophet, who recommended the utterance of particular formulae on different occasionsin daily life'.212 Waley stresses how many Muslims today us such phrases as 'Praise be to God'and'God willing' automatically,2lr arld shows the popularity of aural among such leading figures as Abn Hamid al'Ghazali as Sofismdeveloped.,l{ The shorter litanies of Islam and Islamic Sthsm have much in common with the mantms of Indian religions and the Jesus Prayer of Christianity as well as the noranatha prayer pfuase of the latter faith.r1s Of the Christian use of the mantra, John Main has observed: You need to know only a few things to meditate. You must be still and in the tust few weeks le&n to str absolurly still as the fi.st stpin bary absolutely still Then starrrc sayyour man a ceaselessll continually. The mantrabuildsup the powerin you
1i

Both this, and the examination of conscience noted above, arose from the same wellspring of desire for the purging and

\ UFI FI TI J lL

MAPPINC

THE SA(]RED 1

to kep going, aDd it is tbe matra above all that tale your attention off yourseli that curs through *lf consciousBs ,'6 We may compare this with the advice of Muhammad ibn Suwar to Sahl ibn 'AMullah Tustarl (died 896), his nephew: 'lnvoke in your heart. When you are in your nightcloths and turning over from side to side, and your tongue is moving, say "God is with me; God watchesme; God witnesses me."'Sahl began to do this several times a night and tells us that a sweetnss manifesteditself in my heaft'.rri It is thus clear that the concept and practice of litany in Sulism partakes of a great tradition practised as much by those of Indian faiths and Christianity. And John Cassian (c 360 ,135), who epitomises the meditative tradition ofthe latter faith, has been described as one who 'was admirably suited for the role of rnediator betveen Easten and Western monasticism'.2r3 He profoundly influenced the Benedictine monk and apostle of twentieth century meditation, John Main (died 1982). The latter 'rediscovered the Chrisrian tradition of meditation after he had become a Benedictine monk. But he fust learnt to meditate from an lndian monk'.lrq None of this is to say, of course, thar the great sufis and their disciples necessarily learned their tecbdques of meditation and awrdd frorn Christian monasticism, thotgh there must have been some cross fertilisation of prayer and other rechniques between suft ard Cbristian mystics. What I am saying, simply, is that the idea of a short prayer or phrase, repeated over and over again as arr aid to self-awareness and awarenessof God in medjtation, has an antique pedigree and that Christians and Muslims participated in a common tradition. The Ni'matullahis differntiate br.njeenrwo disrinct tvDes or level.ot wird: rhe word can indicare ones daily 3ob and also one's daily prayers.'20 At a second, higher level it means the repetition at certain set times of verses from the Quian, hadnh and various phases or \r'oids. Such utd has the doubte requirement before it is undertaken of purity of heart and permission from dre Mastr.221 Early sofrs such as al-Junayd /died ql0) cledrlybelrered rhat u;d was a very ;mporrantpr 48

of Sufism, indeed an integral part. The Ni'matullahis cite Junayd's etymology of the word sufi, which he derives classically from the Arabic word stl meaning wool. But it is emphasised that the thee letters which make up the word sd/ each have a mystic significance and that the letter uau represmts, intet alia, uird, litany.", Continuous recitation of the litany is designed to focus the entire being ofthe p,ifi on God,r'zrand Ni'matuilahrs seeit as a It thus Qur'an inspired practice of immense sisni6cance.22a ranls as the fifth oftheir five major principles in what might b described as a parallel, or suppiementary, but by no means rival, vt of arhan to the classical five of mainstream lslamic ritual practice. Th principal ritual handbook of the Ni'matullahis in the U.K., In the Pdradiseof the Su,tis,divides roizd into two different typs or levels: there is, firstly, the ritual prayer of Islam together with other recommended prayers; then there is the trrird of the sufi path which also sub divides into blro categories: litanies recited after ea& of the fivefold ritual prayers (for example, Allahu Ahbar recited 34 times), and special litanies which the Master of the Order prescribes.223 An example which is given of the latter is Q 21:88 [v 87 in Yusuf Ali's edition]: 'There is no God but Thou: Glory to Thee: I was indeed wrongl'226 r-i'matullarn-s lnow *Lis DiTd as the ytnusila since its recitation enabled the releaseof the Prophet Jonah (Ynnus) from the belly of the whale which represented corporeality and facilitated his adrnission to the world of the spirit.2zt The phraseology used here is akin to that of the lkhw:n al-Safa' who, centuries earlier talked of humanity being 'foreign prisoners in the bonde of nature. dro*ned in the sea of matter . . .''?rl I observed above, briefly, that the five ritual principles of the Ni'matulaluDhib, Fihr, M raqaba, Mrhhaba and Wird constituted, in one senseat least, a kind of parallel, but not rival, set ofarlan. And if we a.e to try and view them like this, as a species of inner spnitual dimension for the more usual exoteric Islamic rituals, it must b stressedonce again that in no sensedoes the Ni'matullahr Order regard their five principles as

iOFI RTTUAL

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supplantlDg the 6ve mainstream arhAn. They are, rather. spintual supplemenrs,based on rhe eu,,an and desigred ro rddthe belrever rc a deeper appreciationof lslamrc piacrice Nowhere In rhe votume tn rhe pamdke o/ the Su/u joes rhr: author urge a casting off of the mainstream ritual practices of Islam as epitomised in the 6ve ar[an and elsewhere. On the mnrrary.he insisrsin one placeon rte."g"lr p..fo.*ar,, * oi Ine hve da y prayers'wirhoutexcusein accordance \^ith rhe shan'at of lslam'.2i Here is a modern arhculatior of that classical Ghazalian paradigm which insisted on tull adhernce to all prescriptions of the shan.a before one progressecl to any of-the the higher myst cal states_.rro \l har is inreresting in r rhir is rhat the ddd6 of rmptemenune of these princrples frequently rnvolves -each " comDrndrron ot menral and phvsical action. or non acrion. lor the. suti. Lhe bodv adopts a plaroruc subservience to rhe soul and, th.ough such transcending asceticism. he believes that he ls on the path to union with co{t

Nots , ,;Vr 'l{:*,T1a, t ta$bt@ and LmMtarr. rKutrdjr Dhd dt Salrs,t. lsSar, p I4q. ror orhe' rere,m@sjn rbe eur.;n ro nr tu! A at yc al$ e. 2:lr I ZJ l q 5 8 . 12. 2/ . Q . la b, t8 rr' .(-t ro 1 8 .;,.8 { 1 4 .(i 2 qo;, Q ll 3 t, Q 3r . q, Q 3s . 1.o 4 J tr bv n Muua} yuur .\tt. nw rrot\ t2u.an Tc,t,

p. 10. 5ee al$ T;mrruhJm Thc sul Gd"s in tstan, r u r a h o qt r s hF dd re o f b i rrh d , ,.{ 0 t{ r0 r. N a{ o afi R Sun tmperraltraio Aedeml :y ",, ""..r,,.*"Iaht or :,i,'y: r n 'rro p hy ^. pubt r c dlr onn o J 0 rT e h e rrn tmp e ri a l trnan phr los , ph! , t a rr,. p l { : T c ,D C ;a h a m, .S hj h ^cdde mv .o( . w. lr iouds o f l h e \rm a ru J !_ Su fi O rdd. h , \ r ma u u d h

u6k,:.oI ti. pdh A H6to,)_ a[ theM6ta oJth" tlr.\l.l,i,l (N"* yort Khdqdlu Nrmdtural,i orda. publu llrrurlrllllsuri rlon".,1o80r,

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loo l ). p . l a ,. A ta n A

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'Ni'mtulLhrya!' in John L. Esposito (ed.), T[ Oxlord EhqcloPaedia oJ the Modur Islanic Wold, Vol. 3, p 252i Hamid Alse, dt 'Ni'mat-Allthiyya , EI', Vol. 8, p. 45. 3 Nurbalnsh. Motzrs oJtle Pati, p. 40; Triminghm, The Suf tirlets ia Islzm,p 101;Graham, 'ShahNi"natullah Wali, P. 173. 4 Poujavady & Wilson, Ki^ss of Ltue, p.3I n. 1. 5 Tlminehdm. T[r SLh il',.llr' ,n /,lda. p 10 . 6 Nu.ba.khsh, Mat's of ihe Path, p. 39. 7 Ibid., P. 48 8 lbid., p 41; s also Pourjavady& Wilson, K;ss ol Ltue, p r4t Crahm, 'ShehNi"matullahWali', p. 173. d, dl., ('1 9 SeeIbn Hisham,4l-Si'a al Ndbd,i)}d, ed. Mu*afa al'Saqqa n.d.), !bl. 1, \Iu'assasa al-Qur'an, vols. in 2, n.p.: "Ulnn pp. 162 183. \ll Montgoh<y Watt translates this episode in his U d,loxford: Claendon Press,1953,pp.34-38 MthtnMdat 10 Se lbn a1'Arabi, al FrtiLhat ol-Mahhilld, (4 vols., Cairo: Der Vo] 1, al'Kuttt, 1329/1911),irp.. Beirut; Dar $ddir, !d (1968)1, p. 153,cited md trans in R.WJ. Austin (trans.),Iba al'Atabi: The B.zek oJ w$dm, Class;csof western Spi.ituaLity,(New York: Paulist I'ress, 1980), pp.2 3; for mothe. translation of th sm episode see Doniniqu Urvoy, 16' Rushd fA,erroet, Arabic Thought dd Cultrre Series,(I-ondon & New York: Routledge, p. 119. 1991), 11 See A. Bausmi, a.t. Dialal al Din Rnmi , EI', Vol. 2, p. 394;Aibrry (hms.), Disc@'sso/ Ruzt, p. 6. Sealso, Jalal al-Din Rnmi, ri2tn i Shatu i Tatriz, ed. & trds by R.A Nicholsn, (Cmbridee: Pael6 CambrideeUnivcsiry Press,1898)= R.A. Nicholso\ Selecred Jrm rhe Ltuani Sh/mi Tabnz, edrtd ed trmslated with an intrdiuction, nots md appendices, (Cambridse: Cambridge Uni vdsity P.$, 1898). 12 Porjavady & Wilsn, Ki^Esof Ld., p. 13 13 lbid., P' 14. Seal$ (iraham, 'ShahNi'matullah wali', p. 173. 14 Trininghd, The Sur' (\dzrs h Islan, p. 101; Godlas,'Ni'hatulle hiyah', p. 252; Alga, 'Ni'mat-All.hitaa', p. 45. 15 Trininghd, Tid Ss-fiG&rs itr Isldn, p. 101;fourjavady & Wilen, KinssoJLM, p.15 Sealso Nurbal:hsh,Mdte$ af th. Pdth,p.411 Graha, 'ShahNi'rutullah wali, p. 173. 16 Triminshan, Tl" Su,{ atdzrs in lslan, p. 101;Nlrbakhsh, M6iers o/ tfia Path, p. ,l4i Grahm, 'ShahNi'natdbn Wali, p. 174. & Wilson,.(ings o/Lore, p. 15;Nurbakhsh,Marterso/*e 17 Pourjavady Pdth,p. 42. 18 Ibid. 19 Graham, 'Shan Ni'matulleh Walt', p. 174; Nurbakhsh, 'The ){imatullahi, p. 1,16. 20 Pourjavady & Wilmn, Kings oJ Lne, p. 16.

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21 lbid., pp. 16 24; crahd, Shen Ni.natuldh \L,ati, pP' 174 ff., Trihinshm, T[e Slf On]'s i" lsldD, p. t0l; Nurbalhst, M6k s o/ . p a1 t f : \ led. N i m a r A l l a h i n d . p . .{ r 'hp Pd rh p 22 T rl mrn a h m .np ibf r O dd s n l ,Itn .p . to t i u .S,t' " t' V^r-.,y the Path, p. 4St idd., The N;matulanr"'. p. 146; poujavady & Wilson, Kinssotlo,e, pp. 19, 22; Crahu, 'Shrh \i.matulah Wati . pp. 1 8 1 -1 82. 'J Po u rj d !"d\ & W r l' on Kra e ) o f L o re p 2 t. C m h d (S h;h \ i md ru l l ahUal, p l8t q i \6 rh e d a re o f H e u , s drh d. approhhately AD 1370.Seeals Nubalhsh, M6te6 of the path. p 1.15 whici givesthe date 6 A.D. 1329,as d@ the me author's article 'The Nimatullahi', p. 146. 2'l Pourjavady & Wil$n, Kings ol Ltu, p 24. 2s Ibid., p. 25; Grahm, 'Shrh Ni.matu r}l Wali, p. 185:Trimnghm. The Suf Ordets ir Islan, p. 101 26 Pourjavady & Wilsn, Kings of Lote, p. 30. 27 Nurballsh, 'The Nimatullahi, p 159 n. 3i codla, .\i:marulla hiyah', p. 252: J. Bu.ton,Pase[part ofj dt. .Ni.nat-Allahiyya , EF. Vol 8, p. .18. 28 Grahm, 'ShanNi'natu .n WaF, p. 181. 29 Nurbalhsh, Mate6 of the Path, v 17. l0 Triminghd, ne.Sz,{ Oid"rs ttr tslan, F 102r Nurba}nsh, ,V6r"r5 o/ '. 1 nminsham. rhe tuJl Gda\ n klan. p t0) \tier *etuqt_ d6tnp@ing in lFra to' a rh'le, th? Ordn wds rheR n 'e'nrrodu.ed , ldT _ - '] r ' l 8 l ! m ' u\ , \ led N ' ma r A l ta tu \.]r' .p p . 4 a . 4 0l r/ tot d btpt Harou' nd dest'ipridn of rhe EurotEa dxn6\ion at ll Order, see YaM Richdd, L Isidn Chfita: &otmces et ldabcie; (Pris: Faydd, 1991),pp 69 74= idem., trbs. by Antonia Nev; Shi'ite Islaft: Poib, ldeolos ond Creed, (Odotd/Cambridge, \:Iass. Blekwell, 1995),pp. .19 s3. Se ale Nurbathsh, .Th N;;atullehi. pp l .; l 5 0 Cudls Ni' h d tu l l d l u -y J ,.p 2 rl , Atg d . N i mdr Alld h i ryd . p ! , . f he d' B t rs r b rd ,h e s u t rh e N i tu ru l d l u OrJe, de ;llustrated ;n a diagr@ in M6$ud Honayouni, A'llllm ro.Sa,.r Qresrioro on S4Am, 2nd edn., (London: Vawtda C4ntre, 1992), p .] 1 s@ also p. 28. Concming thee branche, * the rem&ls oi Pourjavady& Wilson (Kinss of Ine, pP- 233 2s4) who insist thar 'true s!6s should put aside th* diffeenes - not only the dwishes of the different brmchc of rhe Ni.matullahiD,ah, bor dii su6s of atl o!de6 . Dr. Javad Nurbakhsh dtutv asr6: for h jn the diffeMt snfi or d F. d rc jhr r he s hd' . o f." " n * ,s rh a r o f tol hl " r' ;,tconstirutes, kmdness'.Rejectionof a rival or orher O.dc in effed. reie L ' ion ., one*lf ac . or din q b Ih r, p d ' J ' g m { j e s M 6 ,m oi rr / 2r ,r Dre l ,m a trd h m i n h 6 .n n te Sh a h \i m. ndD . luoldlio n /. iultah Wali, p. 1781 not6: The faci that the imdiare sp tual

descendots of both Shah Ni"mtulirl ud .Ali Hmadrni turned to the Shi'ite fold is merely a reflection of th flxibility ad tolerance sith respect to outw&d torms which they had taughr, where social and political circumstances wre encountred which conpelled confdmity to a particular nouid for the pupose of protecting tbe esmtial mthod, th pusuit bd observdce of the iartqa, Se atso Porjavady & Witson (Kiiss o/ro!e, p. 44)who renind us that since the Ni'matullahis &e now more or less a Shi"ite Order thre is the tmptatio. of *eing Sheh Ni'marullrh s claim in the framewort of Shi'ite ddtrine. tsut the fact is thai Shih was born a.d in a1l probabilitydidaSunni. SeeGnalllr codlas,'Ni'matullahiyah',p. 2s2 dd Alga, Ni'rEt-Auahiyya', pp.44 45. 33 Cra}lam, 'ShahNi'hatullah Wali, p. 188 3,1 (Nty italics)Nurbalhsh, 'The N;matullahi, p. 148 35 l bi d., P p. 158 159. .16 I'ouriavadv& u rl.on K,nErnr Ld,. p. l80. 37 lbid., pp. 186 187 38 Seibid., pp. 137, 152 !. 2; Trin;nehm, Ths SrJriO'de's tn Islan, P p. 101 102. 39 Pourjavady & Wilson, Kr'nsso/ Lo!., pp 10 41. 40 Ibid , p 27. 4l lbid., pp. x, 1, 172;seealso Nurbaklsh, 'The Nimatulteni, p. 157 42 Se Poujavady & Wilen, Klrgs oJlo,c, pp :lE 19 43 S ibid., p. 1+ .{4 lbid., pp.62, s6 s7 Se al$ lavad Nu.bakhsh,Sxf Srnbolim, Vol. 1, p. l o : \bi \ai ,b dl S ul u.aw dd, Kir 4A ; d- ib at Vu, : dii , d iltdahh \lilson, S.hloessi.grMemorial Sris, Texts 2, (Je.usa len: Hebrew Univrsity of Je.usalen, Insritute of Asid and Af.ican Studies,1977[distributedby rhe lrfagnesPresql, pcon. 45 Nurbaklsh, /a the Paradne o/ th S!,4s, p. 16. 46 lbid., p. 17 47 Se ibid, pp 17 18. {8 lie ibid; se ale my articte Theophdy as Pa.adox: tbn al .Arabi s Account of al'Khadir in His F,srs al Hihan', lountt oJ the Mtbiddin lbn'Atabi Soci?t]! Vol. Xl (1992),pp. 11 22 49 \{6t. ed D6ciple'in Nurba}nsh,1r t'tu ftldn o/Rzin, pp 110 1l: 50 Poujavady & Wilson, K,nes oJ Loa., p. 29. 51 lbid., p. 87. 52 &r Nribalhsh, M6ters af the Path, pp. 7 ;, u, 1A9. 5-l Pourjavady & Wilson, Kines of Ltue, p. 253, seealsopp. 249 250. 54 IHd. p. xi. 55 Nubalhsh, Ma,,'s o/ the I'dth, p 13. 56 Se ibjd , endpapdi ke also Chdts 1 & 2 in I,ourjavady& Witson, Kirss of L@e, pp. 2.16 218 ad 219 251 which explain Chdt 2 S@, t@, Chapter7 ( How did the Ndnatolani Su6 Orde. ed its vdious

52

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bldchs tum: hro exisrene..) of Homayouru.A'eh ro S@ q u fi o a on f lf t n. pp 1 8 J l .6 p . th e d ;, rd o o p. Jt, ed ,\aErcID rounarddy & pets Lmborn Wilen. ,Th. D6@dut" ol

l,:rl r/- :l+ rn,''," rslaq, p 4q. idem., L,lr/dn Cli,k. p bs ^roaro. 58 se Lrwrsc Dureti. Spirir nl pI@. M.d maacdn Wnrla8.. rL o n d o n & B odon.F abe r&F a b s l o o q .p d p d b a ,k e d n l s8R ).p.1; _ qo P o u n a v adv & uJ s n X i n s ,o //e a p r;8 60 Ibid., pp. 168 169. 61 l b i d ., p . 177. 6 2 l b i d ., 1 79. 6 3 Ib i d , p . 181. 64 Seibid., pp. 180 18j. ri; Tn hi" b@l( in lh" tdven oJ Rhc. pp. o.{ So a6 \ce Timorh) F^ .ed ,. RB ru80 th4 R"t" ot St BevdnLin Lannand LnEIbii.uirr! l\;k". rcnllegev;lle.]\trnneera The Linuguj I'RS 1981)fhdeafte. refened to as RBt. 6 7 I bi d ., p p. 164,166. 6 8 I bi d .,p . 165. 69 (My itdics) Ibid., p. 190. 70 (My iralics)Ib;d., p 191. 71 lbid., P' 294. 72 Ibid., p. 29s 7t see frirMehm. The Suy,O * in /sidn. pf tdl tqJ. 4 E wlqon, K,n3. oJL@c. pp t;; r,8. jrvad Nurbarhsh, :::rnalldy he Rulesdd Mffers of lturirrioD ,nro lhe Suh pdrh. h idem., .l ti the PsadGe ol the S!f!, p. 120 7; Poujavady & W;ten, Kaas ot Ln". o. 1..;s ' b \ urb d th s h. Rut es dnd \ t tr;s o f tn ,rrl ro n. p . l ro . 77 lbid.. p t20- Pouiaudy & Witrcn K,n8. oi i.@ n 178 / d ro u rF\d d \ & wr t r n, K t n g s o f td . p p l :tr l i o : \u rb a l h sh,.R ut6 Md Nl a nne6 of lt unabon . p 120. 79 NuJbakhsh,'Rulesed Mamus of Initiation p. 120;pourjavady , & wilson, ( ss o/ r4?, p. 179. 80 Nurbakhsh, 'Rules and \,Ianne.s of In;harjon, pp. tlo 121: Pou.javady & WileD, K;ss oJ Ine, D. | /-s. c P d ,rd rd d ! - & W , t $n. , ( r i s " n /L d r.;. l :s \u ,b a * i s h ..R uts hd Nra n n e rs u t lnr nahon,p L 2 l 8' fouriar"dr & Wilson. Kns" ot Ln". p. t:s. \u,bak}'str, .Rute dnd \ 4a Me ," o, I nir jar ion.pp j , 1 2 1 . fo r ,u rl h a d F c s i o n of l he . uncepr ol rpilludl porenv w J,vad \urbalhsh. Slinrut ptud, in suJtln. I am ds,urol br d hembo of rhc \i mdtu a.h,Order rhrr rhe dllal nlmF fw hd ha no Dl{dt s,[email protected] Sep,however. \h,mmet Up,iphernSrla Srgb ot Gnd pp ;8 ;a tor th nuhbe.frve
54

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al.wat . tstant cuttup. vot {8 I rq74r. pp 4q \;

83 PNjavady & Wilsn, Kinss oJ L@, p. 179. 84 Ndbakhsh, Rulsdd Mamqs of t.itiarion', p. 123. 85 tbid., pp. 123 12s. 86 Ibi d.. pp. 121,123. 87 :ie Nurbakhsh, in rla Pd'atlise oJ the S!l$, pp. 27 ff. 88 SeeIm Richdd Netton, M6lin N?oplzro6rsj An Inl:odw',oh ro the Thoueht of th" bethrd oJ PuitJ (hhuan 61-Sdfa1,(London: Allen & Unwin, 1982;rep.. &lhbugh: EdinburghUnivcsity prss,1991 a Islanic S!tu? 19), pp. 10 12 89 lbid., p. 11; se Iklwan al-gafa',R6a.il, (4 vols.,Beirlt: D.r Sadir, 1957),Vol. 1, pP' 52 53. 90 Nurbalhsh, S!,f S)r'r6olifl, (London & New Yortr KhdiqaniNinatllifi Publications, 1990),Vol. 4, p. 47 91 SeeNurbalhsh, 'Th Rules od Mmers of the Ktraniqah, in idm , In thz Ta@f, oJ Ruin, pp. 63 86. 92 Ibid., p 65. 9-3Ibid , pp 67-69. 94 Ibid , pp. 69 72. 95 lbid., pp. 72 7s. 96 Ibid., pP' 75 76. 97 lbid., pp 76 E2. 98 lbid., pp. 82-83. 99 Ibid., pp. 83-8a. 100 lbid., pP' 85 86. 101 R B P 165. 102 l i e i bi d, pP ' 171 1t' 9,223 225 , 281 285. 103 l bi d., pp. 217 219. 104 lbid., pp 285 287. 105 lbid., p 233. 106 Ibid., pp. 187 189. 107 IH d., p. 191. 108 S{! ;bid, p' 211. 109 lie ibid., pp. 190 203. 110 Se Nubakhsh, ln the Puadse oJ the Sufs, pp 27fj idem., .The Nimatulleh/, P' 158. 111 Th two words under each of these live dividons ar hy tresliterations of the AJabic followed by Dr. Nurbakhsh s tmliteratios of rhe Pdsid wo.d6 6 the larter apped in his tn the Pdnd;.e ol the Safrs 112 Nurba].hsh, It the Paoiise o/ rl. S!,fis, p. 29. For a extended discusion of sucb concepts as dtibr dd ,l' tc, seeMuhammad Isa Waley, 'Conthplative Disciplines in Edty Persian Sutisn, in Leonrd Lewi$hn (ed ), Ciascal Pe'lth Sr!.fsnj F m irr Onsra ro tuai, (London & Ns Yorl: Khaniqahi Ninatullahi publications, 1993), P p 497 5+ 8.

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SLFI RI T( J AL

\,IAPPINC THE SACRID 1

113 The fi6t treslatid ;s Nurbalhsh: (/tr th. pafliie oJ th. Sufs, p. 27)j th se.ond md thifd de Eibts provided by Trimhghm (Tle Su"il Oid"6 in rstdn, P' 30s). 11.1 Th tust truslation is Nurbathshk (L th. piradn oJ the SttB, p-2f)ith eond is Trininghm s (Th. S/f OdzE ia tslm, p 313) __ll5 w l l p r. ( - on. em pt it D ,e i p l n 6 p r0 ; 1 16 l b i d ., p . 509. I l7 Pourirvadv& w'len. Kine: oJ I^p p t-,1 tl8 l b 'd , p 182. 119 For his history,e Nubakhsh, MG,?R ,/ rhe pari, pp. 106 108. 120 Poujavady & W;lsoo, K;nssof Low. De.61-b2. l2l \urbab.h. Iathp Pdtads?olthc Sufis, Do at, J1 22 l b i d . p p . J 6 . 17 *e alr c F i s 1 . p 8 2 lzl Nubdlhsh. .ln rlrpPdtadk" oJth" suh,. p. r,r. 5eal$ Trmincham. I ne r,u/1 UtuJers tn lsLam,p 206 l,,a \urbdkhsh. la thp Pa dn" ol the sufrs. p J4. iilem .The Ni ma tu llt hi. p. 15q 125 Godld, Ni'matullrhiyah , p 2S2 126 Poxrjavady & Wilsn, KinssoJLotu, p l70i See at$ Richdd, Srri.ir" rsrah, pp 50 51; ideD , L'Islam Chi.ite, pp. 70 /-t. 127 &e Owd Wriglt, \tus;c in J@ph S.ha;hl & C.E. Bcwdrh (eds), Tlq.lada oJ Llan, 2nd dr, (Oxford: ()dendon prs, 1974), 44 FL -r2 8 Ib i d . l20 Se Waley. Conkmplalrve llis rptres . pp. it l r/b Lew;. tsiahr tn ra ra . p. 22. 1n.l0 130 Lewis, IsldaE Bnran, p. 223 n. 10. I I Se .a n . dl. Hui" , r i in N e n o n .p o p l td rD .ro % rv o / k tan. p. 106 'Jl W a l e ' n o l6 Cor em ph ti l e D rfl p | l n 6 . p r,,l / rh a rrh i s w ort h 'rhpediie{ ardr cun mrudl in persh . j-e Re}notdA. Nichots. The K6hf dr.Mdhjnb: The old6t pain Ttati* on sdltu, b "Ah B. Urhn6 Al l4llabi AI Hujuin, rras. ftom the text of the Lahore edn. , Il J.\\. Cr bb \ lm ddlS er ' * , V o t t; rL ,n d o n L @ .. rcpr.l a70l ror thp peFrb rex'. F I12.h.1. di M,1to6. ed. VA. Zbulovski. rknrns'ad nrrdl- l lnh ltuhrdjamihx Shurds SusiyalEn.tqloJ _^^ 133 Walqr 'Contenplative D;$iplines', p 523 who cit6 N;choten;s trdstahon, pp. 418 419 dd Zhotovski s edn., pp. ;44 :55. l J r Po u ri ,l ady& \ \ ds on. K i n s t o /L tu , p p :; 5 8 lJi Tbrd..p. i8. sJo Nurbalhsh Se. in hjs rn th. TaM oJ Rtin. pp .6 1 6 2. 136 SeeNurbakhsh,Ssf Sln otim, Vol. 1. pp x x. 123 214. 1 37 I bi d ., p . 1 88. 138 lbid., P' 189. lJa \urbalhsh .sa in hjs ln rhe raam of Run. pp. | .b2. 110 I b'd ., p J 2. 141 I b i d .,p . 33

142 For Shayli Rrzbihdn, w Cdl W Ernst, Rrztrhan Baqli: Mlstiism dnd the Rhetiic oJ Sointhood ii pe'Jan Slrisn, Cu.?on SuIi Senes, (Richmond:Curzon Press,1996) 143 Nrbalhsh, 'Sama'i. his ln rne ll,m o/ R!i,, p.36. 144 Ibid., pp. 39 41. 14s l bi d., pp. 11-42. 146 lbid., p. 42. '\47 lb;d., w. 42 43. 148 Ibid , p. 47. 149 Ibid., PP 48 61. 150 lbid., pp 57 58. 151 l bi d., p s8 152 Ibid., p. 58; se also p. 60. 1s3 lbid., pP' 61 62 154 Ibid , p 39. 155 Se Simontta Catderhi & Alexadra R;eb (eds.), TIe &sact o/ Me.iidaal Pdsian Sv"fsnr Fitul P'o8rdmtu * Absr'a.tl, (Londonl Cmtre of Near md Middle Ectern Stldtes, SOAS ald the Nimatullabi Rerch Centre,1990),p. 6. 156 SeP6hn .Sr|ntrm irs(riEin to Rrni: FindtProetm* Absttcts, (Wdhington, DC.: The Ceorge Washinston Uniwtsity and the Nihatullahi Res@ch Cnte, 1992), p. 7; Lryisoin (ed.), Ci4$.di Patu, Sufun. tra iL Lhsrro ro Rua, p. xiir 1s7 hwurbaLlsh, S!,ri S]r6ola'n, (1987),Vol.2, p. s3. 1s8 ldm, Suj Sp*olivn, (1988),Vol.3, p. 173. 159 Waley, 'Contemplative Disciplines',p. 541. 160 Ibi d., P 542. 161 Ibi d. 162 lbid., pp 543 s44. 163 Nubalhsh, ln tha Para?n o/ rhc S,fs, p. ss. 164 Ibid., pp. s4-55. 165 lbid., p. 62. 166 Ibid., Pp. 62 63. 167 tbid., pP. 63 66. 168 Waley,'Conimplat;v Di$ipl;nes', p. 53s. 169 lbid., pp. s35 536. 170 For the AraHc, wirh English trm. of this famous hadith, the Hadith of Gabriel, se An Ndtoaui\ Fortr Hadirh, trm9 by Ezzeddin rbrahim & Denys Johnson Davi6, 3rd edn , (Danas.usr The Holy Kord PublishingHouse,1977),pp 28 J3, no. 2. Sachiko Murata & Willid C Chittick, in their book, T e V;non oJ Istdn: The Fountat;d6 oJ Mslin Faith 4nd P'a.nce, (London & New york: I.B. Taua\. l aqb, u.e !i - had,(h as r heu r dnr ng po, r r . 171 Al-Qushalai, 4l-Rsalz zl-Qshd),ntJd, ed. "Abd al Halin Mahnrrd & Malmnd ibn al-Shdil (Cano: Der al,Kutub al Haditha, n d.)

56

57

S[ FI RI TLAL

lv{APll\C THE SACRED 1

VoL-1, pp- 463 464, cirdt in Walela ,Contemplative Diqptines,, p. 536 ed n_ 88. l7l Wale) Conrempl.nveDejptinA , p sjo. 17J Nurbalhsh, suf S)d6olim, Voj 2, ;. 22 Ita ldm, rn d1ePdrddn? o/ rrr" Sufr, p 7l 175 Ib i d ., p p. 7J 77. 176 tbid., P. 73. 177 lbid. Se als Ernst, Rtsbihdn Baqh, p. 33. 178 Art. 'AloDish' in Nerloa, populat Dictitul ol Isizn, p {3 j w ate M. Fakhry, Isldnic O@6itu1;ffi dn IB C;tirye L:t'A1tu@s dnn Aqrim, (London: ,{lls & Unwin, t9s8) l7s Nubal.hsh. ]n th? Paftilsp ol th" SulB,pD ,4 ,,. 180 Ib 'd 181 ljee ibid., pp. 77 80. 182 lb i d ., p 81. 183 SeHes Weh., A D;tioMt! oI Modaa Wntta Adh, ed. Milto. J. Clowe, 2nd printing, (Wicbaden: Otto H46ewitz/Lndon: Allen & Unwn, 1966), p. 17s s i6dk (w Fom 3); s ate Nubalhsh. ln rh. Paralr? ol thc Sufis, D u1 '84 Wehl Dnri@n oJ Modn \yriud Arahl. p t;b $ rurraabd. w al"o Nurballr"h ]n th? t'ndnse ot th! SLJB, p al 18' Waley, Conremplarrve Dre iDtine . o. 5J8 l8o Ibid l8r Mneu* sm'rh. An Fa t M\:tn otBalhnad A StunloI Lh, L;k ann te6 htae ut Hanth b. A"ad al .],{uh&}| A D /!lt 857\Londan 5 h e td o n P r es r .t a; 7, r ep r.o i Iq J r e d n .J D . .v u . 188 Ibid., p. 6; *e ale p 24. 189 lbi d ., p . 21j s e alr p. 11 2 . 190 Se esp.ibid., pp. 130 131. 191 I bi d ., p p . 167 168. 192 Ibid., P 173. 193 I b i d ., p . 5 3. 1 9 4 I b i d .,p . 1 76 'o c S e cWa l ey Conr em plari re l l s i p l n c , p p ,J 8 .)4 ] 196 See;b'd '47 Sre_\ubdlhsh. ]n thePdndis" oJ thaS{8. pp et s6 l e 8 lb rd .,p p q6 99, 6p. qo 9 7 1q9 lbid., p 98 200 lbid., p. 98. 201 lbid., P' 99. 202 ldo, Suf SynSolsrn, Vot. 3, D. 40. 203 ldeh, S!_f Slarolim, (1993),Vol. ?. D 97_ 2 04 lb i d ., p . 1 13. 205 &e J. Dukes (rq.), The Dd;tr MisI atd Litursital Mon@I, trth edn., (Leds: Laverty & Sons, 1960), pp. 66 67, 60. Se ate

Catzchin oI the (ntholic Chtch, (LondoD: coffrey Chapman, pp. 327,396M. 1454,177 9. 1994), 206 RB p 246. 207 lbid , p. 24t-. 208 Nurbakhsh, In the Paradiseol rhe Sxf6, p. 27. 209 Tridnsham, Thd Slf Oda$ in Isldtu, p. 313 210 Ibid. 211 W.ht, Dictiwry ol Modem Wnuq Ardbit, p. 1060sv Di'd. 212 Waley, Contemplative DisciFlines, p 511. 213 Ibi d.,pp. s11 sl 2 214 l bi d., pP 512 513. 215 Se Joha Main, T?re\l'oy oJ Unlnoui's, (London: Daton, Longmm & Todd, 1989),pp. ia, 1. 216 lbid., p. -13 217 Fdid .1 Din 'Attd, lildfihdt' al-ADlia', ed. Muhanmad edwini, ath edn., (Tehrd: N{akdi, 1968),Vol. 1, pp. 227 228,trds. A.J. A.berry, Mdlin Sdr'ntsand Ml,sti6, (I-ondon: Routledse & Kegd Paul, 1966), p. 1s4. I owe these two referencesro Waley, 'Cdntemplative Disipljnes', P' 513 n. .12. 218 RB P. 57. 219 Laurd.e Freena OSB, 'Int oduction D Ma;D, Tl. War o/ Uabnouing, p. x;. 220 Nurbakhsh, Ia *z Pardrse otrn. ^S41is, p. 103. 221 Ibid. 222 ldem, Suf S]'nSoisa, (1991),Vol s, p.31. 2X lden, In the Patudi. o/ t}" ^Suis,p. 10s. 224 lbid., P' 104. 225 Ibid., pp. 106 11,1 226 Tres Yusuf Ali, Tie Holr Qlfan, p. 842. 227 Nubakhsh, h tie Pa?ad;eo/ tfi. S/.fs, p. 110. 228 li Ikhwe al-Safe',Raa'il, Vol. 4, p. 16: seealso Netton, M6lim r\eopldrdisrs, p 16. 229 Nurbakhsh, /n *e PatuTiseoI rhe Stfs, p. 106. 230 Seeal-Ghazali, IIlJa'; W lvlontgomery Watt, M6tih Inte\ectul: A Studt oJ al Gheah, p. 169.

59

Mappingthe Sacred 2
The Naqshbandi Order

3.1 Origins

Tbe Naqshbandr Snfi Order is one ofthe most famousin Islam. Its confidence in its o*'n pre-eminence and importancehasonly bnmatchedby its fierceorthodoxy and desireto adhereto the sftan'a as a fundamental of its ethos.r In one of his discourse th contmporary Naqshbandr Shaykh Nazim al Qubrusi The MostDistingdshed Naqshbmdi Ordersurpa
its ability to educte our souls in . . . [the] highest ad very 6rte spectr of Islmic taching [sic] ... The Naqshbandi Order taches the very highest good mamers, mamers which makeits {ollovers lovely to their l-ord md to all good pople . . . The Naqshbandi Order o.isinatd in tbe heart of the Prophet, md its authority vro passeddom *rough Abu Balr from on Mastd to ihe next in m unb{oken chain of succession reachhg nto ou. time. Sine Abu Bakr, among all the Prophet's @npMions, was the oDly on to rcive the full inner huth of the P.ophet's heart, the Naqshbmdi Order inherirs the fullest md 6nest of tho* Prophetic teachiDgs .. . The 'Naqsh' Id6ign, 'tafto'l of the lrcarr is Allah. Whoever wmts that 'Naqsh' on his hedt will come to the Naqshbmdi wala It is ,he highe* way i all rclisiottj Th. hidlest of all relici4' is kla''.' and the hishst bwl h Isldn i\ the Na.tshbandi ordet.2 Even its enemies cannot doubt the profound impact which this early established order has had in the development of Islam throughout the wortd,s and not only in its development but in
bl

5. Fi Rf TUAI

\ I A I P I N C T H E S AC R ED2

preserving that faitb from the syncretism into which rhe more emotionally inclined might have led Istam.{ In view of all this, it is astonishing to note with Hamid Algar that 'no adequate and comprehensive study of the Naqshbandiyahas yet been undertaken'and that'seneral studies of the Naqshbandryaare extremely few ; Much mon' common are the specialised studies in article form such as those collected in the magisterial volume edited by \Iatu Gaborieau and others, which constitute the proceedingsof thr Sdvres Round Table held between 2nd +th )vlay 198a Hamid Aigar, who has himself done so much invaluable lork in the freld of Naqshbandi studies. stressesthat much still remains to be done.; This includes the establishment anJ translation of many of the primary sources,especially thoit written in Persian.3 The brief study of the Naqshbandiyya whicb follows her(. by way of introduction to an analysisof Naqshbandi ritual in ,r later chapter, is a survey of arr order in flux in the modcrrr world, born ofa field of study which is stilt in flux itsll 'I hLr'. while siving a generalword of praise to Trimingham s The .su/r Orders in Isldm.e Algar condemns its rreatment ot itr. Naqshbandis as rsummary, lacking in analFical depth. .rrr,l 0 The sameauthor lamentsthe lack ,n marred by factual errors.'r a'concise biography of Khwaja Bana'ad-Drn Naqshband a Western language.'He believesthat 'this deficiencl coincrl ' witb a relative lack 6f interest on the parr of Naqshban,l,, themselves in the life of their eponym.'rr Despite this lacun,r ,r is possibleto put together a very brief biography from ran,,rr. sources for introductory purposes here Althoush K. A. Nizami relers to him as the'Founder'ot rlr Naqshbandrs,f it is better to describe or characterise Khr,rr,r Baha'al Din Naqshband (1318 1389), with Hamid .\lgar .r" the 'crystalliser' of the Naqshbandiyya in its final li,rrrr ' Trimingham, indeed, stressed:'n-aqshbandrtradition d(r\ ,,,,r resard Baha' ad din an Naqshba.ndr as the founder oftht r,,,r4 which bears his name and the lines of ascription (silsii,rrrr tarbitd) do not begin with him. ra Algar adds: 'It is panicrrlirlv diflicult to establishwhy he should have becorncu ponv,!rr.

figure, the centrallink in the silsilaofwhich he is a part, instead ol for xampl, Ghiljduwant.'ls However, as the eponym of the Order, he is clearly a very importa.nt{rgure. It is possiblethat we know so little about him becausehe 'forbade his followers to record anlthing of his deeds or sayings during his lifetime, and writings cornposed soon after his death . . . concentrate upon matterc of didactic, spiritual and moral interest.'r6 What is very interestingis the way that Baha' al-Din established his paramount role in the Order witb an insistence on silent dhtlr and, indeed, withdrawal from those who practised vocal dirilr. Silent diibr became the norm for the Naqshbandis although there were occasional deviations throughout history.lTBahe'al Din is said to have had a vision of the six Central Asian Masters who preceded him in the dlsiia. One of thm, Khw.ja'Abd al,Khaliq Ghijduwani (died 1220) bade him practisethe dlibr silently by contmst with the vocal mode performed by some of his sofi associates, including his immediate predecessor arrd teacher,Khwaia Amir Kulal.r3 Algar suggests that this silent dir[7, so chamcteristicof Baha' rl"D:n tr-aqshband,rellects the sober character and nature of the Order generally. Naqshbandi observmce oegan wnere otlrers left off for th Naqshbandi sufi had already tamed his aorporeality by strictly following the sfran"a.1e Baha' al Drn tpnsidered that observing the flnna was 'the highest of &aramat the or y one worthy of the sufi's aspiration-' Sitent dhibr a devout orthodoxy and a lack of ostentation.zr)

Khwaja Baha' al Din Naqshband was born in 1318 near Khwaia Amir Kulal instructedhim in Stfism and
' al Din later travelled to Samarqand. where he lived for years, and Ziwartun where his training as a mystic a seve.nyear stint herding animals and a similar period time as a road mender.,t He died in the villase of his birth.

-i HinduwanneartsuLhara, in 1389.r, The tomb built for

there became a major focus for Islamic pilgrimage.rr Such are the bare bones of what was clearlv an extraordinarv combining a love for simplicity with the ability to attract the

of suchrulers as Timur himself.2r After his deaththe

assumed the epithet 'Naqshbandi' in tribute to the power 63

strri R T T L A L

\ I A P P T N C1 H ! S AC R ED 2

of his forceful spirituality. His own name of Naqshband is traditionally explained as reflecting an early crreer as a waver or embroiderer, or one who worked in rnetal. But Algar believes that the name has a more spiritual signficance and it was given to mark him out as a master in spirituality: one made an impression (naqsh)of the Divine Name Allah on one's heart and held it there 6rermarendy and exclusively-25 After the death ofBaha' al Drn Naqshband, th Order spread in an extraordinary fashion; only the Q.dirilya has become more widespread.r6 As it grew it producrd a galaxy of saints and great figures.27 Now it is not the purpose of this book to supply a mediaeval and post mediaeval hagiogaphy, so we will rder only briefly to the latter. However, we will suwey the spread of the Order slightly more extensively since this is of considerable reielance to the role and location of the Order today. Among the lurninaries of the Naqshbandilya was Khwaja 'Ubayd Allah Abrar (1403 1490) who has been characterised, by virtue of his wealth and influence as being possibly the most powerful of the Order's many saints.23He appears to have had an incredible amount of land and money and yet to have won everyon's respect. Evidence for the lafter appears in the contemporary cbronicles. He even had a spiritual impact on the great Babur himseli2e The interesting combination here of wealth and piety inevitably brings to mind a later snfi Order, the Tijaniyya, and its founder Abmad al-Tij.m (173718-1815): his attitude towards ascticism (zuhd), while imbued with the in&llectual and spiritual baggage of the past, was not entirely kaditional_ Generosity to the poor was laudable but one was to schew an excessof chariry The evident luxury of Ahmad al Tijant o*,n lifestyle in Fez is attested by large numbers of Tijani and nonTijanr sources. The procession in which he travelled to prayer was a sight to behold.3o The contrast between Aimad al Tiiarx and Khwaja 'Ubayd All,h Ahrer however, clearly lies in the interior attitude to wealth of each man. That of Ahmad may, perhaps, be deduced from the above; Nizami suggeststhat th Khwdja's attitudes were shaped by an early poverty which contrasted with his later wealth; the

former allowed a developing empathy for those in need which led gifrs' ofdecliningunsolicired him to adopra practice Another notable Naqshbandi luminary who figures prominently in the Order's galaxy of Masters was Shaykh Ahmad Sihindi (1564 1624); he has been the subject of a majo. monograph by Yohanan Friedmann.32 Sirhindr bears the resounding title of 'Renwer [or renovator] of the Second Millennium' (Musoinid i olf i thani).33 He is credited with having helped to a large degee in the revival of mainstream Islam in India and the restoration of its 'pristine purity' after the heterodoxies, not to say hercsies, of the Emperor Akbar (1542-1605).3r One may believe with Collin Davies that Akbar's religious policy was primarily founded on the twin dictates of dynasty and politics.3s That dos not mean to say, however, that the interest rthich h manifested in comparative religion was false. He held metings for the discussion of theological problems which were attended by religious scholars from all the great religions in India.r6 Perceiving that ther was some good in all of the multifarious religions with which he was surrounded, Akbar was moved by his syncretic and eclectic instincts to found a new religion, the dtn-i iiait.:r7 It was from the intellectual morass thus engendered that Sirhindi is credited as having rescued Muslim India. He is also said to have been the inspiration behind the reforms of the Mughal Emperor Awrangzeb (1617 170i) whose devotion to the shdri'd was rathr grea(er than thdl of his hererodox predece"sor.'3 However, some hagiography has been at work in suci views as we shall shortly see. ShayLh Almad Sirhindi was born in Sirhind, East Punjab, the son of a snfi ShayLh.3eHe spent time at Akbar's court in Delhiao and became a Naqshbandr in Delhi in 1599/1600.4' Almad Sirhindi wmt on to bcome a leading Shaykh in that Order and a vigorous exponent of its snfi ideals.a2In 1619, after being summoned to court he was imprisoned by the Emperor Jahangr (1569 1627)in Gwalior for a year; however,he and the Emperor were later reconciled.a3 Nizami believes that Shaykh Abmad's impact on the Mughal rulers may be judged from the way in which his descendants 65

SLFi RI ' I UAL

rri+T"ri' j#: iJil*ffi i:li,'"";":11'j'T il{if: rr'" r';.ro,v 5il",Xlff,ilil';,:,:T,'j;:liio".",o

Third olr,heleadrne r'gures w[o may usetu y be consiJerec . here, aner Khw4d I bavd Allai Atral dnd Shaykj,AhmaJ \hah.Walr 4,Jrah rr;oJ.i;02r. The latrerwasan )1'f.l: ro facilihteunde,dandins ,, rndeed, of the Lexr li:j::l," him ds .rhe sr,ongesrpersonatiry, amons |r,;ia .,1::,!-:,Tf,"" ,'*1,

:"J":fi ::ii;T:"'.,\i"T:ffil"Ti::1"il1.;*l**: ffi";fi: ;.'_,ii1:;:I:,il:n:;; ;,1: rir,idllandneatty "?;iilil uirh rhe concep, or.Jd^ :i:-i.l,.i],.,:
rhe realSirhindr.rhe sr;i. fiom the imagrned polirical thinler.,

3i:,::: ",::Jj:"1[il,,*l*-..,n":rut *:*ti

;i$:"1,::X'f"tTii:f :?,3H::m:;;:fl *r"";,":Ti

.' U."""*, I hednirudeof Aurangr"S. lr;eamunnU"tou""lt.] d raorcdrre acsessm.nr of Shavkh {hmad Sirhind,t role dd requued He does nor rccepr r-harAwrangzeb. 'j :1:::.: po,,oes ndo rhe,rmsp,rarion in Sirhindr s works ard. indeed, h.

Ahmadr ffH:1T#A-"':1.j,1 "Tlft"i*r''*",'Shavkl r-he Naqshband; , oa",'* ,,',"" :;li;l:i:;T",?"'::*trJ:

N1SIPING THE SACRED2

-l

.fll,r'i i::,*i );:1H: l":,ti:'i", Tj $rFl;:l,i_if

of Lhe .rF_ Nr;l eighreenrh cenrury.
r hegaduatdeclme of rheMushalEmr

ll^i'

;:'il#:

; ii:il,[i:.

spiri,ua' l::il[1 .amonq,he

,. he, rrse ro rer igioi","t r*,,"1r;;;^;;e;" ;,T"ffii';5: :]

Ji"*li::i:T:rst

Altdhwaseducared bothrn his faLher.s nalrasa, ...l.t.13J,] ran. and in rhe Hiraz.,, yll:: i" He p,oduced; '"* vu,umrnous corpus ot *ririnqs both
,n Arab,c and iersian wirh

theoroe'ldn ac(ordine ro Ahmad ^ziz

the goal of rendering anew the whole corpus of the Islamic rimces. Slfi thought did not escapethis review.56 One of his vorks, the Ilrrdi AlLh al Baliglra,i7 has been characterised by Aziz Almad as 'th most outsranding theological work written in India.'53 The Sh.h worked in the mttdrasa founded by his father for more than fifty years. Feeling himself to be the md.4ddtd of his ege,5e he worked there tirelessly, stiving to revitalise the Muslim society in which he moved and precipitating an 'intellectual renaissance of the Muslims' in India.60 His involvement in Naqshbandi activities has frequently been stressd, as has his high snfi ra.nk in that Order,6l but it should not be forgotten that, like many of the contemporary ,ulana", he was an initiate not just of the Naqshbandrl4,abut of three other great Indian turuq as well the Chishtiyya, the Qadiriyya ard the Sufuawardiyya.62 The contribution of his thought, and its role in the intellectualdevelopmento{ the Indian sub,continent. has been natly summed up by Marc Gaborieau: 'His synthesis was inspired by three pdnciples: a return to th pristine puritv of Islamin rhe lighr of Hadirhstudies; concrtiation ot rheoDo;srre viewsof the schools of lau and rheology: a .oncern roi iocial problems.'63 Arrd although Shah Wali Allah was, at heart, a qufi, Hamid Algar believesthat we should not minimise the political aspctsof his life and writings. Algar also points out that, although the poiitical philosophyofthe Shahas articulated n the Hujjat Allnh dl &aligha does contain many new insights, it was also fumly founded upon classical motifs, such as that of the &iiiala, and iliustrated with referenceo non-conremDorarv figures.^' The fourth and final figure who will be considered here, by way of introduction to the survey of Naqshbandi ritual which follows, is )v1a,r'lana Khalid Kurdr (177617 1827). His life and signifcance have been surveyed in some depth bv Albert Houranruho gnes his nr"6u,, al Sh"hrizun,reflecrrne a binl. in $e Ku,drshdisrrictof shahnzur." Vd$land Khal; rs also counted by Nizami as one of the 'spiritual descendants,of ShayLh Alrmad Sirhindi 66 6/'

S.Fi RITLAL

\IAIPTNC TTIE S,AC I{ID 2

After an early education in his home town of Qaradagh in Shahrizur, and Sulaymaniyya, Shaykh K_hatidthen taught for a while in the latter Baban capital before a further period of study in Damascus and a hajj to Mecca. In Damascus he became an initiate of the Qadiriyya taiqa. Late\ acti\g on advice from two separate quarters, Shaykh Khalid rravelled to Delhi. Here. in the manner of Shah Walr Allah and many others, the Shaykl, became a member oflour further sufi Orders: the N{ujaddidi branch of the Naqshbaadiyya, rhe Chishriyya, the Suhnwar diyya, and the Kubrawiyya.6T This kind of spiritual snfi eclecticism- Adams calls it 'ecumenism'63 - would have siven him a profound, ard enviable, insrght inro rhe major sufr Orders of the age and, in particular, those of Muslim India. However, he was not destined to remain here lons. His stav ir Delhi wa. short and he travelled back rhrough trL ard Lhe Grlf to Kudistan whre he recommenced his teachine career in iulalmani,rya. Afrer falling out wirh a teadinq famity rhere. Khalid moved to Damascus where he died; his tomb in that citv became an object of pilgrimage.6e Shaykh Khalid's reputation rests on two points: firstlv. the branch of r-heNaqshbardiyla called the Knalidiyrya is cailed after him. Secondly, the continued impact of his teachine was traceable parLJculalv amongrhe Kurds.but alsoin Baghd;d,in Damascus and evea beyond those counties where he himself had lived or visited.ToShaykh Khalild is jusr one exampte or dspect of a \aqshbandism which spread qidely i; the niDeteenth century. The reasons for its popularity are not hard to find- Apart from some occasionally bizaffe or 'unorthodox, local practices prmitted or even encouraged by local Shaykhs. the ()rder's stdct adherence to the shdn.tl must b a leadinq one:' Alberr Houranrpurs ir in a nurshell: Naqshbmdism offaed the poplexed \.Istirn a faith which emphasized tlre importanceof virruous activiry, and the claims ofthe shart'ato be a guidingrule for iri a ftth which included all that $'s valuable in those of irs opponents,justfied Sunni Nfuslims h rejectins other creeds and stlengthened th6 in lesistins attachsfrom outside. This rejection of all that is not 68

SuMi, in the nme of a Sumisn which comprehends the demots of tNth in what it lejects, linls the Naqshbandiya both with the Islmic past dd with certain modeln methods of

After this survey of four of the leading figures in the history of the Naqshbandiyya Order, it is useful to survey, in a little more daail, the geogaphical spreadofthat Order. Three major areas are readily identifiable as key loci in the spread of the Naqshbandi lan1.1- They are Central Asia, Turkey ard India.T:l Each will be examined here briefly before we move to other Iocations. They are particularly important becausethe spread of Naqshbandism in these regions constituted a unifying and binding factor in three major Sunni Islamic areas (the Ottoman Empire, the Indian Mughal Empire and the States of Cntral Asia) which had become disunited, or at last fenced off from each other, under different rulers. Naqshbandi Siifism was a kind of cdtural arrd mystica.l giue which bound otherwise disparate or separate parts of the Islamic Umna.Ta In view of ihe Order's associations with. and venerationfor. Knwaja Baha' al-Dm Naqshband, who was born nea-rBukhara, it would not be unfair to chamcterise the Order as Central Asian, if only to distinguish it from those Orders which sprarg out ol or grew to fruition in, Arab or Persianlands.As a result of Ahr-t activities, the Order became th dominant one throughout Inner and Central Asia.75 And not only was the Order a major spnitual force in Central Asia but it played a notable political role as well. Nizami reminds us that the Naqshbandill'a were historically responsible for wide ranging rsistance to foreign domination in a variety of places.t6 However, much work clearly remains to be done in the study of the Order in Central Asia. Alsar notes that'the post Ahrar history of the order in Central Asia and the roie it played in the Uzbek Lhanateshave not yet been explored' ard 'in general... the development of the Naqshbandiya in post Timurid Central Asia is an almost untouched area.'t7 Sirnilarly, there has been relatively little study of the Order in Turkey,t8 one of the three major areas of spread identiied 69

S' Fi RI TUAL

IUAP?I\C THE SACRED 2

above. The Naqshbandiyrya took root in Western Turkey within a centu,yofthe dearhof KhwajaBa}a al Din Naqshband;" rn whar was clearly fruirfui ,orl: rhe order s rnsisren." borh on ,r, Surrnl identity and rigorous observance of the sfiari.a were calculated to appeal to the C)ttoman Turks.so It became particularly strong in the tol,ns: Trimingham raords 6ft]. two Naqshbandi tzhles b tstanbul towards the end of th; nineteenth centurysl David Damrel notes that.when the Shalbanidscunailed N,qshbandrpown in Cennal Asia rhe order strrl p'ospered in ()noman tandsi dnd when Sirhindi s claim. to be the nupd.did i a[ i thdnt convutsd the Ind;an r\dqshbandr)d. rhe O oman \aqshbandiya were hardly a,re(red.' tl r. .lear. then. thar the Order rook deep and powerful root from the time of its nrst implantation in T.urkey. Indeed, the spi.irualiry and institutionalised forms ofthe Order in Turtey have survived into modrn tiles. Writing in the early 1990s, Sencer Ayata had this to say . about the previous decade: Three salient featuresof the revitalization of Islm in Turkey in the 1980s vere rhe inffede in the Dumber of publications e,peciailv$e monrhJr loural., ,h" em.rqen,e of rehsious nerw^rk"as"o ared *i,h tocrt power .,enkesdd d or "h; emphasis rvithin tbe Istanic movement irself in favour of tradirional Sufi b.otherhoods, for enmpte the Nakqibendit,,cl s.r Third of the ma.jor areas to which the C)der spread was India. The arrival of the Naqshbandiyrya tzlrilqain the sub continent $as ol signilicance.represenrinsas j, did, ,n Alcar,s word.. .massrve rhe general nan.ter of I imurid cuttureand insuturrons from Transoxania.'ta But that was by no means all: the Order iought agarnst innovation and involved itself in polirics.s' An .xampleotrhe former.whrchhad implicatron< for'ih" t"n"r, *r, the wd) rn which rhe \aqshbandi*led rhe reanion aqainsr rhe rcri. beJief. of rhe MughatEmperor Atbar.s,The;etiberare 'yn. poir(y ol lhe Ndqshbandirrlni?daloneamone the sufi Orders in rnora.nol JU\t to mix s irh rhe )\luqhalrulersbur ro anemprro lnt uencerherr deedsIn the belief r har r he ruler" rhemselves h"d a profound sway over their subjects, lives, caruror be roo hislilv

stressed.si To some ertent it evokes, in a non sifi context, the Shi'ites' policy in Iraa prior to the a-rticulation of that stranger, directb interventionist policy beloved by the Ayatollah Khumayn of uilatdt al-faqIh iD the twentieth century33 In a snfi context, it also preigures in some respects, the cooperation of the Tijaniyrya ran:,qain North Africa with the French.3e In all these casesther is an alliance, in one form or another. between the mystical or religious and the secular <lomauls. Important though they were, however, Central Asia, Turkey and India are by no means the only areas significant for the rise and spread of the Naqshbandiyya. We must note here the diffusion and impact of the Order in such regions as the Middle Easteo(especiallyPersia,er Kurdistan,e2Egypt and Syriaerand the Sudan'va),the former Soviet Union,es the former Yusoslavia,'b the Far East (particularly ChinaeTand Indonesiae3) and, of course, Western Europe as well-ee We have insisted earlier that this volume is rnuch more concerned with the ritual practices, rather than the spirituality, of the Orders. Nonetheless, it is of interst to note here a few individual chancteristics of the spirituality of the Naqshbandiyya before proceeding further. In one article Wiiliam C. Chittick appears to &aw an interesting contrast befd/een the Naqshbandilya and the Ni'matullahilrya who were the subject matter of our last chapter. He maintains that with the Naqshbandi Shaykh Nazim al Qubrusi, the emphasis is very much on a prspective in which love is paramount but within a Su6sm founded upon th ShdTt'a. By contrast, the stress within the writings of the present leader of the Ni'matuliahis, Dr. Javad Nurbakhsh, is on onenessand union within a prspective which Chittick claims 'falls on the side ofintoxication.' Dhilr is stressed more than Slarr'a.1oo What is also of interest in any referenceto or survev of modern Naqshbandi thought is the millenarian instinct embraced by some its adherents. These are apparent in the teachingsof the NaqshbandrShaykh Nazim al-Qubrusi (born 1922) .eferred to above. His chiliastic uttera-nces prcdict the irnminent arriral of th Mahdi who is believed to have been bom in 1941 in the Hijaz. His appearance, accordingto Shaykh 71

SUFI RITTJ,\L

MAFIINC 1F1TSACKLD 2

Nazim, rill be srenatled bv rhe ourbreakot rh thi,d wortJ y--' '.1"T:. war wrll raqefor ninerydays producrnghug. un rhe.nin.ry tust day rhe Mahdr wrU appear in :*l'""':" )w,a dnd d new uortd aeeuilt be inaugurared. Late, al-Dal.l and the ensuing sequence of evenrsas foretotd Ly ),ru i?pe:J 5haykh_ NdTrm parallels much in the t,adiiional lslamr. escharoloqr.,aJ rradirron: al.Dajjetwill b" kjltedby.i",.;;;;; or pedce\rr ensuebul alter the reappearance of unbelieversLhe of Judqement wr begin ro b. "c":".t,.11:.grear.Day manrte.t.,'. Now, v,hile none of rhis is of direct relevance ro Naqshb-andi ritual, it does serve to inform the spi'lhk lity ol certain \aq.hbarJr groups ard may isolare.or even alerrate. such groups from rhe mainstreamofmodern lslam which, as we hare obsened before.may irself be an isotared btoc within such curures ds Weslern Brrtish sociefu This can equatty be Lruein dn n,ab environmenr. TatkingoI rhe Lebr"on, Hobibi" nor", rhdt .ot rhosewho (ame.rotrsren ro hrm lshaykn Nazirnlonly a mrnorrtv .tdved dnd ofr hosewho conrrnuero a""".;ot" *iLf, lirn an even,smaller minorirl betievein his prophecie..Wir} the re eslabrrshment ol peaceand rhe taiiure ofrhe Mahdi to arrive at the stated.time most people drifted away. Although the ies,inir'ally.arrracredpeoptero Sheikh Nazim rh"ey also l:ophe( drmrnrshed lus credjbilirywhen rhey fded ro come true.,ror lhe erhosofbeing.a minoriry within a minority perfeoly is encapsulared in rhe followinqobservarions bv fiaphne Habibis By dxing dreamsand visions wirh supersftron ed traditional tolk dpectations borh Sheik_tj Daghistmi md SheiLI Nuim tpupilof rhefornrerl har e terr rhemselves open ro cnu(rsmtrom dd 'uldm dtile rh"r lhev ae pra. rising shrrlrserring "uh. up pa.tMs before the uniry ofAltah) and ee acrins iresponsibty towards their followers Jor

to wolship Cod without any intermediaries ... [and] the Naqshbandis claim that their means of worship is the 'nearest and easiest' for th follower to achieve the highest level of union with Cod-{oi So il is to that worship that we shall now turn. This will be surveyed as previously unde. the four headings of Organisation and Hierarchy, Initiation, Rule of Life and Liturgy.

3.2.1Organisationand Hierarchy It has already been stressed that the Naqshbandls have a profound respect for the observances of shan'ia law to which they adhere with rigour-106Of almost equal importance, however, is the perceived need for a good and competent Master or spiritual guide.t07 Such Shaykhs will have advanced far along the spiritual path and may be described as 'perfect' (hanil). Those who do not remain'drowned in the "sea of unification"' have the capacity to lead their novices to perfection by instruction and 'upbringing.'103 In their emphasis on the absolute need for a worthy Master, the Naqshbandiyya resemble the Ni'matull.hiyya. The Naqshbandi ShayUr Nazim al-Qubrusi gos so far as to say that, without a guide, no-one can reach the presence of God. The good guide knows where you are going.loe The pious novice (m'l?1-d) should 'surrender' to his ShayLh, that is, leave his own will behind and follow oniy that of the ShayLh. 'Surrerrder must be inward and outward, like a dry leaf in the wind. Even if it gets blown into a fire, nothing wil you hear from it 'r 10Shaylh Nazim maintains that, once the novice has found his guide, he should have absolute faith in him and accept that h is at least 6fty times as knowledgeable as the novice. The true spiritual guide is spiritualy linked to the prophets and heir to those prophets.rrr Furthemore, true discipleship involves testing. The Qur'aric account of al-Khidr and Musarl2 reflects a universal paradigm of which the Arthurian quest for the Grail, the labours of Hercules, and the story ofJason and the Golden Fleece are but a few examples, set within a general framework of questing and testing. 73

3.2Rituals andpracticr
Madelain Habib has stressed that ,the Naqshbandi doctrine rests on the premise that the purpose for the creation of mar is 72

i1,\?I'ING THE SACRlD 2

proph,thar ir is Lhe il:::,"i ic"'l.1, l" T"lfh Hehords y. b,dsrhecuide to undenake Lhe restbg oi rh. ;f#
dixrpters lrnledbv suchbonds Ju"ras.rhe of obedrence , r,, tusrhd\rh soroois theShalkhofrhe whote Order, or branch ,.i".1 rmred by rhe sitsitd ro rhe founders or epnym. :l ::1","' or rne,L,rder and. ohen. ro the earliesr age of tslam. Th. spirirual rrneaqe jheir from rhe rrophc. ):l'l:ilo,i,,ra*. hrmqeir,lrom the rrst hharilaAbu Bakr, uhn il,l,lT"i rstamic communiw f,om or2 614,and from l:i::" il"'I1l' r;trb, rhr fiounhhhaltfa it For rhisamons orher l'l " i?t rea$nls. l\aqshbdndrs (onsrder rhartheyhavea primacyamone ( rrdersrn rermsot pedrgree rnerorner anu pres|Ige. 1 paflr.utarre',erence is a(corded to rheperson of Abu Bakr , r\aqsl'bdndilv?.{bu Balrrcomes ,mmediarely a_fier rhe :v lle rrsrra and Aigar ha. emphasiseo :l:fTl 'n:, ^,:,lbard, nowrnell t\aq5hbandr invocarion ofn bu Bakrdisrrngurshes rhar nea,rr, drl orhers,rf, !u,uq. w],ite nodng rha, y:::1 '1.lle rnerer^-a secondar) :itsilawhose focaipoint is.Alr b. Ahi T:[b vrarJd rar al iadrq. Algar mamtdins lhar .6ahnancesrry r. rri emDhasrd. nrotoundly Abu.Bakr, oi mwse, bore the title of al Sr.,tdiq which may be ,The rranslaLed as The Riehteous, ',ariou.ly ijpriqht, ,ihe

In the Qur'an Moses fails his test in a spctacular fashion _However. Shaykh Nazrrn insrsrsLlur, il d,nurd is eve, ro mo\r aronq rhe prth ro ( iod. he must be prepared to be testedovur

in Istamsinceir was also ie ytsut rn rhe Dorne-by eur.an,r as well as ldris 1ofteniderrtiied wln_ Lnochr.who.in Sr,raMarram, is r alled both.propher (rkrbi)dnd (lddrg '13_ \lgar rires Aimad S;t rnai,s ,rew rtrai ,rf,e nddiq. is r-hehreheststation or sancrir), for ::l:i,:','n: rmmedralelv dboveit lies rhe starion of prophethood a' in, rne orgatusdrron ard hierarchvof rhe Order, rhen, rhe , .navkn or fprnluat Leaderis pdraffounr. 0 His aur-horiry and pre-\r reeare srounJed. spirirualty.rn rhe srLrta ofalt the Sh;ykns wno h"ve preceded him Hr" aurhoriry is absolure for rt is surrender ro the shayk_hr_hat ;s requiJedof rhe nudd. ';4

rl" or rherrurMur o* ,,"iru"1,,[ n1"i l.::"1 Tn" propheric' sa,1: to.ldve^1 pedisee

The mun:dln themselvesmay be totally incoryorated in the ,an-qa but there may also be those few who could be classified as effiliates. akin to oblates of the Roman Catholic Benedictine Order, or tertiaries (or Secuiar Order) members of the Franciscanor Carmelite friars.]r] Klalua (seclusion or retreat)might exist aorsuch purposesas initiationr22 but there appears to be an historicat prefercnce for avoiding such retreats and prefe(rlng 'the keeping of pious company:ui.bat.'rzr Schimmel chancterises sd6a as 'the intimate conversation btween master and discipie conducted tradition is thus on a very high spiritual level.'l2rThe eremitica.l absent ftom Naqshbandr uste and pmctice and the modern rnutdtn do not withdraw f.om the world but rather function as gfis within it,1r5while meeting for a weekly dhiAr and contact with their Shaykh. Physicalhhalua may sometimesbe frowned uponr'z6 but the &ialu,a which conslitutesa meritorious stateof mind wins the Order's approval. Shaykh Nazim al-Qubrusi, goeson to having given advice on the cure of spiritual disease, relate how his own 'Grandsheikh' began to build a house in his would be two storeysin height. localvillage which he envisaged However, when it had reached one storey, Shaykh Sharafuddin instructed him to roof that storey, and enter the house for a hhalwa of frve years' duration. The moral of the tale is not so much the physical nature of the intended bhalua as the necessary state of mind which is ready to give up aU material and eanhly desires at a moment's notice, as if one were suddenly in th presence of the Angel of Death and ready to receivethat Aneel.r27

3.2.2Initiation I do not propose to deal here with some of the famous, and prototypical initiations of the great masters of the Naqshband; Oder, lik the initiation of 'Abd al Khaliq Ghijduwani by the mystic sageal Khidr.rrs This brief sectiondealsrather with the initiation of the ordinary mund by the Shaykh. Initiation ceremonies will differ of course, not just from one major Order

SUFi RITIJAI-

MAPPI\"G THE SACRED:l

observdrionrhar clearlv borh rhe procedun arriculdtedhere, and the Naq"hbandi paradrgm above de oesrgnd 1o tesr and teach humiiiry surerrry ano, mo.r oDvrousry, perseverrnce. Tbe Rule reads:
Noviid veniens quis ad con, versationem, non ei facitG t!', buatu ingressus, sd sicut air apostolus: Probdlr spinha si ex Deo slnt. Ergo si veniens pseveravent putsds et illatas sibi iDiurias et dimcuttatem ingressus post quattuor aut qui n q u e dies v is us f u e ri r patientd portale et prsistde petitioni suae, adnuatur ei ingressuset sit in ce a hospi tum paucis diebus .. . iit solli citudo sit si levera DeuD Do nor grat nrycomers ro rhe monastic life an easy entry, but as the Apctle says, I?sr rl? sprn* to s* i[ thel areJtm 6od (1 John a:1) Therefore. if soneone comes and keeps kn@kiDs at the dooa and if at the od of four or 6ve days he has sho{al hiirEif parienr in beding his harsh treatment and difficulq of entla and has penisted in his rquest, theo he should be alowed to dter and stay in th guest quartos for a few days . .. The concem must be wheths the 1I novic lruly seks cod

*"9:, no.furrher commenr on rhe serrion quorcJ ill"1T, oero$ oevond (he

-^n n^jnteresting analog.,, can be clrawn here wjrh rh, >t ard rhe way ir nears a would_benovi,r ^tlte,ot .u.nedrt monx,rn Lhrrsrranrry: Chapter 58 of rhe Ruic, enrirled Th, tot K?cavinc B,othc6 rDe DiseiptinasLsclpi.,1,o.l. nt ::oc.?dut:

wirhinrhesame urder.panicutarly on poins,,, \1-rlllh."'l l"' rheremay be a resr.and rhis may br l-ilill , ot "3"")", thetorm"tprocess of Adr'a oi aJ tegiancel loarh rh, Il':.r,": seeks ro be initiared y::l:, inro the oider by rr. ": lTd rhetdnermayrefuse thesuppticanr up ro rhre.. :1"*l',o:t nmes.

giving of instruction n the uartfas (prayer of6ces) of the Order.133 The semiotics of the plocedures and ceremonies outlined here need litde emphasis; it is also clea-rthat aspects of the initiation rituals have much in common with those for the edmission to other Orders whether thev be Islamic or of .nother religion altogether.l3a

3.2.3 Ruleof Life The nearest that th Naqshbandr- taflqd comes to erecting a formal 'rule of life' is then ha.limat-i qudsitya. These constitut eleven (originally eight) guiding principles or 'principles of rpiritual conduct'.r3i These principles have been stressed from classical rimes onwards and appear in both Naqshbardt as well .s modem orientalist sources-136 Algar translates halimar i qdslrya as 'the sacred precepts' and characterises them as 'an rttempt to define the essence ofthe Naqshbandrpath,'137 while Trimingham, rnore prosaically, observes that the 'eleven principles show the exercise-aims of the drtqd.'1r3 (It is certairiy true that th last three principles of the eleven, which will shortly be itemised, refer to the practice ofdiilr.).13e K.A. Nizami holds that 'these practices, which are aimed at tegulattug the entire inner life of mar, may not have been new in spirit or content, but they gave clear and categorical expression to lleeting moments of spiritual experience and identified every spiritual state, permanent or transitory'rao The eleven pinciples, introduced into the tdnqd in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries A.D,larmay be enumerrted, and briefly described,as follows:14, t hash dar dam:r! 'awareness 'conscious while breathing',1aa remembrance of God as one inhales and exhales one's breath.{{t This rubric embraces the techniquesnecessary for breath control. ' watching one'ssteps';1a7 t nazar bar qadan:1t6 eachmovement of the saliA (pilgrim) should be 'regulated and directed towards achievementof some divine purpose.'143
7t-

may ra-[.e placewhith can,m\otve. rni?rdlrd. claspineof rhe Shar ki,s hand,, recitarion o.t tn? shahtLd,t lormal staremenlofrepenlance by the rnztl. .a staremenls ot,\4ustim tliel a tormaldeclararion bv rheShaykh rnal the nu.!d hds beenaccepred inro rhe Orde.. finritu. ,t,. -d,
;6

Naq.hband, aspiranr. once theshaythha. ll-lf: '.h: -c,*,.f agleed to ddmrl hrm,an_inirrarjon Lrurg)

SLIFI RTTUAL

\IAPPING TH! SACRI]D2

. safut dar ua.tan.la, .journeying in one,s homeland,,r., mtrospectivestudy of oneself'.rjr This rubric encapsulatc, an attempt to know oneselfand move ,from blameworthy r,, praisewo.thy qualities' I 5.1 . bhaluat dar anjunanrrs 'solirude in a crowd,,rra .solitudr when tn company,.rssThe dervish should have the capacit\ to be 'alone with God, even while preoccupred with th. mateial world or other EoDle.ii6 ,making . yadhardlsi 'r-emembrance, or mentron., both oral and mental', I s3'recollection,. r re This heading cl"_ly ."";;". on the rmportanceof dhilr16! . bazgasht 16l'restraint',r62,restraining on,s thought, iira-_ gd,dr.'6 fhj. involve.rhe effon required ro prevmr on. . thoughlslrom .rralrnq durinq rhe !eperirron oi rhe slara;, rormurae. b' rnrer"per.ing olher ph,aes ror . nigah .. keeping warchfutness a wdrchon lhe drt !a:h:r dnd djrecron ot rhoughr'.rbThjs has similarities wrr_h rhc prcuo'rsrubrj. and rs alsodesigredro prevenr drsrrartion5 durlng the reperjrion of the shaha.da formulae.rb3 .concentration . Jadddshi6e rrecollection',rto upon the divine presence,in a.ondirion o( dhau,r.t-tThis cleart) in\olv;, rlnd ot deep rooredmedrtation or contemplationr: . ynil.i numerrcat pause. checking rhar the henr 4ilt::. dnrpr has been repeared rhe requi"rrenumber of tjmes, ral<ins Inlo accounr ones wanderine rhouehls..,.. . wuqnft zanaa:t .rempor"ip,,"; . . Keepingaccountol nov one rs spnd,ng one. rime. Thi. involves grvingrhank. ror ndvrnedon good deedsand repenrine of rime spenr in wrongdolng.i/D . uuqttigolkl forminqa menrdlprcr ure of one.s heaJr wirh . rne nameol Liod engrrredrhereon .r:" keeprng rfiehean in a state of alertness, responsivero divin communication.,rl .a.red preceprs ha\e deeper ","'"" lli":qh: ]l::: 9, meanlnes"as welt. Trimingham. referung ro u .qrl i zanr;.n, ano ddadr.\ay. thal we ma1 picrurethe uzqy'who 'ruq4-, ha. rhroushhd! ing rrdn.cended rirne .pace. and and ::1se1ro:pek pdskd dwa) rua.da qalbiye,in the Sought r3o Cenainlrt rh" 78

whole image of rruqul is a very powerful one, with its overtones of "Arafat and the hd, rituals. As we noted above, there seemsoriginally to have been an cighdold set of principles, established by Abd al-Khdliq Ghijduwanl and later supplemented by the last three principles outlined above, at the instigation of Baha' a1-Din Naq"hbar'6 "' Regardless oftheir number however, it is clear that an underlying factor in all the principles is control, control of the self with a view to directing that self towards a further, divine goal. An extra dimension is knowledge: the roul must know itself before it can attempt extra knowledge of the Divine. And while many of the principles may have a primary ritual orientation towards the pnctice of dhihr, they provide, togther, a frame or 'rule of life' in which the dervish lives forever aware of a greater goal than the corporeal or arthly. Fudhe.more, control over that which is corporeal may mean asceticism, but the eleven principles do not teach a Platonic rejection of the physical but rather a harnessingof it towards a Divine soal.

3.2.4 Liturgy It is possible to consider a wide variety of both major and minor practices under the general rubic of Liturgy- However in this section we will rfer only to someof the main liturgical practices of the Naqshbandiyya; other, more minor, ones may be noted in passmg.

i 2.a.1Dhihr Of alt the practices for u,hich the Naqshbandis are famous, the silent, mental dhi&r (dhi[r []rafi) is perhaps the best known. The use of dhi[r is at the very heart of Naqshbandi ritual, mediaeval and moden. Shayhh Nazim has made much of this point. He holds that dhi&7is important for satisfaction in this life. For him it is a sourceofwisdom and a powerful vehicle for the soul to

SCFi RITIJAL

of thosewho^performed th" ,Ji,r" S".h- p";;i,: f,^',",:,"::,:1 dwetled in theprcsenc".f

(iod. The Prophet Mutramrnad counselled that al things coullt

IfAPPI:"C

THL SACRED l

fu;;;;

il;;;"

";#:'

rhen,is an easy highroad ro ursdom. tiut ofie,. ^Dfrihr, equa y prohrabtegoajshavebeen idenrihed: for one scholar.rh.

nt lll^:r lrltl wnrcn subJecrand objecL are, evenrually indiscslnillp,,a

the tov, :TITI or L,odlo":i''," rheheanotrhe believer ro rhe po;ntwte."ll"r" ; no bll H: * And The Enqcropaedia o/ /starn snessesrir :1". . agrees. hotding rhar,rhedhilr brings

wirhour \ords is contemptarron rnushaha.dal.

i"ij,ioi]r'i,'lirt*"*

ordrirrinitscommentarv onrhe word

The epithet Nak$bmd l*l is somehme! undestood in th" c,,ft of ernbroidery. . . . More corDmobty, :::T-tl.l -'th rc\?ver. .t B talm ro rcferro r_he frxirg. in thepurifiedubter ;f rne nearr, ot ihe jm inr of rhF div,nenne A drr by means uf sreDtand permdent diii, rsj h i' clarned rhdr Abd BaJu.,rhe 6rsr lfidt,/a in tstam, was rnsr,ucred by l\4uh.mmddrn rhe useof the af,;A,*fl"" "tf""r *ere hidrngin rhe raveon rhe [u.rd ro \ledina.,& T," ii,-": I ne roUowrng slaremenr.by Tii al D:n ibn Va-hdi Zarnen al

t010,.dulhor.of rhe brief,unpaginared Episrie on 5-? 111 f.,:-.,n.,/ the N.aq,hhan/liwa Ud.et rRi:ata S;un al f Nacshbandir.ya r, naa. Ms. ro;i1. ::^:!:t.at. .lCarnbridge,

fii'j?:;::l.l:i"i,

pcrure sraphic of rhe form which rhe

llhe,.nfiJmu"r teep rhe rongue pre.sed aqdmst lhe root oftus .noutrt, hb trpr and teerh Frnrtv shur. od hotd tus breaLh ql'h Lhe sord la. he mates ir ascod trom rhe

The early history of the Naqshbandilya is characterised by the debate over whether the dhihr should be silent and private, or vocal and public. Trimingham insists that strict Naqshbandi Factice adhers to the private silent dhiAr and reminds us of the Naqshbandi precpt about 'solitude in a crowd-'133 Schimmel |g!:ees,seeingthe silent dfti&r at the very heart of Naqshbandi training and comparing it to the vocal dhilr of many of the other Orders which was often accompanying by musical instruments, thereby rendering th vocal variety more attractive to the populace.rse However, despite this presentemphasison gilent dhiLr, there is no doubt that both the silent and the vocal forms of the dhibr were in use in the Order before the period of Baha'al Din Naqshbnd-1eoAlgar notes that it was under the latter that the Order achieved its final form and that it was the impact made by Baha' al-Din which fnally caused the silent dhilr to become the norm and the vrxal dhi&r to fall into disuse with the Naqshbandiyya.te' This emphasis on silent dhihT powerftnly distinguished the Naqshbandiyrya from other Orders lile the Yasaviyya, the sound of whose vocal diih was such that ir became characterised as 'dhihr of the saw' because of its grating sound.lq? Yet this emphasis on silent dhilz never seemsto have become absolute.lerThere are indeed contemporary Naqshbandiswho have no qualms about using modes of diribr which classical Naqshbandism eschewed.lsaAlgar suggests that in Turkey, for example, perhaps most Naqshbandls now employ the vocal dfiibr, either out of ignorance of what the Order rega.ds as more appropriate, or a sense of inferiority faced with a norm which they regard as beyond their attainment.l'qs

:-.'-:, '" 1" lf,:,, .yh, r o- 'h ,r'ch r hout dd ed l a , d h b i h e te R s rd e .d ri v i ng i , ro!.eru )_Dro rhe pineat hea.through which ir circutaresro all r4p re.r o|he hodv The phrase Muhdnnad r@rlAl,at is mad rc^n. rme ,rcm rhe hft ro rhe nehr sjde dd rhs one svs. .\ty , 'od. I h o u a! r m y qoatod " a ti s fy i n qT h R i . my a m ,ra ,
80

,r hds mivedar{hcbnrn hesdys irahz

3.2.4.2 Sar.a' One of the most famous styles of mtsic in India and Pakistar is that characterised as Qaluuali. Musicologists apply the term to the musical genre and also to the actual performance of that genre as a sufl exercise.rq6In its former sense,Qawrrali is a song performed by a group of gatouralsor professional musicians who
8l

SUFi RI TLAL

NIAPPI\C TI]E SACRED2

wonh noring.however. rhat rhe eur,an doc , no. orrc(uv torbrdrhe useofmusicr.r".The same ambrvaien..t rs ro oe round w_rrtun rhe sufi ( ,rder\ rhemselvesln someol rF. mdrn\(ream sut, Orders of Lhe Indian Sub_Conrinent, sarnu constitutes.a vital framework within which .,"jd, more.lirerallyfindinc Uod /oora_kes ";";;;;; pldce.HenceU,ders tiL. ,.n,.nt,"V" hare.no he:rralon jor in pracrrsing ir Ar rhr lii Orders tike rhe Suhrawardiyya and rhe :lher,,extreme /\dqsnoandryyd ma) eilher prohib,t rhe performance of rhr sdnd ourright or (ompromise by permitting the performanceol mysucal songs-wlhour rhe useof musical instrumenrs./,2tn hi Drie, surve\ ol the_tita, of Bahd al-Drn Naqshband, protessor na\ stressed lhal ea_rlv \aqshbandi prdd,ce, ^rgar in i,. (-:ncern ror.sobfiety and anonymirl implied by the choice or srrenl dhrAr toqicallv reiecredsuch practices as lhe sdnui. ,0. Ye' alrhoughrheremay be rnroterance ot musrcalacdvirrc, amonq somegroups of Naqshbandrs, rhere is forbeaance rn the rdre or drverse praclrces amongorhers. Wh;le rhe \aqshbandr marnsrream path.may eschewmusic, membersof the Ctrder se con9emn ,ho.e who do ,,vi+ ro make rhe rd'lxi, par, :: or ieJ-son rne,r lo formdt- uorship. J.C.J. Ter Haar cites Sirhindr, rl:erer:1ar,ol ot sah;, at fiin Naqshbard.s dicrum ro rhc errpcr,rhatlhesethjngs run counrerro our parh and thercfore we. Naqshbdndjs. do nor do lhem: on the orher hand, whcn orne' suhsprd.lrse rhem.we do not disapprove., urThere is no oouDrrnat. ror the dveraqe sufi. Naqshbandr or nor, rhe lure or

..,,1,:"i* and.rndeed, m(uurase sucha pracr,c. :fl-:i'j: rhar.music. by conrrasr. was.dangerous ar.r li::]":'il. unrawut ,h"]d t rs

may be led by one or two soloists. In irs lafter sense,eav'I'ali ,is a garhering for purpose or ralizine ;aeats if tst.m,, .rhe mvstrcrsm-rhroueh lhe rirualof ,lisrening ro music.orsarni .: ror lhe surr, ea$\,ali is an a. r of worship, an aftempt .to arou .. my^stical .love, even divine ecstasy, the .... su6sm,lq3 ";;;;-;; Yet rherc was and srill is. a massiverhmlogjcal ambivalen., db?ulth: ot mrsic. ourside rhe practiceot tajwllt Lsllsl:jjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjm :se ', cnanuns or the qur,;'l.1u hite dfiilr could be deten;ed h\ dppllrne a snfr inrerprerar ion ro rhe *r"* i" th" ; err;;;;,,

music was xtremely powerful, no doubt as a potent aid to the .ttainment of udJd itself. Schimrnel refers to a 'sober' adherent ofthe Naqshbandi tdn:qa in Delhi named Mu Dard who wrote r work defending music and who, albeit in arl extremely disciplined way, held musical soir6es for himself aad his discipteszo; In 1961 1962 Madelain Habib studied as a Fulbriqht student at the American University of Cairo. Teaching there at the same time was a Naqshbandi named Shayln Sayyid al, Nu*.wa;206who furnished Habib with an interestinp descriD tion of a Naqshbardr u hi. h illusuares r he.,aeof "ession. "onq. though without any musical accompaniment.2oT After the procedingsopened with the f,ariha, a song (ndshiid) was sung followed by a silent dhi&r. Any 'e.rrtranced' siifi was persuaded ro come out of his state by the Shaykh clapping his hands. A poem wa,sthen sung followed by a second dhibr. This might be followed by another song and a third d[i[r. The whole ceremony would close with a prayer'read in unison, in a rhrthmical manner' calling cod to bless the Prophet Muham mad, all prophets and messengers,angels and'righteous worshippers' of God ard to be pleased with the frrst four caliphs of Islam, the Rdsh;dtn.2o3 It is clear from all this that there is an emphasis on sobriety and good order, despite the use of song. From this prspective, Habib makes a dramatic contrast between the Naqshbandilya and the Mawlawiyya or 'Whirling Dewishes' as they became popularly known: 'The Mawlawis use proetry,music and dancing to come closer to God and to bring about the trance, whereas the Naqshbandis evoke it by mere contemplation and concentration.'2{}q Arrd Habib draws attention to the use by the \{awlawis of the tambourine and the flute.'/ro Her contrast is an interestingone, albeit of two extremes:on the one harrd, the Naqshbandiyya pride themselves on the 'sobriety' of their dhih; on the other, the Nlawlawiyya glory in giving themselves up totally to a whirling dancewhich has been enthusiasticallydescribed as 'arr expressionof the cosmic joy experienced by the simultaneous effect of annihilation and glorification . . . it is the witnessingofthe stateof perceivingthe 83

82

SUFi RITTjAL

I\IAPPING THE SACRED2

mysteries of God through the heavens of divinity.'rr r Th(. tanguage here is as magniloquent and ecstatic as the dance itsell The Naqshbandiyya, then, stand at the opposite end of rhi ritual pole from the MawiawiD,a, as far as the physical expression of their devotions is concerned. But the rwo strt.s of derotronae nor rorallyinimi,ajr syncrerism rs possible. h r known that at leasr one modern Naqshbandr group has .r Mawlarvr sub group which performs the sana. on a regul. basis,accordingto the classicalstyle of the lvtawlawiyya:rr

3.1a3 Munaaba annRdbitx Muraqaba is a techique employed both by the Ni.matullihiyl a and the Naqshbandiyya. lt was noted earlier that the Arabie word could be translated as 'contemplative vigilance, ancl 'contemplative watchfulness.'21rTrimingham translates th. word initially as'spiritual .n--,-io.,'ir but later, in his 'Glossary of Arabic Terms', he renders it as ,awareness. watching. Spiritual communion with a saint or spiritual guide (rlrrrsftid).2'sIn a Naqshbandrcontext h insisrs that the trm 'contemplation' is an adequate rendition of the tuthod ai mura4aba in the sense that one might look as at a picture, bur not of the pro.ess.2r6 Muraqaba can involve meditation on a verse of the eur'an. the image of the Prophet lrluhammad, or one's o\r,n sufi :haykh. I Trimrngham rnsi.rsrhat ir i, to be disrmguisheJ from zabita,literally 'bond' or 'tink' with the Shaykh, altbough he finds the latter translationsinadequaterrs (lne author links thrs concept with rhat offdid': He must visualisinteriorly the image of h;s shaikh He inagines hjs image as though on his right shoulder Then prcturing from the right shoulder to his heart a line q,hich ca act as a passagewhereby the spirit of the shaiL}r can rate possession ofthat organ.This process mainttned conrinuously u.ill osure his attaining absrption in the shai].I (dl-faM"fi 1t

It is expectd, or at least hopd, that this 'annihilation, or absorption in the Shayhh will eventually lead to the universal stfi goal of 'annihilation' or 'absorption' in God \fana" fi 'illah)."o ln view ofthis, it is not surprising that the practiceof ftbitd, whatever its development down the ages, remained extremely tnpular in Naqshbandi circles.22' It also had an antique f,digree, going back to the early concept ol tawajjuh espoused by Ilahe' al Drn Naqshband himself ard one of his disciplescalled 'Ala' al-Drn 'After.222Rabir.1encapsulates the idea of a relationship between the sufi novice and snF Master whose essence is one of spirituality as well as physical presence-223 As a means of spiritual perfection, rabita could be more powerful that dfriftr.rra

J.2.a..' Sd6,r Cfosely allied to the concepr ot rabita. ln the Naqshbandi tradition is that ofsuhba. The modern dictionary defines suJrbo as 'fr iend"hip. companionshrp. comradeshrp. accompanyins.company, escort; association,intercourse ...'22s In sufi parlance, however, suhlu means 'the intimate conversation between master and disciple conducted on a very high spiritual level.'rr6 Algar holds that the preference for $fba rather than retreats was a characte.istic featrne of early Naqshbandi practrce.zz| The mund. who wished to be initiated into the Naqshbandi Order followed the path of sr.rhba,that is, he would apprentice himself to a Shaykh who would teach him the rituals of the Naqshbandr tdtiqa and guide him to the knowledge of God.223 However, although ShayLh Khalid,,e acknowledged the primacy of slhbo among the palis leading ro God, he also introduced a hhalua or retreat of forty days for the initiate. The practice was eschewed by other Naqshbandi Shaykhs but it became ar intesal practice of the Khalidi Sub Order.230(This diversity of approach, despite the general prcference for suhla, is paralleled in the Naqshbandr articulation of the silent dhihr rule). A further example of diversity may be cited from South East Asia. Algar reminds us that a distinctive characteristic of 85

84

SUFI RTTUAL

Malay-Indonesian Naqshbandr practice was a ntual calle(t sriub. SuluA was basicalty a retreat which varied ia length during whjrh some fasLinqalso rook place. Algar is unabre r,, sd) how rhis pracrice, \,luch is quire conrray to cla.sic I Ndqshbandr r,adirion. oriqDated. However, he idenrihes , growng tendency towards a regionalisation of Naqshbandr crstom since rhe Wahhabr conquesrof rhe Hjaz and treal ,,, rhe links urth Mecca which ensued./rl We noled earlier rhe approval given by Shaylh Na:im al ^ Qubrusi to a lind of menraj hhaluaz : wlxch can give a interesting extra dimension ro the idea of suhba qr" ship. Perhaps Shaykh Nazim foliows the counsel --i"r,ion of khwala 'Abd al-Khaliq al-chijduwani whose aphorisms becamc in the my"tical prdLticednd rheotosyof rh" luidation Order.r' One of rhc eleren famous prnciptes which h. enuncrated was hhaluat dar aajunan which Nizami elaborares as 'solitude when in company, that is carrying on spiritual practicesinternally and being alone with God while outwardlv bu.v uith people. " Here Cod replacesthe Shaykh and rhr: suhbd rs wirh cod Hirnself. Klaiwa becomes sulba

MAPPINC THE SACRED2

In England, while each mund may have his own private uird, there also existsa leafet published in Arabic and English which lays doum a set formula or menu of au,rZd.233 The English version of Naqshbandi du,rad 'to b recited during the day and night anytime after Fajr, wihin 24 hours'delineates an extraordinarily ambitious prcgrarnm of prayerz3e in terms of concntration, time and zal. Indeed, it begins to.ecall the acrtions of one of the disciples of Sahl ibn "Abdullah: Sahl ibn Abddi;n bade one of his disciples endavourto say Allahl Allahl' the whole dav wiihour intermission. wtlen he had acquiredthe habit ofdoing so,Sahlinstructed him ro repeat the samesords during the night, unril they cme forth from his hps even while he was asleep.'Noq said he, 'be silnt and ecupy you*X with recolecting them. At last rhe disciple's whole bing was absorbedby the thought of Allah. One day a bs fen on his head,and the words Allah, Allah'were seeD wirten in the blood that trickled from the wound.,ao The Naqshbandi nundtn cleady take the ararad extremely seriously.2alThe English version of the leaflet of Awrdd. referred to above begins with a.nexpanded version of the shahada (tttee times) followed by the phrase astaghfiru llah (seventy times). Several sunu from the Qur'an follow including the cptition of Sarat al lhhlas (eleven times). Aftet a du"a, which appears as item 11 on the list ofaurad, item 14 comprisesth recitationof the name Allah 1500 times. ln all the list on the leafet in English comprises a set of 16 a&ral repeated bet,reen one and 1500 dmes according to the rubric. These are followed on the list by five other optional du7ad, each repeated 100 times. It is worth mentioning once again that th rubric at the top of the list reads: 'To be rcited during the day and night an)'time after Fajr, within 24 hows'242Ht:*ever, each wird, in itself, is fairly short a fw lines at most and in this one might make comparisons with the aur,ad ol for example, the Burhaniyya tanq\ abranch of which fiourishes in Cairo and performs its zi&r (dhih) in the Mosque of Sayyidna'l,Husayn. In Cairo this Order rejoicesin the full name ot atTariqa ol BwhaniJta al Ddstgi1'].a alShndhil$ya, thereby clearly indicating its origins.2a3The aurad

3.2.1.5 Wnd
Under this heading, in addition to ruird, we wi also consider the repetitive form of prayer known as jtharrn i Khuajasan employed at rarious times by the Naqshbanclr tdr-qe. ihe aurrdd themselves are diverse in number and trpe_ For example, at the Naqshbandi reltu in the Bosnian town of Visolo (viich lies abour 40 miles norrhwesr ot Sara1evor,z,.rhe performarL e ol ddwn prayer by rhe dervishes is preceded by rhe .the recitation of a rhyming uird which rs called,Aurad i Faihrlrya

a saint ofthe Kubrawiy1,a Order.|6 This litany appears to ha,e become extremely popular with the \\aqshbandi; and is to be lound nor only in. Bosnia but in tughanistan ard Turkey a.r well, dlmosr supplantjnga lirany called aner Baha,ai bin Naqshband hirnself.z' 86

whose author was'Ali b. Shihab al Oin Uanaaanr rJiil, 1a;ea

lvf^FPl\c

TIJE SnCRED2

of this Order are much longer than the individual aurrad of thc Naqshbandiyya, and they are prinred in a smali but far booller of 128 pages.2aa This booklet, which is more lile a miniatun, Islamic breviary than a simple collection ofalrrad, besins with a prarer called hhatdmal.salawaL prescribesa numbei of aurti./ after the pzbh and "asr prayers like 100 6denalds arrd 30t) repetitions of Ya Dalyim, records a number of ahzab, includine the very well-InownHizb al Bafil't amibutedro Abu I Hasan a.l'Shedhih himsll and concludes with two taraassulsand t*.o siisilalists. The final entry is a listing of'the appointed[or fixedl Iitames (al aurad al narb*a) which are read once after the srbl prayrs and once after the "aw prayers.'ra6ln short, this Burhant booklet is yet one more indlcation of the emphasis placed upon ararad in many ofthe Orders and the way in which they became a parallel set of prayers to the fivefold sdiar itslf. Another form of communal lita:ry or, better, communal and extended repetitive prayer, espoused by the Naqshbandiyya is that lnown as Khatm i Khwaja.gan or 'Recitation of the Masters.'24t This comprises, inter alio,, the silent reDetition of vanous Qur 'anic snrassut h as the Farrh{ sevenl;mes, Srrdr al Iihlis one thousand and one times, foilowed by a sevenfold Fitila once again and a concluding invocation of blessings on the Prophet Muhammad.2+3 Tbe prayer is named after .the line of Central Asian mastersof Sulism, kno*rr as the Khwaiaean. oul o[ which the \aqshb di order arose. .." ntq* "rr";s". that the earliest Naqshbandi ritual manuals do not refer to the bhatm ar,d it was quite a while before this practice of silently reciting verses fmm the Qur'an became a regular feature of the Naqshbandi rarrqd every.uvhere.2ro It is acknowledged that the content of the Kharrn r Khwajasan caJl differ frcm place to place.r5r Table One, while encapsulating the common principal fearures, also illustrates some of the variations, especially in the number of repetitions The Table is based on the descriptions of rhe K,1dr,r i Khuajagan by 'frimrngham, Algar and Habib. No attempt has been made in this Chapter ro cover everv sirgle Naqshbandr rubrrc. rirual, prrcrice and cusrom. lr i" hoped, however, that all th most important ones have been 88

Table One Habibna IstuhJat (i) Sn'dr dl l;rii4 (t) Ii?rl,yd(100) Stra, dl IA 6 (1001) ?dlid (100) Istishlat lrs)
Prayd of delegation(l )

Snratdl-&hiis (9) Tarl:aa lr)

ktichlat 115)

?irjli]ya (100) Sn'ar 4l l[ as (1001) Sn'ar dl-Iaitrafr (79) Snrd dI Fatih! (7) T4lila (100) Readingsfrom Qu"a, Srpplications of 'Und

The nmhe. of rpetirions i, in bra&ets surveyed. Those which have not include such matters as the ryrb al fatu'id ('ptoximrty brought by the prescribed religious duties, connectedwith prophethood')256 of the lndian Naqshbandis, and tasdrzut 'the srpernatural power over other people, disciples and enemies alike, which was ascribed to the Sun saints.'2r;\!hat should be clear from all this is the generally low-key nature of most of the rituals of Naqshbandism and the spirit of humility which infuses, or shotrld infuse, the performance of these rituals. Trimingham rightly identified the Naqshbandiyya with the i\aldmatr sufi tradition which rejctedostentation-rt3 In one of his books, the modern Naqshbandi Shaykh Nazim has a Chapter entitled Attaining Real Humility in Worship: To Avoid Being Self-Satisfied with the Amount of One's Devo tiorx.'2se We will concludewith someof his words which neatly encapsulate the classical attitude of the Naqshbandiyya towards worship; for Shaykh Nazim, lack of pride and ostentation in ritual and prayer is the essence of the ada6 of worship: lfa person is expecting ay reward for his devotions,it meaas that.hesees his own actionsasbeing goodenoughmd wo.thy of

u9

5. FI RI TUAL

M A I P I N C l H I 5 AC R ED ,]

a rewdd fron Allah. Whosoever thinks lhat his actions or worship de suitable for the Divine Prmce has no tnowtedge of absolule trurh (Haqiqa) dd ,ts Eret Inowledges. Thcefore, you may w thern worshipping enthusidtically, pushed on ro ever nore devotions just becau* they re thinling: 'These re good actions md I shall reap my rewad for them,' but it never ccus to them that those actions aren'r suitable for the Divine However, the Shaykh does not wish to be misunderstood: You must be cdetul not to misunderstand me, nor to turD th intended meDirg upside down; no doubt, as a result ofwhat we are syns here, some people will accuse us of discounsing oE followers fron worship far from it, Allah is my witnest We are neve! d$ouraging anyone from worhip, we are only teaching people the highest s@d maaners (Adab) vith then Lord Almighty, md thal adab is: not to be co.rentd with the ahount of your volship while you efiecrively ddtroy irs merits with your pride md vith your thinling that it wiU be tust-clcs in the Divine Presence; it is bette! ro present your worship to yor.rr Lord, saying, 'Oh my Lord, I m ashmed t send this before your Divine Presence forgive me my shortcomings and inability to worship or tbank You as You desde to b worshippd and thmked '161 A parable illustrates what he means and also underpins Naqshbandi ideal of the dhilr which is silent: the

Notes
1 See H. Algd, A B;e{ History of th Naqshbandi Order' in Marc Gaborieau, Alexmdre Popovic & Thier.y Zarcone (eds.), N4qs[b4fldr: Chmi@t et Jjtut;d d.relle .I'u^ onhe nrystique melMn/ Hbt6i@l Deelop@ts and Ptesent Situtin o/ d M6/in Mtstt.al (hder, A.tes dz lo Ta.bk Ronae de Seues/Proceed.ings ol the Sattes Rtund Table,2 a tui/2.a Ma| 1985, Varia Turcica XVIII, (lstanbul: lnstirut Frdgais d Etudes Anatolienns/lstobul & Paris: Editions Isis, 1990)[hereafter refened to sinply as Cabo.iau,Naqs]rbadisl, pp 41, 42, 43, .16;sealso Daphne lIabibis, A Clompatutixe StuAtoJ the Wothincs oJa Btunch oJ rhe Naqshbmd.isl,f'. Ordzr in l2bMon ann tle LrK U.publishd PhD Thesis, University of London (L.S.E.), p. 71. 1985, 2 (My itali.s) Ndin al'Qubrusi, Mercy Ocearc' Eadl*s Hoizons, lDirourss ddivred Sumer 1401/1981,in London, dd Autuhn 1401/1981in Munich &d Cyprusl, (Konya:Sbat,1982),pp. 8s, il6, 89, 90. 3 Se H. Alsar/K A Nizami, at Nakshbandiyya', EI', Vol. 7, pp. 934 939; H. Algd, art 'Naqshbandiyah in lohn L Esposito (ed.), The OxJord.Laqclopedla oJ the Motlern Isldic Wdld, Vol 3, pV 22b 229t Habibis, C'mpdtatmd Stud) p. 2E. For a suvey of a hostile appr@h towards the Naqshbudis, see WG. Shellaber, 'Ar Exposue of Countditers', The Mulen Worll, Vol. XX:4 (October 1930),pp. 359 -170 4 SeeAmmeie S.himel, Mystrdl D@i6 oJ klan, (Chapl Hill: University of No.th CarolinaPress,1978),p. 402. 5 H Nga, The Prcdt Stateof Naqshbmdi Studies'in Gaboiieau, Noqsnbandn,p 46. 6 Gabo;eau, NaqsAband;. 7 Alg&, 'P.eseniStateof Naqshbd& Studies',pp. 45 46. 8 Rawd A.G. Fdhadi, 'On Some Edly Naqshband; Major Works' in Gabonou, N'aahbandis,pp. 63, 67 Seeals H. Algd, Bibliographicll Notes on the s-aqshbandiTriqat in G@rge F. Houmi (al.), tssals on k14^i. Phibepb asd Sciqce,Studisin Islmic Philmphy od Scioce, (Albany: StateUniversity of Nry York Press,1975), pP. 254-259. 9 Triminghm, The Su.f. Ord2B in Isldn, (Oxford: Cldendon Prs,,

I heed of one great Saint who, evr) rime he coe ro the mosqu to pray with the conglegation talrEt), woutd wit unril everyore had entered, and only tben enter the mosque himsell stmding next to the shoe-rack md praying there. Then, a sn s the prayer was ,inished, he would run out of the mosque, saying: 'Prai*d be the Lord, for He ha overed for me the badness of my condition s that no one could derect it. If tho* people were to know what I an really like inside, they would chas m out of the bosque, throwing their shoes at me md beathg me with th6.r6':

197r).
IO Alga.. 'P.e*nt Stateof Naqshbddi Studies, pp. ,16 47. l l Ibid , p 47 1,2 K.A. Nizmi, 'The Naqshbandiyyah Order' in SeryedHossei! Nasr (ed.),Iddn; Spinruliry Mdni/sr4ri'ro, p. 164. 1l Hmid Algar, Silmt dd vdal dninr i. the Naqshbandi order' in Albrt Dietrich (d.), Ahdn des ViI KongrsA /tr Arabistih nLl

91

SOFi RITU L

\IAPPINci THE S,{CRED2

klanuismchaft, Gittingen, 15. bi 22. Atgut 1974, (c6ttingn Vedenhoeck & Ruprecht,1976),P 43. 14 Triminghm, The Srf Odas in Islan, D. 62 15 H. Alga, &t'Nakshbdd', Ei'z, Vot.7,;.9J4. 16 ldem, The Naqshbadi Order: A pret;minary Suruey of irs Historl. and Signilicoce , Srudu Islzni@, Vol. XLIV (1976),p 1j4. Sceidm. at. 'Nallhband', p. 931. 17 Algd, 'Silented ve.l dht&r',p. 43. 18 ldm, an. 'NaksLbdd, p. 93319 ldm, 'Silentod vod dhiir', p 43. 20 Ibid. 21 Nizdi, 'Naqshbddiyyah Ordei, p. 164. 22 Ibid. Algd sives the nme of the village o Qor i Hinduvsn (.The NaqshbandiOrder', p 13,1). It wa renhed e6r; .Arifen in hE honour (SEeAlgd art 'Naklbbdd , P' 933). 23 Aige, 'The Naqshbddr Order', P. 136. For turther detaits dd anecdotes ofBaha' al-Din's life, se Alga, AB.ie{History,, pP 9 11 See also j&m, dt. 'Nakgbbdd', p 934, ad al Ral,ma b. Ahnad Jmi, Ndflhat dl U6, ed. Ma]di Tawbdrpnr, ^bd (The.m: Kitebfdnshi Sa'di, 19s7),pp. 384.389. (J.mi tived betwm 141.1 1492 md was thus bom just ovd t*o deod6 a1ler Khwdja B.nr, al-Drn Naqshbmd'sdath). 24 Niz4i, 'Naqshbodilyal1 Order', p. 164 25 Algd, 'The Naqshbddi Oder', pp. 136 137; @ idem, &t. 'Naksbband',p. 933. 26 ldem, an. 'Nake[bmd', p 933. 27 See,for exmple, Nizmi, 'Naqshbbdi],)'ah Ordei, pp' 168 fi. 28 Nizani, l.'aqshbudilyah Order', p. 169 29 lbi d ., P 1 70. 30 Janil ]vf Abun N6r, The Tijatiya: A 56 Or.td in rh. Modam WorA, Middte Eastan Monographs, 7, (bndon/N-ry york/Tor. onto: Oxford Univdsity Prss,1965),p. 46, seeale p. {7 31 Njzmi, 'NaqshbDdiyyah Order', p. 169. Fo. nore on Khqja at Ahrar, se"Ali al Keshifi [cAl, Fallr al Dtn .AI- S.fi ibn Husaln al Wi'iz al-K6hifil, R(hdhat i.AJn dI HLrat tpcs;o tqtl, ed .AllAsghd ltr-rniya4 (2 vols.. Teheran: Buyad-i Nekuk.ri yi Nuoi, 19i7). 32 Yohmd Friednon, Shathh Ahnnl Snhind;: Aa Ottlire oJ IIs Thouetu ann d.Srud, of Hn IMs" ia the Eles o/ posrenrJ,,\tccil Isloic Studies No 2, (Monrreat & London: \{ccill eueD s Udrrsiry Pre$. lqili. speale Sh ttuyatuttafi dr shaykh Ahmdd s 'rh i n d i . E I ' \ ol I pp 2 0 , /q r o n e o t rh e m d n $ u .6 tor h; thought is his lettds, colle.ted undr the rirt Mdhfibari Innm.i Rabbant, ed Nn. Ahmad, (3 vols.,Karachi:&iuational p.$, 1972): they we. kdslared into Anbjc by l,Iuhmad \,fu.ed .t \{aMesi,

M!'dndb al MdLfitat aLShmJa al Mdisnfl bi "l Dwu alMahn tat ai Ndtnd, (M6ca, 1316/1898 99). 33 Friedll1lm, S;hind, p XIII; IMyannbh, dt. 'Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi', p 297;E ale Albert Horlm| 'Shailh Klulid ad the NaqshbandiClrda' in S.NI Stm, Albert Hrumi & Viviu Brm (eds.),IsL' i Phib'opb 1972),p 93. d,n thz OAidl Tratritin, (Odord: Buo Caid, 34 See Friedmam, Si'lindt, p. XIIII Inayatullah, art. Shaykh Ahnad S;hindi , p. 297. Se also Aziz Ahmad, Sndies in lslanic Culture in th. Itulidn Entinnqt, loxford: Cldddon Press, 1969), p. 182. 35 C. Colin Davies,an. 'Albd', Er', Vol. I, p.317. 36 lbid. Order', pp. 178 r79. 37 Ibid. SzealsoNizei, 'Naqshbandilryah 38 F;edlrrlm, Si'lindi, p' XIIL 39 Ibid.; Nizdi, 'Naqshbadiyyal O.der', p. 177; Ieyatullah, an. 'ShaykhAhmad Sirhind,', p. 2e7. 40 F.iedmaM, Sirhi'd,, p. XII; Inayatullah, dt. 'Shaykh Ahnad Sirhindi', p. 297. 41 lbid. 42 F;ednad, Sirnr:nli, P' XIll. 43 lt'id.; s also tnayatuliah, art. 'Shayh AJrmad Sirhindi, P. 297. 44 Ntdi, NaqshbandilaahOider', p. 179. 45 Fridman, .Si'Iindi, p XIV 46 lbid .17 Ibid. 48 Se Nizmi, Naqshbadi)yah Order', p. 179; Inayatullah, an. 'Shaylh Ahmad Sirhindi', p. 297. 49 lMyatullah, art. 'Shayh Almad Sirhindi', p 297.SeealsoJohm G.J Ter Haa, The Naqshbmdi Tradition in the Eyes of Ahrud fthindi' pp. 83-93. Naqshbandr, in Ga-borieau, 50 ScHmel, Mtstical Diamio6, p. 372. Se Rahimlddin Kemal and Salih Keml, Shah waliullth' ; Seyyed Hossein Nasr od oliver (eds.), Hirt't af klani. Pfiilosopb, Routledge History of kM Volune 1, (2 Parts, kndon & New York: World Philosophies, Roudedge,1996),Pan 1, pp.663 670 p 372. i1 Schimnel, Mrsti.dl 'imennoru, 52 lbid., p. 373. 53 Nizmi, 'Naqshbandiryah Order', p. 184. 54 Aziz Ahma4 A' Inieu?.ttuI llisror^ oJ lslan in India, lslmic Surveys 7, (&linbursh: E{Inbdgh University Press,1969),p. 8. ii lbid ; *e also Nizmi, 'Naqshbadilyah Ordd', p. 184 md Marc Gabo.idu, A Nineteenth Cntury Indid "Wahhabi' Tract Against the Cdt of Muslim Saints: Al Bdldsh al Mfiin i\ ChristiaD W Tioll (ed.), Mldr'n Siri'ss in Indtu: Thei Chatucter, Httor! and Si:niluarce, klam in India: Stldies aDd Conmntaries IV (Delhi: Oxford Un;versity Press,1989),p. 20'l

92

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s6 Gabdeau, 'N;etemrh Cdrury lndim ..Wa}lhabi Tract,, p 20,1. 57 For a brif survey of rhjs ed Sheh Wali AI.I,S othr w.i;nes, see AhmaA. Intelb.hal HLttqJ, pp.69 70. 58 Ahmad, Inreliecrul fisro,a D 70. ' o S e C a b onau. _Ninaem r h C n ru ^ In d i d " U d h l u b , T m cr' .p.,,0.1 60 Nizdi,'NdqlhbddLrryah Order, p. 18.1. ot Seihi,l 62 Chdles J. Adds, 'The Naqshbudrs of India md the patista Movehent' in Caborieau, rvdqsnian/r. p 223. 'N-ryl31th catury rndia.,wahlDbj Tmd., pp 204 205. 9] ljabo:eT, 6/ H d m,d Aed. ?olit iul As p e r, u t N d q s h b n d , H ;l o ry n C dbo, \aqrh6andA,pp IIJ I t4 'eau. s ha*] r K ha h d . p p d q i 0 J . b p p q 4 . F or more on f-.-' "' lf \4awl;nr \halid. *e Hrm Sha6qi A,bd@; md S H. A'M. \4aulav Khdhd Naq(frbdndi 4 pdttu ot SqLn Mautad Khali) \a4-iibdndi drd Htr S&rsoq. pers,a re* by H.S .Arbami *rrh t nsl i ,h i .' ion I nhoduc ri o n a n d N o r6 b ! s H . Am,n . E d,nbursh Ro yro n P ubl, her , . ls o. , . e \p p p . ' ro . 1 0 0{ L n C tr" h re x rl. 6i:, \izdhi \aqshbodi\1ah Order'. p lbt. Se ajso Burtus Abu Muneh. 'The \dqshbddryyd VuJdddidryyain rhe chtotu Ldds I n rh e Fd' lr I s r h. m r u^ D p U e tr d " s /rtd % . Vo t. \\j t (l a8.l . published 198a),pp 13 1,+ 67 Hourai, 'Shailh Khalid, pp. 94 96 Se ato Nizami .Naqshban, dtlrah O!der'. p 187. b8 S@ Adams, Naqshbdndrs of tndra, p. 221. o ! Ho u rd i S la; lh K hdlid . p p o b q o N rz h r. N a q s hbmdi E ,n 70 Hourai, 'Shaith Khatid, pp 99 j00. Se also Hatkau Halim 'Mawlene Khalid et les pouvoirs'in Gaborieau. t{dqsl6andi! pp.361 370. The latta represnts a summdy of pan of th; author,s d@toral thesis . titled Cnha,i des Naashbandn tu Kwd;star a, XIx" sie.L, (Sorbonn Pdis lV, 1983). 71 Hourani, ShaikhKhalid, pp. 100 tot. 72 I bid ., p 1 0 1. 73 Algd, A llrief History , p. 19. 74 I bid .,p . 1 6 . ;5 Ibid i seealso Algar, dr. 'Nalsbbad , o 93a. 70 N, /@r- N dq" hbdd' r . y d } u rd .r' . p 1 8 ,. s e a l e A l ed. rn 'N;q:hbdd,rah. p 228 dnd Otivd Roy Lp N4+hbz';i}]a m \fqhd fld ;n Cdboledu, Naq.hbandr,pp. rq, r,,r :7 {lea. Pre"enr\!are of Ndq.hbandisrud;". p 18. 7 E I bid ,P5 0 . 79 Alga, dt. 'Nakqhbandiyya', p. 936; se ale Tayfm Aray, \raqshbadi S,/L ia d l.y^rpft Sarring.I npubtFhpd phI|I heri., Lnivenitr or Lond n n/S . ) A S , lqo. . pp. ro .j J .

80 Alge, art. 'Nakshbmdilya', p. 936. Se al6o ferif ]r,fddin, 'lhe Nakeibendi Orda in Turlish History' in Richard Tapper (ed.), Istan in Moadn TurheJ: Re(stm, Palitics and Lite'atwe in n S.dtdr Srate. (rindon & New York Taur;s, 1991)p. 129;dd David \rl Dd.el, 'The Sprad of Naqshbmdi Polihcal Thought in rhe Islmic World ; Gaborieau, Ndqslbard's, p 269. 8l Triminehdm. Th? suf (rdat" n Lldn, p a5 82 DJfuel, 'Sprd of Naqshbodi Politi.al Thought , p. 269. 83 lin d A'ta Tradidonal Suli OrdeB on the Periphery. Kadiri and Nak$bendi Istm iD Konya a.d Trabzon, in TapFr (ed.), rddn in Modzn Tuthey, p 223, *e also p. 224. 5e also Thierry Zrcone, 'Rmaques su le R6le S6io Politique t la Filiarion Historique des 5.Jl N4ljbendi dds la Turquie Contemporaine' in caborieau, Ndernbandn, pp. 407 ,120.Fo! mother study of modern Naqshbandts in Tukey, se Emin Yar& Dem;ci, Moderni:arion, Retigion anA PoIiIi.s in Twkej: The Cdse ol rhe Ish.ndeeata Connhitr, Unpublished PhD Thesis, Dept. of covermdt, Univcsity of Itdchater. 1996. 8{ Algd. A Brid History', p. 19. 85 Nihi, art. Naklbbddiyya: 3. In India', EI'/, Vol. 7, p. 939. 86 S@ A]]md, Sti&iia iz Isldnic Cllrtre, p ra4 se also SchilrmI, Mrsd@l Dia4io6, pp. 363 364. 87 li* K.A. Niz@i, Naqshbmdi Inffuence on Mughal Rulas and Politics',lslaair Cziture,Vol. 39 (196s),pp. 41 53. Fo. mo.e on the NaqshbadiD,a;n Iodia, s@ S.A.A. Rizvi, 'Sixteenth Centurv Naqshbrdrwa I eadoship 'n lnd.a in Crbofleal Adq"hb,ndr. pP' 153 16sj Simon Digby, 'The Naqshbmdis in the Deccm in the Late Seventeenth and Early Eightenth Cnrury AD.: Bebi Palugposh, Bibi lvlusifir and Their Adherents' in ibid.. pp. 167 207; Yohem F.iedItm, 'The Naqshban&'s ald Awranq zeb:A Raonride.at on ,n ,b,d . pp lOa ,, 'O:ahcrle. J Adds Tt"e Naqshba.dis of India and the Pakisth Movement' in ibid.. pp- 22r 229j md Fath Mohmmad Malik, 'Naqshbandiyya and Idmlogy of lvluslin Nationalish' in ibid., pp. 231 23s. 88 For refeoces. see Ia Ri.hdd Netton, Text aan hatnL An Eut W"st PflM, (Richnond: Curzon Press,1996),p. 110 n. 171. 89 S@ Abs'Nasr, Tl ?idairrya, pp. 58 s9. 90 SeeAlgd, A Brief History', esp. pp. 28 ff 91 SeeNizMi, 'NaqshbmdiyyahOrde!', pp. 18.1 184. 92 SeMeiin vd Rruinesd, 'The Naqshbandi Order in 17th-Century Kudista in Gaboneau, Naqshbdnlis, pp 337 359; Hakim, 'Maw l6nt Khalid et16 Pouvoire'inibid., pp.361 3?0;Joyce Blau, 'Le R6le d6 Cheikhs Naqshbddi des le Mouvehmt National Kurde' in ibid., pp. 371 377; Robert W Olen, 'The Internatio.al Conse, quen es of th SheikSait Rebellion'in ibid., pp. 379-406.

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93 $- Frede-rickde Jong, 'The Naqshbodiyya n Eg]"t md Sy.ia Aspets of its History and Obwations Concerning its presnt-bav Condir,on Gdbontuu Nd4rhhdndts. DD \8q bol. 'n r)r +e \i, oh Credin. A p,oposdesAei;r? de h Naqshbmd,)yad.a . lr Fodemenrs de la Kharn'y]'' du $udd r.rrie;ui straiesid d. Pouv& et R.iation Mairre/Disciple in cabo.i6u. NdasrrLnd6 Pp b 2 l or r 95 Se Atexodre Bemigsn & Chatai lamercid-euetquejay, ,Braves ReI]Eque su la Naqshbandiyra en Un;on iiovi6tique in dalo,iear. Nagsl$odn, pp 441 446t ed Heid Alge, .SLykn ZaFu ah TF L6t c.eat Naqshbedi Shath of the Vorsa Urals F":b:,. Region' in Jo-Am crcss, Mulitu ir L>nttdl As@: Ea"^6 .J. Idatitt and Chanse, (Durham & London: Duke Univ*itv p.6s loq 2 ),p p 112 lJ 96 For a geDdal orientado! for Islam in this dea, *e H.T. Nor.is. t.Laa n th. Bdlha\ R?tqion d sdpty bctupa En@e dnd tht A u b Wor ld. { . H u r\r, S eJ s D z m ; t C ehdi r ' Lod" n '\o. io Polri, al {'De, r" o, rhe \dq,hband, ' o s 4 j . DeruishOrder in Bcnir od .H e ,a qo! , qd dd luq o < ta v ra i l e n e ra l t) rn C a b o rro u, N a4{ r bd'rda.pp 66J 668.Jdsnd Snic. ta Ndqshbandide Bosn,e(tlus l'a 'tru l 'a, em pnt. eur de \ r,o to r e r L c u r, R e trt,o n s rv ( d,A ur.eOrdres Sods in ibid., pp. 669 679; Hdid Algd, .Sohe Nores on the Naqshbandi Tarrqat in Bostia . Studiesia (hnpantiv Relein, vol- a pp os qo . A p o p u t( & c r,;;.re n .l q; r r . t" ast]r" . ufdtc\ M\"tqLps ddB I I:Iaa chmt'mcnrf ?r s,h4tro, A(r/.ih. r.lls'o^ and rhe rFdl S.ienLes. . rpd;s Edirionq d. :r:udr:. 1n t L to te d e s haut c s t r ude s e n s .rp n c e , Sq ,a l e s .l a E5 \. p p 77 ;0. Darro Tanaskovi., 'La siruation Adu.Ie de forde d; Naqsh bodis au Kosvo et en Macedoine in cabori@u. Naasrrbdndi, pp,681-^691;H Poukon & S. Taji Farcuki {eds.), Mslim l.tenft, 6nd the Balbnn States, Institure of L{ustim Mino.ity Affa;s, Booi liries Vol. 6, (London: C. Hu6r, i997). 97 See Fcngois Aubin, 'En Idm Chinois: euels Naqshbadis?, in Gaboriqu, N'aqs&bdid6, pp. 4gr s?2 od Raphcl I$aeli, .The Naqshbadiyla md Factionalism in Ch;es tsld in cabo.iau. Nraqsl6andn,pp. 575 s87. 98 See Werne. KJaus, 'Sone Notes on the tnt.oduction of the Naqshbadiea Knalidiyya into lDdonsia' in Galorieu, Ndqsn6an ,?dre[ar d6, pp. 69!706;.ed Deays I,mbrd. et Entrep;se a Dumatra: L Exenple de Syeb AMd Wanab Rot"n (c. 1s30 1926), in Gabd@u, Na$hldnds, pp 707 i16. oq seeA!d). ^Jd9rh!,rdrSuIs rr a We,ron Sernng.I K B. Dmpa, A c& ,J , ord?, ia Bntan. L npubtished MA ThesF I/" !q DQ,rtmenr of Th"olo$. Utuvosir\ ot Birlmqham. l,)S5: Habibr, Loq p a ,4 h r p|r nd\ . \ um i ' N d q ,h b a n d i w a h O rd e r, p . t8 8

100 Willid Cl.Chitdck, dt Sufism:$iti Thousht and P.actice'inJohn L. Esx$|ro, The Oxfod. ErctcLoped.ia oJ the Modlm lsbni Wul,l, Vol. 4, p. 108. 101 Daphe Habibis, Mahdisn in a Brdch of a Contemporary p. 605; Naqsftbdndn, Naqshbadr Order in kbdon' in Gaborieau, se atso Habibis, Cmpurdtiv Stutlt, p. 2. 102 Habibis, 'Mahdism , pp. 605 608. Sealso Ata]. NaqshbanrliSr,fisia a Wdrt"n Serting, pp. 199 200. 103 Habibis, 'Mahdis, p. 611. 104 lbid., p 619, Salso ide , C@rya'dtile StuA!,p. 41r. 105 Madelain Habib, 'SomNotes on th NaqshbandiOrdei, Muiin pp.41 42. W @ l d,V ol .59 (1969), 106 Johd G.J. td Hd, The Importdce of th Spi.itual Guid in the Naqshbddr Ordd' ir Lewisohn \ed.), The l*euy of Me,tidaal Psian S/Eq, p.311. 107 Seeibid., p 318. 108 lbid , pp 318 319. Se also Habibis, Conpdrdtite StwJ!,pp. 241, 340. loe Nazin al Qlbtusi [Mev]m Sheikh Nuim Adil El-Quhus; En Naqshbandil,M.r9 Oceaa, Booi Too, (Konva:Sebat,1980),p. 20. 110 l bi d., p. 82. 111 Naim al-Qubrusi, Mercy Oceare' Hiddet TrcuurA, (Konya: Sebat, 1981), P t 1, pp.83 84. 112 Se Q 18:60 82: see also Ian Richdd Netton, 'Theophuy s Paadox: Ibn al'Arabi's Acount of al-Khadir in his Fru al Hihan ,ltundl oJ the Muhl,iddif,Ib4 A'd6t so.iety,\bl XI (1992), 113 Naim al-Qubrusi, Ma.r OaM's Hinnd Trdlres, p. 84, sealso p lJ{r 114 SeeHomi, 'Shaiur Khalid , pp. 90 91. SeealsoTrininghan, 7lE Stf (r,lds i^ Islan, pp.92 96. 11s Alge, 'B.ief History of the Naqshbadi Order' in Gaborieau, Nagslbandn,p s. se also p. 4. 116 Seeart Al-$iddiq' in Netton, Pop!/dr,idiondry oJlsbn, p.233. 117 S Q 12,46. 118 S eeQ, 19.s6. 119 Ahmd Snhindi,Ma&nba., (Am.jtsa, n.d.,r+r. Kdachi 1392/1972, Vol. 1, P' 109, citd and trans. by Algd, 'Brief History of the Naqshbadl Order' in Gaborieau, Naqsnbandt, p. 1 esp. n. 6. For more on the Naqshbodr rilstld, s@ S. Moinul Haq, 'Ris of the Naqshbadi ad Qadiri Silsild i! the Subconiinent', lowndl af rhe Pd&irdn llisto*d/ Sd.ry, Vol. 25 (1977),pp. 1 33, esp p. 3; Algd, &.. 'N*shbad , p. 933r Nizoi, 'Naqshbmdiyyah Order', sp. pp. 162 168; Atay, NaqshbardiS!,l[.!in d W?si.n Setting,p. 315i Habibis, C6rutatire Studu p. 236. 97

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(.oryu,an,? Hrbrbi,. s.dr, pp.241,4oi. ]il lor.:aTeter lz, }e E rrn K,ched Nehon. .The Brarh of Feticiiv Adab. Ahual Mlqa@r-dd Ab,rNajibal_s,r,,"*_ai (-L&ial P6un Su/inj j,@ irsOn&a ;" r-"_i r.*;".r,- t"a ,. ,oRm,.pp.o;z ,S/. t1i, tut4d Nenon. strr K@/pdsp ,jl:_i1:l:,,.-*oT,"d.h JT t noLEnt ud.rtltct..i! Lh, H@
i:l"llt.*j f* tn tstam, t ne iu/t urde6 D t76, l12 sae8. \bu.Mbne}l Kidl@a Md Ralik,n lhe Khjrd Suboder.rn uaeh@u, pp 290_291 ^aqshbaid6, lzl S* i b 'd . m d A jqa, ,d N " j ,t* ,a ,, o v .H 124 s(Nmmel Mrrr,Ldl D'?rmrdrc o., tsidn. p. loo. rz) ne flabrbr3, LompdratD? Srrd! D t00 126 SeeAbu,Mameh Khatu itabik, p 2sl ^d vd.t oedE. j ,.1 :"T v"9:". Boohruo. pp. 87 88 i ,The ot tskh. rRnhmond.Cuzin hdbba, c-mpdrzriv sid)l p. .,6q.Trminshd.

jf x:ubper, 1_ La.
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Sfud]

thporheof *e sp;,uJi;uide.. p. Jr5.

130 lbid., p. 63. 131 (My italics)RB p.266. 132 (My italics) RB p. 262. lll Se. exnple. Draper. L@ Srrlr. p. bJ. Compde .tor Ata). NdqJbdnd' Su,L q a tve.pq S"ding, _.. _ w /a aj t or e\ s ple R n p p 2 b a ),-1 , 4 5 2n . rr5 ,1tg&, et. 'Nats,hband.o.9la 'ro \ee ibid.- se Js Tar dl.Din ibn Mafid, Zmm at-Rumr-. Rilaia /i rt@q at_t.attu ot N4g:hbLntrwa.Cmbrrdse. Add. Nts. lo/J. il m grdrerutto Urmbndge Unrvdnry L,brarv tor supplvi"e me *r* a mr(rchr m o, t hr s m a n u sri , p ,l : A Ie d , .p o ti u .a l Aspeds or NaqshbandiH6rorv . D l2J. 'u Alcd Pol,riul_.A"p", is of Naq.hbodr Hisrory. p. t24 I J6 | rrmnglum. Thc Sufi Ud"r a ktan, D tuJ 1re Alq&. a'r 'Nalshband. D 9J4. Iao N i za m. N. qs hbndiy v a hO.d " ,. o rn r a. rhe (qms, I.rctv hedJ\ on. cj RLm RnrI4 Jr Stun nw Snn Gdas n tst n.W iOJ-2Oa 'bpdqlDdtedr:i f "tughrr-. Ndqlhbad, r aa hOrd e ,. p p tb b .to ;: D d l " i H* , fm ^u d m. /hpond(e ol rhe bpiriruaj Cuide . p it I Sce dj$ Anbdtur & Ami,n.Mouku Khahd \larshban4i.pp. s2 9J {Engl,sb rexlr. ,,, ,r J I ro i ro * her t , , lM s hd s rh n d i t@ d o n s . d i e h rtva d a rned i n a few la! TriDnghM, Th" Sui Od"E n l:kn. D. 2uJ. 1 1 5 Ni zn i , 'Naqs hbhdi' . y a h Ord 6 . D r6 h 146 Seal-Rnm- Rtrald /i Sud,

Th. tmporrdeof rhesprrirudl cuide.. l*; l1 Fl .rI|. !/ i l". rn rhe ltslmg od brid desdiptron\ wlu.h touow. aE welt

147 Triminghm, The Slf &d.ts ;n ISIM, p. 2a3. 148 Nizmi, 'Naqshbddi'.)'ah Order', p 166; se also Trimingham, ?tp Snf Ordas in Isldtu, p. 203. I 49 See al Runi, Rirnid f Sundn. 150 Triminghu, T[. Slf (hdzrs it Islan, p. 203. 1st Niami, Naqshbodiyaah Order', p. 166. 1s2 T;minghd, The Stf. O ds in lslan, p. 203. 153 Se! al-Rl]mi, Rira/at S"ndn. 154 Triminghm. TA. Slf Ord.ersin Islam, p. 203. 155 Nizdi, 'Naqshbdd;r1,ahOrdd, p. 167. 1s6 lbid. 1s7 Seal Rnhi, R6aldfi Su,a4 158 Triminghm, 'rhe Sul Oilzr in Islo , p. 203. 1s9 Nizmi, 'Naqshbadilyah Order', p. 167. 160 SeeTrininghd, Thz Suf Oidds in Islan, p. 203 161 Seeal Rnmi, Rfalzt S!un. 162 Triminghd, The Suf Odas in lsld , p. 203. 163 Nimi, 'NaqshbmdiyyahO.der', p. 167. 164 Triminghd, The Suf Gads h lslan, p. 203 sp. n. 2. 165 Seal-Rnmi, R6alatt S!en. 166 Trim;nghm, The Suf. (>dqs in Isb^, p. 203 167 Nizd;, 'Naqshbandlryah Order', p. 16?. 168 Trimingh@, The Srf (rda6 in lsldn, p. 203. 169 Seal Rnni, Risa/dfi Su'utr. 170 T.iminghm, fte Saf Ctldm in /iizn, p. 203; Nizmi, 'Naqshbd d;],.1'ah ordd , p. 167. 171 Trihingh@, The Stf (rders in Isldn, v 203. 172 For the theme of contemplative prayer, compare Pegg.r'Wilkinsn, Findins rhe MJsric W;rhir yo!, (Hauppauge, NY Living Flme Pr6s, 1988).Conpare al$ Roy Cmpbdl (trans.),poe6 oJSt.lahn ottu aross,(claseow: Coll;ns,Fomt Paperbacks, 1983) 173 S@al Rumi, Rfaldf Slen 174 TriminghaD, The Slf &ders it klan, p. 2041seealso Nizmi, 'Naqshbandiryah Onter', p. 167. 175 Seal Rnhi, Rnald t S/tun 176 T;minghm, The Suf. OtAe6 m Isidn, p. 203 204; Nizami, 'Naqshbmdilyah Order', P' 167. 177 Se al Rnmi, Rirnlaf Sdan. 1,-8 T.ihingh@, The Stf Otdas in Isldn, p. 204. 179 Nizmi, 'Naqshbadiyyan Order', p. 167. 180 Trimingham, The Stf. Ord.B;t lslam.p. 204 n. L lE1 td H@, The Impo.td@ of th Spiritualcuide , p. 311; sealso Trimingham, Th. 36 Ordas in Islan, p. 203; tuhilmel, Mrsrtcat Dimnu, p 364; Alga art. Nak!,hbod , p. 934; idem, potitical Aspcts of Naqshbm& Hisrory'. p. 123.

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182 Na,zimal Qubrusi, Md.} O@dB, BoohTuo, p .t90. 183 S.hirnoel, Mrs*dt Ditu6ia$. n.1j2. 18.{ Habib, SomeNotes', p. .{2. 18s Algd, an Nalq[bmd', p 933. 186 Idem, 'Th Naqshbardr Ordd, A preliminary Sutuey of;ts Histo.\ and Sigd6cee', p 129. 187 Al Rnmi, Rnab tr S!tutr cited dd trdslared ;a Trihingbm, 11, :j6 Ordc$ ;n Isla , v 202; e ats Habib, Some Not6;, p. 4.1 . .188 TrimiDshan, Th. Suf Odas in Istan. o. 26b. l8q cch l h m el. M ndt t ' tu p ^ s i o a . p { b r.: e e a ts o A terandl BenDqqen Lps rdngdr en A{e Ldhdlp in "popouc & Ve,tur" 1 (eds.), L.J Onlr"s Mlsra@s, p. 3j 190 ter Har, 'The Naqshbandi TBditlon D rhe Eyes of Ahmari Sirhindi , p 81; se at$ Joseph Ftetcher, .Les ,voij Gs,us) eune. o r-h;re h Popo\r & \e,nsrein,eds.r.ta urdra M;$,?;,, p . n o v/,nr r ph ( n ps d d c s v n l h e s D ,b rd . p . .,q r, _191 Atgar, Silentand Vo.2l dit&r', p 43. A B r r eJ Hr . r o n . p . r: .e a ts o Sc h i h met, Mr.rr" i " l l ".'. Di.wa..ia... p tis dnd J Fter,hcr. The \jaq\hbmrD rd rt . , - Dh i l d :air u' . / o, , r al of l x ,l a A s tu d i a . ,l 9 ;;r. p p . Il l l l 9 r q, 5 e N g d r . s r t enr dnJ V d a i d } i l f. D D { 4 a u . I9'1 Ibid., p. ,16. 195 Algd, A Brief Hjstoly , p. 42. SeealsoHabibis Cmpatuh1e , Srud,-. p. 248. lab Rpsula trJr.lhddr eu,esh,. su6 y^\ oJ tarlia and pobi,,ttn \da,i. c@,^r and \teanry rr eaDMlr. Uhbndse Srudih In L 'Fn o m u.r ologv Ldbd d q e e d h rd p e L n j v e rs j t precs. l qs, repr. 1988),p. XIII. 197 tbid. 198 tbid. 199 Ib i d .,p .82. 200 Ibid. '01 s.ii]lmrl Mt{lr"!l Dr'lm,ra. p tsi: *. rl.o K..\ Niam. d / . L \ nl 2. p i : D rd p e r. Cap shdl p. o. - ^ ^L rl h l l l yS,f d M6r. p 82 202 Qureshr 203 Algd, &t. 'N*$band , p. 934; *e ale Schimel, Mlrnal o ld0. D, " F ,. L i r p S,u d , p p h . 1 2 ,., rJ5 r ro ?,* ':':* Ad4.tbdnh Sr/b rn d tti,.km Seft,,g, p. 150 _- ^rdv_ 20.1 ter_ He, 'The Naqshbandr Tradidon ; the Ey6 of Albad S;hindi', p. 8;. l u . ! h i rme l . V ! . r i. r l DinP l Mtu . p l d r. w J s o I.i mi n g hM. Ti . r!, ur're^ In /ddn. p 202 n 5 206 Habib, 'Sone ,\..otes', p 46 n. 32. 2 07 I bi d , p p. 46 + 9. 208 lb;d., esp.p 48.

209 lbid., p. 48. 210 Ibi d 21I Ira Friedlmder, ?ie Whirlins Dn,isfres, (London: W;ldwood Hous, p 87. 1975), 212 Hab;b;s, Cmpatutive Studtx p. 250. 213 Seabovp. 10. 214 Trimngham, The Suf Odss in Islan, p. 211. 21s Ibid., p. 308. 216 [b;d.,P 211. 217 l bi d., P 212. 218 l bi d., pp. 211 212. 219 Muhmad b. 'Ali al Smnsr, al-Salsabil aL,Ma'infi "l Tata"iqdI Arba'u [Or the mgin of th sde author's al-Masa'ii al-'4slar (or Blsbat al Mdqaai'lfl Khdlasdtdl Mdrasi4l, (Cairo, 1353/1935) cited od trmslated by Triminghd, The Sd Odets in klm, P P .212 213,29i 220 t6 Hd. 'The ImrDnoc ofth SpiritualGuide, p 320. 221 lbid., w 32w321. 222 lbid., p izr. 223 Ibid 221 S* Michel Chodkiewicz, 'Quelques Aspects des Techniques Sdr;tuelles dos la Tadqa Naqshbddiyya ln Gaborieau, Ndqsn band;, esp.pp. 76 77r seealso Abu'Mameh, 'Kldlod dd Rab,tu', pp. 289 102. For a vide raneinsdiscussion of all aspecis of rabrid, se Fritz Meier, Zue; Abh^dlugd nber die Naqibandit\a 1. Die Herzmbind.vg M den Me;ster 2. Krdftlht und F@strecht d.s Heil,sm, Birute. Texte und Studien, Bmd 5E, (Istanbul, In Komisson bi F.nz Stiner Verlag, Stuttgdt, 1994). 224 WehJ, Di.rio@! oI Mod2m Wittd Ara\c, p. 504 sv $i6d. 226 S.himel, Mtsti.al Di']mioa, p. 366 227 Alg&, a.t. 'Nakshband, p 934. 228 Abu'lr'faneh, 'rcrdiDd dd R.i6iid', pp 290 291. 229 S@ aboven. 65. 230 Abu Mdneh, 'Khdlad &a Rabna',pp. 291 292. 231 Algd, dt. 'Naqshbhdiyah', p. 228 232 Se abover. 127. :133Nizoi, Naqshbandi)yahOrder', p. 166. 23,1lbid., p. 167. 235 Hmid Alga, 'Sone Notes on the NaqshbandiTariqat in Bosnia, p.81. 236 tbid., p. 86. 237 lbid. 218 S Atay NaqsAbandi Sz,4s in a ll/6rdn Setiing,pp. 158 159. 239 The NaqshhandiyJa Arrdd, (Kenya, Nairobi, n.d.) lleaietlj see also Atay, N'dqsita'di .Su[s ia a West*n Sttina, p. 316, Appendix 3

100

101

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which rQroduces 'the ard printed dd circulated for the ne* members of the tEnqlsht ommurrv rr0 REnold {. \i;"t;n. ir Mr:tus ol ktan rlondon & Bosl-l xoLrledqe& R.gM paul. Ia/.) papobackedn.j. p {h 5e 1ra\. \dqs/ibdndr zal Sunr ,n d typrkm Saftha. p. t5q _4r lralr(l beeJbo H^bib6 Conpdtdtfl? Stuty.p. 24s. 'Mv 24.1\ee frihhshn. tre S,I oldA) ;n /rldn. pp ao. 2;5. )4! UaJau.d AwoA at.Tanga dt Bwhaai.r\dit n",aqino ot Shndt, I'wa. 'Lrro: lpiided ar rh. expen* ofl dl Harj yuquf Anhad Jmal n.d.. 7th printiDsl. 141 l b ,d .. p p S O r g. * t S n B,h j rd . R rh ta r /b r B d rtu rz (B . i rut.D dr \5 d 'r l ao4, . pp lo . 2; , b b s ta r d In H A R . U i b b ,e d . & ttu\ . I hp t ta1elsot Ik BattutaA D t J 2r tJi.r, rcambddC.. pubtished for the Haklu',r Societyar the U.iveAity prs, te.S;, Vot. t. pp. 25-27. 2+6 Mqnn:a Au@J. n. 123. 2a, Sec Alqa, some Not6 on ,he Ndcshbodi Teiqr'. pp 8J 8.. Lrrprdliy the ph'aqe lrdstat6 a lhe dt of [!he payeo ot] rhe l\l a l .'. S . e Hab, b. S o meN o r6 . p p .,1 5 4 0 C o mp re * ;th l he more Ind,v'dudJno!ne1 DFd or proqmme d apprcnr;sge (l )d,\. L6 \dqshb$di de tsoejr.ptu\ partiotreremor lfu d" v ,to ko er I eur c Rpla r,o n s d v e , d \u tre s Ord re S ouhs ro Gaborieau, N'd$hbdid6, p. 67:]) and the mardn rh,i/ (Habib;s, t oaparat re Srldr,.po. 249. 4t7r ,, a8 Ai e a . .rr m e Nd; s ; n t h e \a q .h b d n d , td ,q a r' . p p .8 J 8 4. 249 Ib;d 250 Ibid. p. 84. Sone Nors on rhe Naq,hbddr rdiqar'. p 84 n 4 i:1 \r fi 1 "1 n. Sur{O,&,s o ftlan, DD t0. JOo 'rmrnqhah 2(1 AJed. tiome \da on rh, \a,r.hbandi idqdl . pp 8J 8j. 254 Habib, 'SomNot6,. DD 45 44. 2 r Word' urtryed by rhe *Ut of ro*1" tMutha* Etend,, medine rcbre unjon ad indi, ine lbdr !,\p pan(rpMts shouJdin$ddt) Jo rnl h e l qr ilhes D r hp h l d ra !o tu , s d a rr w s e . d ;ed them lhroughh,m a d chffpi ro rhe hqvenly ,alm ,Algd. tiomeNole\ on lne \dq\hbdd, Tdiqdr'. p. 84. R dle n .rl 2s6 Schihhel, M$ri.dt Di@io;. DD.133. )0z. -q W VadeluDs. Relreu ofl l,rz !tie,. Z@i Abhaadtunad ubd D. Ndq.ban4itra.Jortut oJti" Rdal Asidrr S@ipt), Jrd s . Vol b pt. 1 (Apr;l 1996).D. 92. 258 TrimiDghm, The Sufi (hdets in Islan. o. 2ort 2s9 Merct OceaE' I Iinnm Trwtes, pt. t . ;D. 7 i 20 2 60 I b i d , p . 1 17. 261 lbid., p. 118 262 lbid., pp 118 119. Cohpre N{atthN 6:1 18, Luk 18:9-t4

1 the Sacred Unveiling

The Five Arhin

4,1 Theology

In one of the most magisterial and, indeed, distinctive introdu. trons to Islam published rn recenl (imes. Ih? Vaion o/Isiam, the authors, Sachilo Munta ard William C Chittick, retell the famous hadtth of Cabriel.t The hadith relates how the to Muhammadwhile he is'*rlh Um ibn angelGabrielcomes al-Khattab and others, and questions the Prophet about lslam (submission), faith and the doing of that which is beautiful The angel is unrecognised by Muhammad's companions Durng the dialogue,Islam (submission)is defined by the Prophet in terms Muhammad asks'Umar of the 6ve arlzn. When Gabriel leaves, was'Umar if he krlo*s who the mysreryvisirorardquestroner 'who was Gabriel that it he is then iold dearly does not and '/ (dinabr-rm) came to you to teach you your religion The articulation of Islam. then, in terms of its f've arban has a Prophetic sanction and authority. And one of the fundamental lessonsto be drawn from the whole hadith is that lslam 'is built on (he five pilldrs which have ro be acted uPon $ ith iman dn-d ihsan. Denying any one of these pillars and not wishing to fulfil any one ofrhem males rou a non Mu*lrm ' From their retelling of the hadith of Gabriel, Murata and Chittick are concerned, intet alid, to reveal the ritual essn'rtol Islam,and rhe whole of their book is indecd occupiedwith explaining and explorrng rhe maniiold dimensrons of rhis is, however, another equally interesting hadith huar*r.1 it'".. which also incorporates the five dTlan but which is motlvated dehnirion' but nor so m'ch by a needfor theoloexalorrelaled
l 0l

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THE SACRED I

a prasmatic desireto enter Paradise aJ}davoid Hell hre. It is also convenientlyrecordedby afNawawi,i like the hadith ofGabriel which we havejust considered;like the latter it is multifacetted in the interprctations which it car bear: these include the phenomenological, the anthropologicaland the semiot;cas well as the theologica.l. Here we will note and stressthe theology of reward and punishment as well as the essentialdoctrine that Islam is a relision of faith and deeds. The hadith is related on the authority of \Iu'adh ibn Jabal who asks the Prophet Muharnrnad what action he should perform which will guarantee entry to Paradis and ensure that he does not fall into Hell. The Prophet notes the magnitude of what he has been asked but also acknowlaJges that Alleh can smooth one'spath. He goeson to illustrate with rference to the five azbin: none should be worshipped but Allah; the livefold prayer should be performed and the statutory allr.s tax (zabhl should be paid. In addition one should fast during the month of Ramadtn and make the pilgrimage to \fecca. Three of these, the Prophet says,comprise'the gatesofgoodness': the shield of fasting, charity which puts out sin as \r'ater does a fire, aid roctumal prayer. Quoting the Qur'an, the Propht rcites: Their limbs do forsale Th* bedsof sleep, the while They call on their Lord, In Fearand Hope: And they spend(in charityl Out of the sustenance uhich U/e havebestond on thn Now no Person knows What delights of the e)e Are kept hidden(in reserve) For thern as a rewud For the'r (goodlDeeds.6 Continuins in the metaphorical vein *'hich he commencal with his reference to 'the gates of goodness'. the Prophet )vluhammad then asks Mu'adh whether he would like him to ide.ntifu 'the peak ofthe matter,its pillar, and its topmost part (rd'sal anr oa i 0.1

'amudihi ua dhirua sananriir).The 6nt is Islam, the secondis prayer and the third is jiiad. The Prophet gos on ro lecturc Mu'adh on the need for verbal self restraint: the sins of thc tongxe play a huge role in toppling sinners into the fires of Hell 'I'he theological lessonsto be learned from this hadlth, in terms of reward and punishment, are clea-r:the performalce of the arknn leadsthe believerto Paradise;but the commissionof sins by th tongue,unrepented,can put a man in Helt. And the emphasison deedshere is particularly important, for Islam is not a religion ofjuslification by faith alone in the tradition of Reformation Protestantism. Cornmentators have drawn a number of conclusions from this hadith concerning the 4r[an. They include the beliefs: .'that this Hadith contums that if one fulfitls the requirements of rhe 6ve piliars of lslaam Isirl then he is guaranteed Paradise.'7 . 'that all the hve pillars are compulsory for a \{uslim.'3 . 'that the duties pertaining to the five pillars have been likened to a singJeact.''q . 'that the five pillars constitute the indivisible whole which is Islaam.'r0 . 'that this showsthat without any one ofthe pillars we do not have th single act, i.e. Islaam. Therefore leaving any one of them, or denying any one of them, is kufr ard bars us from 1 Paradise.'1 The hadith on which these remarks are a commentary will be referredto at various points in what follows, not only because of the theologicalimplications implicit and explicit in its text, but also from the perspectives of phe.nomenology,anthropology and semiotics.I will characterise the hadlth in what foliows as the Ha.dtth of Reuard and. Punishment.

Shaheda Each rnhn has its theological leitmotili or leitmoiios. That of the tust sectionof the ,Shaiadocan only be tduhid, the declaration
10 i

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of God's absolute Oneness- ln the Halrth of Rarard and P"nishmpnt th injunction against polytheism (shirb) right at the beginning only sewes to t'olstr this seminal statemnt of lslamic theology. The oneness of God is stressed over and over asain in the Qur'en, and the sin of shir& is condemnedas rhe greatestsin which will not be forgiven.rr Schimmel remarks about the Sfiahada:'The shahadain its two parts is the foundation of Islam, and a Muslim is a person who pronounces it and accepts the vdidiry of the rian"d as the God given path to watk on.'r3 In this succinctphrase, Schimmel goes right to the heart ofthe siahada and here neatly associats it with the willingness to be bound by the holy law of Islarn. The foundational role of the Sftalada in lslamic theology is everylvhere acknowledged. For example, a modem Turlish catechismstates:'Eve4body who saysthe ... blessedsentence [i.e. the Shairada]with word of mouth and certifresit with his heart, is called Nlu'min (Believer). A person who wants ro embrace Islam and follow its teachings nay join the religion of Islam by sayingthis blessedsentence . . . [which conrains]every beliefthat is necessary and imporrant and constitutls] the fusr step of faith.''a A manual designed for Muslim students, published by the lnternational Islamic Federation of Student Organizations,stresses the onenss of God early in the volume with referenceto Q. 112:1 1: Say:He is God, The one ud oniy; Clod,the Etenal, Absolutei lle begetteth not, Nor is He begotten; And therels none Like untoHim r5 The title siven to rhis sr'd, Srrdr dt-I[hlas, reflectsits general orientation: 'This snm is sometimescalled The Sura of (inity and is said to encapsulate the essence of the whole Qur.an.'r6 The reference in the student manual to Q, 112:1-4 occurs in its first chapter entitled 'The Ideolosical Foundation of Islam,; the articulation of the remaining four azlan takes place in the third 106

chapterwhich bearsthe title ''I'he Application ofFaith'.1; ln all, the discussionof the spiritual and practical significanceof the 6ve ar&anoccupiesjust under a half of the manual. Of course, the Shai.ala embraces two dogmas, tduhtd and nubutnea;rr and so the need for, and importanceof, Messengership and Prophethood, and in particular that of the Founder Prophet of Islam, Muhammad, must be accountedthe second theological leitnotit, of this foundational pillar of Islam. the uniquenessof Muhamrnad Elsewhere,the Qur'an stresses as the last or 'Seal of the Prophets' (Khaiam dl rYabilyin) r'v If this is taken as a commentary upon, or adjunct to, the second to say that part of the Shahado,it would not be an exaggeration the Shaiada prodaims three 4pes of uniqueness: a unique Deity, a unique Prophet and a unique Text. The 6lst, Allah, is the as the Qurran stresses;20 utterly incomparablein every sense second, the Prophet \lul.rammad, is utterly incomparable for he is the vessel the Muslim in human terms,?rnot leastbecause or channelof the Qur'anic revelation;and the third, the tett of the Qur'an, beins the last revelation of God to man, is classically possessedof the sublime quality of iiaz (inimitability) and, indeed, chaitenges its opponents to pmduce something similar.r? One scholar has observed that'the N{uslim confessionol faith is sometimes described as essentially negaiive, just as as essentiallypassive.'However, he Islam itself is characterised continues: 'Yet in Muhammad's day it was a positive and dange.ousstep to reject the Meccan polytheistic tradition and accept the validity of Muhammad's prophetic mission.'ri Schimmel reminds us that 'the "mystical No" . . . is inclusive, and that is expressed in the transformation of the sfidhada into the words la n.'ujnao illa Allah, "there is nothing existent but cod," who includes everlthing.'ra In these words Schimmel here underlines the fact that the apophatic vocabulary of God used in the Qur'"n is distinct ftom that of the Neoplatonit tradition-bf Plotinus and others. For in the Qur'an, God's transcendence,expressedthus in negative terms, is but thc reverseof a coin which revealsHis immanencetoo: 107

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It was We who Creatednm, md We know What ddk susgestions hjs soul Makes to him: for We Ar nearerto him Than (hig jugularvein.'?5 In later times the Shahada was sometimes elaborated slightly but the few additions only sewed to emphasise the tundamental dogmas of tauhid and prophethood which we have surveyed. The following is an interesting example drawn from th Mrraata' of Malik b. Anas (c. i16 795): Greetiags,good words, prayers,pue actions belongto Allah. I testify that there is no god ex@pt AIth, alone without partner [wahdatu la sharrtu lohr ], a'd I testii' that Muhamad is the slaveof Allah and Hls \,lessenge. Peae be upon you, Prophet, Peace be upon us and andthe mercyofAllah md His btessiags. on the slaves of AI;n who areright acting. Percebe upon you.'z6 Tarahid is much more than the simple declaration of God's oneness in the Sfiaftada.z; Its theological dimensions are ]ast-23 The same is true of lslam's doctrine of prophets and messengers.2q Bound up with it all is Islam's doctrine that man will ultinately return to God to be judged by Him. Murata and Chittick have stressed that this concept of'Rturn' is at the heart of lslamic dogma and ritual: one cannot truly understand the wbole reality of tduJhid and prophecy if one ignores th reality ofthe 'Return to God' and vice versa. As they succinctly state: 'Tau;l.rtd, prophecy, and th Return are three faces of a single message.No matter which of the tbree is investigated, the other two have to be iiept in view'3o Consciously or unconsciously, every Muslim knows the theofogy of the Shahada thus articulatd. Consciously or unconsciously, ach strives towards the lina.l goal. Recitation of the Shahada creates an obligtion to r:ndertale the four other without whi& 'one's Islam is lacking, if not unacceptable.'rr arA.an To summaris, the Qur'an presents a theological model of an eternal God who is both tmnscendnt and immanent. The Ioii

Shahatdaappears at frst sight to embmce only that tust aspect in its apparently negative declaration that 'there is no god but thought, howver, shows that an aspect of God.'F"rttt". present in the Shdhadd too. For the nature of God immanence is in Islam is revealedmore closelvto His peoplevia His holy text, the Qur'an; and Muhammad, 'the Messengerof God', is the vehicle and bearer of that text, from God through the Angel GabriI, to humanity.

Salnt In the Christian tradition, prayer has classicallv been defined as 'the raising up of the mind and heart to God.'3'/Islam stresses both the divine and human aspects ot prayeri Ary Muslim who fails to observe his pravers and has no reasombleexcuseis comitting a gravoffens and a heinous it is not onlv againstGod, sin. This olTen* I so gravbcaus which is bad enough,but is also againstthe verv nature of man It is m instinct of mm to be inctined io adorethe great bemgs' and to cpire to lofty goals.The greatestbeing and th loftiest To negled praver is to oPpressthe good goal of alt is God qualitis in human nature ad unjustifiablv denv it the right to adore ud love . . rr The dominant theological iilno,ilr herc, then' is tdhin', the praise,3{glorification or exaltation of the Creator, in a word, adoratiorr Such adoration is to be given, formallv and rituallv, in praver 6ve times a day As we have seen' the injunction to k"v fearureof borh rne H,drth of Cabriel and rhe or* ,. " thar the And lsl"m rnsisrs oI Rewardand Punr.hmenr' ^aitn burden of fivefold ritual daily praver is not onerous All Muslims are familiar with the account of the Prophet Mubammad's rni'raj during which ar initial divine injunction to pray 6fqr times a day was reduced, at the urging of Moses, to five.3s While the Qur'an itself does not specify the exact number of prayers per dien - and'the times for the frve dailv p.uy"." u." derived from the Koran as interyrcted ond

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surylemented.Vt the ha.diths'36 the obligation to glorifu and adore God is clearly and r:nequivocally laid dolm: So (sive) glory to God, When ye reacheventide Ard when ye rise In the morniry; Yea, To Hin be praise, In the heavens md on earth; And in the late afternoon And when the day Begins io decline.r' Schimmel reminds us that the times for prayer are announced by a special call, the alhan: thus 'sacred time' is ineluctably associated vith 'sacred presence'- For her this is 'similai to the enclosure that protects the spatial sanctuary from deilement.'$ This, of course, contrasts with the luji where the focus is on sacred spa.e, sealed by the wearing of ihram.re Ritual Fayer is powerfully associated w;th the concept of ritual purity. Those blemished and besmirched by the sin and pollution of the material world or body should not attempt to enter the sacredprsenceof God in prayer in an uncleanssl state: O ye who biieve! When ye prepare For payer, wash Your faces,ed you. hmds (And arms)to the elbows; Rub your heads (with water)j And (wah) your feet If ye are in a state Of ceremonialimpurity Batheyour whoiebodyao If water is unavailable, or ssrce, for t}re ritual ablution, then sand, earth or even snow may be substituted.ri This exterior cleansing sfiolrid constitute, of course, an external mirror of the interior purification of heart and mind with which the I t0

worshipper should pray. After adomtion then, a secondary |rit'noti, of prayer must be the need for puritv of th."loeiirl heart. (There are clear links here between this theologv of ritual Duritv and th semiotic dimensions of the prayer ritual which will be explored later on) What is interesting from a theological DersDecti;e about the relationship between ritual prayer and rituJ purity is the simple progrssion ftom physical to sPiritual purity: the worshipper begins with a physical act of purfication, designed to mirror an inner state, moves to the actual prayer ritual and then 6nds that the spiritual consequence is a further inner cteansing of sin, dirt and impuritv in the iver of prayer'{r A third and final thmlogical leitmotiq to be derived, then, from the rituals of saizt is the idea of saiat as a function which can remove the stains of everyday sin. (No analogy' of course' should be attemptedhere belweensalat "nd baptism in the Christian tradition which wipes out the stain of original sin' The laner doctrine does not erist in Islamr'ar The theology of the salZt may thus be articulated in terms of adoration, purification and absolution, though it cannot be stressd too strongly that my use of the last term conveys absolutelv no sacramntal connotation akin to that of the Cbristian term. AMatati rightly stressesthat 'prayer constitutes one pillar of Islam and is considered the Foundation of Retigion'la while Murata and Chittick go so far as to suggest that 'performing the saldt {ritual prayer) is, in a certain sense' even more basic [than uttering the Shahala] '+5

Z^l<et the obligatorvalms tax, mea.ns Zahtu. wtntr now universallv

and which contrasts with the voluntarv almsgiving called S.ddqd, originally meant 'virtue' or 'purity'a6 From this perspective, and Lhe facr thar, by givirg voluntarv alms man can achie\e pardon for sin,a; there ate interestng cultic. semantrc dnd doctrinal links with the pillar of talat which we have just discussed.asThe Qur'an itself maks an interesting conlunctron of oraver and za&.at in the same verse when rt counsels:
lll

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And be steadfast in prayer[al,sdtar]; Practiseregul& charity ldi zahaf]j And bow dom your hads With thosewho bow down (in wobhip).l, The thmlogicat leitmottu of zahft must surely be generosrttl both acknowledgingGods own generosiryto man and, practically, attempting to mirror that generosity in on's dealings with one's fellow man.50 There is also a thmlosv of dirine ownership behind the pilat ol zahat. Cbisrooher iefers to the repedredreferences in Lhe Qur'ar) to rhe idea lhat rhe possession of personal propdy can be justfied onlv if the owner gives ir away treely ,nd generously... ln "ff".r, orvnership of wealth is nor absolute; it is a rrust from God. to be used for God's purpnses.'5l Abdalati stressesthe moral dimension: 'Zakah does not onlv purrfu the property of rhe conrrrburorbur also purifies his hearr from selnshness and greed for we2trh. ln rerurn, it ourfies rhe hean of rhe recipienr from enrryand jeatousy,fromkrred ,nd uneasrness; and it fosters in his heart, instead, good will and warm wishes for the contributo.'ir In line with such ideas, and linking them with th purity and purification conceDts a.'ocrated with sd/dl. Murar? and Chinick observe: .lusr as abhrions pur:fy rhe body and sdldrpunhes rhe sout,so zahar purilies possessionsand males them pleasing to God_';r What we have, then, is a mixed theolosy of cod-orientated purification and generosity deriving from the co^cept of zdh . The former does not, usually, tead to a sufi style oi asceticism but is designed to result in the latter zdhaL The mediaeval jurists, Iike Melik b. Anas, were fully awareofthe fundamentat rmportance of zalar to the um'na as a whole, and its individual members, and they created a body of explanatory law which not only served as a substratum or foundation for the theoloev of :abat, but had considerablesocialand socrological impticatrons as well.ta As one modern writer puts it: ,Unlike other ereat sacred books. rhe Qur'an sers out the basic headrnesoi the budger and expenses ofrhe srare, and hisroncaltyanLicipaedby some 12 centuies th principle ofwhat we call social security.'s: 112

The same author gos on to cite a Jordaniancivil servant who 'neady defined :alar for me as "financial worship"' s6

Sawm Although fasting in Ramadan is not the only kind of fast mentioned in the Qur'an,:7 there is no doubt that it is the most important. For the fastins in the month ol Ramadan celebrates the tust revelation of the Holy Qur'an: Ramadhan is the (nonth) In which wassentdown TieQur'.!,dag{ide To nmlind, alo cleu (signs) For g{idance and judgement (Btwenright and srong). So every one of you Who is Fsnt (at his home) During that month Shall spendit in fsting.53 Despite the rigours ot the fast, celebration must be accounted the principal theological litmotil' here. This is particularly evident in the eveningsof Ramadnn,in th Islamic world, when the fast has ended: 'The streets are full of vendors, coloured lights and lantems (/auanas)and throngs of pmple especiallyin such areasas the qua.ter ofth Sayyidna'l-Husayn Mosque in Cairo- The mosques in Ramadan are also full of worshippers pedorming extra prayers.'se Commentators have drawn attention to the spirit o{'family closeness'which pervades the season, rather in the manner of the \i/estm Christmas. There is the same kind of present-giving and the meeting of friends. The preparations at the end of Ramadan signal a happy rhat. in Turkey. ld al-lrrr goes celebrat;on and it is signiFcant under the name of S gdr Bayam because of the sweets which are distributed.6o The specific time of the 6rst revelation of the Qur'an during the month of Ramadan is said to have been d.urng Laylat all ll

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Qddr, 'the Night of Power (or Decre) which is believed to be the night between th 26th and 27th of Ramadan, or the 27th night.'6r This event is immortalised in the Qur'an: the whole of Snrat al Qad.r (The Srra of Power lor The Decree]), which is no. 97 in the Qur'an, reads: 1. We have indeed revealed This message In the Night of Power [Lajat 2. And what will explain To thee what the Night Of Power is? 3. The Night of Power Is betto than A thousand Morths. 4. Therein came down The angels and the Spirit By God's permission On every errand: 5. Peace!.. . This Until the rise of Mom.62

a!-Qanrl

The Fast of Ramaden, then, although it also has othe. aspcts and connotations,63 is inexorably interlocked with the primal event of lslam, the revelation of the Qur.an, the Mind of God Himself, to His people and to the world. It is an event of such cataclysmic importance fo. the Muslim that 'sanctmcation' is dlmosr too weal a word for $,har happens.in consequence, ro the ninth month of th Islamic lunar catendar. The obligations of the fast, in terms of abstinence from food, drink, sx and smoking, are, of course, well,known, but extra attention but also be paid to living righteously. As Murara and Chittick remind us: 'The Prophet said: "Five things break the fast ofthe fastr lying, backbiting, slander, ungodly oaths, and looking with passion "'61 ln Ramadan the lvluslim is under an oblisation not only to avoid certain things which are usually permittd but to make a positive effort to qualify himself .with the qualities of God' (bi-ahhk4 AIIzh) in such a way that his sinful inclinations and charactrisrics may be exchanged for t14

more worthy ones.65 There is alr obvious mixture here of purification and abstinence where the outer purification of the stomach by fasting mirrors a spiritual cleansing, and where an outer avoidance of, or abstinence from, the Jicit goods and acts of this world mirrors an inner asceticism and control of temper. Some may hold that such an inner asceticism is basically un Islamic66 but it exists nonetheless, at least during the fast of Ramadan, and fuels the essentia.lmotif of theological celebration which is at the heart of this month. Fasting is also regarded as a protection asainst violence or wrongdoing. The Prophet is recorded as having said; 'Fasting is a protection for you, so when you are fasting, do not behave obscenely or foolisbly, and if anyone argues with you, or abuses you, say "I am fasting, I am fasting"'.07 A secondary, but almost equally powerful, theological Ieitmotb to be identifred with this month of Ramadan is the twin edfice of atonement and forsiveness. Islanic tradition tachs that whil the sats of Heaven are opened during Ramadan, those of Hell are fumly closed and the devils are chained.63 Folklore, recordedby Lane, holds that even the jinn are imprisoned: 'Hence, on the eve ofthe festival which follows that month, some of the women of Eg1pt, with the view of geventing thes objects of drad from ntering their houses, sprinkle sa.lt upon the flools of the apartments; saying, as they do it, 'In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.'6e A proper observance of Ramadan, undertaken with a true intmtion, will secureforgiveness of sin.70Prayet dvrng Laylat al Qdlr is particularly efficacious in achieving pardon for past sins.tr Fina.lly, fasting brings down God's rewad. \i/e thus have a theological triangle of celebration, atonemert and forgiveness, and divine reward. This last is clearly speJledout in a statement by the Prophet to the effect that 'the smell of the breath ofa man fasting is better with Allah than the scentof musk.' The Prophet continued: Alleh says, "He leaves his desires and his food and &ink for My sake. Fasting is for me and I reward it. Every good action is rewardd by ten times its Lind, up to seven hundred times, except fasting, which is for Me and I reward it."'t2 I 15

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A modern Islamic catechism confrrms this: 'Fasting is a great worship performed bodily for our Creator. The Almighty gives the reward offastjng Himsell Fasting has many advantages for the body and soul.'t3

Haii
The ia, creates and establishes a complex threefold theological paradigm whose interlinked constiturt elements are: 1. Commemo.ation ol and reflection upon, an archetypical past. That past is annually rnnrored in the present and combhed with an expectation of the eschatological future. 2. A worship of celebration,thanksgiving and confirmation. 3. What may be termed here 'the fundamental theology of The frsr element structures the haj within t'vo historical time frames by its evocation both of the great patriarch lbralum, and the Prophet Muhammad's famous, and seminal, Pilgrimage of Farewell. It also looks forwa.rd to a third 'time frame'. ,vith the rrrqtt at 'Arafet, that of the Last Judgement, when all mankind will stand in judgernent before God. The second element celebrates the religion of Islam, together with its associations with Mecca and the Ka'ba to*'ards which all Muslims pray five times a day. It contums a,od strcngthens Muslims in their faith in a way that contumation in the Christian Church or Bar Mitzvah in Judaism does for Ctristians and Jews respectively. The third element echoesthe Quianic injunaion to command sood and forbid evilia in its'rejection of lblis,/obdienceto God'theology. The complexity of the physical,spiritual and ritual elements of the pilsrimage makes it impossible to disentangle and identify a single, dominant theological leitmotiu There is not one but several: a list would include the commemoration of God and His prophets,worship, obedienceto God, Islam in its full senseof submission, repentance and the seeking forgivmess for sin, judgement, and sacrifice to God. The lrajj has been neady
1 t6

characterised as 'a grand rite of passage, a move from with God' and, with this world to occtpation involvement and the 'a of Gabriel, The kind of death.'tr therefore, tladith each cited earlier, Hadith of Reward and Punishment, emphasise the need to make the pilgrimage to Mecca with the two phrases 'Islam is . . . to make the pilgrimage to the House if you are able to do so' (Al'lslan an . . t/J,hujjdal'bayt in'stotd'ta ildlhi sdbrl"")r-6and 'You shouid mal the pilgrimage to the I{otse' lwa tahuiu ol bart).ii Mecca has a unique role. Schimmel holds that th citv of Mecca is blessed by the presence of the sacred Ka'ba' and characterises it as 'an omphalos, the navel of the earth. ltis,for the pious, th earth bound oPposite, geographicallv, to the celestial Ka'ba in Paradise.Ts All of these classical and modem textual references are borne out by the txt of the Qur'an itself:

Beholdl We save the sit, To Abraham, of the (sacred)House, (Saying): ,Associate not anyth'ng (ln worship) with \{e: And wctify J\'|y House For those who compass it round, Oi stmd up, O. bow, or prostrate themselves (Thereir in prayc). Ard prmlaim the Pilgrimage Among men: they will come To thee on foot md (mountd) On oery kind of camel, Lem on accout of jouineys Though deep md distant Mountain highways; That they may s'itness The beneGts(provided) for them, ,{nd celehrat the name Of Cod, through the Days Appointed, ov. the cattle 117

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Which He has povided for thm (For sacrifice):then eat ye Theteof and feed the distressed Then let them complete The rites prescribed For them,performtheir voss, And (aeain) circummbulat The An ient House. Such(is the Pilgrimase): Whoeur honoltrsthesacted Ritesoj God, for him It X soodin the si9ht OJ h;s Lord l The individual rituals, arld the chronoiogy ofthe hajj, have been surveyed countless times in many other places.3o It is not proposed to duplicate those descriptions here but rather ro concentrate on the elements of the threefold paradigm adumbrated above. Where relevant, reference will be made, of course,to the individual rituals and chronology of the fiajj. Pilgrirnagewas certainly well-known in Pre lslamic Arabia and there is abundant epigraphicevidencefor the dedicationof people ard objects to various deities, as well as penitential temple rites.3l (iaudefroy Demombynes believes the pilgrimage to be 'an hstitution of peculiar interest to the \{uslim religion' seeingit as 'a revival and a syncretism of ancient rits common throughout the Semitic East. sr Muslims believe that Adam and Eve learned the rites of the pilgrimage from the angel Gabriel.3rHowever, our first delinitive time frame;s that ofthe prophet lbrahim. Several events in his life are commemorated, or even rc-enacted,during the fr4J. Firstly, Ibraiirn will be forever associated with the Ka'ba since,with Ismail his son, he is the re,builder of that edfice.3+ Muslims circumambulate the Ka"ba during the hajft. Hasar (Hajar) and Isma'rl, having ben cast out by Ibrahim, found themselves in the locality of present day N{ecca. Hagar's {rantic 118

running up and down in a search for water is commemorated by the sevenfold sd'f between al-Safa and al-Marwa in the hdjj rituals today.36Iblis was stoned by Ibr,lim in a.neffort by the prophet to wa.d oIf temptation. Mtslims duing the hajj engage in a lapidation ritual in the Valley of Mina and throw a number of pebblesat three columns in emtlation of what lbrahim did.37 Finally, Ibrahim's srblime obedience in being willing to sacrifice his son Isma-J in most accounts - is celebrated by Muslims throughout the world on 'Id al'Adha.33 The linking of the pahiarch Ibrahrm to the Islamic haj, and the annual modem emulation by pilgrims of his actions, steeps the lai turther in a prophetic history to which it is already linked from the beginning of time to the end of time: Adam, the 6rst prophet, is revered as the tust builder of the Ka'ba;"g *1t;1" the uqnf at 'Arafet looks forunrd to the Day ofJudsement, the end of human time and beginnins of an eschatological era.'qO In between, however, are the two major 'time frames'to which we have referred. We have examined that of the patriarch Ibrahrmi now we turn to that of the Prophet N{uhammad and his Pilsimage of Farewell. The Farewell Pilgrimage of the Prophet, undertalen in A.D. 632 shordy before his death, created the definitive ritual paradigm for all succeedinggenerations.el The early Muslim sourcesconfirm that this was the case.Al-Tabari notes: 'The Messenger o{ God proceeded to perform his pilgrimage showing the people its rites and teaching them its customs-'e2 Ibn Istleq's words transmitted via Ibn Hisham are almost identical: '(ln its cours) the Messengershowed the men the rites and taught them the customs of the pilgrimage.'e3 Furthermore, as John Renard puts it, 'he sanctified deinitively the Ka'ba and the sites in the vicinity of Makka, making them forever integral to the Nluslim ritual of the Hajj . . .''y4 Al Tabari's account refers to the Pilgdmage of Farewell in the context of the ival prophet Musaylima, and notes that the 'pretensions' of the latter coincided with the Prophet Muf,am madh 6nal illness after the Pmphet's return from this pilgrim age. Al-Tabart notes that Mutrammad began his preparations for the pilgimage in the month of Dhu 'l Qa'da. He records
11 9

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the Prophet's famous farewell speech in which he begins by saying that he does not Lnow whether he will ever neet the people again in that place in a succeeding year. Blood and prope.ty are to b considered sacrosanct in th sarne way as that day and month are regarded as sacred. The Prophet's speech is laced with verses from the Qu.'an as he proceeds.ei Al Tabari concludes with the Prophet's identification of 'Arafat, al Muzdalifa, and Mina as formal 'stations' of the haj and strcsses how the Prophet instructed his people in the diverse rituals of th pilgrimage: these included the lapidation dtes, the ldlratof the Ka'ba, and the ritual prohibitions. 'It was the Farewell Pllgrtmage (llajjdt al-WaAz) and the Pilgrimage for Conveying the lvlessage (Hajjat al'Balzgh), because the Nlessenger of God did not ma-kany pilgrimage a.fter that.'e6 Throughout this frral pilgrimage, the Prophet is portrayed as being supremelyconsciousof the legacyof Ibrahm, whoseheir in a very real sensehe was. Thus he emphasised the great age of the pilgrimage arld its links with the patriarch. For example, It {uslim notes: 'And then soing to th Place of Abraham (in the Hanm), he recited: And adopt the Place of Abraham as a place of prayer."' (Quran 2:12s)." It is clear, then, that the two historical time frames to which we have referred, at:rdwhose substance we have delineated here. were inexorably linled fiom the very beginning of lslam and they have continud to be linked to the present day. Not on-ty do they frame the various theological leilnotirs of the ftajj identified above, but, as we have sugsested, they project the mind of the pilgrim for. ard to a final, more terrifying 'time frame', when time will meet eternity on the yaunn al q\ana. The uqrtat 'Arafat is the temporal mirror of that forthcoming eschatological realit]'. This is why the themes of repentance and meditation upon judgement are essential to the pilsrimage and the pilg.im mentalitlr The commemoration of a classical. archetypical past was the 6rst element which we identified in a threefold theological paradism extrapolated from the laji. The second element was characterised as a 'worship of celebration, thanlsgiving and contumation.' lt will be sufveyed more briefly here. 120

A modern Turkish catechism describes the frai as 'a worship performed bodily and spiritually.''q3 A volume produced for lv{alay students strcsses the diversity of purposes served by the hat: it constitutes a huge 'annual convention of faith'i it dmonstmtesthe 'universality of Islam and the brotherhood and equality of the Muslims'; it confirms 'the commitment of the Muslims to God'; it acquaintspilgrims 'with the spiitual and historical environmmt' of the founder-Prophet Muhammadr it commemorates,as we have seen, 'the Divine rituals observedby Abraham ard Ishmael'; and'it is a reminder ofthe Grand Assembly on the Day of Judgement when pmple wili srand equal before Cod. uairrne lor rheir l-inal Desiny "" Another author notes how the pilgrim'experiences a dim, inward senseof the power of Islam that can bring together each year so many men of strange races and incomprehensible oo tongues.'l There is also a confirmatory 'political theology' which can be extrapolated fiom this element which we have characterised as 'a worship of celebration, thanksgiving and confirmation ' The hajj has always been multi dimensional, mixing religion inter alid with trade, travel, politics and the exchangeof ideasl0r Revolutions have ben startd by returnins pilgrims, under lining the truism rhat lslamic poliiics and Islamic theology are tecbnically lvo sides of the same coin.102The impetus for the establishmentof snfl Orders has often had a similar origin.r03 And 'the social,political and symbolic weight'1Gofthe iajj was recognised by leaders in the Arab arrd Islamic world such as President Gamal Nasser: after accompanying an Egyptian mission to Saudi Arabia to express condolences on the dath of that state's king, Nasser stood in front of the Ka'ba aJId 'realised the need for a radical chaage of our conception of the He told hirnself: 'The journey to the Qaaba Pilgrimage.'1o5 [sic] should no longer be consbued as an admission card to Paradise or as a crude attempt to buy forgiveness of sins after teading a dissipatedlife.'r06His view was the Pilgrimage should have a poiential political power' The world pressshould hasto to follow and feature its news not by 121

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drawing attractive pd picture of its rites dd rituals for the delrctation of readers, but by its repre*othg a priodical political conference whereir the heads of all Islmic States, leaders of opinion, scientists,eminent industrialists od prominent business men assernbleto draw up at this *orld Islmic Paliment the broad lines of policies to be adoptedby their respectivecountries and lay down the principles ensuring their closeco-operationuntil they have againgatheredtogether 1or in the followingsession What Nasser envisaged, then, was not just 'a worship of celebration, thanksgiving and confirmation' such as was outlined above but a politicat apotheosis of lslam or, to put it another way, an lslamic apotheosis of politrcs. The third constituent element of our threefold thmlogical paradigm was what may be termed 'the fundamental theolog] of lbrahim.' This is a theology of oMience according to which lbrahim was prepared to sacrince his son without qustion or demur, simply becauseit was required of him by God.ro3 It included as its substratum a rejction of lblis symbolised in pillars the stonins ofthe in the Valley of N{inaro'q during the lajj and contrastsvividly with the fundamental disobedienceof IbLs in refusing to bow down and revere Allah's new creation, Adam.rr0 A further contrast is the implicit humility of Ibra*rim and the explicit arroganceof lblis. Muslims on the [a, model themselvesboth on the obedienceof lbrehim when they obey the injunction of Allah to visit the Ka'ba, I I I and on the rejction of Iblis by Ibr,hm wher they cast their stones in N{ina. Every r hn, thr, has its theoiogic2l l"itrnotirs: enumerated together they inciude tauhid, nubuuud, tabbr, pUrification, absolution, generosity, celebmtion, atonement, seeking forgiveness, divine reward, cornnemoration, worship, obedience. submission, rcpntance, judgement and sacrfice. The arA.an may thus be seen to articulate a dogmatic and ritual theology, some of whose aspects are common to many world religions but a few of which, tahen toeethet, delineate and define Islam as a dtr. They are tauhd, nubuwwo and submission. The arLan constitute a t!/o way penta structure of dogma and ritual 122

to articulatc hrs to bind man, arld man seeks whereby God seeks rc of the drhdn \')/' response We saw that dmong lhe l?irnutiu -Thc forgrreness .u.lt .on,"p,. a aronementand seelrng Arabic languageitself provides a primarv linguistic paradtgm in illustrating the whoie point: tdobd *hi.h is oik"i 'el"uu"ie rrepentance' 'fie Arabic verb Ebd, said of a man' and means i'to "to repeni"; when it is said of God it means indicates (a and man) forgive." Thus ialuurdb means both "repentant" "Forgiving" (God).''11

4.? PhenomenologY uf It is a trursm thar thete(dnnor be an odequ'tephiJosophv thine"' thdr of somelhinguithour an inJormedknowledge This is as-true of all the great world religions as everything else And the approaches to those religions, arrd their individual rs dimensions,are diverse One popular' and useful' approach phenomenologv 'The that of the phenomenolocisto];eligion of relision, Ninian Smart reminds us' 'seeks to draw out ln lslam there is a mryini pauerns and theseare irnportant.'1la 'patteriiof6'e pillars, one of which is credaland four ofwhich a are practical oi ritualistic We v,'ill return to articulate phenomenologyof the d|&an in a little whrle ' PhenomeJogy generatly, and the phenomenologv. of religion in pardcirlar, 'illuminates th necessitv for the rather '1tt 'lhe of religiousutterances heaiy contextualisation 'hahdda is no't proclaimed *ithilr a uoid but *ithitt a tareful framework mav of religious belief and ritual Phenomenologv of religion carefully the structuresof religion within which ir'"" "i"-;"" ritual are articulated, or, to pui it another wav' bv belief and which belief and ritual are clothed An examination of structures can provide insight and illuminate the esse'ltlal featuresof what is under discussionat anv one time "o Ninian Smart identifies nine dimensions for a religion: the ritual or practical, the doctrinal or philosophical'the mvthic or nanativ; the exprientialor emotional, the ethical or lesal' the organisationaloi social, the material or artistic, the political 12.]

L]NVT]LINC TH! SACRED I

and, finally, the economic.rrT However, for the purposesof this sction, it is his first category that of'the ritual or practical dimension'. which concerns us here. He defines this as the area of religion which includes such things as 'worship, meditation, pilgrimage, sacrilice, sacramental rites and healing activities.' Smart confessesthat he is aware that it is unusual to consider meditation as a ritual but he draws aftention to the fact that meditation often has a strict pattem and thus may licitly be included in a list which embmces the itual and the practical "8 Formal rituals may involve formal language or formal actions or, most oftn, a mixture of both.rre Good examplesfrom the drhan of such a mixing are in the salzt and the hdi rituals. Ritual both feeds and responds to expeience. Mosque and Church, art ald arch;tecturc are aids to the appreciation of th spiritual and the divine. Ritual chant, whether it be from the minaret or the pulpit, plays its part in sharpening one's spiritual perceptions. Rites. Smart concludes.delineaterhe paLhof the spirir.l'0 In the domain of ritual. space and time may vanish.121The past becomes, indeed is, the present. Smart's example is that of the Cbristian faithful who, on Easter Sunday, proclaim 'Jesus Cbist is risen today.'l, Another useful parallel is the Roman Catholic belief that the sacrifice of the Mass is not a rcpetition of Calva.ry but the same sacrifice made sacramentally present upon the altar: 'The Eucharistis the memorial of Christ's Passover. .. In the senseof Sacred Sc.ipture the ms,noriai is not merely the recollection of past events but the prcclamation of the mighty works wrought by God fot mer . . . In the lituqial celebrationof these ermtq thej becone in a certain way present onl rea,l-'t2l Here, in a very vivid way in Catholic belief, space and tirne are set at naught. Though the hayl' rituals lack the sacramental character of what has been described, there is a very real sense in which the twin evocations of IbreLim and Muhammad, and their association with these rituals, as well as the evocation at 'Arafat of the Last Judgement, all serve to transcend any senseof space and time for the pilgrims who undertake the iajj. Phenomenologically, the ari.4n e{hibit a dual dimension: in the frst place, they constitute a 'block of belief, action and/or '124

ritrnl', a pattem, a summary of religion, which may loosely be paralleled by other blocks such as the seven sacraments ol Roman Catholic Christianity or the Noble Eightfold Path of Buddhismr?a which comprised right view, right thought, right speech, ight action, right livelihood, ight ffort, right mind frrlrress, right concent.ation, and which was fundamentally a 'schene of moral and spiritual self-development leading to Enlightenment.'12i Obviously such parallels must not be pushed too far; there are clear differences, for exampl, between pure rituals such as the Islamic lraji and Buddhist concepts from the Eighdold Path such as samma samadh; (ight concentra tion).126 However, thrc is no doubt that, just as the Buddhist Path aims to defeat rhe negative aspects of every character,127 the live Islamic arlan may b said to strive towards the same goal. And if we follow an eishteenth certury Chinese Muslim, Ma Fu ch'u, and use his terminology of 'the Five Virtuous Acts', thn the similarities become even more apparent: For all lods under Heaven, the dctrine of the Prophet ruN comprising Rites fot humm s@iety ard the Heavenly Path. To confessthe SovereignGod is the tust requirement, and this central ritual is most woDdrousThe Heavenly Path is cultivated by the Five Virtuous Acts: the Truth lshdfiaddfi] the V;tuous Act of enunciating with the heart turnd io God; the Vinxous Act of ritualising the Truth lsdlan] with the body adoring God; the Virtuous Act of fastins ls(1uml to mster the p.omptings of desire; the Virtuous Act of havenly charity lzdean] to 6sist the orphus dd the nedy; the Virtuous Act of pilsimage [ldr] forsaking home md family.l'?e
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What we have n the arhan is a thumbnail summary of the essentials of Islam, phenomenologicaily delineated from earliest times as a block of five key points, not all pure act, not all dogmatic position, but a m&ture of theological statement (sfrahada), ascetical practice (sdun and zahat) and physical movement (sdlat and haj) which may all be characterised a-s 'rites' or 'rituals'. lfitual is a 'behaviouralor bodily activity .ra' then this is true in one senseor another of all the ar[,nn: even the Shahada employs the physical motor of speech except when recited mentally. lf rituals are 'rendered efGcacious by exact repetition'l3o then this is certarnly true of all the ar[.En. And while the laj may be a unique experiencefor the individual because of the constraints of time and cost. it is a seminal event which has been repeated down the centuries by the ivluslim Unna as a whole. Finalir', if the core, or at least one core, of ritual in religion 'is the practice of worship, that is praise or homaeerenderedto a God',1r1then accordingto this definition every single one of the orian may be classifiedas a ritual since each constitutes,in its own way, an act of worsh;p. I sussestedearlier that, phenomenolosicallyspeaking, the arban exhibited a dual dimensionr in the frrst place, they constituted a fvefold 'summary of religion'. If we now turn to the second dimension, it is thjs: each of the five pillars may be conceivedof as beins 'ordinary rites of religion (by contrast with the'extraordinarv'rites such as circumcisionand initiation into lslam, which can only take place once). These 'ordinary' rites are located in human time and space but they sanctify or sacralise that human time or spacein such a way that it bcomes sacredtime or space.In this way the spiritual path is traced or woven,lrr and spaceand time may even seem to be abolished. For elample, the repetition of the Shahadaalwaystakesplaceat a moment in human time, and in a set location, but, lslamically. it evokesa timeless.eternal God unbounded and unrestrained The hall, as we have seen,evokesand by spatralconsiderations. makespresentthe saintly figuresoflbrahrm and Nlubammad as well as the powerful image arrd reality of the Last Day. Fastins in this life during Ramadan e!'okes thoughts of an eternal Qur'an. The generosiiyof man in giving zc&tt is an imitation,
126

albeit a pale one, of the generosityof God Himsellrr3 faiat for the Muslim is a ladder from the material to the spiritual, the temporal io th etrnal, which parallels in its fivefold nature the fivefold nature of the arh.an.All of these points conlirm Smart's fundamental point that ritual may be a potent instrument in the very abolition of space and time.lr1 If doctrine can bring us to some perception of the Divine, then ritual can bring us even closer.'$ All of this is intensely true of the five Islamic athdn in terms whose fundamental phenomenologymay be assessed of their being a block 'summary of religion' as well as a neatlv structured path to the spiritual.

4.3 AnthrcPologY From what has been said already in particular, the frequent citations oi and references to, the Hadrth of Gabriel and the Hadith of Reward and Punishrnent it is evident that the drhan are of the essence of lslam. It should therefore be equallv evident that any speciic anthropology of the drhan must derive from and flow naturally out of, a general anthropologv of Islam We staJrthen with Talal Asad's own if that can be established. general question: 'What, exactlli is the anthropology of lslam? What is its object of investigation?'And the answer is neither nor easy.Li6 selt evrdent Diverse answers have been offered, ranging from a denial that Islam exists as a 'theoreticalobject', through the ida that 'Islam is the anthropologist's label for a heterogeneous collection of items, each of which has been designatedIslamic by informants', to the concept of Islam as 'a distinctive histoical totality which organizes various aspects of social life.'r'For Asad, anthropologists such as Abdul Hamid ElZein and Michael Gilsenan got it wrongr33 Asad believesthat Islam, and so, implicitly, we might add, the Iive pillars of lslam, 'as the object of anthropoloeical understanding should be approached as a discursive tradition rhat connects varrously with the formation of rnoral selves, the manipulation of populations (or .esistance to it), and the prcduction of

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appropriat knowledges.'lre He insists that lslam is primarily a tradition mther than 'a distinctive social structure' or 'hetero geneous collection of beliefs, aitifacts, customs and morals. rrt' Tradition is instructive discourse which relates to both past and tuture tbrcugh the medium of the present.lat Any anthropology of Islam must. therefore. 'seek to understand the historical conditions that enable the production and maintenance of specifrcdiscursivetraditions.'ra' It is in the light of such staternents that the dr&.anmay be evaluated and illuminated from an anthropological perspctive. We have earlier suggested that each ru[n or pillar may be characterised as a ritual or a rite143in one way or another. Now a ritual may be a book or a piece of symbolic behaviour or 'apt performance'.raa )lIost of all, however,as Denny puts it, 'ritual is for the participant a reenactmentof a profound truth.'ra5We have already seen how the hajj, for example constitutes a tradition which does indeed refer back and forth to both past (lbFhim, Mubanmad) and future (the Last Day) fiom the litral standpoint (the u qnJat 'tuafat) ofthe present.r46Adam, IbLs, Ibrahim, Isma'rl, Jibril, Muhammad, and God as Judge, are evoked by means of physical materials such as stones (rlre Black Stone in the Ka'ba, th stoning of the pi ad, and water (Zamzam), and by means of physical actions such as running (betwer al-Safe arrd al-Marwa) and standing (at 'Arafdt). And ;f it is insisted that th true focus, in any anthropological study of the ar&rn must be on the htman figure himself, then it is the figure of the Mar-Prophet, lv{uhammad, himself which tooms large over each of the arhan, whether it be as a focus u,ithin the Hadith of Cabriel or as a paradigm for future pilgrimage ritual, as with Muhammad at the Pilgrimage of Farevell or as the one who receives 6nal confrmation that prayer should be 6ve times a day. The Man'Prophet articulates, verbally or by action, the Five Pillars as discunive traditions which imbue the present, hark back to the past and look forward to the tuture.r+; These pillars constitute the elemental discourses whereby every Muslim lives and, at a fundamental level, organiseshis daily life. Thus any anthropology of the arban, as with any anthropology of lslam itself, will try to comprehend the history 128

indeed the proto-histo.y, which gave rise to such discourses m the first place.r+3 Furthermore, holv or sacred persons reifv, inhabit and 'mulriolv holv or sacred spaces Clinlon Bennet( drdw" tend to cenrres s idea rhat religious anenlionlo Vrrcea Eliade is Mecca example, for ptaces. In Islam, be replicated in other and tombs of other the archetvoical model for a whole varietv Cii"t"" holds that this is a good example of Islamic "h'in"". where all sacred space in Islam is nothing but an kulid elaboration of the paradigmatic sacred space which is Mecca itself. The'one' may have a plural manifestationbut it remams one. This parallels the philosophicat concept beloved bv Ibn al 'Arah and others of 'C)nenessof Being' according to which 14"AnJ r-he Ka-ba rn erentlune is a manifestatronof Cod Mecca, rhar cenrral focal pornr foI rhe unicirv oi lslamnacred soace. is also a channel of comrnunication between Heaven and earth through which passes, in Eliade's phrase' 'the A;is to in Clinton concludesthat 'this axis is also refer-red Mudi.ri ald aris i:both as the Q'rlb Muslirn metaphysics "hr.h person a' well ds a '.pirirual centre'. lt car manife.r in a Dlace.lrr There i. a ver\ real sen.e in uhich rhe diurnal lsalal Shah,ada)or annuJ (5dum, bo'jj' zahat) rcpetition of individual aspects of the arban 'conscrates' the arena within which it is oerformed, and males present once again the prcphetic/ irophetic memories with which that ruhn is associated' p;.allv asoects of the anthropology ol tb.e arhzn can t>e developei into a mystical anthropolosv' as happened with Q'di Sa'id Qummr (died 1691). Thus Corbin notes: "Wlren Qadr Sa'rd Qummi invites us to rellct upon th general form of the Temple- [of the Ka'ba] as the figuration of a human Person' the Anthrooos or 'Perfect Man', 6rst divine Emanation and God's Vicar (-Khallfat Allah) over all Creation, he speciies that bv this we should understand him who was the firral seal of legislative prophecy...'1"

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4.4 &miotics
Everythins signilies.The Qur'all itselfis a *'orld of sisns: 'Soon will We show them Our Signs in the (furthest) Regions(of thc earth), and in their own souls.'(.Sd-mnlii'n ayddnaf.'l afaa u,) f anlusihirn).'i We may agreewith Stiver that 'both universal and symbolic language are indirect and inexact pointers to truth, but both may point to truth.'ria The samemay be said ot semiotics,an imprecisemode of analysisdespite its regimenta tion and ordering by the great semioticiansof our age such as Lrmberto Eco.rii We note. too, Tillich's distinction between symbolsand signs:'Both point beyond themselves, but symbols have more than an arbitrary or conventionalrelationship with that to which they point. A red l;ght or a number has no intrinsic relationship \,,'ith what it represents.but a symbol. accordingto Tillich's secondpoini, particjpatesin the reality to which it points. The example he gives is a country's Ilag 'i:r These points may be borne in mind as we examinethe semiotic truths ;mplicit for Muslims in the live dr&on.Houever, it has to be admitted that the distinction betwen symbol and sisn ma] not always be as clear cut, in the analysis which follows, as Tiliich might have liked. Everything signifiesas we havejust observed.Everl religion has its sign system,often implicitly or explicitly bound up with. or into, both dogma and ritual. Catholic Christianity, for example, has a 'sign system' of seven sacramnts,Christ founded in the eyesofthe believer.the true semiotic impulse oi which is irticulated in the classical definition of the word 'sacrament' as 'ar outwi sign of inward grace, ordained by grace Christ, by which is given to our souls.'r'; Jesus Sacramentalsigns have a past, present ard future dimension. just as the hdjj in Islam has a similar threefold aspect. St. Thomas Aquinas noted: 'Therefore a sacramentjs a sign that commemorateswhat precedesit Christ's Passion; demon strateswhat is accomplishedin us through Christ's Passion grace;and prefigureswhat that Passionpledgesto us futu.e glorl'.'rssHugh of St. Victor, whom Ta.lalAsad characterises as 'the most iniluential theologian of the twelfth century']ie also 130

stressed the idea of sacrament as commemorative sign: According to Hugh, a sacrament, from rts moment ot authoritative foundation, is a complex network of signifiers What and signifiedswhich acts,like an icon, commemorativety. this icon signihesis alreadypresentin the minds ofparticipants. It points backward to their memory and forward to their ,{sad believesthat here Hugh uses as his expctation. .'160 De Docnind Cirisridnd with its notion that source Augustine's 'signs are things that give knou4edgeof other things . . '161 ln what follows, it will become evident that the a7han, very different though they are, theologicall! and ritually, from the conlorm of Catholic Clhristianrtl nonetheless sevensacraments just articulatedof the elementsof to th fundamentalparadigm a 'faith summarl" or 'package as commemotuhre sqns Furthermore, just as we sa$ that $e sacramentwas dehned classically as 'an out*ard sisn of inward srace', so roo, the with them have 'an outward ar&an and the rituals associated form and an inner meaning'.]"] Cornmnting on the ShdftadaSchimmel says that she can hou rhe qorJ" of ir. ruo parts c.nsrirured easilyundersrand powerful fortification which provides a safe reftge 1or the Here she clearly echoes al-Cihazali sho, citins a N,Ius1im.r6r hd.dnh qud:i, notes that man's naturc is fundamentally weak Only th Siuhadd can prevent ihe realisation of his greatest horror, the eternallires of Hell. God has siven marl the Sldradd as a castleof protection: the entrant of that castleis safe liom God s wrarh 'b+ 'l'he .Shahada commemoratesor, better, evokes God as an too, eternai,single Realitl',past, presentand futu.e, and evokes, the name of the Prophet Nfuhammadwhose earthly life may be in the past but u'ho lives ia erernity now and who will intercede for Nfuslim sinners on the Last Day, in the future The statementsignalsan uncompromising monotheism as well as a belief in \{ubammad as the seal of the prophets. The out}'ard form ofthe verbal articulation ofthe Shdiadd, which admits the would be convert to Islarn and rraintaiasthat personwithin the ol and devotion to, td&tid fold, mirrors an inner acceptance and nablurua. The Ism.'ili Qadr ai Nu'mtn (died 97a) held
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that belief (d/-t ran) included profession of the tongue (qarl bi-'l-lls.n) as well as confirmation in the heart (la'diq i', 'I-janan).16! The verbal Shahala should therefore be tht semiotic indicator, par excellence, of the believing heart. Renard reminds us that the Persian mystic and poel John Rumi (1207 1273) likened the fivefold sdlat to the 6\'i senses.rbb Al-Nawawr reported that'Prayer is light' (al-saiat ntr)r67 and characterised it as a pillar ('and).r63 As a commemorativesign, the salat evokesa Prophetic, and N.Iosaic. past in which the fivefold nunber of prayers was settled durine the r1i"aj, reilies that past in the present and looks to an eschaiolosicalfuture in which Lluhammad's prayerful inter cession(sia,/h?) will savesinful Nluslims.'6eAs the Testanent (Wasilya) ascribedto Abn Hiintfa puts it: 'The intercessionof our prophet Nfuhammad is a reaiity for all the Pmple of l'aradise, even for hirn rvho had commired a sreat sin.'r;o The sdl.l also has outward forms and inward meanings.Thc most notable example is the need lor tahdra (purificationr before prayer. The outward ablution signalsan internal 'prayer of forgiveness and mercy'r;1 Thus outer purilication is associatedwith inner cleansing and prayer:'1'he Propher lvluhammad has said: "He who rnales ablution afresh revives and refresheshis faith."'r72 The compulsory alms tax, zahat, is a sign of purilication as well. An older classicalmeaning of the Arabic word zal,ar uas 'purity'and the zaA'' was one uho was 'l'ure from sin. Al-Nawawt held that the. at Righteous, Compassionate.'1;-1 fi rst, closely related rollniarl alms-giving (al :a&rqa)' extln guishes sin as water extinguishes lire ''7i There is, then, a permanent liDk in the mind between 'virtue', 'purit_v. 'purification from sin on the one hand, and alrns tar' and giving'on th other in the sema.ntic a.lms rangeofsuch words as zahat and sadaqa.l;'The Qur'ar in several places applauds 'benevolence'and 'giving' as a sign of the true believerand hrs virtue. Za[ar also has a.*'ide commemorativerange.signallinga heroic past in which zalai became transformed into a '6scal institution', r;6 a presentin which the believersare reminded of their obligations to those less well off than themselves,and a 132

future in eternity in *hich A ah's purposes will have been fnltuled and there will be no need of sadaq.Lr'ot zdhat Al Nawawi characterised fasting (al saum) as a 'shield' 'protection' or 'shel' 0 flnd).';; The $ord also translates as ter'.r;!i As we have already noted the fast in Rama<lan commemorates,indeed celebrates,the hrst revelation of rhe Holy Qur'an which occurred in a Prophetic past but which is made present by a rigid month long ascesissignalling the eternal importance of that sacredevent. The fast of Ramadan for the devout observerof also signalsa future eternalhappiness jovs of fasting identified two that the suggests Ashraf that fast. joy of the ftat at the end of each by the Prophet Nluhammad dayt fasting, and the sighting of the nev moon signalling the eni of the month of Ramadan are sisns of a further, celestial Jearh and rhe ''el'r ol p",r otjoy": the siahLof Paradr"e-airer '" Cod on the Dar of Resurrection \{alik ibn Anas, as we have seen, recounts a hmorrs badith in which God is said to prefer the smell of a faster's heath to ihe the smell of musk. The hadnh soes on to stressthai, because actlon that rewards alone, Cod of God fasting is done for the sale The sheer power of the fa-st of Ramadar is in a special wa1,13o sisnaLled in the following quotation. also noted above' from Nl-lik: 'Yahya related to me from MaLik from his paternal uncle Abu Suhayl ibn \{alik from his father that Abu Huravra sard, "Whm Ramadan comes the gales ofthe Garden are opened and are chained"'r 3' the gatesofthe Fire are locked,and the shavtans The fast ofRamadan, then, is an annualcommemorationofa past event vr'hosedevout observance in the present signals for increasein spiitual power in his own o"ty it" lvt""tinr "n "ot age over the forces of darkness but the promise of eternal happiness in the future lrs outward form of phvsical again, ren;nciation mirrors ar inner meaning which embraces, repentance ln a turning soul and a purification and cleansingof and hope to the Creator' Iadeed, the outward form is deliberately desisned to foster the'inner fast'\lherebv the aspirant on the spiritual path accepts the discipline of abstinencefrom even those things permitted bv the law and ultimately tries to avoid all and everything in an endeavour,at 133

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the hishest stageof inner fasting, to focus on cod.'3: Such. ot course, is the constant aspiration of the sufi. The semioticsof the ha, are wide ranging. Only a few will be highlighted here. In the 6rst place, the links of the grear Patriarch lbranirn with the hd, signal the twir themes ot submission and obedience,as we have already seen.Secondl,,. the Prophet l{uhammad's Pilgrimageof Fareweltestablished a ritual paradigm and signalled tle need for religious continuitl.. Thirdly, the haj signalsthe need for community. Renard points out that just as the hijra constitutes a forceful metaphor in terms of Muslims self-understanding ofthe;r slobal role and position. so the hajj 'epiromizes this sense of identity as a unique communitJ oI fatth.' He draws attention to Islam's view of itseif as a non extreme 'middle way' and quotes, in support, Slra 2:143i 'We have therefore fashioned you into an Umrna in equilibrium so that you miqht be witness to humankind and that the N{essenger [\fuhammad] might be a witnessto you.'r33 The commemorativesignds or signsofthe iajj in rheir past, presentand future dimensionshave alreadvbeen alluded to and they wilt not b reiterated here. What may be stressedis the facr that the har, Iike the other four arlan, has an outward form and an inner meaning. The outward rituals betoken once more an inner desire for repentance, purity ard purfication. Ir is signiiicant that this leitmoti! of purification runs tbrough, or underlies, so many of the arlAn. -fhere is no doubt, of course. that from an anthropoiogical, political and a seniotic perspec tive 'rituals of purity and impuriry create' and sisnal 'unity in experience.'134Mary Douglas believes that 'ideas about separating, purifying, demarcating ard punishing transgres sioDs have as their main function to impose system on an inherently untidy experience''3i All this is true of the hajj whose rituals, particularly purifcatory, do impose both a moral and a sociological order arld systemwhereby there is an at least theoretical 'equality of purity' among atl the pilgrims. The purilication rituals of the haTj impose an outward discipline which should mirror an inner spiritual frame of rnind. The need for rituai purity during the [a1] was signalled from the beginning:136 13.1

When the month of Dh,l al Qa'dah startedthis year, that is, the fo. the pilgrimage year 10/632,the Prophetmadepreparations dd ordered the people to get ready. Ibn kbaq-"AM al Rahnan b Qasim Ibn Humayd'Salamah his tather 'A'i"h"h th" Prophet'swife: The Prophet departed for the pilgrlmage on the lwenty-GJth of Dhn alQ.a'dah.Nither he noi th peopletalked of an)thing but the pilgrimage, until when he was ir Sarif and had driven with ltrm had alsodone,he ordered the ecrificial animalsassone nobles pilgrim garmdts, exceptfor those the p@pleto removetheir who had brought the sacrincialanimals lwith theml started.He calledon ne while I was That day my menses weeprne and.a,d. \\h,r b Lhemarry urrh you.rt \ shah 'Yes l rcplied,'l wishedI had not Ate you in yout menses?' journey this yd.' 'Don ! do that, he come with you on rhis said,'Don't say that, for you can carry out lall rh dtesl performedby a pilgim exceptthat you will oot citcumanbulate the Ka%atr'L3i

Al-Ghazalt held that the circumbulation of the Ka'ba was a prayer in which the worshipper resembledthe angelsclosestto God who circumambulated His throne. Al-Ghazali goeson to suggest that the primary pr.rrposeof the taurdf around the Ka"ba is the circumbulation by the heart of God Himself, the Lord of the Ka'ba, by means of dhihr. For al-Ghazah the Ka'ba is an outward manifestation of the unseen presence of God rather in the samway that the body may be describedas a simiiar kind of manifestationofthe heartwhich is hidden within the bodv.133 In such a wise does al Ghazali articulate the semioticsof both tauaf and Ka'ba, and elaborate the inner meaning of the out lard form of both the itual and the building Confirming all this, Syed AIi Ashraf holds that the ldural of farewell (tauaf al roada')'symbolizesman's dtachmentfrom the lowest region and his journey to that region which is the highest of the high, his real homeland.'r3'q Ninian Smart has identiied three tyPical symbolic phasesin any pilgrimage: the setting out, the visit to the sacredsite and the return home.leoIi is not difficult to extrapolatefrom this 135

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general rubic to the specifics and semiotics of the lslamic ha!. The would-be hajji (or, more classically, i.ajj) signals his desired purity of heart and intention by the settlement of debt arld the assumptionofihran; arriving in Mecca he signalsthat purity of hea.t and intention by voice and ritual action, labbayha ar'd tduai returned home from Mecca, he signals his 'otherness' in terms of present inner purification by the proud acceptance of the title hajji/hai, and serves as an icon and al) inspiration within his or her community for those who have yet to undertake this most onerous, and most semiotic, of the live arlzn, whose inner puihcation is so frequently signa[ed by its

Noles 1 SachiloVurala md Will;am al Chittick,The VLnon of khn: The Ftunlat;aB aJ Mulin Fd;thdnd Pnrtte. (Lo or & New York:LB. Tauris,19961, pp. L\V X\VI. Al \a*awis ForiyHzi,t'fiprovides e$y access to theArabictext:see Ezzedin Ibrahih & Denys Johnen

Da*s (hms.), Matn al'Atba'in dl Ndbaeila [An \:d&Ln's Fo'b Ilddthl, (3rd edn , I)anascus: rhe Holy Kors PublishingHoue, I9i7), pp.28 33 (Hadith .o 2l LHereafter this text is efded ro a al-Nawawi,dl Arbd'tl. 2 Ibid ln another hadith (Hadith no ; in dl Nawa$i, a/.Arbd'in, pp 44 45), we find din defined as sincerity (lAla): 'Religion is s;ncer;tyWe said, To whon? He said:To A ,n dd His Bmk, and llis Messeger, and to the leadersof the h{uslims md th* common folk. 3 Abu Muntsir ibn \Ioh& 'Ali, GLi)r to An l;sLwi\ 40 Hadith, (Ipswich:Jm'iat lhyaa'Ivlinhaj al Sunnal. 1990),p. 5. Saeate alNawaqt, d/-Arba'in,pp. 34 3i (lladith no. 31,pp. 46 17 (Hadlth no 8) dd pp. 76 77 (Hadith no. l2). 4 \ 4ura rd& Chi, r i, l Uqn, o r i ' i ,n p \I\l 5 Al Nawawi, ai Arbd'u, pp. 98 101 lHadtth no.29). 6 (I 32:16 17i trds. Yusuf Ali, T[. Hol] Qul4n, p. 1096 Comp&e 1 Corinthians2:9, lsaiah 64:.1. 7 'A li, G d e ,p. 3+ . 8 lbid. 9 Ibid., pp. 31 3s. 1 0 lbid ., p . 3 s. 1 1 I bid.

12 Seeq 4:a8. 13 Schimel, Dedpherins the S;sB ol God, p 246 14 Mehmt Soyme., Concise Islanic L)teclisn, trans & ed bv Ekmeleddin Ihsaolu, (4th rec edn, Ankara: Directorate oi ReligiousAffairs, 1991),p. 1.1 Abdalati, Isldn in Fl,ro, (KuMit: International 15 See Hmudati Islmic Fedqation of StudentOrgmizations,1981),p 't; Q. 112:1 4 trm. Yusu{ Ali, 'Ihe Holy Qytan, p 1806 16 Seart. l{l'Ik} as' in Nxtoq Popdar Dctinart of k/dn P. 118 17 SeeAHalati, lsldm in Fod, pP. s3 10s. 18 Q ,17:19, Q. a8i 29;* e al soQ, 4: 136 19 Q -33:40. 20 Q,6:103,Q 42:11. 2l See Q, 9a:1;*e al$ YusufAli, Tle Holr Qat'an,P 1755n 6188:'The holy Propht's humd nature had ben purfied, expanded&d elevated e that he b(,ne a ifd.y to all Creatron (conmdt on Q 91:1) 22 (! 2:23 21. 23 John B. Christophd, The Islanic Tradition Major Traditions of World Civilization,(New York, Evuston San Fimcisco & London: Harper & Row' 1972),p. 39. thd Sisru o/God, p 249; seeals P 22s 24 S.hirmel, D.iphenns 25 Q, 50:16;tlds. YusufAli,'the Ho\ Qtr"n, p.1412 SealsoNetton, Allah Ttfumdent, p. 22. Bewlev, AI Mreatta of Inan Molih 26 Tros by Aisha AMurahnd ibn A6: The Fist Fomllrtin oJIslanic Ldt (Lo don & New Yotk: Kegd Paul Intmational, 1989), p 32 i.1 13:59l For the original Aiabic s Yalik b Aoas, Knab ai Mueatla', (Beirut: Du al Kiiab al 'A.abi, 1996),Pt. 1, p. 80 27 Murata & Chittjck, Virid ol Islan, p 4.l 28 Seibid., pp' 4'1 131. 29 Seibid., pp 132 192. 30 Ibid., p. 193. 31 Ibi d., P . 11. 12 See,for exmple, fie Pdn] Catedhim, (Librtvville ll-r Prow Books, Frociscm Marltown Press,1982),p 25. 1'11 33 AMalati, Islam in F.)fu, p 5s 3+ SeeSchmmel, DeapfoinE the Sigts oJ Gati, p 143 3s S.eJ Horovitz, dt. N{i'redj'in H A R Gibb & I H Krands (eds) Shdrer Enq1.Iopudia oJ Islan, [Hereafter referred to as ij/S]' (Leidn: E.J. Brill/bndon: Luzac, 1961), esp P 383. See Sa)f id Abul Aala Nlaudmdi, The Nobel Prophei's Meraj or Ascent to H@ven: Sone Travel Notes , Th. Mwlin \Votld L@Ere lounal' Vol 2a, No. 7 (Rajab 1417lNov Dc. 1996),pP 19 22 Seealso:John Understdndins the Indnic Reard, In th? fatsteps of Mubanurl: Erpd?ianft, (New York/lvlahwah, N.J: Paulist Press' 1992)

136

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pP' 123 128; N,Iurata & Chitricl, !'6on o/ lslan, p. 167j Schimm.l Deaphaing the Sig s oJ God, pp. 139 140. 36 (My ital;cs) Christophet, The Islatuic Ttdtritin, p. 10. SeeSchinmcl De.iphdins the Sis^s oJ Cod, p 139. 37q30:17 18; trms. YusufAli, T[e Ho]r Q,r"an, pp. 105.11054. 38 SchimI, ,adpnerins the SisB of God. p. 139 39 Ibid. 40 q 5,7; t.as Yusuf Ali, Tle Hob Qrr"an, P' 2a2. 41 See ibid and also at. 'Tayammuo h :atton, Poprlar DitituD al lddn, p. 248. Muslim latr, of cous, he mucl to sy on th; ed rlated ropics.odcern;g pnrit duing prayer See,for exmple, rhc rlevantsetions in llalik's Ki6b dl M/uatt'd',6p. Pt I, pP 52 a; 12 For this imagese Malik b. Anas,Kitab dl Mrudnd', Pt 1. p 123 Sec .lso Vurara & Chrnrcl . l aioi o/ Ll,n p. I ' 43 SeeAbdalati, Islamin Foro, p 32. 4.1 lbid., p. 55. 15 Murata & Chndck, Visiono/ lslan, p I l. 16 SeeJ.Schacht, art 'Zakat', I'IS, p.6i.r;J.G. Hava, AI.Fai'id Atubic. Eaglisl Dictioaarr: (Beirut:Dar al Maskiq, 1970),p.293 s\ zahar. Mu.ata & Chittick, V{ion oJ klan, p. 16; Schimel. Dedp}dirs ,i. Sigu o/ 6od, p. 101 q 2 1 271 47 See 48 SeeVurata & Chirtick. I'nion oJlslan. p. 16 49 Q 2:43rtrans. Yusuf Ali, The I IoU (b/'dn, p. 27. 50 Se W Monteomery Watt, Muftdh'zl, Ptuphet mA St4t tun (London (\ford Univesity P.ess,196.1), pp.23 32. 51 Christopher, The kldni Tldlniaa, p 1) 52 AMalati, lsldn tn Po.a, pp. 9s 96 s:l Yisiono/lsldn, P' 16. s,l Se ibid, od ,\bdalati, lsldm in f&s, pp. 9s 98. Se,in particula, Mtlik b. AnB, Kitab al-MuudtbJ, Pr 7 pp. 161 188. 5s Jonathm Benthall, The Quaans Call to Alm, Tines l.;shd E,l.wdtion Surylemdt , 3td Jhudy 1997. p I 6 s 6 I bi d ., p . 1 7. s 7 E g ., se Q 19: 26. 58 q 2:18si tros Yu,uf Ali, TAeHob Q/r'dn, p. 73. 59 See art. 'Rdhad.n' ;n Ntton, l,oprla1 DictioturJ oI lsldn, pp. 2rr 272. See the desript;on of Ramadd in Edwad Willim LaLe, An Accohr aJ the Ma ne6 Lnd C$to6 ol th. Modm EsJpriatu, (2nd edn., l,ndon: Wdd, Lock & Co.. 1890),pp. 436'4a2 & also lvfurata& Chittick, y6id of lslan, p. 18. 60 Clristophd, Tlu Islann Trclition, p. 45. 61 Art. Laylar al Qadr' in Netton, Popular Dictiomry ol Islnn. p. r52 G B. Vo! G.unebam, Muh^wadM Festi"aLs,(t ndon: Clrzon Press,1988),p. s2.

62 O.97r t os Yusuf Ali, Tte HoIl Qt'M, p 1765 e: SzeVon Crunebaum, Mrhanmdaa Festiuls, pp 51 6s; Ch'istoPher, The Islant Trailitid, P 14 61 Murata & Chittick, Virio' o/ Istdn. p 17 6l Seeibid.; *e also Schimel, DedPidins tl Sics oJ God,p 99 66 Schi|rfrel, Dddpl'41g fie SiEtu o/ Cod, P 98 67 \{.Hr b Ams, KitiLbal tttuatta', Pt 1 p. 205i trds Bewlev Al Iru0d*a, p. 121 6s Von Grun;baun, Mrhanndridf, Festildis, p' 53; llltlik b Anas Kita6 d Muwdtd, Pt. 1, p. 206. 69 ltne, Mod.m Ea/Dria6, PP 206 207. Festidk P 53 70 Von Grunebaum, MulMu)4n 71 Divid Wan6, An lntrodlctim to Islam (Canbridg: Cdbridg' University Press,1995).P 91 72 lv{alik h Arc, Kifib al'Mrudtta', Pt 1' pP 205 206i t'ds Bewlev' p. 121 -AI'Muudtra, 73 Solmen, Contu Islanic Catechin P. t02. 7' 1 S eeQ,3:104 7i Mdata & Chittic!. Vnion oJ lslan' p :10 (Engiish 76 Al Na*awi, al'Atba'in, pP 29 31 (A'abi' text), 28, 30 hds.), (Hadith no 2). 77 Ibid , pp. 99 (Alabic text) 98 (Englishtrds ), (Hadrth no 29) ;8 thilmel. DpdPh"rn! lhPiistu of Cod P i; 79 (lvly italics) Q ZZ,zo :lo, tros Ylsuf Ali, ?'t? Hob Qrr'an pp 8trt 858.$e al$ Q l lq6 200 dn + e. i n' " dri d,A i . w e;' i .cL' J Jone! B I e"i' sr H'oa! Lr ' r o'l: \bl t. pp .{ l 18. C l ' d;i oP \n f 4. LlJa; . i'ddJm r ' pp I ondon ,U duri ; C .rdefi o\ D emombvne* r 4u[ n lor lu'r on Alld & Unwin. 19s0, 1961),pp 81 102i H A R' Gibb Mondmru 2nd edn, (Loddon: OUP), pP 6i 66; danim: An rli\tdi.dl Suruqr', in the:fcond Civil War' in Im Rjchrd Th. G.R. Hawtinc, flat N"tto" ("d), Gold- Road:: Migratiaa, Pilsr;hase dnd'IidLeI ifl MediMd ann Modam Isldn, (Richnond: Curzon 1993) Pp 31 42; FE. Petere,The Hq.r: The Mtslin Pitstinase ta Mera and the Holl Pld.s, (Princeton,\'J : PrincetonUdv'sitv l\ess, 1994);\lichael wblfe let] ). Oro Tiruaad Roddsto Meccd: Ten Cdttn$ DJhauters \Vritins d6outti? Mulin PilSridse (New York: Grove Press'1997)i Waines,Itt'oludim ro Isldn, Pp 91 93 81 5e K. Conti Rossini (d) Chrcsto@thia Arahicd Meiliandlis Fpigrdphi.d,(Rome: Istituto Pr L Oriente 1931), eg nos 5 10 1.1. 16, 18,21.' 15,46. 82 Mclir Inslitutim, P El 83 fthilrfrel, Dcdph.rins rn. Sisa of God p. 64

8+:e q .u:127.

85 SeSoymn,Cbeise Isldnic Cdte.hin pp 108 110 111'

138

119

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E I I I N G T HE Sl L R FD I

Se et. 'lsma" (1)' in Ntt@, Popular Di.ti@dry of lslan. p. 1t1 Solmen, ConciseIslamic Catecliq, p. 110. of kizn, p. l.l+ E7 Se art. Al-Jmra' i lie1tun, Popxlar Dxt;turt Sotmen, Cotcise klant Cate.irin, pp. 109, 111. SeeQ, 37i102 107 {br this momentous evmt in the life of Ibrahtm Soymen,Con.i'e isldnic Cnkci;m, pP i09-111, 112. p. 83. 89 see Gaudefroy Denonbyns, Mulifl /atltltim, 90 SeeAbdalati, lsiam ia Foro, pp. 99 100. 91 Schimnel, Deciphenagtire S1s6 of God, p. 64i Wain6, lntrode,ior to /slan, p 92r Rendd, Ifl the F@'stepsoI MthamntJd, p 86. 92 Ai Tab&i, Td'nln aI Rsl tua"l Mulnh, (Vois 3-+, Cairo: a] I{atba'a al Husytu}ya al Miqri}ya, 1909), {heraftr re{ened to as llrkLlrl, Vol. 3, p. 168; trms. lsmail K Ponawala, The H;rtdr oJ al Taboti (Ta'r thh al-rsl ua "l-ndnl): Vohre IX: The I^t ve&s ol rhePnph.t, Biblioth@ Persica,(Albany, N.Y: State Univmity of New York Press,1990).p. 112. Ibn Hishth, zl Sirz dl \idbddlld, d. Jm,l Thebit et a1.,(Cairc: Dd al Harith, 1996), \b1..1,pp. 227,230itrus A Guillaume,Ttu L1t oJ Mrhtutunatr: A Timlrti.n of tldgi Sirat R@i Allil, (Kanchi: Ot]? 1955,1980),p. 650; s ale FF, Perss,A Ra'lE m Cl,1s;dl klan, p 94. {P.inetoD, N.J.: Itineton Univrsit! Pr6, 199.1), Roard, In tfre Fmtstups of Muhanntu\ p. 86. 95 Al Tabm, Tz'n&I, Vol. J, pp 167 169;trds. P@na*ala,Iaf ya'r af the Prophet,pp. 107 11.1.Compare lbn Hisham, cl-.Srraal NdbdDi]}a, ed. Jmal Thabit e, al., \bl 4, w. 22i 230. Al Tabdi, Ta"n:Ah, \b1.3, p. 170:tlas. P@mwala,I^t v?d'r otti. hophat, pp. 111 115. Compde th extdded veGion in L{ulim, Voi 2: Kitt} al tlat: Chap 19. Sa[i[, (Beirut] Dfu Ibn t{um, 199s1, no. 147, pp. 721 i27; rtns. Petere. Read"r n Cbsnal klan. pp.2 8 1 2 85. 97 Muslim, Saiiir, Vol 2, p 72si trans. Peters.Readz,d CIBical Islam, p. 282. Se alo VarrinLings, MuhdnnsL Hk L;k BLed 6 Allen & ,tu Ea'liest' ^Sou'es,(Lndon: Islmic Texts liriety/Gorge Unw;n, 1983),p. 333. 98 Soyme, Cotuie lslaai CdtechLn, p. 10899 AMalati, lsldn in l'o.u, pp. 99 I00. 100 Gaudefroy'Demombynes, M6lin lrurtt tim, p 97. 101 &e Wensinct/Jom;erllewis an. HadjlU'(esp pp.37 38 by Lwis). see e,pecially for Ibn Jubarr, Ibn Badnta md the PilgrirFge to M@ca my articles ;n Ie Richdd Nefton, S?e[ K@bfue: Thousht and Tttul in the I lae of ldan, (Richmond: Curzon, I 996) 102 Lewis rctes (wensinck4onier/t*wis an Hdjdi', p 38) that it wc pilgrims returning froo )r{eca, whae they had beome awe of $ho instituted the Alnoravid thir ow '.lisious bclwadnes', ud the Almohad revolutions. 140

(in ibid ) how India pilgrins intioducedrelived 103 '"" lais al$ notes Middle East and rtumed with the sPirit of N*"ii*J* o'dd rh' v au"n Nal ftr trianrlvo 4 surh -,1'" w-,iJtu"i t"*;, q t"se s \d'4 s a tum made in l;72 ';7 r' whrch i;Gt oir*';-*" . V*ca bequn 7;d"h A \rold on rhe 'rfi path fin'llt '"i.r'i'i. rJ t'ro^'LPrdel q i'ar n*iott'i v^*';" ii."^""i: -"t''."
Modm Wd / d , t l o n d o n O U P lo b ( ) P l 8 r rhdi |

"r, r he t elieiou' dd S .,ti . r' ota]. p 4a' ' behe\6 thr r ds ' r eqLhor Crdnd sdusi In Vec " the raan c Uv 'n ^"a' wde -,1*. thought out and concret$d' -"i,n" and policie future plm 104 Cil*nm, Rercsnene kld6 P 1a

Tntrodu'noa n" ra't"ornro' R.olurroa iii '"" c*.r ,tSaai-** 'h? Mrnisr)or Republ:c Arub i ored rca;o Th.."*n ;';;; p ol: forrhe Se^i' los! Inrormrtion x",,J C.a.*" """ (cairo: Der ar dr-rhd&'a, *e Nawr' Farsalar tJ" ;;;J
Ma'erif, nd ), P 7e pir-o'l'r,f ,i Raohtiotr, p 62i idem Fakafatal Thuru' roo il*.. P .79. 107 lbid. I08 S ee Q 2124 Q. l t l 00 Il l tt rn \enon P"pula' Dirrrad\ oJ I ldn P ro" s* *lt ,t l"-* 110S eQ214 1r 1 seeQ.).l ab /0r,Q.Joo a7 Q 126 or t4an P )tj ttittimo'i Poprlo' ; Neflon ii.z s" "i r"*s. oI Retlsim Philosophv of Religion Th. Phmdd s--, ii: ir-JlqTl) P I Sri6, (l,ndon: Ilactulld .l ,lP S& rd ALAeron! oJ the \\o'td Betef' n'^* r u ilJ.. (t-ondon: Ha+er Crllins' 1996) P 29 /lr' SIdt. Ph4ffi6@ ol Relision' P s 116 lbid.. p. 38. 117 Snan, Dntrioa o/ rhe Sa'td,pp 10 1l

ot RPIIs'on r '12 iir iu'J., o ro,*. "t'. 'dem Phmtunoa 72 S@Pd of rh. Dnrom P I 19 Sman.
120 l bi d., pP 180 1E 1. 121 l bi d., P 83 122 Ibid

iii

iii'

Geffrev chuch' (Londonr oJ thecathotic uri"o cdtechisn

l qq4l , JU o#130 2 I lbl

C haomo, P or rormul"rron' n s.ia Thcari" Brddhrsm ii-"" r:r i. ' 1wo in f''nl' ' cradu'r P'rh J rhe ot Lrhi.' rhe ,'.1 il" o.- s't (Richmond (eds ), Pali B/ddh;m' a o*e"li" Mahinda i.n-1996),P 35 Curzon l'jress, llondon rf'-pr""vs A Pop d' Dttindt at B'ddhan rzs Cf';"t.^ Curan Prru, 1184,,p 'Jo s' \ahb Eiqh'foldPath Bladhism's Two Fornulations" P 35' 126 Bond, 'Theraveda 141

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L N \ E I L I N C T TIE b AC R EDI

127 Deegalle Mahinda, The Moral Signifcance ofBuddh;t N;vma in HolTman& Mahinda leds.). P..aL Bttlhin, p. r11. 128 Ma Fu'ch'u, Ttu Ihre Chatacter Rilrud Clan on the Ktb.h ltrds. J. Pekr Hobson, Stutriasin Conparaliw Relidotr (Sum. Autum 1980)1,rep.. in GIassa, The CotuAe &qclop@dia of lsldn p. I32 sv FDe Pillda. 129 Sman, Diruroioro or,he Sde.L p. j2 130 Ibid., P. 7.1 1 3 1 I bi d ., p .8 9. 1 J2 Se ei b i d .,pP . 180- 181. 133 S@,lor xmple. q 80,25 32 1-14SeeaboveD. 121. 13s SeeSDart, Dtruatoa oI thz S@eA, p A3. 136 Talal Asad, The ld.a oJan Aathropologl o/.lslam, Ocaionai Papcrs :rries, (Wdhinston, D.C.: Cent r {br Contemporary Arab Srrdi.s. Georgetown Universitv 1986,p. 1. r 37 I b i d . 1 38 lbi d ., p p I 2. 1 . r 9I b i d ., P 7 . 1.10Ibid., p. I'1. 1 41 I b i d . 1 42 lbi d ., p . 1 7. 113 Seeidem., Gnealostes oJ ReliEion: Dtcipli@ Md ReB.A oJ Powet i^ Chtitanirt and Islan, (Battinore & London: Jolns Hopk;ns University l}ss, 1991),p. 58. 1 4, 1 lbi d ., p p . 56, 57. 62 115 lbid., p. 79 citing FNI I)Dny ( lslamic Ritu.l: Perspetives&d Thories' h R C. l,{artin (ed ), Apprwhu to Islan tn Relicio6 (Tucson:Utuversitr of Ar;zona l,r6s, 198s),p. 66)StLdias, 146 SeeAsad, Id.a oJ dn Anthropolol p 11 1 18 lb i d ., p . 1 7. 149 Clirton BeMett, 'Islan' in JeanHolm {ed ), S&acdPlz.e, Themesin Relieious (London & New Yo.k: Pinrer, 1994),P 95 StudiesSries, 1s0 Mircea Eliade, I'dtktu in Conpatutie Relision. (London: Shed & Wd d , 1 9 s 8) , p 227. 151 Bemett, 'Isld', p. 95 152 He.ry Corb;, 'The Configuratio! of lhe Tedple of the Ka'bah o the Secret of the Spfitual L;fe in idem. Tdral? dd C@teaplation. Islanic fexts dd Contexts, {London & New York: KPI in assoc;ation with lslmic Publiatjons, Lndon, 1986).p. 20.r. 153 Q 11:sJ; trms Yusuf Ali, The rIoly Qw"aa, pp. 1302 1303. See Ntron,Allai Trdaen&flr. p. 321. 151 Dan R Stivd, The Philosopheof Relisi8 Ltnsnge: Sigt, Synbol and Story,(Canbr;dge,Nfas9/Oxfo.d: Blacksell, 1996),p 196

1ss see, for exafrple, Udbrto Eco A Theorr oJ Seniotics Advdcs n lieniotics, (Bloonington & London: Indima Universitv Press' 1976); idem, Smiorics a"d the Phllosapb ol Lnguce, lLot'lon: \facnilla, 198'1) 156 Siiver, PnilosoPh] oJ Religiou lzns@ge Pp' 122 123 drawng oD of Falti World PrsPectivsSeries,Vol l0' Paul Tillich, Lren;s (Nev Yorl: Heper Torchbook, 19s8) pP 41 '14 1i7 i\'{! nalic.) T[e Pdn] Cd&.h47, p 14 (q.249)' 'lheolosia' 11t, 60 3 cited in 1j8 it.-Thonas Aquinas, Sanma p 259 Chrrch' L:atholic Cdtachiffi oJ th. 159 Asad, Gtualogi6 oJ Ral;3ionpp. 153 154' 160 Ibid., p. 1;'f. l ol l b .. D D l ;4 l i 5 n 2l j l ol S v" d.i i i \' hJaf, l he l nnr N ledins or r he lsl"m ic Fi'e" Pr "t er ' \ a<r Pd ' lsiddl P i l ermds., l -rrnq Jrl ' ao r ' cir ed Hosser n Spinrulitr: Foufldahom, P 111 163 Sch;nmel, De.iphennsthe SisB oJ Go.l p. )t' l-a fi Shaih Md'at1 Asna' AUah dl 16.1 Al-Ghd.li, .Ct'}/"q'id "t (Beirut:Dd al Mashriq 1971) p' 7s A Shehadi, Fadlou ed. fll]fu, al Ghaali s fmous text, seeDavid B tsurrell & For a tra.siatio" "f Ninetr-NineBeautiFl NdnA oIcod -'r-aih Daler, Al Ghcali; The (Canbridge: Allai di lea, 6M' shalh aI ctu AI Ma4sai fi Isl@ic Texts Societtl1992),esp p 63' 165 Qa.li al-N!"mdn, Da'a';n dI lslan, ed. A A A Fvzee (Cairo: Dar al V - a.i t. l qo ,/ \ol L p. l ,Ar abi r xr \ . oJ Mthom@'I' P 154 166 Rna.d, In !i Footsteps 167 ,A1-Nawa$,dlArba'in, pp 78 79 lHadith no 23)' i b8 l bi d. oD 100 L0l (H adrthno 2'l) l 6q t{" i i l emd 5mi th & Y ron ne \ azbe't H'dd'd I ir p l"loni' N'Y: SUNY Ll snan4ins oI Death dnd Rsn ctim (Albd) 81. P r6s, 1981), P r r eo dd r r dn' n W l ;0 W dIw Jl A l n l l aara ' H ydsdb "d laO l t A Spt c'r ion lslo c sur t et ' rcPt s tl ant' \r" n U o.i somen (Fninbureh EdinburghUniversitv Press 1994)'p' 60 Se.ies, 171 Ashraf, 'Innr Meding, P 11l 172 Ibi d. D 112 iz: t.C;. ti*", at Fa'a'id Ardbi. Enslish Dictiondr! P 293 sw zdhat' 17.1Al'Nawawi, di A/6d'in, PP 98 99 (Hadith no 29) art. ZakaC,I]IS p 654 17: SE J. Schacht, 176 Ibi d. 177 Al NasaM, aiArba'm pp 98 99 (fladlh no 29)' I78 Wehr, Dirrionary o/ M od'm Wtitten Arauc, 2nd Printing, p 138 sv j,'-. S." A* ltail U.And, I(itab zl M!tuarl4' Pr I p' 205whde ds a p' otec t ior Udr M fa< i ns ' s.l dsfi d

t42

r43

179 Ashral Inner Meaning, p 119 1a0 Kifib al-Mtuatla", Pr. 1, p.206. 181 lbid., p. 206. 182 A sh rd lM d M eaning,p p . 1 1 8 1 1 9 . 183 Rmrd, In th? Fmtrteps oJ Muhdnautl. p. 83. 184 Mary Douglas, Prntr @l D6ger: An AMItsn oJ Cmepts ,,1 Pollution ana Tahoo,lLon lo.: Routledse & Kgd Paul, i 966, 19t0 p2 . 185 I bi d ., p 4 . 186 !@ al Tabm, Ta"riih, Vot. 3, pp. 167-168; tmns. Pdm*zl4 Ldrr YeatsoJ the Ptophet, pp 109 lll. 187 I bi d . 188 &e al-Gbazili, Ihla"Ulnm al.Din, (RePr Beirut: Dd al lv{a'rifa. n.d . {1 .1 04/ 1983 4?1, V ol . 1 , p p .2 1 8 2 2 2 . r89 Ashral 'I..er Meaning , p. 12s. 190 Smart, Dneroim of tle S6ed. p. 88

2 the Sacred Unveiling

The Parallel Universe of Sdff Ritual

5.1 TheologY which Neithr the Ni'matullahivva nor the Naqshbandivva' rltuar case have earlier been presentedin this volume as two lslam:nothinscould *i*, ,f'" n*,rlan ot marnsrream "J"". fr". the collecrrve minds ^f eirhe! urder' Borh il. ii,"r'"' nde[tv to these hve fundamenta]s-of the^ * ;--"*" -""if* But, as we have shown' thev also have a number ot dtfl. rn sum' supplementary rituals which mav be said to constitute d e\prore to proposed is a oialtet ttniuoseoJ sufi ntual Here it ftbtta rir,rats dhihr' sama frht mwqaba Jection of Lhese r,l,ird 'decontextualised', as it were' from ."a *f.4". -'l,u-1, of their Orders, but examined under the same if." f'"-"*.'f and four rubrics of thmlogv, phenomenologv' anthropolosv rhe five of J"pt.v"a in the as'e'sment *ru.f' ""'" snfr of ""*;"ti." ,rl"r ir tf'" pr",,ou" .t'upi"' Ttu' parallel uruverse orher' ,i J, *fti.f, may anractsomeand protoundlvalien"(e ln a alienation that of perspective will then be surveved from the 6nal chapter' in The tieoloey ol rhe dhi&rfor the 'ufr rs ea'rlvaniculated is less easilv surveved in such Qur'anic ternis; that of the sanr^a' **inds us that the practice of dfiilr' which i"n. S.f';-*a ^-'i*f as 'mentioning' or 'recollecting' has fr.t" t."""t"t"" "t" founder Prooh"ti. *le."dettt' o"d eoes back ro the age of the

"i

and citesStrd (to remember) of tl" nt"U. .*t dhahatd to """q"" reference make So- 13:28which respectively +'lo-: praver' and -a God after finishing the itual ''"-.J.i.e
'141

ro tbenumerous Qur"ini' anenrion ri[- r.irn*rr'sr'" araws

STFi RI'i'UAL

U\VEII-Ih\G THE SACRED2

proclaim that 'Verily by rcmemberjngthe Lord, heartsb.co,rj, quiet.'r Here, then, are the sourcetexts for dhihr oar excellen,, en.hrined rn rhe source text oI lslam ;l.eif. fhe ,ir..r., constitutesa form of supplementaryprayer in sofi Islam wb,.tr may build upon, but does not replace,the tradirioDalsdtal trs essential theology is, therefore, that of the salat. analvzed abor t in the prcvious chapter, reinforced by the Qur,anic dicta 1,1 which we have just referred. The same dominant rheolosical lcLrmorw ol rabbtr. which ,s dr rhe hcan of the satar, ;s atsoai rt., heat of the dhibz. The theologicalmerits, and salvific consequence of dhihr. at,: powerfulll reinfor.ed anct underlined in d norable hrdirtrecorded by al Bulhari: it notes that Allrh has some anBelr uho <peci6Lalll .eek our rhosepeoplewho pracrise dhrh, anJ congregate around such people when they 6nd them. When this happens,A1lah,even though He knows the answeralreadv,asks rhe aneelswha( the peopleare saying The angelsrepearto, their Lord the glorificatory words of the dhi[r Allah asts whether his praisershave actually seenHim and, on being told that they have not, worders how such people would speal if thev n ruallv had wghr of Him The .neelsrespond rhar iI rh"' had happened,then the worship and glorification would have been even greaier and more intense. Allah then asksabout what such practitioners ofdhiLr requesr. An angel says that they seek Paradise. He queries what they seek to avoid and is told 'helltue' . In each casethe questioning by God and the aJlgelic responsesfollow a simiiar pattem: even thoush Pdradrse dnd heUh.ve not beenseen,rhe angelsmake n ctearrhar the sight of each would respectively increase desire for Paradise ard abhorrence and fi:ar of Hell. Allah condudes that thos vho kep company with th parple who practise dhibr will not suffer the pains of Hell.r From an intertextual perspective the had-rth participates in, or relates to, that group of texts which seeksto establish a theology oftrust. Another key textual exemplar ofthis theology i" b John 20:2q rn which blessrngis bestowcd upon those who have not seen br:t have believed. Finally, for the sufi, the theology of dhiir encapsulares a lheoloe\ of rdenrrficarion. erowth, becoming and being 146

wherebv the thouqht ot and mediratjon upon Cod prrmedle' the very labrtc of rhc ruhs bodl '-nd soul The story of the discipte of Sahl ibn Abdullah, which we recalled in Chapter Three, is an excetlent epitome of all that. Sdrna', too, partakes of a thologv of tdbbt' bv praver, song' movement and, sometimes, dance The latter has been condemned as bid'a by manv mainstream Muslims Thus dancrns durine rhe sdma i. an 'ttrviry wirh a somewhdr <ame restric;d apr;l for some lejected bv orheF rn much rhe wav that d;ce was (ejected bv such earlv Christian Fathers of th; Church as Origen (did 25'l)r The feelings of ecstasv induced in the s[fi mvstic bv the dance might provide a fortaste of 'Divine union' or Paradise for some; for others' music dnd ddnce.ould only yield a sat'ni' rheoloel In considering the related topoi ol frk and muraqobo' orle ts on less thomy an<l ambiguous grounds theologicallv Both words Darticipatin a fundamental Qur'anic theology Histori callv fir has a *'ide semantic 6eld which the bare dictionarv de6nition ('thinling, cogitation, reflection, meditation' speculation, contemplation, considerationi thought, idea, notion' conceDtioDinion,view')r doesnot hightight ln the Qur'an man i. refle.t :o larer the pfulusophers and rheoloeidns i" "';"d facultv in emolovedthe na"d't ftu ,o 6pn1 rhe rnrellecrual intellection'7 of object thJ aci of thoueht, ,"flecti.'g upo., arr 3 io"t.u"te,l th" word with dhthr, recollection i"J tr'" "':fi" Finally, 'it was the superioritv of dtuiir to "fibr which was to bemost eenerallv affirmed 'e Be that as it may, God is the focus of the sifr' hh,r''"for the or,linarv readeroi rhe Qur'arr' a' for is d of fih' in the Qut dn iunJamenrallv,rhe theologv 'emrorr' that in order to mankind clear signs His makes theolow: God a (.la'allah'm them, upon Ytafohbatlmal dsht rflect ' life future present and th -un for reflection which has implications It is also a theologv with a proPheric (ft 1'dunya uo'l ahhiTa).11 Ji*er'*io.', p.ope' reflection provides an insisht into th true nature of the Prophet Nlulrarnmad who is 'but a persprcuous 1r warner' (nalhrr mrlbin) and not mad or possessed' The theology of,fhr in the Qur"an, then' has both a celestial and a terrestiJ dimension: God provides man with clear signs
1li

STIi RITI]AL

L-N!E]LI\C] THE JACRED 2

so that he might rellect upon them and ultimately come to H;r. God also provides man with the Prophet lrluharunad antl man's reIlction enables a corect identifrcation and charactcr isation of that prophetic frgure. The eschatologl behind tht phrasefr 'l dtnya wa 'l,ahlirar3 lends the whole concept offtr and its various verbal forms used in the Qur.an, dl eschatologicd dimension which may not be immediatet,, apparenr. If, then, fn, clea-riy participates in a fundamental Qur'anr theology, which has semiotic, eschatological and Propheti. dimensions, its sister m rtqabd (looseiy,'contemplation') ma1. be said to hav antecedents in, or even loosely embrace, thc Prophet Muharnmad's ptactice of tahannuth, and may thus b,c said to participate iD a S;ra theology. The Pmphet \{u[ramrnad. before the revelation of the Qur'an, used to go to Mount Hira , to practice tdhannuth. In common with Watt we note rhe difhculty in assigning a precise mealing to this archaic Arabic word. Watt suggests thar clearly some type of devotion is involved and he likes the suggestionof H. Hirschfeld that the etymolosy is the Hebre\r, tehinnat or tehimnth which had the senseof intercess;on with God for his favour.rr (lf course,it is true that other s,tfi practices such as Aholua coutd also, with reason, be traced back to the Prophets practice of alannuth. Nonetheless, the prayerful solitude of the latter practicegivesit at least some affinities wit|. murnqaba. There is, horvever, a Qur'enic theology behind nuraqaba as well. Drawing attntion to the fact that one of God's names is 'The Watchful' (a/ Raai6) fsee Q, +:t, Q, 33:s2], Waley reminds us that in the same way that God extends His watchfulness to man, so the $nfi should be watcMul over his own heart lest it become distracted or a host to wicked thoughts.ri Abu Hamid al-chazali rakes up the basic eur,anic references and, having defined al Raqi6 as a (nowing and Protective Being, goes on to elaborate a Qur,anic theology of muraqaba: tlte latter is only worthy of praise if its object is cod and mans own heart. And it wili only be thus when man realises that God observes his every move and that not only 118

Satan but his own soul may lead him astray Watchfulness therefore means that he is on guard both against Sata-n and himself.r6 The fundamental theology of muraqaba th.us embraces the twin, and complementary, ideas of tu.niry io cod and turnine away trom sin. If w aftempt now to elaborate a theology of rabitd, we do well to remember, fustly, that in $unsm the term indicates the 'bond' or 'linl' between disciple and Shaykh This mirrors ideally in a very real sensethe bond beween God and man, and thus the idea of rabitu may be characterised as Qur'anic in its theology Watt puts it in a nutshell: 'Beliefin God's power and goodness leads not only to gratitude a:rd worship but also to a certain attitude or way of li{e in practical affairs.'I7 This relationship of God and man, what we might cha.racterise as Quaanic ?al'ita, is articulated at an individual levl by the Muslim who, classically,sees no division between Islamic politics and Islamic religion. and at an institutional level by the sofl Order which establishesa link or silsila between the contemporary ShayLh and N{uhammad, the Prophet of God who, in tum, had indirect contact with Allah via Jibril. God's gi{is reinforce the link with man. (X the Battle of Badr in A.D 624 the Qur'.n notes: RememberHe coveredyou With a srt of drowsinss, To give you calm as from Hinself, and He caused on you Rain to descend Fron heaven,to clem you Therryith, to removfrom You The stainol Satd, your heets To strengthen fu d Ii yatbi!.r'ala wlnbihunl ,{[d to plant your fei Firmly therewith.lb The word suhba, 'companionship' or 'keeping of pious company', clearly has much in common with rabila Theolo who'kept it is the sahabd, gically,and, ofcourse, etymologically,

5 . FI RI TL. AL

2 U I i V E I L I N G T HE SAC R ED

company' with the Prophet himself, who constitute th, archetypical paradigm, and from whom may be derived th" archetypicalvirtues of such companionship The sahabahari become objects of hish veneration in Sunni Islam: they liguri prorninently in the isna& of many hadith; they are consider.,l to be eremplars of good practice or sunna; their foundational role in the establishment and reinforcment of early Islam gavt them an invincible charism to the extent that mockery or insult punisbrnents.rq ThmlL, of the sahabacould incur the severest gically, there is no doubt that the sofi practice of szhba shares rn this paradigm whose primary fature is the relationship and cornpanionship with the Prophet lvlubammad himsell This is not to say that the Shaylh necessarily parallels the sah,ala in thc areasoutlined above, nor that th penalty for insulting a quli Shaykh should in aay way follow that imposed for reviling the sahaba. lt is simply to point to an ideal relationship in 5nfi eyes between N{uframmad and his companions and suggest that, for in;zfba. s[f]s. rhis i. Lheprimal paradrem 'self-examination' has a clear The principle of rrdasaba or eqjoins a mode Qur'a:ric sanction.The sacredtext speciEcally of self'examination,though avoiding the use ofthe actual word nuhasaba: O rrewho blieve And let everysoullook he has To what (p.ovision) Sentforth for the morror. For God is well'acquainted With (all) rhat y do, And be ye not lile 'lhose who forgotGod; And He nade them iorget Then ovn souls! Such transsessorsl" Are the rebellious It is clear from this that the theologl' of muhasaba can be articulated as pa.d of a wider theolosy of fear of, and obedience 1]0

to, God as well as within a narrower paradigm of repentance and oenance. The verses quoted above, of course' with their refe.enc to th 'morrow' have obvious eschatological overtones a 'theology of preparation' for the i" att;. .""p..,, "-brace -i, last times whici is paralleled bv the Parable of the Ten Virgins in N{atthew 25:1 1il. of Th 6nal srlf ritual to be assessedhere under the rubric to earlier attention theology is the urird or litany We have drawn formulae the Priphet Muhammad's injunction to utter certain .. certain occasionsand John Main's emphasis on the mantra as a key to meditation and the penetration of self-consciousness' Vird. in tosal,'rruufcan threfore be, inter dlio' a conscious meditative technilue, silent or vocal' wherebv the soul focuses Prophettc (ieator. It mav be said to havea canonica] upon '(s bv the in SnFsm elaborared and ,nderlined o.iein una "u',.t'on. age mediaeval the from miy practitioners or reciters of at'rad Of course, the Arabic term fitd has a broader semantic 'animrls lhaniust lirany ltcan mean warelrngpld'e baseaee ro ."ir"i"e t. ttt" \rarer'. .pecified trme of da1 or n'ghr de\oled this on recired orivate"worship. a sectron o[ rhe Koran /r Penrrce in Sura 1a:8otwa crre.rhe Qur'anrc usage .rcasron. as: rus.qu aI nrjnnrln itn Jahaanorn raird-) which he translates to are driven cattle as Hett, into "r."i *" *;ti d.;u" the wicked rs verb warada the of water.'22 lf then one of the root meanings not it is life) 'to arrive at uarer' (a fundamental for human a difficult to combine the tltvo senses of uird and articulate the ii""iogy in *t;.t' *" .ecitation of certain formulae enables of Source Divine at, the upon, or even arrive ,"-'^"a;t"" "oi, and theologv i.ife ltself.']3 Such would be an eminentlv snfi goal.

5.2 Phenomenolog The phenomenon of meeting regularly for the recitation' vhether silent or vocal, of certain ritual utterances has an use antique phenomenological pedigree in manv religions The 151

SLI i RI TLAL

LNVEIL]NC :'HN SACRED 2

of music in worship and, to a rather lessrdegree,dance ar" similarly well'attested. We may identify at the heart of sul, dhibr and sama' the same triple phenomena of 'thanlsgivinr' 'rnemorial' and 'presence'which underpin, for example. the celebrationof the Roman Catholic Mass in Cbristianity.ri Ii, say this is not in any way to suggesta theologicalidentfication betveen the actual rituals of dhi[r and Eucharist. but onjy t,, identify a sharing of three underlying phenomena on ,*'hich those two rituals are built: the sufi is tlanff"l for God's bounn durins the articulation of his vocal or silent dli[z;'z5 thc nenorial ol trs God quietens his heart;rb and. in a mystical sense,he gains some kind of accessto the presence of God by his dhi[r. Schimmel envisases th silent dhihr as a species of mystical journey through the Arabic letters of the word Aila/r until the sufi is at the shining heart of the 6nal h of that word. ln the same mystical vein, she soes on to maintain that the constant repetition of dftiAr cleanses the heart and makes it receptive to the light of God and rellective of His beauty.:; If it is the business ofthe phenomenologist of religion to seek patterns and frameworks,r3and if it is true that 'structural description reveals the dominant pictures of the focus at a given time',2e it is clear that any analysis of the fundamental structures of most snh Orders swiftly identifies the dominant role of the dhilr (sometimeslinked to iarxr") within the ritual structures. From what we have already observed, that means that the triple phenomena of thanksgiving, memorial and presence assume a paramountcy for each order which may frequently exceedthe roles played by thosethree phenomenain mainstream non srlfi Islam. From the perspective of mystical theology, we have seen that slfi.f&r ,fihr rvas contrasted with dhihr. Phenomenologically, implies a witl to a type of contemplativeintellection which is beyond mere ordinary ratiocination.JavadNurbakhsh provides a useftll siii key in his deiinition of fbr as "'heart based" contemplation' which was to be 'found' not 'woven'.r0[rhen one deais with the phenomenon of,4[r, thm, in wsaun{, one rs dealing with a gnostic mode of thoughtful love of the Divine which transcends the fundamental intllctual structures of the 1;2

traditional sdlar. Sufis hav an increased oPportunitv through their fhr to garner'the divine sparks'which will help them on journey to God.jr ' then, fiom a s.fi phenomenological perspective, is fili, infused with a dimension of'value added' spiritualitv And if we accept thanksgiving, memorial and Presence as the keJ phenomenological lopoi deriving from dhi&r and sdma', then it is of transcendence which derives from ih" topos ot phe""-""on

fh,

Mworyrba, as a phenomenon,clearlv has a dual dimension: man keeps watch both tz'er himself and for someone else, God We may emphasise al Qusharyi's explanation of nwraqaba as a 32 Such mutual' 'waich keeping' between Creator and qtifi watchfulness participates in a paradigm of pragmatic anticipation: we have noted, in a slightly different context, the Parable of the Ten Virgins in Matthew 25:1 13 The warning which is siven, a few verses before the narration of this parable, is insrrucriue 'You mu'l be on lhe wdlch. then sincc )ou do nor know the hour of your Lord's coming.'r3 The phenomenon ol rdbita h Silfrsm, the bond beF/een disciple and Shaykh, and that of suhba' keeping pious companv, extend and emphasise in a special wav a paradrgm or ohenomenon established at the beginning of many of the world's major religions, that of discipleship: Jesus Christ in Christianity had His Apostles and disciples; Muhammad had his sahaba: Brddha collected disciples as he travelled and taught.ra N{any such leaders began slowlv with a few faithful rs Rabi@ is followers and gradually enlarged their fotlo\'"'ing itself an aspect of this more ancient phenomenon of disciple ship, atablished by the Prophet Muhammad himsell The Droblem. of course, which mav arise is that the link between Master and gofi disciple is perceived to be bevond that whicl is 36 And just as the licit in terms of reliance and infuence founders of manv of the world's great religions have endured great tuti prsecution and even death, so too many of -the lvlasters have also been reviled and Persecuted " The Master Discipleship relationship in Su6sm, while mirroring the proto-relationship of the Founder of the Faith 153

SUFI RITUAL

UNVEILING THE SACRTD2

to his disciples, exhibits another paradigm as well, that of the Custodian and the Recipient of mystical knowledge: the Shaykh, tied to his mystical ancstors and predecessors via the silsila is a primary custodian of the ancestral 'narrative' oi the ran-qa. It is he \vho transmits tHs 'narrative' in words and ritual to the mlr-rd or initiate, when the latter is inducted into the Order. That 'narrative' may be two-dimnsional insofar as it shares in the mainstleam history, beliefs and rituals of Islam. and then adds a new ritualistic or other dimension by means of features specific to that Order ot tLsau mf in general. In mainstream Islam the Muslim may derive much of the 'nartatle' of ddr al-lslam fron.,the arhan. Christopher Martin identifies four motives which reflect a religious 'narative in the urge to pilgrimage: healing, the searci for roots, penitence and As we have already seen,the Islarnic ial neatly homecoming.33 all four aspects or motives which, together, encapsulates transmit the Islamic 'narrative' of pilgrimage with panicular reference to lbrihim and Nfuhammad. In tasararaufwe have the phenomenon of an extn dirnension ofritual and mystical knowledge,an 'extended'narrative being transmitted from Shaykh to discipte by means of such devices as The obvious focal point for discussionhere, thei, is the 'dbitd. phenomenon of authority ard the question of who may licitly exerciseit in a modern post-Caliphal age. Close inspection of the phenomenon of mulasaba or 'selfexamination' reveals a primary tool of sofr ascesisdesigned, like ,f&7, to lead the aspirart to God. lf sin is held to be an obstacle on that path, then it is clear that identification of sin is the tust step to removing that obstacle. M asabaarticulates a theology of accountancy to God, which must be based on a phenom enology of tota.l honesty self knowledge and perspicacity if it is to yield valid results for the snfi in terms of salvation. Self examination allows sin to 'be prevented at its source, and the intention arld will mortilied in so far as they seek what is contrary to the Divine Will.'3'! It is not diffrcult to deriv a psychological, ascetical, moral or devotional theology from the writings of such arch-proponents of rnuhasabaas Harith b. Asad perspective, al-Muhasibi (781 857).From the phenomenological

rruhasaba is to be identified as a key, and ven foundational, asDctof the stiucture of the sdi Way in many of the tlnrq from which so much else derives. Like f br, as a phenomenon it is not a goal but a means. Structurally, it sits easily with other 91fi ascaical practices and rituals Epistemologicallv, it is a device for the sofi lo achiev rcal Lnowledge of the self together with that rpentance and turning to God about which the Qur'an talks so much.'o Finally. we turn to a brief phenome.nological survev of the rdrd, the litany, a public or private practice which has so much in comrnon with that of dii[r' The phenomenon of praverful repetition of certaia phrases is again well anested in many of the world's major religions, and these have often become insiitutionalised and ass<riatedwith specific ituals or saints *orls as an.id ro eon'entration fea-rdays.The phenomenon and meditation, and as such has both an obliterative and a directive content: the recitaiion of a litany seeksto obliterate from rhe mind of the !e. iter dnd. at lhe samerime Jisrracrron focus thal mrnd on anorher godl direcr or We have already noted that John Main used the word 'mantra' (his equivalent of one sns of raizd) in teaching meditation. The underlying intention of both is the same lt as 'a journev vields a ohenomenon which Main characterises that'the \r'av ihrough the undergro'ith ofthe ego' He obserwes 'fhe is like a beacon mantra tkough is the way of the mantra . guiding us *rough [th storm of distraction] and we must keep our attention on it.'{r Such words have an equal applicabi}itv to {2 the ;r:fi phenomenon of ulird Phenomologically, we noted earlier that the hve dr&an ' a constituted a 'block of beliel action and/or ribral summary of religion' and also that itual not onlv feeds functrons ds d recpon5ero ir' Srmilar experience bur also remarks, from the same perspective, might be made about the eieht qufi rituals which we have just suruved Phenomenoloor a parallel bLrtnot alternattveunrverce grrally,rhey <reare at or' have whi.h ofren thP sdfi, fot Qur'ani' nrual structures and or echoes origins least. mainstream Islarnic antecdents' which build theseinto a paralleistructure or pattern, sometrmes

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as an adjurlct to mainstream ritual. These rituals of Srtfrsm are contextualised within the extra curricular framework of, for example,'presence','thanksgiving','transcendence'and other similar phenomena as we have seen; structural analysis reveals a central focus on love of God achieved by ascesisand its multiple tools. The supererogatory rinals employed by Snfism not or y fuel the mystical experienL e bur enable a response,somerime. in a Lind of two way dialogue, for example as in nuraAba. Finally, if, as Eliade and Smart insist, ritxal in general 'rnay abolish spaceand time',43then there is no doubt that the same may be held of many of the lnfi rituals which we have jusr surveyed. The following quotation from a young 'turner' in the sama' of the Mawlawiyya (Mevleviyrya) provides an excellent illustration of this: Sometimes, during the sema it feels as if Mevlma is holdingmy hdd. I beginto smileiDside, md my heart is warm, and later it is as if what Dy eyessee is differentfrom before.'a

mate.ialistic objectives are suddenly despised. We cannot say that they suddenly becone religions of non attachment, pmmising only disillusionmnt in this life. Rut they travel sone way along this path.'rt Can at least some of the same kind of phrases be applied to the parallel universe of snfi itual? Mainstream Islam has never insisted upon an attitude of contempt for this worid, though it has insisted that the less weli off should be catered for, for example through the payment of zahat, on of the 6ve dr&an. However, we have also seen that th parallel universe of sufi ritual often has elements of ascesis and that there mdl be a profound contempt for the world and all that materially pertains to it. Indeed, st6 Orders such as the Tijaniyya, with its acceptance of wealth and less than total emphasis on z!ld, are the exception rather than the rule.a3 Earlier, in the anthropological assessment of the frve atuan, w noted that the real focus should be on the human 6gure of the Prophet N{uhammad.In the parallel universeof sofi ritual, from an aithropological prspctive, the prima.ry focus is on the ascetical saint or Shayl,i who may or may not be one and the same. One Shaylh expressed the need in verse: on a wker to take [a] sheikh? He aks: 'Is it incumbent without a fathet?'l' I replied:'Was a child everreared

5.3Anthropology
The well known anthopologist Ma-ry Douglas has stressedthat 'most reiigions promise by their rites to make some changesin external events.'asShe adds that 'somewhere the beliefs must be safeguarded against disappointment or they may not hold assent' and she gos on to provide a number of ways 'of protcting ritual from scepticism-'46 Among these is 'for the rcligious teaching to change its task. In most everyday contxrs it tells the faithful that their fields will prosper and thir families flourish if they obey the moral code and perform the proper ritual services. Then, in another context, all this pious effort is disparaged, contempt is thrown on right behaviour, 156

With such attirudes it is hardly surprising that the Shaykh will involve himself both as teacher and leader in the major s':fi rituals. The reason is clear: in particular, th Shaykh, as source Cilsenanputs ir. kno*s rhe 6atin'0 Thi. is an immense of power and authority.5l It is the Shaykh who will perform the initiation and, usually, will be presentat, aDd lead,;']the dhibr either he or his delegat and the snma". Trimingham insists that it is via initiation that a nurid gains full admittance to the spiritual world, thereby assuring succession in the Order. He cites the Uwaysi Khadir tradition as an example of 'spiritual initiation' but notes that 'norma/|" ir ronws throushsridan,e ndlr a thi-s wu1ldno:tcr." provided by a Shadhili Shaykh, the In a typical 6ay'a formula, mr.rr;d expresses repntance to God and acceptance of his

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teachingShaykhas mentor, Ieaderand guide to cod's presnc.. and as murshll on the sAfr Path. He promises total obdienc r{, his Shaykh and asks God to confrm him in that obedience. llr finally asks God to confirm him in the tan-qaof Abo 'l-Hasan al-Shadhili who is characterised as 'the Shaykb of Shayltrs. .' In this 6ay'a the ranks of Shaykh and saint are neatly linled In a very real sense, the Shaykh is, for the muntrm. thc embodiment of the path to sainthood and the world of the spirit. For this reasonhe hgureslalg in many of the s.fl rituais. In the Ni"matullahi dhiha for example,the Master plays a ke_v role in the proceedings:describing the suft d[it' Pourjavad'" and Wilson note how the Master, the Shaykh of the Order. whom they call the Qutb, ma], or may not say a few words but, more importantly, will be responsiblefor beginning the dfti[r,r jali, a ritual which takes place in complete darkness. Similarly it is the Master who will concludethe dhiir with aprayer.ij In the ritua] meal which follows the dftihr, which is called 'hot p,ot';o;1 is the Shaykh who 'begirLs the meal according to the sunna ofthe Prophet with a pinch of salt ''; t ater the Master signals the official conclusionofthe majlis by rising and leaving the room, pmnouncjng at the sarnetime the words 'Ya 'Ali.'ir Here, in both dhibr and ritual meal the physical,as opposedto spiritual, focus is on the Shaykh at the beginning and at the end. Elsewhere, the Shaykh in the Naqshbandi ritual may also make himself responsible for counting the number of repetitions of a phrasein the dhilr with the use ofa rosary;jeother methods of 'controlling' the proceedingsmay include the use of stonesor marbles: the Shaylt will have a bag containing small stones or marbles in f.ont of him. As the ritual gets under way, the Shayl-h will remove a stone or marbte from the bag and put it on one side. In this way he will be able to tell at a slance how many times a particular dhiAr has been recited.60 1'he dhiir in the Naqshabandiritual, and, indeed, in that of other Orden, is thus clearly subiect to the direction of the Shayi.h6r who is a primary focal point in so many of an Order's activities.6'/ \Vriting of the Muhammadiyya Shadhiliyya, Johansen notes a marked disparity between the official descriptions of its rituals and the reality which he actually
158

observed during his field study in Egypt He put this down to the poor health of the Shaykh and noted the minimalist nature 63 of the dhi&r when the Shaykh was bedridden rmponrnceof a ln rhe light oi dll this. si\en the pa-ramount Master or Shayhh, both ritually and administrativeln in the tlpical lnfi Order, it comesas no surpriseto discoverthat some critics have declared that the role of the Shaykh has become too powerful. The wonhip due to God has been replaced, in their Such remarks,however, eyes,'by worship of individual men.'64 reflect either a corrupted form of Sl6sm or, alternativelv, ignore ttr- rcal anthrcpological role of the sufi Shaykh in an Order's rituals. While it is tru that the emphasis in many of the Orders and their rituals focuses on the role of the Shaykh together with his teaching arrd ritual functions, it has to b borne in mind that Sufism classically considrcd the lv{aster or Shayll to be a channel, not a telos.Accordins to this classicalpa-radigm'the spiritual focus is always God. Describing the dhihr ol the Ni'matullehi]rya, Pourjavady and Wilson conclude that 'the effect of so many voices calling on God in unison' in the darkness which hides their ferwour and gives it an anonymity which symbolizes the extinction of the sell the effect of their passion for the ,Absolute is extraordinary, evn for an outsider.'6i Anthropologically the Shaykh may be said often to be at the hart of the rituali theologicallyGod is held to be the heart ol the ritual. If it is believed that the Shaykh is a na'essdryguide to the Divine in Sn6sm, then it follows that he must also be a guide in terms of the ituals ol rasauwrf66 If it is corrcctlv ofthe murid to his Sheikh'wilt channelled.then'the defrence not be considered idolatry.6; Thus the other, more minor rituals which we have surveyed,whether obviously focussedupon the figure of a Shaykh, lile rabi& and saibd, or less obviouslv connected like fh, wird, muraqaba and mtthdrdbd' all have as a teaching authority or interyreter the figure of the Shaykh or Master himself. This is evident in the seminal role played bv the writings of the modern safl Masters, to whom we have referred at vaious times, li.ke Dr. Javad Nurbakhsh and Shavkh Nazim al Qubrr:si. The teachingmay be formal, by instruction
159

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the or writings, or mrly by example.63 Anthropologically leadership central role of the Shaykh in administratron, and ritual remains the sam. Abn al Najib al Suhrawardr (10971168) put it lile this in his famous Suf Rule for Not';ces (Kitah Adab aI M"rtdt"), here companionship is interpreted as servicei Conpmionship with the naster (uaadn) is by obedience, s it is not really compantonship but *rvice. Conplete obedience od respect towards the master de requned. The mster in the midst of his followers is like the prophet iD the midst of his commuity. lumyd once answered a question of one of his disciples md th lattd expressed objection to the eswer; Jmayd thm said, 'If 1'ou do not bdieve in Dy words, dissiate yourselves from me.' He should.behau touuds the Shaykh libz the Compdnions uith the Prcphet in follauing the ethis of th.

@,l".* We are now in a position to retum and assessthe applicability of the remarks by Mary Douglas with which this anth-ro' pological sectior commenced. Islam, like many of the world's major religions, does indeed hold forth a promise of maling some impact on extemal phenomena by its rites. For example, the ritual p.ayer and the hajj foster a strong sense of community. ArId the d'l.n are not mere ritual talisrnans against death. They prodaim links with the eternal and the Divine while also fosterine life on earth. Sufi rituals, however, ftequently look to the extinction of self and can, indeed, as ascesisadva:rces, become vehicles 'of non attachment. promis ing only disillusionment in this life.''o lt is from this prspctive that we may detct the g.eatest differences, anthropologically and theolosica.lly, between the drlan on the one hand and the traditional ritua.ls of the sufi Orders on the other. Talal Asad, in assessing 'The ldea of an Anthropology of Islam' holds tMt one should explore ditrerences as wel as parallels.Tr He notes that all antkopolosists of Istam will be readily aware of the wide diversity in Muslim belief and practice which exists today.7'? In formulating an anthropology of Islam, there is a need to return to the Iirst ts.tual principles of r For Asad it is the authorisation by Qur'an and hadrth 160

'discursive t.adition'in lslam which makes a prachce trulv Islamic. Its teacher and exponent mav be a 'alin, sofi Shavkh or. bv contrast, even an uneducatedparent-taAsad concludes: 'An anthropology of Islam will therefore seek to understand the historical conditions that enable the prcduction and mantenance of specific discursive tmditions, or their transformation of practitioners to achieve coherence '7i - una tl" a "itott. N{uch of this is true of gifi ritual as well $'6sm establishes the to oarallel universe of ritual structures whose parallels the ,"e4", * *"ll as whose differences from the drhan' are diversitv the highlights ritual S':fi subiectmatter of this volume. Manv of its major elements claim to be p*.ti.". oi i"t^-i. ol founded upon, and &awr from, the textual discourse The Shavktr, as the custodian of intelleciual t"l"""- and thus power' sanctions bv his knowledge of the -nin"t knowledee practices 6,atin, as"well as by his silsila and his sajjada, the itual or set 'moment" of rhe tai4.t. Each taliqd is born at a particular in histoical tirne The rituats' and the discursive '-"-."t"' "f in the ritual traditions of each, reflect the past as they opemte present and Presagethe future-

5.4 Semiotics arhan Our eatlier xamination of the semioiics of the live was itself stressed that eve4thing signified and that the Qur'an with a a world of signs. The badrth literature ioo, is replte th" fumous hadith of Gabriel, for example' to of "e.'"" *" "isr',"i" referred, Muhammad is questioned fi."" *""*t,imes (Ia ahhbirnr -*.f' about The Hour (al-Sla) and askedabout its sicls lan anaratihaJ. ihe Prophet famouslv replies in terms of theof slaw girl giving bnth ; her mistress and the appearance in construct' 'barefooteJ nakd, destitute herdsmen competing -" While thesewold' at 6rsr sighL seemro ine lofry buildines varrou'lv oa]ruke'of tt'" ajai6 genre o( adab rhev have been r' the hinself br al-Nauaui prourded inr".pr"r"a amongtho.e who daughters arrd to sons id* ih"t '"lau" girls will give birth who bore those will become free and so be the maste$ of
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them.'77Classicallytbe 'Signs of The Hour' (Ishardt al-Sa';) form an important element in eschatological literature.;3 It is from both the sign saturated Qur'an and hadr'rh that the 6ve arhan, and their related theologies, derive. We saw earlier that ach of these classical arinn (a) could be described as a comtEmoratiTte sign and (b) that each had 'an outward form and an inner meaning.' In discussing now the semiotic dimensions of the parallel univerce of sufr rituals, it is proposed here !o examine the eisht areas of dhihr, sana', jhr, nun4aba, fibita. s.rhba, muh.rsabd.and wird firstly in terms of whether they ar, or are not, commemorative signs and, secondly, in terms of their exotric arld esoteric featu.es. We will also attmpt to assess whether each of these aspects of the paratlel ritual universe complements the dr&an, or actually conflicts with those pillals, thereby sigaalling an ineluctable alndtion from the main stream of Islamic ritual. Semiotically, the dhihr has much in common with the shdhadr; indeed, the lafter may constitute the dhihr fior a tafiqa. As the sense of the word implies, dhi[r signals a desire to remember the Divine, whether by repetition of the Divine Name or Names, or of anothe. related formula. The performance of a dh;&r is thus a commemorative sign par excellence, signalling monotheism, devotion, remembrance and 'belonging' in a very special qnfi way. Ritual has been neatly defined as 'the ceremonial re enactment, or acting out, usually in the form of liturgical celebration, of profound religious mysteries. It is a visible sign of the invisible but active relationship between Cod and man.'7eAII this is true of the 'liturgy' of the dhitr. The deinition highlights, too, the exoteric and esoteric dimensions of dhibr whose outward form dassically reveals in word, and exalts, the inner theology or, at least, sentiments of the participant. Having observed a zib (dhihr) ;n Aswan in Upper Egypt, Gilsenan was moved to skess the centnlity of 'the notion of contact.' The saints and ecstasywer intermediary channels by which tbe snfr might gain some contact with the Divine mysteries. Gilsenan identifred the 'concentrated power'which was to be experienced by the participant in the zi[r. Th chanting of God's names and the 162

rhlthmical movement seemed to him to connect the sifi 'to forces that seem to come from outside, from the word of the Divinity.' A combination of sPiritual emotion and phvsicai labour in the zibr gave the s.fi an unrestmined freedom of xprssion v/hich might easily have incurred the censure of a more cosmopolitan, Cairene, non snfi observer'3u Gilsenan's description immediatly raises trl/o points: the first is the omnipresent danger of excessin irlfi itual. Dhihr mav be a perfect complemenr to the drhar but it' over-exuberan articulation has roused the urath of manv non'snfis and appared to set it in conflict with those very arban x a superstitious rival. The second point is one of authoritv. If the mainstram. non-snft %lim from the Azhar, or faqih, mav be characterised as the custodia.n of intellectual power, then any oerceived or suspected antinomianism in sofi ritual and practice, whether intended or not, may provole violent hostilitv. In surn, while $n6sm in its ideal form may appear to belong to the realms of private devotion and, mainly hidden ascaicism, the realitv may sometimes reveal 'superstition and idolatrous excess'3t The fgure of Dr. 'Umar'Abd al-Rabman' so sraphicallv port.ayed in Johansen's S fvn and lslanic Refotn in Esvpt, constitutes a neat modem paradigm of the kind of intolerance of sufis which is likely to be ncountered in the modern world He is rhe kind of enemy of Su6sm qho praisesa young man who chooses to postpone his set prayers in pteference to joining 3r And others in prayer in a mosque which houses a tomb becaus there is no explicit mention of sufis either in the Qur'an or the hadith according to him, their origins are In sum, Sufism is an 'innovation'; its rittals and illeeitimate.33 practices should be branded as unbelief (&a,rt)and the rise oJ the Orders is simply a mirror of the current decline of Islam.3i It is clear from all this that the practice of dhthr would certainly have been a major subject of Dr' 'Abd al Rahman s 6erce strictures and that dfiiit arrd other sufi practjces cannot only rouse an acute distaste in the non-stfi but positivelv dlienztethe sufi ffom his non-sufi co religromst lvluch of what hasbeen said about diik can be applied to the full sonra'. We stressedearlier the theological ambivalencein 163

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Islam regarding the use of music and chant outside the dtlan and Qur'anic tdJutd; there is no doubt that the use of music and dance in the sanrZ"of a slfi 4n-qa can be a profoundly alienatine experimce for the observer raisel with even som of the vie*s of Dr. 'Abd al Rahman citd above. Thus, on the one side of the coin, for the sufi participant, the sama" can be a profoundly commemorative religious sign. For the Mawlawl dervish the sdttir' is an axplosion of joy whose cont.ibutory parts are the annihilation of self and the praising of God. Performance of the sama' gives accessto, indeed, makes present, the sublirne state of the blessed b Paradise whose joy it is to witness God eternalll. accordingto Rnmi (1207 1273).3' On the other hand, we have the 'appalledfascination'of Ibn Battota (1304 1368/9 ot 1377), the sreat North African traveller of the fourteenth centurv. 'when he witnessed the excesses of orders like the Rifa'iyrya, whose adherents near Wasit he saw indulging in tue-dancios and fire-eating during Jalal al Din Rlmi and Ibn Battnta, on these occasions at least, interprted the sdma" in very differmt ways- For the former, the samn' signalled a point of contact with the Divine; for the latter it signalled excessand trickery. For the former, the sdma"was a true commemorative sign of God's presence;for the latter, the ritiral signalled man's unbounded capacity 1or excess and charlatanry. Finally, the sama' for Rnmi was an outward sign of the jnner reality of God; for Ibn Battuta it was an outward sign of the inner reality of mans foolisbness.And altbough Ibn Battuta was not alienated from Sufrsm by what he saw his career exhibits a continuing fascination with sr:fis and Sr:fism he did not share in Rnmi's mystical appreciation ofthe nol on rhis oc.a5ion. rac'ed riludl. or. at ledst. The other six ritual practjces which constitute our panllel universe of rofi ritual, may be assessedmore briefly from the ir i. inslrucli!e lo note .emioricperspe.rr\e Frrstly. however. what Mircea Eliade has to say on the theme of the sacred. Eliade holds that the manifestadon of the sacrd is always as a reality which is completely different from other 'natural' realities.We only recognisethat which;s sacredbecauseit is so profoundly 164

mvstery is differmt fiom what Eliade calls the profane Th within those that we perceive a sacred' non tenestial reality I as prolane characterrsed *..ra which much be ir'il"" "r'J;. ti".Jltiua" a*"= u,t*tron to a *orld of contrast' thdtofthe and the sacred where inasnangebutsignifi'antua; orofane with added if'" f",i". * recognised bv and indeed imbued the a*an With former' the of b".""* .f *te existence no longer course' is, of -*";"e and s,:i ritual, ihe dynamic contrast be must the profane' for both ir-r" J*;"" "a.."d-und set mamstream characterised as sacred. It is, rather, btween a feeds off' and. which set of sacred rites, and a supererogatory leti: dnd rrres or rhe ororides an exttd dimension for. the lslam Thus rne sana is nor underraken bv ;"ir*'*"mo{e anv sufi simDh' because it focuses on dance and chant' own their for anirnists bv trees are worshipped ir.* ""-"a sama" provides an exka dimension of the sacred' sahes. The thar is more rhanjust rh"lhmic movemenl .howing somerhme herond pure dhih' uhich in oi **Ln*.r, ."a 'nd ".i-.", uitimatelv on the mainstream Qur"an and a"p."a" *..,

!r..i"J.'eila"

they show not bcausethey are stones and tres but'because '33 He something that is no longer stone or tre hrt the satred object becomes eoes on: 'By manifesting the sacred, anv for it conttnues itsef remain iorrrethins el:i. yet ]t continues to '3e This is as true cosmicmilieu io o"rticiput"; its ".,noundingit is oI the 'worship' of stones lt uf",r'" "am.a'as "tiJ 'i*4" bevond is ihis intention to focus upon, ajrd manifest, the sacred rt makes that ritual the formal boundaries of mainstream far without the sdma' a ritual like ,o f". ,ft" "ot lack"nact "o.*iUt" r, ; the to perceive the,sense of the abilitv of iilia". antagontst' sacred within such rituals that leads the non- s[tr referred have we whom to Rahman' 'Abd al *" O.. 'U-* from it alienated totally Sunsm and bcome ," "*-ti"r" srfil all ""tfi*, the y"i'ii, tt'.." *t'. t'"'e a religious experiencetlike The ; *p"Sf" of revealing itsetf as cosmic sacralitv ""i"." cosmos in its entiretv can become a hierophanv ritual andI can think of fe'rr' better semiotic analvses of sofi

and treesare worshipped insiststhat stones

of zs 'rheacroJman{estdtion p.*ii.". Eii"i" a"ri*" hiercph.,nt

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the sacred.'el Stfi rituais and practices, for those who undertale them, are signs and signals of the sacred. And each ritual or practice, whethe. it be the public sam.a'or the private nltra(laba, creates a sacrcd space. There is, Eliade tells us, an irruption of the saqed that results in detaching a territory from th sunounding cosmic milieu and making it qualitatively differ ent.'" He cites the Old Testament example of Jacob's Laddel we may cit here also the sdrn4', in its Mawlawi (Mevlevi) articulation. Friedlander describes the 'unfolding' and whirling of the dervishes accompanied by both music and chant. Sh envisages celestbl energy being charurelled through the right palrns of the turners and exiting from the body into the earrh via the left pa.lms.Thus, she concludes,'with extended arms, the dervish embracesGod.'er It remains for us to xamine the semiotics of the six other aras of snfi tual and practice to which we have refeffed at various times in this volume: fbr, nuraqaba, hba, 'abita., muh^aba ar,a uirdIn the distinctions which are sometimes made between dirlr and fhr, it has been claimed that the appeal of dlib' is more sensory while that offbr is more to the intellect.e+ For the sufi the latter demands a concentration on a parricular rIigious topic with a schematic and progressive form of meditation. ln dii[r, however, the concentration focuses often on a single Divine Name and the s!fi permits himself to be 'lost' in the contempladon of that Name. For this reason repetition becomes extremely important.e5 Fi[r signals an interior, almost arid, intellectualisation of the sacred, producing no mere 'refreshment for the soul' as in dhibr but a guidanc of 'the initiate towards the single divine majesty.'eb Of its very nature it has only an internal aspect. lacking the often public display associated with dhihr. Filzr rs not a commemorative sign in the senseof a past event (though one or more may be summoned to mind) but it is a process which attempts to actualise the sacred in th present and to create a sacred space around the practitioner or rnurdfdiiir ln this respectit may b perceivedas lessthreateningor alienating than the ovrt ritual of the dlthr. 166

The semiotrcs of contemplation, muraqaba, are not dissimila-r from those of jtu. Herc we find the same interiorisation of spirituatity. Waleyk rendition of mtuaqa.ba as 'contemplativ vigilance' and 'contemplative watchfulness' was noted earlier-e7 Muraqaba, n its diection of the mind and soul to God, ideally signals for the su6 man's response to God's care for maJI as articulated in the Qur'an:'3 Foi ihat We pour forth Water in ablndance And we split the eaJth And produce thereinCotn, And Grapes and nutitious Plmts, Atrd Olives and Dates And enclosedCardens, Dose with lofty trees, And FNits dd Fodder, For useand convenience To you and your catde.'" Just as God has thus created a sacred space on earth for the multiplication and division of His gifts to mankind, so too must the practitioner create a sacred space, empty and alone, for the purpose of his mutAqdba.roo Murzqaba thus signals an act of gratitude and drawing closer to the Divine, a process which, for the faithful practitioner will ultimately be transcnded by the Beatific Vision of God Himself vhen the qnfi veils will be rent. The outwa-rd seclusion sought by the murdqib signals or mirrors the inner seclusion and goal.It is not a commemorati'|ve srgn on a solitaJy con.mrratron future. lfconsidered in blissful Paradisical a sign of hope a but as an extension or outgro*th ofthe fivefold salat, it can neither be said to be an alienating or a threatening practice to the nonpair' Rdbild and suhba m,y be cons'deled ds a "emrotrc to, indeed annihilaof attachment Rabird with its connotation tion in, the sublime 6gure of the Shaykh or Master, signals obedience and fidelny. The archetypical paradisrn is that of
16t

st]li RtTriAL

UNVEILINC THE S,\CRTD 2

Ibrahim and Isma"rl: the latter obeyed the former while both manifested a heroic obedince to the will of God.r0r ln this senst /dbitd is a commemorative sign or mirror image of all pa-;t relationships of Master Disciple in Islam in which instruction io spirituality and/or the will of God is the key focus. The inner submission (nlam) ofthe will is mirrored in the outward action of obedience and potential or actual sacrince. But while the Ibrahirnic paradigm just outlined accords pdfectly with main steam, non qufi Islam, rabi@ can atso be a focal point of alienation if the bond betwen Masler and disciple becornes distorted or colrupted, and is petceiud (even if in reality it is not the case)either to encroachupon that which should exist between the worshipper and God alone or, alternatively, to be a vehicle for the self glorfication or even delusion of the teaching Shaykh.r0l S rba, as we have seen, has much in comrnon with rabt a and may be said to sharein a similar semioticpool. ln its emphasis on pious companionship it may be characterised as an intense forlr:, of ftbird uhereby ritual and spiritual knowledge are transfened from Master to novice. ln the intimacy of sp;itual converse between the two, 5rlrba may well be described as a pale rellection of the ardent commurion of Moses with God on the Mount,ror part of which is articulated in the Qur'an in characteristically semiotic phrases: (God)said... Thos who bhav&rogantly On the earth in defiance Of right them will I Turn away from NIy Sig'li: Evn if they seeall the Signs, They will not believe in them; And if they seethe way they will Of right conduct, Not adopt it as the Way; But if they se the way Of error, that is The Way they will adopt. For they have rejected 168

Our Si3rx, md failed To tale wdning from them Those who reject Our Signs And the lr{eting in the Heteafter, Vain ae then deds: Can thy dpct to be rewarded Except as they have wrought?]oa with Thus Moses, here, in the intimacv of his semiotic converse (The Friend God, and lbdhm, who bore the title Kidltl Allah of dod),tot both provide models for the practice of t&hbd unflawed by alienating asPcts Mlhasala, or 'self'examination' is an easy ritual to examine for its semiotic content. It signa.lsa desire for metAnoid, change to of heart. It does not commemorate so much as look forward the Angeis bv undertaken be *'hether thev i.,t,r.. Nakir106 or on the yat'n ol'Qilano itself lt is Munlur"*r-ir'"tion", "r'd its ffected within the innermost realms of man's being and the intention is to alienate that person from ilture sin and desire to cornrnit sin. Finallv, {or the lnfi, uitd is a corffnemotative sign of the or univeni presence of God By the repetition of short litanies public o*v.rs, o,re. und ol'o again, the sufi signals and makes i'hit he believes to be an inner realitv. The Shadhili mvstic lbn uould 'iil ,ll.f' rdred I lnq) held tbdt onlv an ignoramus the lile lrtanies eren though of lrranies tbe recirarion disparage of more u*l't' u"d thdt insp;atron from Cod *a' *"'ta .u-outa value.107 Here the mystic signalled both the value and the value evanescenceof the eartblv litanv by comparison $'ith the the stresses he also of what derives from the Hereafter' But that God rn,rt,Aiw of""a'.h;" both God and man He states seek' man to recitelitanies wfule man acrivelv a*;* ".,i'ay a drticulate we mdv thi' insonarion from Cod fr"m all and man' inspires of v""*i"e vlherebv God loves and "".i;oti." y"*ns io m"'if that love and inspiration bv praver' chant -* and litanv of in this Chupt". we have examined the parallel universe phenomenology' sofi rituals ftom the perspctives of theology, 169

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anthropology and semiotics. Tbroughout there have been certain recurrent themes: one of these has been the theme of alienation. It is this, togethe. wi.h the $]fr doctrin offdna', which will constitutethe sub-stntum of the concludins chapter

Notes
1 Schimmel, Deariains the Sisrs of GoA, p. 147. 2 Al Bu-khari, Sdhih olBtbhan, ed Muhmad Muhs; Kho, (3rd rev edn.,Chiogo: Kei Publications, 1979), Vol. 8: I( ab dI Da'a1Lat: Chap.68, no.417, pp.278 279j s al6oMulhkdi gdhih dl B .han Sunnatized $ahk aI Bubhnn, ed. Muhanad lvluhsin Khan. (Rjyadb: Maktaba Dar al Saleh. 199+): Kitah aLDa'Mt Chap. 20, no. 2090, pp. 979-980. 3 lichimel, Dedplatns ttu Siga of GaJ, p. 10a. 4 lbid ., p p . 104 10s ,p. 111n .4 0 . 5 W.*, Dictioury oJ Monzm W;ttei Atubb, p.724 sv f'hr. 6 L. Gadet, art. 'Filr', EI', Vol. 2, p. 891; for Qur'anic efcences se below m. 11 & 12 7 Gddet. art. 'Fikr', p.891. 8 tbid. 9 Ibid., p. 892. (Al Ghaal;, however, disagreed. See Waley, Con templative Disciplines , p. s4.+). 10 Se Gddet, art Fik, p. 891. 1 1 q 2 ,2 1 9 2 20,s e als oQ , 2 :2 6 6 . 12 q 7:184;trms. Yusuf Al;, The H oU qt1 a, p. 39/-,s& alsoQ. 34:.16 14 W tr4ontgomery Watt, Muhonnaa at Me@, p. +4. se al$ p. ,10.See ale Mdtin Linss, Mufidnturl: lls Life B6ed ot thz farli.xr Sares, P '13 15 Waley, 'ContehplativeDisiplin6', p. 535. 16 A1 Ghazdli, AL Mdqsdd. oLAw Ji Shath Ma'dni Ainn' AIInh al. H'/Aru, p. r2817 W Montgomdy Watt , Munannad: Prophetand Statestun. v 31. 18 Q,8:11i tro9 Yusuf Ali, The llolr Qr'd, p. 117 19 I. Goldziher,dL Dalriba, ElS, p. a88. 20 q 59:18 19; trds. Yusuf Ali, ?he Holl Qtur"an, pp. ls26 1527 21 Weh!, Di.tiotuD, o/ Modem Wriu^ AtabX. p. 1060 * una 22 John Penrice, A Di.tioturt dnl CLssLtt of tie Ko r,ii, (Ri.hmond: CuzoD Press,1993,rep!. ofnes edn. of 1971),P 158 sv ud"ald. 23 Obvious analosies for this idea will be foud in John 4:13 1s. 24 SeeCatechsnof the CarholirChnch, pp 30s 306nn 1:l;6 1364.

25 SeeSchimel, DecipAains tne Sigro oI God pP 1l7 148' 26 lbid.. p. 147. 27 lbid., p. 148. ot,he S@ed, P. 29i 28 Smart, DiMim 29 Idem , Phmmaot oI Religim. P 3E. 30 Nubaksh, In the ParcAi.e oJ the SdE, P 62. 31 Snair, Di'l16im oJ ti ^Sd.'ed,p 6s 32 SeeWaler 'Contenplative Disciplines, p. s3b 33 N{atGew 24:.12;trans. Ronald Knox, The Hob BibLe:The Neu Tara@t, (London: Burns & Oates/N{&nillm & Co., 1960) 34 lje Nidd Sman, B&hsotnd to the Lns Search' (London: BBC, p 50. 1977), 3s For m lslmic exmple, se lkhwo al Safe', Rdla\l lhhuan dl $aJa" 36 SeeDjeialddin Ans{i, 'Basic Tea.hings of the Sufis in Djelalddin dl., V;its to S!,[ Cnt'rs: Sme Reent ResedtchI'ape$ on As&i "r (London: Th Scitv {or Suli Studies, 1980), pp 2 dnd Sl]ifl. S!-lqs ff. 37 lbid. 'Ihe Tdblet ..,1'th Inre 1991, 38 Christophr\Idtin, 'Placesof Crace , 761--764. W 39 Smth, Ar rdrl:v Mrs,ic oJ PashJatl, P 1i3 {0 Se,for dmde, q {2:25 p.33 41 Main, Tle Wa! oI Unhnouins, The S4 Otdds in IslM PP 2r4 215 42 SeTriminghd, a3 SeSmart. DJ116im of tne Sac'sd, p 83 .{4 lra F.iedldder, Th" */iirlias D.roishes, p 68 4s Mary Dolglas, Pt t! an'J Ddnsd: An Aulvsis af the Condpts oJ Pollutin atul Td6@, (London & New York: Rourledge rePr' 1996), p. 175. 46 lbid. 47 l bi d., p 176. ,18 S.e Jmil 11. Abu N asr, 'the 'tii,nitJd: A S$ Ordd if, the MoAan !.16ll, pp. 46 4 t-. 19 Julim Johans, Sl4'n atd klmic Refon in Espt: The Bdttle fv Isldai. ?radltid, Oxford Oriental Monosraphs, loxford: Cluendon Pr6s, 1996),P 203 50 Gilsend, R.cosninglsldn. p 116 51 S ei bi d.,pp. 116 111. 52 See ibid., p' 1:15for compaing Shavkhs in the dnih'l The Su,f Orders in Islan p. 187 53 (My italics) Triningho, 54 l bi d.. pp. 186 1E t & Wilson, Kings dIlo,e p. 170 5s (My italics)Pourjavady 56 Ibid , p. 176 n 5 57 (IIy italics)lbjd., p 171 't 71

170

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58 tbid. 59 Habib, SoneNotes on the NaqshbodrOrdc, p. 47. 60 Ibid. 61 SeeDraper,Ca. Srldr, p. 130. 62 SeeHabibis, Conpardttue St!{, p 407. 63 Johm*n, Sdn andftl,/nic ReJm in Estp,-p. 2r3.
64 MassoudHohayouni, AiseR t .Sa4 Qu6rioa d.Sq[q, P' 17.Se arso the remrks of selyed F Hosein, Tlp sui, o/ Tod4r. G,ndon: DesignistComunications Ltd., 1981),p. 16. D( Pourid\ddy& U ilsoD. Kins" of Lnu?.p. t?0. 66 SeeJohdsen, Sltsn dnn kLrnic Refm in EsJpr, pp. 180 1E2. But *e the rddks of Gilsend on the Shaykh of a group of Ahrudiyya in Aswd who d6 not aslhe a l@dechip role (Recosnizins Islatu, p. 88). 67 Johasen, S,lfsn dnd Islanic Refdn in Estpt, p. 197. 68 Se Draper, Cr6dSr/dr, pp. 26 27; Habibis, Cmpatut;ae S'.\ly v 2i9 where the Shaykh givs the mrtdin a peMnal ui'd,. 4 Suil RulpJd Nd\"s Kitab Adab 60 Vmdhem \',Iil{n & 'pd. 'rdn, oI Mur ta oJ Aba dl Ndrtb (CMbrids, il1as. & dl.Srh'@ath, Londotr: Hatudd University Press, 1975), pp. 46 47: abridged nansLtron of {bu \r,b al {uhmsddr K 4b Adnb dt Munhn, ed Me'alem Milson, p. 37 (A.abic text of the Kir.or). i0 Datslaq Punt, dnd DdnEe\ p. 176. 71 Talal Asad, The ldaa oJ dn hrhtopolos! ol Islan, p. 4. 72 lbid., p. s. 73 Ibid., p. 1.1. 7 4 I bid., p . 1 5 . 7 5 I bid., p . 1 7 76 Al Nawau, oi-Arba'm,pp. 30 33 (Hadith no. 2). 7 7 lbid ., p .3 2 n. 7. 78 Se dt. 'Ishdret al-Se'a' in Netton, Porllar Dicrlioury oJ Islan, p. 125. 79 John Baldek, The Elefletts of Chtrt'ur Srrrboinn, lshafresbury. Dorset, ElementB@ks, 1990, 1997),p. 109. 80 Gilsean, Re.osrizinsIsldn, P 89 81 Johdsen, Sursn aid Isld^i. ReJm in EsJet, p 163 82 Ibid., p 1.+7. 83 Ibid. 84 lbid. 85 Friedl@der, Whirlins Deryish5, p. 87 86 Id Richard Netton, 'Myth, Mirule md Magic iD the Ribla of lbn Battnta in iden., Seel Kmubdge: Thoughrandkarel in the Ho@ oI Isl4fl, (Ri.hnond, Currcn Press, 1996),p 105.This &ticle orisinalt) appeared in./SS, Vol- XXIXI (Spring 1984),pp. 131 1.10.For the Arabc rfrence to this episode s@ Ibn Rattuta, Rihlor lbn Bafinto. p. 1 8 4 .

87 Mirca Eliad, 'the Sacredand rhe Prafane: The Nanre oJ Religion (San Dieeo, New York & l,ondon: Harcourt Brace & Conpdv A Havest Bok, 1959,1987),pp. 10 11. 88 Ibid., P 12. 89 lbid. 90 lbid. 91 (My italics)lbid., p 11. 92 lbid., p. 26. 93 F;edlmder, Whmins Detukhes, P 92 94 L. Ga.det. an. fikr', p 892. 95 Ibi d,p.891. 96 lbid., pp. 891 892i seAbn Bak. al Kalabadfi, Kitnb al'Ta'artuJ li ed A l Arbsrv, (Ctro Khangi, 1352/ Manhhzh Ahl a,'Taawf, 1931),pp. 74 7s .ited in i$d. Di*iplines', p 53s 97 W.ler 'Contemplative oJ the Sfs, p 71. In tle Pa'dnise 98 S.e Nurbal<hsh, Hob Q,a', pp 1689 1690 Yus{f Ali, fii 32r trans. 99 Q,80:2s 100 SeeNuba].hsh, In the Pdadke of the Sufs, pp 77 80 101 S e Q. 37:102107 102 Se, fore$mple, Anwi, BasicTeachhgsofthe Sulis',P 6 Sealso Homayouoi, Aers to .Saa Qr.stions on S'fsn, pp. 16 17 103 Seeq 7:142ff 104 (My italics) q 7: 144 147; trans Yusuf Ali, The HalJ QttM' pp 383 384. 105 Q.4:125. 106 SeeId zuch&d Netton, The PerilsofAllegory: I{edieval Istan and the Anslsofth Grave, nidem (ed ), Stldisia Honw ol CliIJotd Ednund lJonoth Vollne 1: Htntet oJ the E6rt Atdbi. \fld Senitic Srudio, (Leiden/Boston/Koln:EJ Brill,2000), pp 117"427 107 SeCrril GlAs, ?lle a'd ciseFiq.lopdedia of Isldn, pp. 418 'l19 sv

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Snfi? TheAlienated

asRitualParadox 6.1Alienation
Throughout the chapters which have preceded this conclusion, frequent rlerence has been made to the concept of ritua.l: a variety of approaches have been deployed and an attempt has been made to examine the parallel universe of 9o{i ritual in their light and as a counterpoint or complemenf to the matnstream arkan. Increasing reference has also been made, however, to the concept of alienation. In this chapter th concepts of ritua.l and alienation are examined together to illustrat a fundamenta.l

6.11 Alination The term 'alienation' has both a technical philosophical and a popuiar semantic range. Different thought systems frame and interpret the term in differmt ways.r Nathan Rotenstreich provides examples from Hegel, Feuerbach and Marx to illustrate this fundamental point: Hegel perceived alienation as a positive though transitional state bound up with ideas of idntity. For Feuerbach alienation has no links with reality Marx perceived alienation as an essentially negative process whose fruit was the subjugation of humanity to production and economics.2 And the whole question of alienation, and the questrons posed by the concept itself, have not gon away David Cooper holds, in his book on Existe'ntidlirm, 'that the most sdous question with which philosophy has to dal is that

S!FI RITTIAL

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{LIF \ \TFN S I]fI'

of alienation in its various forms alienarion from the *,orld. from one's fellows, from oneself.'3 Much more simply, from the popular perspective, the term 'alienation' may be defined as 'being estranged',.being turned away' or 'being diverted from.'1 Whatever the negative or positive connotations of the word, in both technical and popular usage, there is no doubt that tbe term has been various\. deployed down rhe dges in a variew of guises,often rn wals which differ frorn, and even contmdict, eacl other, and our own age has reclothed the term in a new semantic garb.5 However, the contemporary usage of the term is perhaps of rather less relevance in our dual discussions of alienation and tdna, than the classical, Nmplatonic senses with which Plotinus imbued the term. Por Plotinus, real contemplation meant that the soul became alienated from itself since it was no longer conscious of itselfand had becomeat one with The One. Real contemplation of The One was necessarilysynonymous with reat alienation from the selfor soul. The emanationisttuerarchyestablished by Plotinus gav alienation a particular charism whereby the inferior mode of separate exjstence was swappd for a superior mode in which the soul participated in the existence and sphere of The One, the sourceof all emanatedbeing.6 In this concluding chapter,the term 'alienation will be used in at least two different, but hopefu y self-explanatory, ways reflecting both the popular usage of 'estrangement' (in our discussions of sufi practice ?is a r,ri minstream Islamic rituai practice), as well as the more technical usage in the Enneal: of Plotinus (when we come to examine the conceptsoffdna, and baqa).

the ego, obliteration of the self'.t It is the latter definitions which will be of most relvance to our discussions here. The oI lslam n.nJate" the term as 'pds5rne-a$d Enqrlopaedia ofthe it asa stage'ofthe development characterising effacement', mystic in the path of gnosis's while Annemarie Schimmel uses the translation 'annihilation'e but gos on to insist that'the German term Entuetdm. as used by the medieval mystics, is closer to its meaning than words lile "annihilation", "being rrpassing away", since it is the opposite of naughted" [src], or "hcomins", uerdn 'i0 She goes on to explain that Jana" should not be equated with Hindu or tsuddhist concepts of nirvana. Islam, she insists, has no knowledge either of karma, and /dna' does not indicate freedom from some circle of transmigration. It should be viewed as an ethical notion whereby man annihllates his self in order to clothe himself in the divine attributes of God and ultimately to 6nd, and immerse himseli in the very existence of the Divine.lr Schimmel expresses admiration for Toshihiko Izutsuk delinition offan.' as 'the total nullification of the eso consciousness,when there rcmains only the absolute Unity of Reality in its puritl as arl absolute Awareness prior to its bifurcation into subject and object l'? It is ven better, however,to so back to the original Persian and Arabic sources for our deinitions if we ar truly to appreciate the real sensesof/ana'. The foltowing are but two of a multitude of examptes:'Ali b. 'Uthman al-Jullabi al Hujwiri (died c. 1075) had this to say n tus Ka:hf al'Mahiub (The Disclosure of the Concealed.),which Reynold A. Nicholson characterisd as 'the oldst Persiantreatiseon Sulism': &eing is of two kinds: he who l@ks at mything seesit either (bdqt)or with th eyeofannihilation wjth the eyeofsubsistence that th whole he perceives If with the eie of subsistence, tatui). unjverse is imperfecr in compaison with his own subsistence, for he des not regard phenonena as *lf-subsistenri and if h lools with the eye of annihilation, he perceivesthat all created the subsistence of God.13 bside thingsarenon-existent of its Real affrihjlation from drthing involves consciousness imprfection and absdce ofdesire for it, not merely that a mm 171

6.1.2Fani" Simple dictionary deinitions of this complex term from a single dictionary range from 'passing away, cessation of being; perdition, ruin, destruction, annihilation; evanescene, ranishing, temination, extinction; exhaustion' to 'non being, nonexistence, nonentity; extinction of individual consciousness,recedmce of I;6

T H E A L I E N ,{TED S.Fi i

shouldsay, wben he liksa thi.g, ,I am subsisten! therein,,or when he disliles it, that he should say,.t u amihilatd threflom, for thes quatiries ee charact.isricof on who is stiil seeking. In am'hilation there is no rove or hate,and in subs'stnce thre is no consciousness of union or sparation. These may be labelled 'classic,definitions oflana,, and it has been well said that 'as the oldest surviving persianSufi manual. the Kashf al-mahjab servesas an aurhoritaiive point of reference for the Persiancanon of Sufi literature.,rs Al Hujwiri's views are elaborated by other authors. por example,Abu Bakr al Kalabadhi (did 990 or 995)i6 had this to say on the subject: Passing-away lat JaM") is a state in which all passions pass avay, so that the nystic expe.iences rc feetings towards anyth;ng whatsoeve!,and tosesall senseof discriminarion: he haspa$ed awayfrom all rhings, od he is wholly absorbdwith that throughwhrh he haspassed away. . pereisten@ ldl-6dqn"l qluchfouou.pd$ineauay. means.hat rhemvsrjc pr5*s dwa) irom what blongsto himsetl dd persiststhroush whar is God's.One of the greatsufissaid:,persistence is the stationof Commenting on al Kalabadhi s survey of these themes, Baldict< notes that the mystic meant subordination to the will of God when he talked of such things as surviving in God,s attributes and that he did not mean to imply the totai extinction ofa man,s att.ibutes but.rather that'man's bad quaiities are submerged in pleaswe at the vjctory of God,s knowledge and justice,rs Baldick goes on m stress,however,that .Ka[badhi ;cocn;es rhed've,.rrvofqu6 opinion regardrng po""i"g o*"y,. ; *"t1 as rne que\rronol wherhe,rhe m'sric cdn rerum from rt ro lu, These quorarionsfrom primary dnu se(onoary sources mrlor ihat drversrrl, recognised hy at-Kalabadhr. Whatever the specific de6nitions however, cerrain rhemes constantly recur, most notable of which is that of,alteration' in one,s state of being, and alienation from what has gone before.

6.1.3RitualasShield

ln rituai, and the useand practiceofritual, there is a clear focus on being and identiry and the reinforcement of that being and identiry There is no doubt that ritual constitutesan experience which is essentially transformative.ro This transformation may be symbotised, for example, by a simple cookng image in ar African cult.j' Transformation is also seenin a most elementary form if we examine the itual of pronouncins the Shahada for the first time when the aspirant is transformed by that key formula into a Nluslim. Reinforcement of that neophyte's Musiim nessis undertaken at every subsequent reiteration of the Slrcfiada. And ritual not only transforms, and insists upon, the being and identity of the participant. lt becomes the very miror or epitome of the participant's religion itsell We cannot understand a religion if we do not fully understand its rituals. For F.W Clothey ritual is the dramatic model of the very intention of religion. It becomesthis 'by the use of symbols, both visual and aural, which "aLong with intellectual and sensualimages" provide the participant with a senseof identity. The paradigmaticelement ofrituals is seenin that during their performancthey transform the participant "into a new mode ofbeing"'.rr JamesL. Cox's preferreddehnition embraces some of this: A ritual is a repeated and symbolic dramat;zation directing attention to a place where the sacred enters life thrby granting identity to participants in the drama, transforming them, communicating social meaning verbally and non-verbally, and offering a paradigm for how the world ought to be.'2r In Islam the {rniversal practice ol tlre arhan at a future dat would signal in a truly significant way |he universal spreadand accomplishmentof the d.aral-Islarn. It is also signficant wherc the ritual ta-kes place although ritual can, of course, sacralise its own local, naiional or international space. The chosm place for the enactment of the rituai is important'since it is in the sacredspacethat the ideal can be realized during the ritual drama.'24In Islam the ritual drama of the ha1 is played out amually in Mecca and its envions. lt is hardly surprising iherefore, that for some
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T H E A L I E N ATED SU FI;

mediaeval N4uslim geographers and writers, Mecca was considered to be the centre and hear:t ofthe terrestial universeri as well as the natuml goal of rhe pilgrim routes.z6 Ritual can also serveas a powerfut shield againstalienation. It has been arguedthat rituais 'createsolidarity in the few parts of societysharedby all.':i This is certainly true ofritual fasting which has a.lsobeen characterised as a shield ( al-sautm funna)lr the Arabic word junna can also be rranslated as 'protection' or 'shelter'which makesequal sense.2e Dhibr, however,consritutes the 'double' ritual shield par excellence from alienation.As we have alreadyseenin dive.separts ofrhis volume, it linls man to God ard it linhs man to his fellow man, thus providing a dual senseof belonging ard identiry It gives a ritual structu.e and lbcus for the emotions: as \tuir puts ii:'Rituals give access to emotional statesthat resist expressionin language.'roIndeed, ritual may emote rather than nean.3] The danger is that. ultimatell', there is the possibiliry at least,the emotion may end up destroyins the ritual and thus breal the format tinks of mar to God and man to man i2 Ifthat happensthen emotion infused itual becomes a self centred structu.e for alienation rather rhan solida.rity.

another contxt,35 in the urge of the seeker for true knowledge, and identification and unity with the Knower, 'man stands outside, or even in the way, of identiry' Rotenstreichconcludes that 'hence the goal of identity has as its negative correlate alienation.'r6 The Plotinian paradigm, mentioned earlier, is relevant here. True contemplation of the One means self alimation since the self becomesmerged with that One.37 The paradox at the hert of snfi ritual, then, is that it seeks union through aLenation. The riLualLnks or unitFs mdn ro God, man to man, and man to his o*'n spiritual core or self, on the one hand, and yet on the other, it consciously seeks to alienate him from his corporeal and terrestial links and concerns as a meansto a higher goal.

6.2A Paradigm of Siili Alienation

Safr ritual leads to, or at the very least bears within itself the seeds of, a paradigm for sufl alienation. The aspects of ritual which are 'formalized, collective, institutionalized' and'repetitive'r3 are easy to understand. Perhapsrather less obvious is the way in which 'many rituals work like models. They present a standard or a simplified miniature for society to follow''r, This is certainly true of the five ar[an; r'e note in particular how prescriptive the individual rituals of the hat are. 'I'hus the omission of the uuqrrtat 'Arafat (arch paradigrn in terrestial terms of the Last Judgemnt itself) renders the whole of the }ajj invalid.ro It is also true ofthe sufi rituals which mould and bind the adherents of a particular taiqa. ln this sction, then, which seeksto adumbrate a paradigm of snfi alienation, Edward Muir's excellent dennition of ritual as 'a social activity that is repetitive, stardardized, a model or a mirror'{r should be borne in mind. The paradigm is fundamentally a very simple one; it may be articulatedin two parts as follows: (A) Islam in Dtr al-Harb,lor example in tsritain, has as one of its 'alienaring factors' its mainstreamrituals. Those alienatedare usually non Muslims.
1E1

6.1,4Ritual asAlienatioo It is almost a truism that 'the repetition of evryday gestures wjthin the confinesof a specialplace and time rousesemotional responses of fear or j oy, hate ot love, alieflotion or communion In that emotional evocation lies the work of the ritual.3-l Paradoxically, in view of the links stressed above, the seeds of alienation are ahvayspresentin sl]fi ritual. This is bcause sufi dtuals actively direct themselves towards the coal of fat a., asceticism, abDegation and, thus, alienation Indeed, the ma;nstreamsdlat itself can be a potent lHcle of a_nnihilation. The postureofthe individual who prays in Islam is deliberatelv rnterded ro he rhdr of a slavebeforehis .up,eme Lord .\. Ashraf puts it, 'one is compelled to annihilate oneself in the presenceof the Almighty.'ra Or, as Rotenst.eich purs it in 180

T H E A L I E NATED SU I'i i

(This is not to say, of course, that dll non Muslims are liable to such feeiings of alienation in th prcsenc of Muslim rituals) Where such alienation does take place however, it may have the of'the silenceddlfian.' When the local semiotic consequence mosque in King Street, Loughborough, U.K., sought permis sion from Charnwood Borouqh Council to broadcast the Nfuslim call to prayer from the mosque roof through loud it was given a six week trial priod. However, a rash of speakers, leaflets swiftly followed claiming that the alhan would create noise pollution, in arr effort to persuadethe Council to refirse the application at the end of the trial period. h{uslim leaders promptly alleged religious discrimination. One observed thar 'church bells ring freely all around the country, but only a handful ofMosques in Birmingharn and Bradford are permitted to calt the faithful in a similar way. {r Alienation thus breeds alienation. Having praised the beautiful sound of church bells. attention was drawn in the Muslim press to the multi faith nature of British s(riety, th 'illegal and discriminatory' nature of 'the consistmt refusalsof many local auihorities to allow )vlosques to practise the equivalent of church bell ringing a moment or two of the hauntinsly beautiful call of the Koran , and the need for others to join notable non alienatedpeople like the Prince of Wales who 'admirably, has statedthat he wjshesto be the defenderof all the faiths. The themesof belonging and identity wer at th heart of the conclusion of the NJuslim editorial which pronouncedr'lt is time for a Royal Proclamationfrom Charles, and a ringing endorsementby the Home i,ecretar!, that from now on the Azaan lsicl is as much a part of British religiouslife as the peal of Christian bells.'rr (B) Howeve., the secondpart ofthe paradigm is that Sufism, both in Dar a|-lIarb and Dar al-lslam, has, as its fundamental 'alienating factors', potential or actual, the sufi rituals, most notably the dhibr and the sama'. Those alienatedmay include not only the non-\{lrslim protestersat the sound of the adhan but, much more significantly for the \{uslim corununrty's sense of belonging and identity, non-sufi Muslims. The Egyptian, Dr. 'Umar 'Abd al-Rahman, to whom previous 182

reference has been made, constitutes a paradigmatic case studv of alienation. The'semiotic consequences'are visible in the gulfs of misunderstanding,suspicion and sometimesmutual accusation which can arise between srift }luslims, non soli Muslims and non Muslims and, more specifically, the sig mentality of the tust group. The $ufi adherent may feel himself totally alienated from mainstream Nluslim life. Moreover, $ufrsm is deeplv divided upon itselfas to the 'reality' of the S.lism of others' and who is and is not eligible to be called a true $nfi.aaThe $nfi Orders are accusedof a lack of enlightenment and of being a mere 'living palimpest [sicl]' of real Sr:fism.ai The paradigm may not operatein every caseor in every land When it does, however, the sufi may find himself alienated from non-sufi N{uslims, non Muslims, his fellow snfis (of different Orders or stvles of Su6sm) and, ultimately, from himself The 'silencedadhan',which signalsso powerfully 'the absence of. universal communal solidaritv',a6in areasof Dar al Harb like Britain, is transmuted into something which on the surface is far worse a senseof profound isolation and alienation but and insofaras it may be identified with the which, paradoxically, goal of fa n', is infinitely to be desired Noting that, 'a further major sourceof conflict in earlv Islam of these ancient was Sufism'. Wolffe insists that 'an awareness varieties of outlook divisions is important for understanding th among tr{uslims in modern Britain.'rt lt helps to explain the siege mentality of some lufi groups which, for example, are profoundly suspiciousof Western education,lsand mav seekto .etreat into, or constitute, a separatesodiety within society at large.r'qTo observe all this is by no means to condemn it or pass judgement upon it. These rernarks are intended simplv to illustrate the workings of the toposof alienation within Sufism, whether consciouslyor unconsciousiy This sense of alienation, compounded by deep-rooted, almost guilty, ambiguities of feeling, has been neatlv encapsu 0 on \lahdism Lnthe Leba-non latedin DaphneHabibis arricle i\..oting that 'Tripoli stands at the crossroads of the meeting betwem East a.d West'ir, she has a number of pertinent 183

S.FI R]TI.]AL

THE ALIENATED SUFIi

observations about th mrni* who follow the Naqshbandi Khalidi Shaykh Nazlm al-Qubrusi, to whom we have already referred in this volume. Her remarls powerfully illustrate the paradigm of sr:fi alienation which is the focus and conclusion of this book. Firstly, she draws attention to an ambiguiry of attitude among the muraLs \rho are torn between an admiration for Western technology and science and yet detst uhat they perceive as the 'oppressive quality' of Wastern civilisation. Taking Lebanese Christianity as their reference, they resent Christian power and prominence whiJe envying their .highty Westernised territory' They feel let down, the morc so since Islam promisesthem final victory as in Sriar dl ,\Idr, (Srrrl 110) of the Qur'an. Despite their incorporation into the Western world by virtue of their education, travel and saturation by the Western media, they are alienared both from this world and the state of the fragmented lslamic Unrna in which they live where a bare lip serviceis paid by maly nominal Muslims to religion or where Islam has been transmuted for ideotogical or other ends into_ something which they cannot comprehend or recognise.i,Habibis concludesthar the sheer speedof change, and the massive contrasts between that which is old and that which is new, have left the rnunds isolated and uncertain, alienared (my word) both from tbe old and the new. On the one haad, they do not wish to cast off the cultural and retigious heritage of many centuries, bequeathed to them by their parents;on the other hand, the valuesofthe new age and other cultures have a magnetic attraction. 'They watch what is happening around them wjth despair.jl

Notes 1 Rotensheich, Al;Mrion, p. 15. 2 Ibid., pp. 7 16 3 David E. Cooper, Exftdtiatisn. A Reco6ttrcrion, (Cllford, Blacl we1l, 1990,1995), p. 8 -7-fie 4 Se Cotcise oxford Dict;wty of Cunmt hgtish, J.B.Sykes -(ed.), j976, 19is),p.25 sedtid;b 6th edn.,(Oxfo.d; CldendoD Press, 164

5 Rot6trich, Aliedti@, p. 3. Vl. 9.7. 6 Ibid., p' 3 citing Plotinus,EnndadJ, 7 W.tu, Dnri' r! oI Mollm Wdxen Atoti., p.729 s! fa@' 8 E Ralmm, arr. 'B*a' wa-Fma", EI?, Vol. 1 p. 951. 9 E.g., ke her M$tical DituNioB of kldn, p. 4i. 10 Ibid., p. 142. 11 Ibid. Thinking in 12 TGhihiko Izutsu, 'The BasicStructurof Metaphysical Islm in lvlehdi Mohaghegh& Hrmon Lddolt (eds.),Coliected Paper or ldanic Philosopband Mrsti.isn, (Tehran,1971),P. 39t, im of Islafl, p t43. cited ;n SchimI, Mystirdl Di^ 1-3A1 Hrjwiii, Kchl alMabjab, p. 2l1r trms. Nichohon, Tn? Kasht al Mdhtb, pp. 185 186. 1.1 A1 Hujwrri, K6hI dI Mdhjnb, p. 313; trms. Nicholson, The Kash/ al Mahj'tb, p. 243. 15 Jawid A. \{oladdedi, 'Extndins the Bounddi* of Sufisn: al Huj w;i s Kci/ai Maijub', S!-f, No. 3s (Autum 1997),p. 4e. 16 For this datins se A.J. Arbdry (trms.), The Dodnre oI rhe $nJ'6 (Knnb dl Ta'anuI lirudhhab anl al tasauu/), trus. from the Aiabic repr.of 1935 edn. of Abn Bal. al.Kaltbedhi, (Cmbridge: CUP, 1977, publishedby CUP), p. XL hnab Anl oi-Torouud, ed. 17 Al-Kalabtdhi, Kirab al-Ta'and liM 'Abd al Halim Vahmnd md T:la 'Abd al-Baqi Surnr, (Cairo: oI the SnI'l, p. 120. al tlalabi. 1960),p. 123i trds Arb6ry, DoctTine 18 JtrId Baldick, Mrsti.dl Isldn: An Inhaductiat to ^Su,{.M,(London: p.56. Tauri s,1989), l 9 l bi d. Reflections on the Ituiiatlon 20 I$lie S. Nthoi. ' Wosde Rit of Passag: of Wosdn4 in the Cult of Vwali in Zimbabze in JDes L. Cox (ed.), AJtica, Rlision in ContenPorary Rit s o/ I'6sage in Cmtmpour (Crdiff: Cddiff AcademicPress,1998),p. 79. Afria Sries. 21 Ibid 22 Jm6 L. Cox, lnkoduct;on: Ritual, Rites of fasage and the Int.raction betwen Christia md TraditionalReligiom in Cor (ed.), Rit s o-fPaas, P. IX quoting F.W Clothey, 'Ritual' in K. Crlm (Gen. Ed.), Abinsdon Di.tiotutr ol Li|.'ne Relisio6, (Ndhvi e: Abingdon Prs. 1981),pP. 624 628. 23 Cox, 'Introduction, p. X. 24 lbid., p. XIIL 25 S@S. Maqbll,\hnad, an.'Djugbre6ye', EI'z,Vol.2, pp. s7s 587. 26 For the pilerim rout6, see, for evmple, Abdullah al Wohaibi, ?he Notthem Hie in ti. ffiltinss oJ the Ardb Geosdphds 800 t154, (Bint: AI Risalah,1973),esp pP. 313 395 2t Edwad Muir, Ritul in Earb Modem Enope, New ApProaches io Euopd History -\'-o. 11, (Canbridge: CUP, 1997),p.4.

18.

S.!'i RITUAL

28 Al Nawawi, alAtbd'1n, p 99 (Arabic texr), p' 98 (English tres.), (Haditb no. 29). 29 S@ Wehr, D;rioery o/ Moada Wdttn Atubi, v r38 sv funM 30 Muir, Rtual in Ea'lr Md,)em Euopz, p. 2_ p .2 74. 31 I b j ,d ., J' Se Ahad. Gp@tolp of RpIEionp. ;2 6p. n 18. ildlr", \furr. R,,@i rr Ea \ Modlm Lgopc. p 2 il ivy. J4 S\,edAli A"haL lhe lnnr Veme of lhe tsldi. Rrles in \sr, 44nk rprflr,arrry tou datb$, D 115 35 Rotenstieich, Aliaarion, pp 4 5. :16 IHd., p. 5. 3 7 I b i d ., p 1 . 38 Muir, Rri@l in Earir Vodern Ewope,o.3. 39 Ibid., p. 5. 40 SeMalil b. An4, Kifib al Mtuattd', pt. I, p. 263. 41 Mri, RilJ@l in Ed t Moaer^ Ewope. p. 6 12 E6t, 12thJune 1997. 43 Ibid , p. 6. 4! See.. io, exmple. rhe iolto$lne rhreedrlktes rn tl,e Sorery for Suti irudres }(riMt, Inniation antl Sp,pr. M Suf Grrles, LLondon Doignist Cmrunications, 1980), Franz Heid;tbergd, ,Tim spnt mong SuGs'; Rosalje \farshan,.Su6 Orders'; Hoda Azi;ian, 'Observationof a SuGSch@l'. 4s Meshm, 'Su6 Orders , p. 2s aD John Wolfie. frdcmenredun'veFdiir! tJd od Mslrm ,n Cdajd P"rsr. led . The n,ou,h ot R.riei,6 l/ird$r!. Bntain hm 1.J45. voLune I lradititb, p. l;n se. alro p. l;2 4 7 lbid ., p . 1 3 E . 48 See,_ for example, Aray, ,\lagsnbandr'S!,rts in d W6rm Serhng, pp. 1 2 8 -1 35. 49 SeHabibis, Conpardri,eSruds p. .111. 50 Daphne Habibis, 'Mahdjsn in a Branch of a Nd q sh b d n d, o' dp, r n te b a n " n rn U a b o ,j e d u , pp. 603 619. 51 I bid ., P.6 1 2. 52 I bid .,p p .6 12 613 5l Ib;d.

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Lane, Edwad Willim, An Amtnt of the Manners ffiA Cwt4m oI the Modarn Es)ptim. )r ed\., (Londoni Ward, Lock & Co, 1890i Lewis, Philip, 'Facing dom the bogelmm of Islam', Chwch Tires, 24th Octobr 19S7 Lewis, Philip, Isldnic llrirain: Religi@, Pol*ics and IdatitJ dtuns British Mwlim: Bronfo in rtu 1990s,(London & New York LB. Tauris, 1994). Lewisohn (ed.). Leonard, Cldsicdl P?rsidn .S'r6"ni F oln itr Origra ro Rrmi, (London & New York: Khmiqahi Nirnatuliahi Publicat i o n s, 1 9 93) . pmun sriyr, Lewisoh (ed.), Loned, l he Lesa.t of Meai@t (London & New York: Khmiqahi-Nimatulahi PubliGtioN, 1992). Lings, Mdtin, Mrhannad: Hk LiJe Ba-ud at ttu Eatlien SdtM, (London: Islmic Texts Sciety/Georg Allen & Untrin, 1983). l-ombatd, Denys, 'Iareld, t Entrepris a Sumarra: L Exemple de Syekh Abdul wahab RolaD (c. 1830 1926) in Gabo;au. Madelung, W, fReview ofl Ft]rz \I.ier. z.uei Abharmungd [qD], IMI otrli RoldlAdtic .So.ietr 3rd ser.,Vol. 6: Pt. 1 (ApIiI 1996). lvla'Fu'ch'u, The Ttuee Charctet Rbwd Clasnc n the Ka"b.\ trans., J. Peter Hobson, Srudies in Compatutiu Religio . (SulrDer AuruhD, 19i10) l,{ahinda, Desalle,'1he Moral Significance of Buddhist Nirvma in Hotrnan & Nlahinda (eds.), Pati Budlfti'u Maio, John, TIe \l'a1 o/ Un[nouiag. (l-ondon: Darton, Lng]ln & 'Iodd. l9il9). Malik, Fath lvlohamrDad,'NaqshbandiDa md Ideology of )vluslim Nationalism' in Ciaborieau.Naesnbandir. \{adin, $erif, 'The r,\akeibend'Ordei in Turlish History in Tapper (ed.) , Islan in Modzrn Turhzl M&shaft, Rosali, 'Sufi Orders' in ri,ccietyfor Sufi Studies (ed ). Ritudl lnitiarior url Secrets. Nfartin, Christophd. Places of crace" The Tdblet, r4th ltne 199j . Martin (ed.), R.C., Approdches to lslaf. in Relis;M Sradies, iTucmn: Univelsity of AJizona Pre$, 198s) Nlason (ed.), Alistair, Relig;onin Leeds,(Stroud, Alan Sunon, 1994). \,faudoodl, Sayyid Abul Aala fuicl. 'The Nobel P.ophet's \'{eraj or !.)';or? Ascent to Heaven: Some Travel Notes', TA" Mulin Lugue lournal, Vol. 2a, No 7 (Rajab 1417lNov Dec. 1996). N{eier, Fritz, Zbei Abhandl],neen nber <lie Na4ibardiya. t. Die Herzensbiad.ungan d.en Meister 2. KtaJtatu @n Fouteht d.s lldltgn, Beiruter Texte und Studien, Bsd 58, (lstanbul, tn Kommission bei Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgdt, 1994). (eds.), Cnllecte.dPapts n N{ohaghegh, Mehdi & I-andolt, Hsm Islamic Philosophland ,\,lystt..rn, (Teherm, 1971).

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198

S. FI RI TUAL

{? HY U f WOR KSEITEL ) BLBLTOCR

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r994)

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Narollah & Wilson, PeterLdbom, 'The Descendmtsof Pourjavady, 4),pp 49 s7 StrafNfmattrllahWah',lslanicCultwe,vol4s (197 Nasrollah & Wilson, PeterLamborn, I(irys oJ Ltue: The Pourjavady, P@ftr and.Hi'tory oJthe Ni'tutlllahi Sul Odet, lmpdial Iranian Acadeny of PNosophy Publication. No 30, (Teherm: lrnpeiial 1978) Iranim Acadmyof Phnosophy, al-Oubrusi,Nazrm,Mc,a O.ea\. Soonluo, tKon1. Sebat "r80) al Qubru"i, Nazrm, Mncl Oear' Lndles, Honam" lDrs'ourses in London, ud Autumn 1401/ delivaed Summer1401/1981, 1981ir Nlunichmd Cyprusl,(Konya:&bat, 1982) al-Qubrusi, Natm. Mercl Oceare'I liddet T'easu"s, (Konva: bebat, 19lJ1). Sound Sun V6r oJi ad;ddrd Pah'staq Resuld Burck-h*dt. Oureshi, SruJie' In t uoI Qatudli. Camondqe Cmtc,t dnd Mpdntnx musioology, (Cmbridge: Cmbridge University Press,1986) Rahmm.F., art., 'Baka'va Fma'', EI', Vol l Rza, N{ohmad S., Isldn h Britain: P6t, Plesmt and the Futwe' (Lac*ter: \blcaro Press, 19s1) Renard,John, L rlrFetstepsof Muhamad: Uniananainsthe lslmi. 1s92) Press, N.J.:Paulist expe oce, (New York/Mahwah, (Paris:Favard, et ld.oloEies, Richad, Yaan, I- ldau Cli'ite: Crolances 1991) Richad, Ym, SAi'ii? Islani Poliyl, Ideology a1d Crce.l' tres 199s) Mass.:Blackwll' AntoniaNwiil, (Oxford/Cambridge, Leadershipin Rizvi, S.A.A., 'sixteenth Century Naqshbandivva Naqsibandis. tndia' ir Gaborieau, RoteDstreich,Nathan, Aliddtion: The Conceptand Its Re.eption, of History md Culture,Vol 3, (lriden & New York: Philosophy E I. B.ill, 1989). R"v, Oli""., 'Le NeqshbdndiJa en Afghanistm' in Gaborieau Naqslbardis. Rde oJ St. Bnedi.t(RB) se?,ndn Timoihy Fry (ed.). Rumrrnede Trust Cornmissionon British N{uslims md Islamopho bia. Islmphobia: A Challmee Jor Us AIl, lLo on: Rr:nnvmede Trust, 1997). Paticuliaremdt ceux Samii, Iama, Les Naqshbmdi de Bosaie(P1us de Viioko) et l*urs Relations avec d'Autres Ordres Soulis 'in Gaborieau,Naqshbdadi. Schacht, Josph, art., 'Zakat' in Gibb & Kraners (eds), Shovts Islin. Erc:,cloea.diaof 'Bosworth, ol Islan, 2nd C.E. (eds & Schacht, ), Tle Lesacv Josph 1974). edr., (Oxford:Clamdon Press, Schimel, Annemuie, Deciphetinsthe Sisa o/ God: A Phenolnn o@ical Appwch to Islaa, (Edinbureh: Edinburgh Universltv Pless,11194). 201

St I i RI TUAL

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Vm Bruinessen,Manin, 'The Naqshbandi Order in 17th-Century Kurdistan in Gaborieau,Naqsibandis. in Popovic& Vehstein (eds), Veinstein, G., 'Un esui de synthdse' LesOrdresMljtiqps. (London: Curzon, G.E., MuhannadanFesdaals, lbn Grunebaum, 1988). Waines, David, An Intrcduction to Islarn, (Cambridge: Cambridge 199s). UniversityPress, Walelr Muhamrud Isa, 'Contemplative Disciplines in Early Persian Suism io Lewisoh (ed.), C/.xsical P?tsianSrl,4sn. watt, \l: Montgomery, Islanic Creeds:A Seiectioa,Islamic Suneys 19s4). (Edinburgh: Series, &linburgh UniversityPrss, Watt, Ul \Iontgomery, MuhMmdd at Mecca, (Oxford: Clarendon 1972). Press, 1r)53, (Lon Watt, W Montgomery, Muhanna,l, ProphetanA Statesm.ln, 1s64,1s67). don: Oxford Udvrsity Press, Watt, W ]vlontgomery M{sliz. lntelle.rtal: A Snny oJ al Ghazoli, (Edhburgh: EdinburghUnivereity Press, 1s63,repi. 1971). wminck, A.K. Jonir,J., & Lewis,B., at., 'Ha{jdj', Ef, Vol. 3. N.Y: Finding theMysricW;iftin Yo!, (Hauppauge, Witkinson,Peggy, 1e88). Living Flme Press, al \Vohaibi, Abdullah, Tne Notrhem HijM in the Wntings of the Arab 1973). Geosaphers 800 1150,(Beirut:Al Risalah, Wolfe (ed.), \{ichael, (he Thmand Roa^ to Mecca: TenCentwiesoJ Trarelets Writiag abort th M6l;m filsrimace, (New York: Grove 1997). Press, Universality,Islan and Muslims' in Wolffe, Jobr, 'Fragmented Paons (ed.), The Gtouth oJ Relisio6 Dt e'sit], Vol. 1. TheLegacJ of & Bosworth(eds.), Wright, Owo, 'N{usic'in Schacht lslan, 2nd edn. sur le R6le SocioPolitiqu et la Zacone, Thiery. 'Remarques Filiaiion Historique des fell Na&elendidans la Tutquie Crnrmporaine u L;abonc,u.\aq'hbandn. MtuMt in Ziadeh, Nicola A., Sdn'tsilai: A S*Cy oJ a Reri1{Llist ldan, (Leiden:E.J.Bill, 1968).

sss&
Attention is also drawn to a magistelial two'part article by Leonard Lryisbn which appetred t@ late to b used ot citd elsewhere in this volume: An introduction to the history of \lode.n Persim Sufism, Part rvival md schism', Builztin o/ 1: The Ni'matullahi order: pereecution, the Schoolof Orimtal aul AJri.4r Stldies, Vol. 61, Pt. 3 (1ss8), pp. 43 7 46.+; 'Part II: A socio cultual profile of sufism. from the Dhahabr revival to the presniday , ibid., !bl. 62, Pt. 1 (199q), pp 36 59.

203

Index

('al' and 'el' are discounted in the order of what follows, at the beginning of an entry)

Dr. "Uma 163, 'A'ishah 13s l{bd al Rahman, "aja'ib16l 164,165,182 183 Akbar, Mughal Emperor6s, 70; Rahme b. 13s al 'Abd Qtsim din-i iLahi6a Abdalati,Hmmudah 111,112 ritual7,30,31,32,35, Aleppo 21 ablutiom, Algar,Hamidx, 62, 63,6+,67, 43,112,132ieeabopuit},,ritual 69, 70, 7'1,77,81, 82,85, 86, Abraharns.e Ibrahm 88 111, 122 absolution Ali, Yasmin 6 Ab'l Bakr61,74,80 alsoQuim Ali, Yusuf49; see AbHn-fa 132rWariyJa132 i{li b. Abi "lilib 12, 27, 31, 13, Abn HualE 133 74, 158 Ab. Suhaylibn Nl.lik 133 ix, 2, 3, 4, 5,6, 11,72 alienation action, foffEl 124 165,166, t4s, 162,163,164, nghi 125 action, 167,168,169,170,175 184 sadd8, 124 action, al-"Allai Ab1: 'l Hudhayl42 ad4b161 34,3s 36, Allah s.? God ad.ab, snfi 28 29,32 Almohads140n.102 43, 50, g0 Almoravids140n.'102 Adam 12, 118,119,t22. 128 almssie;nsseesdiaqa; zahat Adams, CharlesJ. 68 dLo altdation 1t8 36, 110, 182, 183; se a.Jhan ofCairo 83 AmericanUniversity chmt, rituatrrajDid Amir Kulel, Khvaja 63 adoration of God r?" d&6iz amulets 14 Afghanistan 86 Africa 24, 9, 12,22, 40, mgels,angelology 16,1 169:Angel of 83, 135,1'16, Ahmad,Aziz 66,67 Dath7s; Munkar and Nakir A]trd, Khwaja'Ubayd Allah 169 64 65,66,69 8 animals ahtal2,32,3a,83 205

sCFi RIT{JAL

IN D EI

aDnihilation of sell ego3s, 36, 43, 83,85, 164,16?,fi6 177, 178, 18q seealsoJanna MJs anthropology ix, 104,105, 127 129,t34,145,156 161, 170; mysticalanthropology 129 antinomianism 163 Aquinas,St. Thomas130 Arabia,Pr Islamic118 Arabic 123 'Arafat79, 116,119,120,121, 128, 181t seedlsohajt urqnf Aristotelianism 42; see also substaces ald accidents d*an \x, 13,35,40 41, 49, 50, 103 1,14, 145,154,155,157, t60, 161,162,163,163,17;, 179,181 dt ed dchitecture124 Arthur, King 73 Asad, Talal127,130,131,160, 161 ascehcrsm 13,-11,44,6i1, 112, 115,133,154,155,1i6, 157, 163,180 Ashral SyedAti 133,13s, 1u0 Asia, Cenftal69, 70, 71, 88j lnner 69i SouthEast85 Asid 5, 6,; se? aisofood atonnot 11;, 122,123 'Atttu, 'Ala' al,Din 85 Ausustine, St. \ De Dhttitu

al Azha University1, 163 Babu, Mughal Emreror 64 Badr,Battleof 149 Baghdad43, 68 Ba]'ira 22 Batdick, Julim 178 ba.qt'11, 12, 43, 176,|i7.178i. al-Baqitldi 42 Bd llitzvah 116 bzda4 14;see aLso blssings ad Barelwis 1a Barthes.Roland 27 al Basn,al HasaD 27, 44 bann157,161 ba!'d 76, 157, 13a Bayrm, Sugd see'td al-Fir' being178,179 belonging 2 6, 180,182 Benedict, St. 29; Rde of St. Benedict 29 30,32,34,46,16: seedlsooblates,Benedictine Benedictines 48; se"dlso oblares, Benedictine;Boedict, St. Bennett, Clinton 129 bid'd(innovation) 14i, 163,165 Birmingham182 blesshgs md cur*s 8, 9, 146;see

al Bukhan-146 turda 8 87, 88 Burhaaiyrya Cairo87, 113,163 Call tn prayet w anhan Calvary124

community134,160,183ise Compmions of the Prophet see comparionshiPsee$f bd concrt, mystical, sPiritual see

Bosnia86 B.adford5, 182 Britai! 2, :t, 4, 5, to, 14,12. a/', Ciiistidfla 131 181,!82, 183 Duddha1s3 authority 154,157,159,163 BuddhisD 2, 125,177; aufid see uird: Aufid i Fathitja Thtravada Buddhisn 2; see 86 dr'o nirvana; Noble Eighdold Awangzeb, Ivfughat Enperor Path 65,66 Bulhaa 63, 69 206

on Snfrsm3q confe.ences Cassian,John 48 116,120,127,122 Tukish 106,116,121 conErmatior catechism, 4, 78, 83, 84, 166, contmplation 1a1; see akofh; t76. 117, 115, 116, 113, celebEtion snaqabat rnrshahada 120,121,122,124,133 David 175; chmt,.itual124,164,165,166, Cooper, L/5 tnstenhalArn musiq alsoalhan; 169;see Coibin, Hetry 129 singing; tajud Cordova22 Chaptd of Fautts 46 L. 179 Cox, James chaity 104,112 also 151,153ise 32,41, Crearor 1 82 Borough Coucil Chmwood God chha 2, 71 cultureclash2, 4, 5 14, 67, 68, 82 Chishti'rya 111,112, VlC. 71,108, Chitricl, Sheikh72 Daghistani, 1t4, The Vnion of lslun r03 al-Dajjal72 48, 109,111,116, Chrjstianity 68 Damascus 124,130,131,152,153,184 Danrel, David 70 Christmas 113 dmce, sacredseesatna" Cbristopher, JohnB. 112 dancing14, 37, 38, 39, 83, lJ4, Chrysside, George2 ako 147,152,164,16, see chlrch bells 182 singrng musici Church Fathers,Early Cbdstian dar al hath 181,182,183 t47 dar al-Islaflix,lo,154,179,182 chcumambulationseelduaJ Dasuqitya87 Collin 6s Davies, citi6 10 84 Western 1 civilistion, 37, 40 41, 721 Day ofJudgement judgenent se dlio FW 179 Clothey, 9,22, 117,133,160 death declarationof faith seeslahada @Inmandhg good ed good8, 104,105,108, deeds, forbiddingevil 116;we also 115,133,156;FiveVirtuous Q".'an Acts 125 19, 16, 118-1 comemoration 1 131,132,133, Delhi65,66, 68 120,122,130, 134,162,164,166,167,168, Demy, F.M. 128 14 Deobandis 169 207

SIFJ RITL:AL

I NDEX

devils 115 Dewsbut' 5 dhibrlx, 11, 12,13,15,28,29, 35, 36,37, 38,39, 49, /-1,75, 77,7'3, i9 a1,85,1.{5, 146, t47, 152,133,15;, ts7, 158, 159,162,163,165,166,180, jah 36,63,8r, rSB: 182; dhibr dhitubhaJi 36,63,79 81,82, 83, 85, 90; see atsouird Dhn 't Qa'da 119,135 din 136n.2, 145 ttn.i ilak s@ Akbat discipl s.em!?nC(s) Divine Destinysee al-qadar Divine Of6ce 34, 4? I)ome of the Roc[ 7 l)ouglas,I{ey 134,1j6, 160 dreams, tnterpreiation of 13 Eeth 129, 167, 168 Easter Sunday12,1 Fao,Umberto 130 ecstasy 4, 37.38,82,83,147, 162 ducation, Western183,184 Egypt1,23, 71,115,t59,162 Eliade,Mircea 129,I56, 164, 165,166 emanation 129,176 emotions and ritual 180 Empedoclean etements7 Encycbpaedia of kldm 80, 17i Enslmd se Britain Elntuddrree Plotinus Enoch74

examiMt;on of con$i6c 46 4 /-. seealsotuhnmto Eyre,Ronaldl, 3; On the Inta Surch 1 faith8, 103,104,t03,10/^, r32; justification by faith Protestant Faiih Movenot s??itliisl-i Jdmdat;reealsoliyas, Mawlm Jona"11, 12, 45, a4, a-i. t7O. 176 117,l7a, 180,183;see 4iso mnihnation of sli ba4a' fsting 104,113 116,125,126, 129,133,180 Fil,ihd83, 88, 8gi ia dtroQur'a! teatts 8; seeabo 'Id dI Adhat.Id al-Fitr Feuerbach. I-udwig 175 hdeliry167 tAr ix, 35, 39 +0,49, t45, t4j, 152.r53, 154,159,162,166, I67i see dlsocontemplarion; nriqabd: ,nudahano tsh 22 F'itzgerald, Edwardix, 15 n.l folklore.Islamic115 f@d 14, 33 forgiveness 115, 116,122,123. 132 rounders of orders11, t2 foontains of Paradi* 7; seealso

g&ments,Islamic8, 30 Gaudeftoy-Demornbynes, Mauiice 118 genrosity 112, 122,126 -.127 geographcs,Muslim 180 GeorgeWashington University 39i Lisner Auditrriln 39 gestures 180 Abn Hmid 1,38, al-Ghazali, 39, ,14, 47, 50, 131,135, 14il; ll.rya''Ulnn al-thq 39 al Ghazeli, Almad 27 al'Ghijduwani,Khw.ja iAbd al-Kh.liq63, 75,79,86 Michaei 1,3, 127,157, Cilsnan, 't62,163 Glmsc,Clril 3; Concise Bqclapaedja of Islm 3 gnosis177 God 6 ad pasin; immence 107,108,109;tescendence 107,108;s disoGod, tseatihc Visiotr of; God, obediencetoi Haq;qarnamesof God; ai'tut Divine;hbbt'; AllaA;Presence, ia iid; uion, mystical God, BatilicVisionof 167 to 116, 119 God, obedience Golden FIce 73 gEce 130,131 Graham, Teny 24 Crail, Quest for the 73 gtatitude 167 Gull The 68 Gwalior65 72, 83, 88 Habib, N{adelain Hatibis, Daphn72, 183,184 hadirh 9, 12,23,44,48,67, 110, 131,133,146,150,160,161, 162,163jHadith of Gabriel {Jibril)a0 41, 103,104,109, 117,127,12a,161;HadrtLof ReNard md Punishmot

104 105,106,101 , l1i , 12? l Hagar(Hajar)118,119 116 123, hajji,68,19, r01,110, 124,125,126,128,129,130, 151,160, 134 136,140n.102, ihnml ri9, ral seeaLso labbalAa;al Mama; al Safa; stj''y tuuaf rJvqnJ Hajjat al Bolash seePllgllnfiaee Hofiat alvaaa' seePilgrimase of Faewell Hdadani, 'Ali b. Shihabal'DrD 86 Hanaddni,Majdhnb 'Ah Shah 35, 53 n.32 Haqqa 9U seealsoGod 23,52n.23 Hdawi, Amri Husayn healing 124,154 (al Janna) see Paadise Heaven Hegel,G.WF. 17s HeiLer, Friedrich6, 10 Hell (al-Naz) 7,21, 104,10s, 115,131,133,146,151 Herat 23 I{ercules 73 Hiddn Imm 22 hieruchy11,25 30, 73 75 hierophmy165 166 Hij.z 66, 71,86

nria 80,134

French71 epistemology 155 Friedlander, IE 166 eschatology 9, 10, 1't6, 120.\32, Friedmm, Yohum 6s, 66 148,151,162 Fulbright$holars 83 el'Essawy, Hesham3 erh;cs t23, 160,177 Gaborieau, Mtrc 62, 67; s@dlso Euchaist 152 Sevre Round Table Enrcpe 6,24,71 Gabriel se Jibril; seeolso Hadith Eve1l8 of Gabriel 208

Hira', Mount 8, 1,18 Hirschfeld, H. 1a8 Hizb al-Bdhr88 Hour, The 41, 161;signsofThe Hour 161,162; see also Hourui, Albert 67, 68 Hugh of St. Victor 130,131 al'Hujwiri, :{li b. 'Uthman al Jullabl37, l1t' 178: KashJ 31, r7i 178 al MahjtLb

209

SUFI RITUAI-

INDEX

hunan bjns,figufe 128 humiiity 13,29,30,34, 76,89, 122 Intermtional Isldic Fedration of Student Organ;ations 106 Iblis 128isee dlsoSatm interlexrualiry 146 Iblis, rejection of 116,119, 122 Dluat;on se"und Ibn 'Abdull.b Tust&i, Sali 48, Irm 24, 68, 71rse abo Persia 87,147 'isa. the prophet 72 Ib^ al:tuabi 22,24,66,129t see Ishmael w Isma" aLso Mhdat al-uljnd Isma"il 118,1ls, 128,168 Ibn :\ta'All h 16S IsDs"ilism 131 Ibn Battora164 itrad 150; seeal,o hadith Ibr Hisham 119 lstanbul70 Ibn Humayd 135 irtishft a7, 89 Ibn Ishaq119,135 Ivanow, W 25 Ib. Jabal, Mu"adh 104,10s Izutsu,Toshihiko177 Ibn Rushd22 Ibn Sina22 J&ob'sLadds 166 Ibn Suw6r,Illuhmad a8 Ja'fa al Sed;q 74 Ibrahrm 116,117,118, 119, 120, Jahengn,Mughal EDperor 65 1,22, 124,126,128,134,154, ldhattun ls\ se. alsoHell 168, 16\ KhaLil Allah \69 Jdmfat,i Tablishat-Islm 14;ree 'Id al Adhi 119 at o sha}, Pn Maroof Hussain 'Id al-Fit 113 at.lanv seePtadisa' identity 6, 179,180,181,182 2 Japan 73 Jason Idlis,Sayyid 14;srealso Sannsiyya Jdusalem 7; ec alsoDome of the thran 110,135.136 Rmk ihsan4r Christ 28, 124,130,153 Jesus ilaz 107;se.alsoQur',n JesusPrayer 47; seealso dhilr; Ikhwenal Safa 32, 49 Ilyas,lvlawlmaN{uhemad 5i 103,109, 118, 128, 149r .Jibri-I,11, seedtsoTabLiEh i lalwt seeaiso Hadith of Gabriel iman40 41, 132 jihnd 10s Jinr 15, 115 India14,65,66, 67,6a,69,?0. Johansn,Julian1s8 159,163; 71,lJ1, 82 svf6n Md tslani. Rehr,tr. ;t Indim relieions 48 E$pt 163 individuals 9, 10 .tonar28, 4e lndonGia71, 86 Jo*Ph 28 inimitability sei'jaz 116 Judaism nitiation23, 29,30 32,73 77, judgement, Last Judgement9, 126,157 108,116,119,120,121, 122, inte ect,intellrctuals 19n.91,.10, t24, 126,12a.1J1,169,181; 64,152,166,l/-9 seeatsoHou, The; Day of 30, 36, 136,154 'ntention 210

27, 48, 49, 160 al-Junayd junar (shield)180

Kurdt, MawlanaKhalid 67 69 Kurdisid 68, 71 Kurds 68 118,119, Kushl-i Hinduwan63 i,2a, 116,117, Kd'ba 13t see 122,129, 120,121, tdbbatko r3t seedtsohlrji of Herculs 73 labours Abn Bakr 178 al-Kalabadhi, also Lane,E.\tl 11s balitut-i E lst.la 7i 18, see langlag, formal 124 \-aqshbandi)rya ritual 119,120,122, lapidation barmat 63 dko Mila; stones 128is?e Last Judgdnt, The see Khalid, Shaykhse?Naqshbed,, Mawlma Khtlid Islmic 37; s.also law sch@ls. Khalidi branch of Naqshbandiyvasee 113 114,llsi s Larlat a.l Qdd.r Naqshbmdiyya Khalidirrya seeNaqshbandtrrya Lebanon72, 183,184 12.23, i4, 80, r29 EhaliJd Lewis,Philip s, 14, 37 Kltalil Allah selbrahim Lewisoh!, tenard 203 Khalrlulah (sonof Nlr al-Din aisoSmusiyya Libya 14;see 26 Wah) 23, ShahNi"matullah Light 7 167; 86, 148, hhaluaTS,7A,85, litany sdhi&r; u,itd liturgy34 50,J6,79 90, 124, Khaa, Ahmad Raza1a 162 29 31 11 hhatuqah , 24, 27, 28, , l-ondon.Universityof 39 also 32, 33, 35, 36, '15;see dlsoParadise Lote Ttee 8; see Lot6, Muhmmad Reza3s 107,131 al -N'd6iryin KILatar. UK 1li2 Loughborough, A8 al-salauat hhanaf, 22, 24,28, 2t), 1 3, 19 n.91, Iote 88i see 86, i Kt ajaefu Khatm 52 n.32,71, 30,34,39,40,'11, 156, 169, 109, 152, 80,82. Omar ix, 1, 15 n 1; Kharyarn, 180 178, 1, 15 n.1 Rs6airt ;, Khwajagmstl Ma Fu ch'u 12s al-Khidr 22, 26, 73, 75 Nlahen23 bhilali 6i, 8l seeaLsoR6hi.lnn I{ahdi, The 71 72 hhirqa 30 71i uila)dt al \Iahdr (father of Sayyid Idris) Khumaym,Ayatouah 14 al-faqih t-r Mahdism 183 Kirm,n 23 Main,John47,48,151,155isce al Kirmani,aH al Rezaq 23 dlso mantra; meditation Konya22 Koran sa Qur'ar Valakut 38 Kubrawitl'a68, 86 malamati snffs 89 10s, 163 Kutr 211

q T' Fi RiTU^L

INDEX

Malaya86 Malik 133 Malik b Anas 108,112,133i M\batta'1\8 manifestarion 164,165 mantra47 +ii, 151,155isee diso d[th4 Main, John;Dird tuqanat 2,31,38, 178

turuatha 17t seeale dhih\ $id Mbles 158 N{utin, Christopher 15,1 al-lr{ama 119, 128; seealsohaijl al'Safat v'} N{ass,sacri6@of 124, 1s2 Mdx, Karl 17s mosques 8, 163,182 Mdt :Ali Sheh 26 Mughal Empire65, 66, 69 r naste r G) 1 1 , 12, 13, 15, 22 ,2 3 , Mughals65, 66, 70 24, 2 5 , 2 6 , 28, 30, 31, 36, 3 t^ , Ifuhamad, The Prophet7, 9, 3E,4 0 , 4 3 ,. 15,48, 49, 61, 6 .1 , t2, 13,14, t5, 22,26, 27,2a, 73, 7 5 ,8 5 , 88, 153, 157, 1 5 8 , 10,41,4?.61,74, 80, 83,84, 159 , 1 6 0 , 1 67, 168;s ee dijo 88, 103,104,107,108,109, shaykh i 11,r 15,116,119,120,12.t, N{atthew,Gospel of I 51 153 124.125, 126,12a,129, t31. mausolea8, 1,1,23, 129, 163 132,133,134,135,136n.2, M awlaw i yya9, lJ 3, 84, 156. 1 6 4 , 145,14/-,148, 149,150,151, 166 153,154,157,158,160,161j meal, ritual 158 Khatan al.NabiJt& l\i , 1311 lvlecca7, 23, 26, 68. 86, 10,1,107, Pilgrimage of Frewel 116, 116, 1 1 7 , 1 1r J , 11S ,129, 13 6 . 119,12O,12a, 134tseaal'o 140 n 1 0 2 , 1, + 1, n. 103.179 , buda. c t\ Sta, tahannuth 180; seealso Zamzan, Well of nrltJabdix, 35,43 47,49,145, media, Western 184 150 151,154 155,159,162, Medina 80 I66, 169 m edita ti o n .+ 748, 78, 124, 1 5 1 , al-Muhrsib,,Heith b. Aed ,13 44, 154;vorks 44 166; seealso_fbr; lv{ain, Johr mantra, mrtuqdbo \4uir, Edward180,181 mentioning seediibl messengers 40, 83, 108

millenrimisrn 7t 72 Mina 119,120,122;see also lapi&tion ritual Mr Dard 83 miracles 1.+ mitfij 109, 132 m'rro6. Islamic8 monasrery, Ch.istian mondticism29, 34, 46,47, 48, 76 monotheisms.e tduhtd months, sfied 8; seedbo tim

nnagaba ix, 33, 40 43, 49, 44, 145,147,148,149,153,156, atso see 159,162,166,167; n8iaiada @Dtemplation; tAi

Nasser, Gamal (Jmai iA.bd al Naqir) 121 122

't61 t62 103,108,111, Munta, Sachiko Shaykh seeal-Qubrusi r03 Nazim, 112,rr4, ThcVLsiotuf Istan negative vocabulary of God 1i&n 11,14,23,24, lid t r \s), 108 109; seealso God 26, 37,36,3i , 40, 43,45,i3, 74, 153,154, Neoplatonism 107, 176; seealso 149, 75,76,85,87, Plotinus; Universal Intellect; 160, 168, 1tl4 159, 157,158,

al-Nawawi 104, 132, 133,

26, 73, 7a, 109, Mnsa (Mo6s) 132,168,169 \{usylima 119 nuhalada 80: seealso fb: music13,37,38,39,81, 82,83, ee also 14i,152, 164,166. ddlzn; dancingisinging trlu'tazila 42 al-Muzdalifa120 162 scred, religious mysteries, id'nd' mystical audition s?d myih 9, 123 a6,t9, 112,116,130, tuts (soul) 14r-,149, \51',167,li 6t see dbo :lmililarion of *li go of God 118, narb6 9, 80; names 162. 166 n4qsh 61,64 Naqsl'l'a'd 80 Naqshbmd,Kt'wajaBaha' a1 ttn 62, 63, 64, 69, 70, 79, 81,82,8:,86 Naqshbandi,Mawlana Khelid 85 Naqshbandrpractice,lv{alayx, 13, 14, Naqshbandiyya 145,158, 61 102,141n.103, 184;Khalidl branch68, 85; Mujaddidi branch 68; seealso kal;'nj't i adsiyJa al-Nar seeHell

Universal Soul New T6t am ent 151, 153 Nicholson, Reynold A. 177 ni'tut Allah 27 Ni'matullah Wali, Nrlr a.l-Din

22,23,24,25,27,37, shah21., 45, 53 n.32 39,

Mevlviyya se l,Iawlawi)t3 mIcrocosm,imacrocosm a Middle Ea.t ;l

Nfujaddid, brmch of Naqshbandilya see Naqshbandiyrya multi faith society 182 N{nnis 'Ali Shah 27 N,f !nisi!'l,a branch of Ni'matulahirya 2;, 27 MuIIar ard Nalir 169;se"dl'o 2t2

N{usic NimatullahiSUG Ensmble 39 Ni'matullehi)yaix, 13, 21 59, 71,73,84,145,158,159,203; branch dlsoN{nnislyya see dlsoBuddhism nirvma 177ise K.A. 62,64,65.66,67, Nizami, 69, i7 Noble EishtfoldPath 125ise alsoBuddhism novrcse?mutid(s) nutuMa 107,108,122,131 al Nu'n.n, QAdl 131 8, 13, 31, numerology numbers, 32,34,49,54n.82 Nlr Ali Shah26 ix, x, 22, 23, Nurbalhsh,Javad 25,26, 27,28,31, 32,33,35, 38,39,41,42,43,45,52 n.32, 71. 152,159tIn rhePuadi.eoJ 41, 43,49,50i tle S!,Es oJ Surt NutuabhshEncr.lapedia Termirclogt 32 of Nnr Nurull.h Shah(erandson a]-Din ShahNi'matullah Sayyid83 al-Nusmar,Shaykh

walt 2a

2t3

rNDEX

obdience 11,34,74,116,t19, 122,134, t50 151,158,160, 167,168 obiates, Benedictine 75i see ziJo Benedict, St; Benedictines occasDnalism s"?atoniss of6ce of an order seeuid Old T6tament 166 one, The s??God Onenessof cod seerdutrd Orisen 147 ostentation, reje.tionof 89 90

pldrs 8 Plato50, 79 Plotinus4, 107,176, 181i Emeads 176; seealso p.Etry 9, 13, 22, 23, 36, 3a

politics134;Islamic121 122, 119 polytheism s srrt! Pourjavady, N4roltah 22, 2s, 27 10,35, 158,159;(titl3sof L@ 36 povdry 13, 30, 31, 32, 64 Ottomm Empire69 prayer, ritual (saldr) 9.35,36, 49. 50.87,{r8,104,10;, 108, ownership of wealrh112 109-111, 112,113,116,124, t23, 126.127,t2A, 129.132, Pakistan 14,81 r+6, 147,1;3,158, 167,169, Pdabie ofthe Ten Virgins 151, I ;.] 180 P&adise 7, S,31,10,+. 117,121. Pre*nce, Divine 90, 152,153, 129,132,133,1.16, 147,16.+. 156,158;se dlsocod 167;s?e alsoLote Tree presence, sacred 110,152,153, 156;se dlsosp&e, aacred; passingaway see ,Iatd ' pride 90 Prirnellaner 32 peDitence see repentmce Prince ch&les, Prince of wates Perfect Van 129 182 Persia 23, 27, 71; see dlsoIraD professionof faith seeshahndz lersian177178 prohibit'ons, ritual 114,120 prson, sacred, holy 129 prophecy 108, 129 phenomenology ;r<, 6, 7, lt, Prophet, The s"e \tuhmad, 10 11,104,105.123 127, The Prophet 1,+5, 151 156,169 prophethoods?en/huDa philosophds147 prophets 9, 73. 74,83, 108,116, phiiosophy 17s 129,| /-8 pjlgrimage 31, 63,68, 124,135, psychratry 25 Pilgrimage of Farewell116,119, Punjab,East65 120,128 punty, .itual; puity; purificarion pir l,14 35 36. 110,111,112,115, place, sacred 27 28,119,t7g: see 122,132,133,1:l+. 136,t52r seealso ablrtions. ritual 211

rmembding seedlilr dhi!' 67, remnbrmces? 36, 64, 66, 14, 23, Qediriyya Renaid,John 119,132,134 66 retutance 116, 120,122,123, Qdadagb 68 133,134,151,154,155,157 al-Qaani, Uways 22 ritual 124,129,166, repetition, qoruals 81, 82 Qawwali, 169,179,180,181 qibla 36, 43 Resurrction,Day of se Nazim 61, al Qubrusi,Shaykh 71, 72,73,i4, 75,79,86, 89, 159,184 leturn to God 108 questing md testing 73 return to homeland, myth of 6 129 Sa'id Qurnmi, Qadi 1s, reward,divine 11s, 116,122 (Kdar) 7, 9, 10, 12, Qu."en 26,3a,42,+4,47,48, 49, 50, rewardmd punishment 104 105,106;see a2,84,8i,48, 104, Hadith of 66,73,74, Rryad and Punishmat 106,107,108,109,111,112, 113,114,117,118,r20,126, rhtoric22 Richard,Ydn 27 n.2,145, 130,132,133,136 146,||i, t48,119,150,151, Rifa'i)Ta 164 155,160,161,162,163.164, ihla fr tala.baI "iln 23 116, lr7, 726 rites of passage 18'1;copies 165, 16;, 168,182, of the Qur'o il; revelation ol dlsd riversof Pdadise7; see dl,o Ali, th Qur'e 113;s?e Yusuf;Faiila; ilaz; Sttar 124,12s RomD Catholicism al Baqatu:Stuat aL-lkhlo:; for 154 r@ts, search Snrdral /aiirai; St'd MaDan; Strai al Nari Strd, offerings14 al-Qa&; tajurl; Throne Verse rosewater 27 Rosnysous-Bois qrb al fara'in 89 Naihm 175, Rolenstreich, al Qushald, Ab. 'l-Qasirn 40, 180 181 41, 1:3 129, 1513 26, 27, 33, 22, 25, rytb rule of life 29, 32 34, 77-79 10, 153, Rnmi, JalalalDin (Mevlana) fibila s, a4 83, 145,149, 164 22, 132,156, 154,1;9, 162,166,167,168 al Rnmi, Tej al Drn ibn Mahdi iutd-i sh4nJ89, 102 n.2as Zaman80; Risala Ji Sudn 80 116,126, 104,L13 Ramadan dlsoLaylat al-Qadr 133;s?? al-Sa'6 4r 83: seenlsohhilaJa Ratr'hiinn sacrments, saciamentalrites Rua Mohamad S. 4 124,125,730,131rbaPtism see dniAr rdollecting, recolction dlso 111i Euchdist 124;se conlirmation; Mass,sacrificeof Refomation 105 165 of 16'1, mmifestation sacred, reformds,lslamic15

S.FI RITIJAL

I ND EX

sacrifice 116,11/',122, t24, t68 sdnaqa lI l, 132,133 al Safa119,128;se dlsoldti

h s e s 1 5 6 , 1 6 6 ,1 7 9 Ssaes Round Table 62; seeaiso Gaboriau, M&c

al-Shadhni,Abo 't Hasan s8 Sh.dhiliyya23, 27, 87, 157,169; salald 149 150,153,160 lvluhmmadiraa Shedhiliyya eints 84, 157,158,162 1;8 sdjjada 12, 16L Sharbh shafa'o r32 dl sdjjada t2 Shai. Pir Marmf Htrsnin I 4; se salmah 13s dsolani'at i TabliehaI t.tnn salit seeprayd, ritual shahada 31, 36, 76, 78, 87. salvation 154 t05 109,111,123,12a,126, sa'll.ae 9, \, 12,13,35, 36,37, 129,t31. 132,162,163,179 J8,39,81 81, 145,117.152, Shabrizu 67, 68 153,156,157,162,t63 164, al Shah;nri se Kurdi, Mawlma 16s,166,182 Kh,tid sarma samadhj 125jjee dl'o sharafuddin, shaykl 7i Buddhism shan'a28, 31, 3i, 42, -50, 63, 65. Samarqdd 23, 6J 68, 70, il, 73, 106,t12, w Sanlsi,Grand 141D 103 dlso law sch@ls,Istamic; SandsiD'a 14 Schoolsof Lav Suntu Sarajevo 86 Shaybadds 70 shayktr 1, 11, 12, t4,23,25, 33, Satan149;se dlsoIblis 34,35, 36.37, 38,45,65,68, saudiArabia 121 i1,13, /-4,75.76, 83,84,85, 86,90,149,150,153,154, ta'! 119.l28tsee nlsa hajj. 157,r58, 159,160.161,167, al-Marwa; al Sa{h 168: Shayhhal.sjjada 12: see Sayyidna'l-Husayn Mosque, alsoDastefi sql-.ada Cairo87. 113 Shi'ism22, 27, 53 n.32, 71 Schimmel, Annemar;e 6. 7, 8, 9, Shrui, ShaykhRnzbihan Baqli 10,66, 75,81, 83, 106,107, 34,12 1t0,117,131,145, 1i7l stlir&106,107 Decipheins the SisB of God 6, shrines 8, 14, 129 7,8 dl Sid?{ s? Abn Bakr; Idn:s; Schoolof Oliedtal and Alr'caD Ynsuf Stud;es (SOAS) 3s signs10, 113;s?e dlsosmiorics g,67 Sch@ls of Law, SuDnt signsof the Hour 41 seclusionseeilalua sitel\t dh;br w dh;hl sectanatusm, Islamic4, g silsila ll, 12,27,62,63,74, aB, self examinarionseenrhdrdbd 89, 149,154,161 semiotics ix, 13, 77, 104,t}S, sin 110,111,114,115,t16,121, 111,130 136,145,147, 151,169jO.iginal sin 111 161 170,182,183 stncenty136n.2 2t6

singing14, 36, 3i, 39, 83, 147 i seealso odidn; dmcing; music alsoMuhammad Sira 148;see sirhitrd65 Sirhindi, ShaykhAhmad 6s 66, 66t 67, 70, 74, 82. Mdtztubat seealsoLahdat al shuhnd Smdt, Ninian 123,124,127,
135, 156 Smith, Margaret 43 elitude n a dowd (lhdluat drr ani tfun) 4, i 8,8r,86 Sorbom 2s

Soviet Union 71 spacersacted space8, 10, 110, 37, 130,179 124,126, 12t-,129, 156, 166, symboiism 167, 179; seealsoplace,sacred; Syria21,il,72 spiritual communion see springs of Ptadise 7; seealso

alsoNaqshbmdivva ula& 86; see sun 7 smtu, suni 8, 63, 68 69, 70, 150, 158 a/soQur'm SntuMdrJam 14; se alsoQur'o Snra YtrlJ 8i se Snrat 01 Bdqya \L seealso Qu.'t' Strdt dl Iiilar 87, 88, 89, 106i dlsoQur'an see at'o St'at al'Irufii'ah 89; see Q".'an also Snraial Ndr' 184isee Qur'5n Suftt al Qah l14t seedlso

12, 119 120 al-Tabari Tablish i Jdnaat (F^;'th s N{ovement) al Din Tabnzr,Shams Mubamrud 22 tahonnuth148;w also

otlhan; taj6d 36,a2, t6\ seealso stations seeruqamat chant,ritual; Qur'an Stpoiants, ]vlarietta 12 tahbir toq l1o, l1l, 122,146, Stiver, Dm R, 130 164;sde alsoGod 147, dlso Dom Stone, Black 7, 128; rr of the Rockr (a'ba; stones 53 stons,7,8, 10, 128,158,165i s ee turqa, trruq11, |3,24,2t3,30, 5, 69,10, i1,14,7 n.32,62,6a, dl'o lapidation ritual; Kd'6d 154, 85, 86, 87, 88, 77, 83, 1S2, 155, 180 structur 155,158,161,162,164,181, md accidents42: s? substances dlso Aiistotelianism Sudm 71
vhl a i x, 75, 85 86, 145, 149, 150, 153, 159, 160, 162, 166 , 167, 168 169 al Strhrawadi, Abu'l-Najib 160; Kitab Adnb al Mtndin 160 Suhnwadiyya 14, 67, 68, 82 SulalDaniyya 68

tdsii]d89 also tdbal na, n0, 135:see hajj; tauaJjuh 8s tdrubdsedrPentance tdulid 105 106,10i,108,122, see also God 129,131,162;

2t7

SUFI FI TUAL

I N D E\

tchDologyand scioce, Westm 184 Teheran28, 36; Tehean

T.ipoli, kbanoD 183 Turkey 69, 70,71,81,86, 113

Watt,WM. 148,149 weaponry Islamic 8 a;lalat al la4ih 7l seedlso Khumaytu, Ayatollah Wilson, PeterLobon 22,25, oJ 27, 30,35,158,159;Kings L@e 36 uid ix,35,4i 49,86 88, 145, 169; 1;1, 155,159,162,166, ee also AufiA-i Fat!'yal dhih': Khatr, i Khbajd$anl wisdom80 Wolffe,John 183 Wright, Owen 37 u)snf 79, 116,It9, 120,128, 181:s dlso Arafat; idt al Ye6'i, :{Mullah 23, 26, 27

Uhud, Banle of 22 tehhe?.0,86t seeabo khanaqah; 'ulanal t, 67, 72 'Ume b. al Khafteb40, 41, 89, 103 Ter Had, J.C.J. 82 vnw 9, 69, 112,126,134,184: tertia.ies, Carmeiite 75 s"ez60 commuDfy tertiaries, Francis.ar 75 union, mystical3, 4, 7, 8, 15 n.l, thanksgiving 116,L2o,t21,122, 24,45, 50,71, 72,73, 147, 152,153,156 178,181 theolosians 37, 43 United Kingdom seeBftain theology ix, 22, 25, 67, 86, United Stares24 103.123,145 151,162,169; Universal Intellct 32i seeal', as.ehcal 44, 154idevorional 154;dogmatic122;tDo|/?,t 46, Universal Soul 32; s?eal'o 154; mysticd152,154,162; political121; psychological Uwaysi,Khadir tradition 1S7 154;.itual 122itheoioev of Uzbek khanates69 Ibrahim 122 123 theosophy 22, 25 Via llluminativa 8 thresholds 8 Via Purgativa 8 Throne Verse89; see also Via Unitiva 8, 9j see aisouion, Qu.'Tibet 2 al-Tijeni,Ahnad 64, 141n.103 TijaDiyya 64, 7l, 157 voal dhihr seedhihr Titlich, Paul 130 iiDe,saded time8, 10,110,119, bahdat al-shuhnA66; s.e aLso 120,121,126,127, 136) see Sirhindi, Shaykh Alnad olsomooths,saced;presence, uohd^t al utjnd 66, t29: seeoko Ibn al-"Aiabir Tr-mru-iLang 23, 63 Wahlabism86, 141n.103 Timtrids 66, 69, 70 tolerance 19 n.91,24 Waley,MuhDmad Isa 35, 39, tombss?e mausolea 40, 41,4i. t48. 167 tladition 128j se at'o hadith Wali Allah, Shah66 67, 68i ftanscendence 153,156 Hujjat AU.Lhal-Baliaha67 Wasit 164 Trosoxmia 23, 70 watcMulness 148,149,167 Triminghm, J Spencer 22,23, wa1lhng seenuragaba 47,62,70,77,78,81,84, 88, water7, 10, 30, 110,128;holy 8q. 15;; Ile Su,{Ordar rn water 14; seealso ablutions, 218

Yaf ilTa 23 Yahy. 133 Yasvilrya 81 Yabm alQiana Yemen 22 71 Yugoslavia

jdsere see

YinusiD'a 49; seaiso uird Ylsuf 8, 74; Ynsuf'sshirt 8j s?e dlso Snrd Y,trut 104,tr1 t13, t2s, 126, z.Lhat 129,132 t33, 157 Zamze, Well of 7, 128;s"edlso zawila l1t seedlsa hhana.qah, el'Zein, Abdul Hamid 127 Ziwutun 63 zildtu 31

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