Hoo Sze Yen

Physics SPM 2011

CHAPTER 10: RADIOACTIVITY

10.1 Understanding the Nucleus of an Atom 10.1.1 Composition of the Nucleus

Geiger-Marsdens experiment: Discovery of the nucleus

Based on the above experiment, with the help of his assistants Geiger and Marsden, Rutherford proposed the nuclear model of the atom in 1911. In this model, the atom has a very small dense core called the nucleus which contains protons and neutrons. Electrons orbit around the nucleus. Proton number, Z is the number of protons in a nucleus. It is also known as the atom number. Nucleon number, A is the total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus. It is also known as the mass number. Subatomic particle Proton, p Neutron, n Electron, e Symbol
1 1p 1 0n

Actual mass 1.67 10-27 kg 1.67 10-27 kg 9.11 10-31 kg

Relative mass 1 1
1 1840

Charge +1.6 10-19 C 0

-1.6 10-19 C

0 1 e

10.1.2

Nuclide Notation
Nucleon number

Proton number

A Z

Symbol of element

Chapter 10: Radioactivity

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Hoo Sze Yen

Physics SPM 2011

10.1.3

Isotopes

Isotopes are atoms of the same element which contain the same number of protons and different number of neutrons/nucleons. Radioisotopes are unstable isotopes which decay and give out radioactive emissions.

10.2 Radioactive Decay 10.2.1 Radioactivity

Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of an unstable nucleus accompanied by the emission of energetic particles of photons. There are three types of radioactive rays: Alpha particles () Beta particles () Gamma rays () A radioactive source can transmit more than one type of radioactive ray Characteristic Composition Symbol Nuclide notation Mass Velocity Ionization potential Penetration Range in air Stopped by Alpha particle (-particle) Helium nucleus
4 2 He

+2e +2 x (1.6 x 10-19 C) Large Up to 10% of the speed of light Greatest Lowest Several centimeters Thin paper or human skin

Beta particle (-particle) High-velocity electrons 0 1 e -e -1.6 x 10-19 C Very small Up to 99% of the speed of light Less than Greater than Several meters Several millimeters of aluminum

Gamma ray (-ray) High frequency electromagnetic waves No charge No mass Speed of light Least Largest Several hundred meters Several centimeters of lead or several meters of concrete

Electric field

-rays remain undeflected since it is uncharged -rays experience a large deflection due to its small mass
The direction of deflection can be determined with Flemings Left Hand Rule

Magnetic field

Chapter 10: Radioactivity

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Hoo Sze Yen

Physics SPM 2011

10.2.2

Radioactive Detectors

Photographic Film Photographic film reacts to radiation the same way it reacts to light. The degree of darkening indicates the amount of radiation received.
Detects: Alpha Beta Gamma

Cloud Chamber A cloud chamber is used to show the path of ionising radiation. As the radioactive particle ionises the air particles, the alcohol vapour will condense on the ions and form condensation trails which will be visible when observed from the top. Component
Sponge

Function

Presses the solid carbon dioxide so that it touches the black metal plate Black metal The metal plate is cooled by solid plate carbon dioxide and this subsequently cools the air above it. The black color provides a dark background which enables the vapor trails to be seen clearly. Felt cloth that is Water and alcohol droplets will soaked in evaporate alcohol and water Perspex lid After rubbed, the lid will be charged and attract ions in the chamber. In this way the old trails are eliminated and new trails can be observed clearly.

Detects: Alpha Beta Gamma

Different radiations will have different trails, based on their ionizing power.

Alpha

Beta

Gamma

Chapter 10: Radioactivity

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Hoo Sze Yen

Physics SPM 2011

Geiger-Muller Tube (GM tube) A Geiger-Muller tube is a very versatile, sensitive radiation detector that is commonly used in the radioactive industry. It is able to provide an immediate reading of the radioactivity, and a siren can be hooked up to emit sound based on the strength of the radioactivity.
Radiation enters the GM tube through the thin mica window and ionises the argon gas particles. A pulse of current is produced and is counted by the scaler or the ratemeter. The scaler gives a reading of the number of counts over a certain period of time, whereas the ratemeter gives a reading of the rate of number of counts (e.g. counts per second, counts per minute).

NOTE: Background Radiation When the GM tube and counter is switched on, a random count will still be recorded even without a radioactive source. This is due to background radiation. Background radiation comes from natural sources such as rocks, soil, air, building materials, food, and even outer space. Background radiation must be taken into account when using the reading taken from the GM tube. Spark Counter The voltage of a spark counter is increased until sparks are formed, and then decreased a little just until the sparks are not formed anymore. When an ionizing radiation is brought near the wire gauze, the air particles will be ionized and sparks will be seen.
Detects: Alpha Beta Gamma

Detects: Alpha Beta Gamma

Scintillation Counter When radioactive radiation passes through sodium iodide crystals, energy is absorbed producing visible light. This light results in the emission of electrons from the
photo-cathode, which are then detected and multiplied by a photo-multiplier tube which results in an electric signal. The signals will be amplified and counted by an electronic counter. Detects: Alpha Beta Gamma
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Chapter 10: Radioactivity

Hoo Sze Yen

Physics SPM 2011

Gold Leaf Electroscope The gold leaf electroscope is not considered a radioactive detector, because it is not able to prove the presence of radioactivity; however it responds to ionizing radiation the same way it responds to static charge.
The gold leaf electroscope is charged with positive charge, which will cause the gold leaf to repel. When an ionizing radiation is brought near the disc, it ionizes the air particles near the disc. The negatively-charged ions will be attracted to the disc and neutralizes the gold leaf, and hence the gold leaf will decrease in deflection.

Detects: Alpha Beta Gamma

10.2.3

Radioactive Decay

Radioactive decay is the process of emission of radioactive radiation from unstable nuclei to achieve a more stable configuration.

Alpha decay Alpha decay happens when a radioactive element decays by emitting alpha particles (4 2 He )
A A -4 4 Z X Z-2Y + 2 He

Beta decay Beta decay happens when a radioactive element emits beta particles ( 0 1e ) A neutron will split into one proton and one electron 1 1 0 0 n1 p + 1 e
A A 0 Z X Z +1Y + 1 e

or
A A -4 Z X Z- 2 Y

or
A A Z X Z +1Y

Gamma decay Gamma decay happens when a radioactive nucleus releases its excess energy in the form of high frequency electromagnetic waves. There are no changes in the number of protons and nucleons but the total energy of the radioactive nucleus will decrease.
A A Z X Z X

or
A A Z X Z X

Chapter 10: Radioactivity

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Hoo Sze Yen

Physics SPM 2011

10.2.4

Decay Series

Some nuclei are still unstable after one decay; the new nuclei are still radioactive and will continue decay. A series of decay will happen until a more stable nucleus is obtained. E.g.:
, , , , 238 234 234 234 230 226 222 218 214 210 214 206 92 U 90Th 91 Pa 92 U 90Th 88 Ra 86 Rn 84 Po 82 Pb 83 Bi 82 Po 82 Pb

A decay series can be shown with two different types of graphs, as shown below. Both graphs show the same decay series. However, only alpha and beta decay can be shown in the graph. For example:

Graph of A against Z

Graph of N against Z

A: Number of nucleons N: Number of neutrons Z: Number of protons

10.2.5

Half-Life

The half-life of a radioactive nuclide is the time taken for the number of undecayed nuclei to be reduced to half of its original number. It is represented by the symbol T In the time of one half-life: The activity is halved The number of active atoms is halved The rate of radiation emission is halved The half-life of a radioactive nuclide is constant and unique to the radioactive nuclide.

Chapter 10: Radioactivity

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Hoo Sze Yen

Physics SPM 2011

Radioisotope Radon-220
Technetium-99m Natrium-24 Iodin-131 Phosphorus-32 Radium-226 Carbon-14 Uranium-238

Symbol
220 86 Rn 99 43Tc
24 11 Na

Half-life 56 seconds
6 hours 15 hours 8 days 15 days 1620 years 5760 years 4500 million years

131 53 I 32 15 P 226 88 Ra 14 6C 238 92 U

Examples of the half-lives of common radioisotopes

The decay curve shows the how the radioactive element decays over time. It can be plotted as the count rate against time, or mass against time.
Activity OR Mass

N N

The graph does not touch the xaxis because theoretically, if the value keeps halving, it will not reach zero

N
T 2T

3T

Time

Half-life is determined by finding out the time taken for the activity or mass to drop to half its original

The time it takes for the activity or mass to be halved each time from its current value is the same

Chapter 10: Radioactivity

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Physics SPM 2011

10.3 Uses of Radioisotopes

Radioisotopes are highly useful in several fields, such as medicine, agriculture, archaeology, and industries. Determining the type of radioisotopes for use depends on: The type of radiation emitted: alpha / beta / gamma such as observing the need for ionization power, penetration power, etc. Half-life of the radioisotope: Short half-lives are needed for radioisotopes that might be injected into or consumed by a living organism, such as in medicine, fertilization, or water testing. Long half-lives are used when the radioisotopes are used in industries that require as little maintenance as possible.

Medicine

Agriculture

Radioisotopes are injected, consumed, or inhaled by a patient and are used as tracers in the body. Imaging of the organs will be used to determine any disorder. Technetium-99m: injected in blood stream to detect brain cancer, internal hemorrhage, and blood clots Sodium-24: to detect blood clot Cobalt-60: kill cancer cells in radiotherapy, sterilization of hospital equipment Phosporus-32: to detect brain tumour Iodine-131: to determine thyroid glands Iron-59: to trace iron distribution in blood The rate and quantity of fertilizer absorption by plants can be determined by mixing radioactive phosphate into the fertilizer. Radioactive radiation from radioisotopes are used to kill pests. Pests can also be multiplied in the lab and exposed to gamma rays, where they will mutate to infertility. Control ripening of fruits. Carbon dating with carbon-14

Archeology

Industries

Gamma rays are used to penetrate deep into weldings to detect faults. Water leaks are determined by dissolving sodium-24 salt into the water and the pipes are checked with a GM tube. Polonium-210 is used to neutralize static charge in photographic plates. Americium-241 is used in smoke detectors. Automatic thickness control of paper, plastic and metal sheets. Automatic check of level of fullness within tins and packages.

Chapter 10: Radioactivity

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Hoo Sze Yen

Physics SPM 2011

10.4 Nuclear Energy 10.4.1

Atomic Mass Unit
1 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom. 12

1 atomic mass unit =

1 a.m.u.

1 mass of 12 6C 12 1 = 1.993 10 26 kg 12 = 1.66 10 -27 kg

10.4.2

Nuclear Fission vs Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear Fusion Combining of two lighter nuclei to form a heavier nucleus E.g. 2 3 4 1 1 H + 1 H 2 He+ 0 n + energy
Requires very high temperature for nuclear fusion to occur Happens on the surface of the sun

Nuclear Fission Splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei E.g. 235 1 141 92 1 92 U + 0 n 56 Ba + 36 Kr +3 0 n Chain reaction can occur. A chain reaction is a self-sustaining reaction in which the products of a reaction can initiate another similar reaction. For example, a neutron collides with a U235 nucleus and splits into two smaller nuclei and produces three neutrons. Each of these three neutrons will collide with three other U-235 nuclei and split into more nuclei and neutrons. The minimum mass of uranium needed for a chain reaction is known as the critical mass.

Chapter 10: Radioactivity

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Hoo Sze Yen

Physics SPM 2011

10.4.3

Nuclear Energy

When a nuclear reaction or radioactive decay occurs, some of the mass of the reactants are lost. This loss of mass (a.k.a. mass defect) is converted to energy. Einsteins law of energy-mass conservation:
E = mc2

where E = total energy released [J] m = mass defect [kg] c = speed of light = 3 108 m s-2

10.4.4

Nuclear Energy

Nuclear fission generators use uranium to generate electricity.

Nuclear energy Electrical energy

Heat in coolant liquid

Kinetic energy in turbine

Potential energy in steam

Component Fuel rod

Description A long rod that has trace amounts of enriched uranium-235. Nuclear reactions occur within these rods when the uranium nuclei undergo fission due to continuous neutron bombardment. Control rod Boron or cadmium rod. Absorbs excess neutrons so that the rate of chain reactions can be controlled. Graphite Slows down the fission neutrons. Neutrons with low kinetic energy can be easily captured moderator by the uranium nucleus to initiate the fission process. Coolant Liquid sodium, water, heavy water (water molecule but with the isotope) or carbon dioxide gas which have large specific heat capacity. The heat generated from the reactor core is transferred to the heat exchange unit. Heat exchange Heat is transferred via piping that contains water. The water in these pipes boil and undergo unit transition to the gas state. The flow of steam rotates the turbine which then drives the generator to generate electricity. Radiation shield A 2 m thick wall of solid concrete, steel, graphite and lead. Ensures the gamma rays and neutrons do not escape from the reactor core.

Chapter 10: Radioactivity

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Physics SPM 2011

Pros and Cons of using Nuclear Fission to Generate Electricity

10.5 Proper Management of Radioactive Substances 10.5.1

Negative Effects of Radioactive Substances

Overexposure will cause death of living organisms or mutation of surviving cells The severity of the effects depend on the distance from the radioactive source and the strength of penetration of radiation The effects of exposure to radiation for humans can be categorised as: Somatic Damage to the body except reproductive cells Symptoms such as fatigue, nausea, loss of hair and skin lesions Delayed effects such as organ failure, cataracts and leukemia Genetic Damage to reproductive cells Dangerous cell mutations and chromosome abnormalities which might be transferred to future generations Birth defects, congenital effects, premature death, cancer later in life

Chapter 10: Radioactivity

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Hoo Sze Yen

Physics SPM 2011

10.5.2

Safety Precautions in the Handling of Radioactive Substances

Read and follow advice and instructions Gloves must be worn when an unsealed source is used or whenever contamination may occur Laboratory coats, long pants, and closed-toe footwear must be worn Eating, drinking, applying cosmetics or storing of food is prohibited All work surfaces and storage areas should be covered with absorbent material to contain radioactive material When using radioactive liquids, plastic or metal trays should be utilized to contain potential spills Radioactive materials, especially liquids, should be kept in unbreakable containers. If glass is used, a secondary container is necessary Before eating or drinking, wash hands and forearms thoroughly Radioactive sources should be kept in lead boxes and stored in a secure lead container Containers must be marked with the radioactive label

10.5.3

Radioactive Waste Management

Radioactive wastes are the remnant isotopes after a radioactive reaction or decay Radioactive wastes contain radioactive substances that emit radiation which are harmful to humans Radioactive wastes usually have long half-lives and strong radiation emissions; therefore efficient management is necessary to minimize exposure and contamination Determining how to handle radioactive wastes depends on: The half-lives of the radioisotopes The concentration of the radioactive waste The heat emitted from the radioactive waste

Low-grade radioactive waste

Originates from hospitals, industries, and nuclear labs Consists of contaminated utensils, clothing, and bandages Solids are stored in special drums and buried underground Liquids (coolant fluid from nuclear power stations) are deposited into the sea via long pipes and released 12km from coastline Gases are released into the atmosphere

Medium-grade radioactive High-grade radioactive waste waste Mostly originates from Consists of spent fuel rods nuclear power stations from nuclear reactors which Stored in special drums, are still radioactive and hot encased in concrete blocks, Stored in pools of water for and buried underground or in several years to cool, and used mines then stored in steel containers and buried approx. 500m underground The fuel rods can also be reprocessed and enriched for reuse

Chapter 10: Radioactivity

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