C++ Programming

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www.pragatisoftware.com

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1
 Table of Contents

 Module 1: Getting Started 5

 Module 2: Arrays 63
 Module 3: Functions 77
 Module 4: Pointers and References 104
 Module 5: Classes and Objects 132
 Module 6: Friend Keyword 168
 Module 7: Operator Overloading 173
 Module 8: Inheritance 184
 Module 9: Polymorphism and Abstract classes 199
 Module 10: Streams 208
 Module 11: File I/O 218
 Module 12: Exception Handling 224
 Module 13: RTTI and Casting Operators 236
 Module 14: Templates 247

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C++ Programming

Developed by : Bjarne Stroustrup

Where : Bell Telephone Laboratories
When : 1979
Influenced by: C
Influenced : C#, Java

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Features of C++

• Object-oriented programming
• Portability
• Modular programming
• C Compatibility
• Speed

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Module 1: Getting Started

• Overview
 First C++ program
 Standard O/P and I/P in C++
 Data types and Modifiers
 Variables and Constants
 Operators
 Loops and Conditions
 Type Conversions

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The first C++ program

• /* First.cpp */
• #include <iostream>
• using namespace std;

• int main( )
• {
• cout<<"Hello! This is my first C++ program\n";
• return 0;
• }

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The first C++ program contd…

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Standard Output
Consider the statements
cout<<“value of var1is :”;
int var1=14;
cout<< var1;
cout<<“The addition of ”<<a<<“and”<<b<<is<<a+b.;

Syntax:

cout<<“string”;
cout<<variable;
cout<<cascade1<<cascade2;

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Standard Input

Consider the statements

cin>> var1;
cin>>x>>y;

Syntax:

cin>>variable1;
cin>>cascade1>>cascade2;

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Data types

• Fundamental data types in C++

Type Keyword
Integer int
Character char
Floating Point float
Double precision floating point double
Boolean bool

• Modifiers
 signed , unsigned
 short, long
 void

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Data Type Modifiers
TYPE SIZE (Bytes) for SIZE (Bytes) for
TC++ Windows/ Unix
char or signed char 1 1
unsigned char 1 1
int or signed int 2 4
unsigned int 2 4
short int or signed 2 2
short int
unsigned short int 2 2
long int or signed long 4 4
int
unsigned long int 4 4
float 4 4
double 8 8
long double 10 10
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Variables & Constants

• Variable – a physical entity which can be changed

 E.g. height, weight, temperature etc.

• Constant – a physical entity which never changes

 E.g. pi value, number of days in a week etc.

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Variables

• All variables must be declared before being used.

• In C++ variables can be declared anywhere in the code.
• A variable may be initialized with a value while declaring it,
by using the ‘=’operator

Naming rules:
6. The first character must be a letter or an underscore
7. Subsequent characters must be either letters, digits, or
underscores.
8. Keywords , white spaces, punctuation marks or symbols
not allowed

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Declaring variables

Example:
int x, y, z;
char name=‘G’;

Syntax for declaration

datatype v1, v2, v3, …………vn;

datatype u1=value1,u2,u3=value2…;

where v1, v2, v3 are variable names.

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 The ‘sizeof’ operator

Consider the statements

cout<<sizeof (int);
cout<<sizeof x;

Syntax:

sizeof (datatype);
sizeof variableName;

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The Constants

Types:
integer, character, string, float.

Integer Constants
 Integers are whole numbers.
 Default is decimal.
 Octal numbers preceded by a ‘ 0 ’.
 Hexadecimal numbers are preceded by a ‘ 0x ’.
 Long integers specified using ‘ l ’ after an integer

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The Constants contd…

Character Constants:
 A single character is enclosed in single quotes.
 Some Escape sequence character constants:
'\n' new line
'\t' horizontal tab
'\r' carriage return
'\b' backspace
'\a' alert
'\\' backslash
'\’' apostrophe

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The Constants contd…

String Constants :
 Sequence of characters enclosed in double quotes.
 A null terminated character automatically placed at the end of
each string .

Float Constants:
 Used to represent floating numbers
 Consist of an integer part, a decimal point and a fraction part.
 Scientific notation can also be used.

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The Constants contd…

1. /*Program to demonstrate use of constants*/

2. int main ( )
3. {
4. int num1=10; /*10 is an integer constant */
5. double num2=28.5; /*28.5 is a floating point
constant */
6. char c = 'W'; /* ‘W’ is a character constant */
7. cout<<"This is a constant string.";
8. cout<<"\nThe value of num1="<< num1;
9. cout<<"\nThe value of num2="<< num2;
10. cout<<"\nThe character "<<c<<" has an ASCII code
of "<<(int)c;
11. cout<<endl;
12. return 0;
13. }
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Defining Symbolic Constants

Consider the statement:

# define PI 3.14159

Syntax:

# define symbolic_name value

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The Symbolic Constants
1. #define TEN 10
2. #define RNUM 28.5
3. #define CHARACTER 'C'
4. #define STRING "This is a constant string."
5. int main ( ){
6. int num1 = TEN;
7. double num2 = RNUM;
8. char c = CHARACTER;
9. cout<<STRING;
10. cout<<"\nThe value of num1="<<num1;
11. cout<<"\nThe value of num2="<<num2;
12. cout<<"\nThe character c is "<<c<<"which has an ASCII
code of"<<(int)c;
13. cout<<"\n10 in decimal is equal to "<<oct<<TEN<<"in
octal and" <<hex<<TEN<<" in hex ";
14. return 0;
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The Constant Variables

• Variables of type (qualifiers) const cannot be changed by the

program.
• However, it can be given an initial value.
• Used as a READ ONLY variable.

Syntax:

const datatype
variable_name=value;

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The Operators
Types:
 Arithmetic : + - ++ -- + - * / %
 Assignment : = , += -= *= /= %=
 Relational : > < >= <= == !=
 Logical : && || !
 Bitwise : & | ^ << >> ~

Also classified into :

 Unary : &(addr) *(indirect) +(sign) –(sign)
~(complement) !(NOT) ++(incre) --(decre)
 Binary : All other operators listed above
 Ternary : Conditional operator(? :)

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Increment and Decrement Operators

An increment operator (++) adds 1 to its operand.

A decrement operator (--) subtracts 1 from its operand.

i ++; /* i = i + 1 (post fixed) */

++i; /* i = i + 1 (prefixed) */
i --; /* i = i - 1 (post fixed) */
--i; /* i = i - 1 (prefixed) */

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Special Assignment Operators

The expression
i = i + 5;
can also be written as
i += 5; /* Add 5 to i */
Similarly,
i -= 5; /* Subtract 5 from i */
i *= 5; /* Multiply i with 5 */
i /= 5; /* Divide i by 5 */

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Fahrenheit to Celsius conversion

1. #include<iostream>
2. using namespace std;

4. int main( )
5. {
6. int fahr=100, celsius;
7. celsius= 5*(fahr-32)/9;
8. cout<<fahr<<" Fahrenheit = "<<celsius<<" Celsius";
9. cout<<endl;
10. return 0;
11. }

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Logical operators
1. int main ( ){
2. float f1, f2;
3. cout << "Enter a floating point number (f1)" << endl;
4. cin >> f1;
5. cout << "Enter another floating point number (f2)"
<< endl;
6. cin >> f2;
7. cout << "f1 > f2 is " << (f1 > f2) << endl;
8. cout << "f1 < f2 is " << (f1 < f2) << endl;
9. cout << "f1 == f2 is " << (f1 == f2) << endl;
10. cout << "f1 != f2 is " << (f1 != f2) << endl;
11. cout << "f1 >= f2 is " << (f1 >= f2) << endl;
12. cout << "f1 <= f2 is " << (f1 <= f2) << endl;
13. cout << "f1 && f2 is " << (f1 && f2) << endl;
14. cout << "f1 || f2 is " << (f1 || f2) << endl;
15.
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Loops and Conditions

• Overview
Selection
 if statement
 switch statement
Iteration
 while
 do while
 for
 Control flow transfer statements
 break
 continue
 goto

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Selection Statements

• Selection
 The if statement
 The switch statement

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The if statement

Start

True If
Statement1
condition

Statement

End

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The if…else statement

Start

False
True If
Statement1 Statement2
condition

Statement3

End

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if construct

if (i==3) cout<<“Hattrick!!”;

if ( year_of_service>3) bonus=2500;

if ((percentage>=40) && (percentage<50))

cout<<“Third division”;

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if construct -- different forms

if(condition) if(condition)
Statement {

Statements
}

if(condition)
if(condition) {
Statement
else Statements
Statement }
else
{

Statements
}

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if else contd…

if(condition)
{
if(condition)
Statement
else
Statement
}
else
{
if(condition)
Statement
else
Statement
}

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The if…else if ladder
if(condition)
{
Statement
}
else if(condition)
{
Statement
}
else if(condition)
{
Statement
}
else
{
Statement
}

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Conditional Operator

Syntax:

exp1 ? exp2 : exp3

If exp1 evaluates to true, then

exp2 is returned
else
exp3 is returned

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Program to find vowel
1. int main( )
2. {
3. char ch;
4. cout<<"\nEnter any character : "; cin>>ch;
5. if(ch=='a') cout<<"\n"<<ch<<" is a vowel";
6. else if (ch=='e')
7. cout<<"\n"<<ch<<" is a vowel";
8. else if (ch=='i')
9. cout<<"\n"<<ch<<" is a vowel";
10. else if (ch=='o')
11. cout<<"\n"<<ch<<" is a vowel";
12. else if (ch=='u')
13. cout<<"\n"<<ch<<" is a vowel";
14. else
15. cout<<"\n"<<ch<<" is a consonent";
16. return 0;
17. }

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Using the || operator
1. int main( )
2. {
3. char ch;
4. cout<<"\nEnter any character : ";
5. cin>>ch;
6. if(ch=='a' ||ch=='e' || ch=='i'|| ch=='o' || ch=='u')
7. cout<<ch<<" is a vowel"<<endl;
8. else
9. cout<<ch<<" is a consonent"<<endl;
10. return 0;
11. }

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The nested if-else
1. int main ( )
2. {
3. int a=4,b=4; char ch;
4. cout<<"Enter which operation u wish to perform";
cin>>ch;
5. if (ch == '+') a += b;
6. else if (ch == '-') a -= b;
7. else if (ch == '*') a *= b;
8. else if (ch == '/') a/=b;
9. else{
10. cout<<"Error";
11. return 1;
12. }
13. cout<<"Result is :"<<a<<endl;
14. return 0;
15. }

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The switch statement

Syntax:

switch ( integer expression)

{
case constant1:
statements;
case constant2:
statements;
case constant3:
statements;
default:
statements;
}

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Using the switch-case
The example for nested-if can be modified using switch- case as
follows:

switch (ch){
case '+' :
a += b; break;
case '-' :
a -= b; break;
case '*' :
a *= b; break;
case '/' :
a /= b; break;
default :
cout<<"error";
}

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Program to find vowel using switch-case
• int main( ){
• char ch;
• cout<<"\nEnter any character : "; cin>>ch;
• switch(ch)
• {
• case 'a':
• case 'e':
• case 'i':
• case 'o':
• case 'u':
• cout<<ch<<" is a vowel"<<endl;
• break;
• default: cout<<ch<<" is a consonent"<<endl;
• }
• return 0;
• }

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Iteration

• The while loop

• The do-while loop
• The for loop

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The while loop

Start

false
while
Exit loop
condition

true

statements End

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The while loop

Consider the statements

while(i<=10)
while(i>=1)
while(i<=10 && j<=15)

Syntax:

while (expression) while (expression)

statement; {
statement1;
statement2;
}

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Using while
• #include <iostream>
• using namespace std;
• int main( )
• {
• int i;
• i=1;

• while(i<=10)
• {
• cout<<“\nValue of i is :”<<i;
• i = i + 1;
• }
• return 0;
• }

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Using while Contd…

1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main( )
4. {
5. int num;
6. char another='y';
7. while(another=='y') {
8. cout<<"Enter a number ";
9. cin>>num;
10. cout<<"square of "<<num<<" = "
<<num*num;
11. cout<<"\n What to enter another number ??
y/n:";
12. cin>>another;
13. }
14. }
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The do - while loop

Start

statements

while
Exit loop
condition false
true
End

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The do - while loop Contd…

Syntax:

do do{
statement1;
statement; statement2;
while } while
(expression); (expression);

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Using do-while
1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main( )
4. {
5. int i;
6. i=1;
7. do
8. {
9. cout<<"\nValue of i is : "<<i;
10. i = i + 1;
11. } while (i<=10);
12. return 0;
13. }

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The for loop

Start

false
for
Exit loop
condition

true

statements End

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The for loop Contd…

Consider the statements

for(i=0;i<5;i++)
for(i=10;i>=0;i--)

Syntax:
for (exp1;exp2;exp3)
{
statement1;
statement2;
}

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Using for
• #include <iostream>
• using namespace std;
• int main( )
• {
• int i;
• for(i=0;i<=10;i++)
• cout<<"\nValue of i is : "<<i;
• return 0;
• }

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Nesting of for loop
1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main( )
4. {
5. int i,j;
6. for (j=1;j<=12;j++)
7. {
8. for (i=1; i<=10;i++)
9. {
10. cout<<i*j<<"\t";
11. }
12. }
13. return 0;
14. }

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Control Flow Transfer Statements

break;

continue;

goto labelName;

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Using ‘break’
• #include <iostream>
• using namespace std;
• int main( )
• {
• int i;
• for(i=1;i<=20;i++)
• {
• if(i%14==0)
• break;
• cout<<i<<"\n";
• }
• return 0;
• }

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Using ‘continue’
• #include <iostream>
• using namespace std;
• int main( )
• {
• int i;
• for(i=1;i<=20;i++)
• {
• if(i%2!=0)
• continue;
• cout<<"\nValue of i is : "<<i;
• }
• return 0;
• }

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Using ‘goto’
• #include <iostream>
• using namespace std;
• int main( )
• {
• cout<<"\nhello 1";
• cout<<"\nhello 2";
• goto a;
• cout<<"\nhello 3";
• cout<<"\nhello 4";
• a:
• cout<<"\nhello 5";
• return 0;
• }

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Type Conversion

Implicit Conversion:
In C+ +, the following program code is valid, and will result in
proper evaluation:
int i, j;
char k;
...
i = j + k;
The type of the variable k is converted from char to int, and
then used in the expression.

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Implicit Conversion

1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main( )
4. {
5. float result = 4 / 3;
6. cout<<result<<"\n";
7. return 0;
8. }

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Explicit Conversion
Consider the following program code:
long i;
int j, k;
i = j + k;

Explicit casting :
i = (long) j + k;

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Explicit Conversion contd…

1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main( )
4. {
5. float result= (float) 4/3;
6. cout<<"Result = "<<result<<"\n";
7. return 0;
8. }

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Module 2: Arrays

• Overview
 Definition
 Array of integers and characters
 Initialization of arrays
 String manipulation functions
 Multidimensional Arrays

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Arrays

• Collection of variables of
 Similar data type
 Referred by a common name
 Stored in consecutive memory locations
 Array values can be accessed via its subscript
e.g.
int marks[5];

Syntax:

datatype ArrayVariableName[ number of elements] ;

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Array example
• #include<iostream>
• using namespace std;
• # define MAX_VALS 4
• int main ( ){
• int values[4] ,i, j, sum=0;
• cout<<"Enter 4 values....";
• for(i = 0; i<MAX_VALS;i++) {
• cin>>j;
• values [i] = j ;
• sum += j;
• }
• cout<<"\n values were : ";
• for (i = 0 ; i < MAX_VALS; i++)
• cout<<"\n"<<values[i];
• cout<<"\n Total : "<<sum<<endl<<"Average:
"<<(float)sum/MAX_VALS<<endl;
• return 0;
• }
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Arrays of Characters
1. #include<iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. # define MAX 5
4. int main( )
5. {
6. char str[MAX];
7. int i;
8. cout<<"Enter 5 characters"<<endl;
9. for (i = 0; i < MAX; i++)
10. cin>>str[i];
11. cout<<"\nThe characters were: ";
12. for (i = 0; i < MAX; i++)
13. cout<<str[i];
14. return 0;
15. }

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The ‘cin’ and strings

1. #include<iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. #define MAX 10
4. int main( )
5. {
6. char str[MAX];
7. cout<<"Enter a string: ";
8. cin>>str;
9. cout<<str<<"\n";
10. return 0;
11. }

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Initialisation of Arrays

int score[11] =
{89,125,56,45};

Index number Or subscript

Values

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
score 89 125 56 45 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
100 102 104 106 108 110 112 114 116 118 120

Memory locations

ArrayName

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Char Arrays or Strings

char name[10]=“Rosy”;

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

R o s y \0
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109

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Some string manipulation functions

 strlen ( )
 strcpy ( )
 strcat ( )
 strcmp ( )

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Some string manipulation functions

Syntax:

int strlen (const char *source);

char *strcpy(char *destination, const char

*source);
char *strcat(char *Destination, char *Source);

int strcmp (const char *string1, const char

*string2);

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Using string functions
• #include<string.h>
• int main( ){
• char str1[20]="C ",str2[20]="Programming in ",str3[30]="";
• cout<<"Length of str1 is "<<strlen(str1);
• strcat(str2,str1); //append str1 at the end of
str2
• cout<<"\nstr2 is "<<str2;
• strcat(str3,str2);
• strcat(str3,"language");
• cout<<"\nlength of "<<str3<<" is "<<strlen(str3);
• if( strcmp("apple","Apple")>0)
• cout<<"\nfirst string is greater";
• else if ( strcmp("apple","Apple")<0)
• cout<<"\nsecond string is greater";
• else
• cout<<"\nboth strings are equal“;
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Multi-Dimensional Arrays

Consider the statement

int student[5][2];

Syntax:
datatype variableName
[index1]….[indexn]

The 3rd element from the 1st row can be accessed by,
student[2][1]

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A double dimensional array
1. int main( ){
2. int total=0,i,j,col=1,row=2;
3. int score[3][11]= {
4. {95,25,56,45,75},
5. {14,22,88,37,95,12},
6. {84,25,16,23,6,89,12,34}
7. };
8. for(i=0;i<3;i++) {
9. cout<<"Test: "<<i+1<<"\n"<<"scores:";
10. for(j=0;j<10;j++) {
11. cout<<score[i][j]<<' ';
12. total=total+score[i][j];
13. }
14. cout<<"\nTotal : "<<total<<endl<<endl; total=0;
15. }
16. }
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Strings
char days[7][10]={ “Monday”, “Tuesday”, “Wednesday”,
“Thursday”, “Friday”, “Saturday”,
“Sunday” };

100
0 M o n d a y \0
Index 110 Memory
1 T u e s d a y \0
120 Locations
2 W e d n e s d a y \0
130
3 T h u r s d a y \0
140
4 F r i d a y \0
5 150
S a t u r d a y \0
6 160
S u n d a y \0

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Printing the array of strings
1. int main( ){
2. char month[10]="May";
3. char days[7][10]={
4. "Monday",
5. "Tuesday",
6. "Wednesday",
7. "Thursday",
8. "Friday",
9. "Saturday",
10. "Sunday"
11. };
12. cout<<"\nMonth is : "<<month;
13. for(int i=0;i<7;i++)
14. cout<<" \n Day is :"<<days[i]<endl;
15. return 0;
16. }
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Module 3: Functions

• Overview
 Definition
 User defined functions
 Storage Classes
 Recursion
 Default Arguments
 Function Overloading
 Inline functions
 Scope Resolution operator

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Functions

• Set of statements written in a separate body

• To perform a distinguishable task

• Functions are classified into

1) Library or built-in functions

2) User defined functions

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Library functions

• Library or built-in functions

 eg. strcpy( ), strcat( )

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The User defined functions

• Syntax:
return_type function_name (argument list)
argument declarations
{
declarations;
executable statements;
}

Eg:
int show_age(int age );
int cal_age(char );

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Creating a user defined function
Function header or function prototype

Return type Function name Formal Parameter list

int isEven (int

value)

{
if(value % 2 == 0) Function body
return 1;
else
return 0;
}

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Function types

• Without argument & without return value

 void clrscr(void);

• With argument but no return value

 void gotoxy(int x, int y);

• With argument & with return value

 int abs(int num);

• Without argument but with return value

 int getchar( );

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Program to compute power of an integer
1. int power (int,int);
2. int main ( ){
3. int i;
4. for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
5. cout<<i<<"\t"<<power(2, i)<<"\t"<<power (3,
i)<<endl;
6. return 0;
7. }
8. int power(int base,int n){
9. int i, p;
10. p = 1;
11. for (i = 1; i <= n; i++)
12. p *= base;
13. return p;
14. }

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Classification of variables

 Based on the position of declaration in the program

 Storage class.

Based on position
Local
Global

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Scope of variables
Local variables Global variables
Declared within any function body Declared outside of any function body
Available only within declaring Available to the entire program, hence can
function be shared by other functions
Are lost as soon as the declaring Are lost as soon as the declaring
function body terminates application or program terminates
• void fun( ) • int k=10; /* global to prg */
• { • void fun( )
• int i=10; /*local to fun */ • {
• } • int i=10; k=35;
• void foo( ) • }
• { • void foo( )
• int i=10; /*local to foo */ • {
• } • int i=10; cout<<k;
• }
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Storage Classes

The storage class gives the following information about the

variable:
 Where it is stored
 Its initial value
 Scope of variable
 Lifetime of the variable i.e. how long it exists

Types :
Automatic
Register
Static
Extern

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Automatic

Keyword : auto
Locations : Memory
Initial Value: Garbage
Scope : Only in the function or block in which it is
declared
Lifetime : Only in the function or block in which it is
declared

Example :
auto int num1;

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Register

Keyword : register
Locations : Register
Initial Value: Garbage
Scope : Only in the function or block in which it is
declared
Lifetime : Only in the function or block in which it is
declared

Example :
register int num1;

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Static

Keyword : static
Locations : Memory
Initial Value: 0
Scope : Only in the function or block in which it is
declared
Lifetime : From the point of declaration to the end of the
program

Example :
static int num1;

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Difference between auto and static
variables
1. #include<iostream>
2. using namespace std;

4. void inc( );
5. void inc_i( );

7. int main( )
8. {
9. cout<<"Invoking function inc( )....";
10. inc( );
11. inc( );
12. inc( );
13. cout<<"Invoking function inc_i( )....";
14. inc_i( );
15. inc_i( );
16. inc_i( );
17. return 0;
18. }
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Difference between auto and static
variable
• void inc( ){
• int i=0; /* auto variable */
• i++;
• cout<<"\nValue of i:"<<i;
• }

• void inc_i( ){
• static int i; /* static variable */
• i++;
• cout<<"\nValue of i:"<<i;
• }

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Extern

Keyword : extern
Locations : Memory
Initial Value: last value attained in a previous file
Scope : global
Lifetime : global

Example :
extern int num1;

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Example of extern
1. /* Source file 1. /* Source file
F04GlobalVar.cpp */ F04ExternExample.cpp
*/
2. int n = 3;
3. void alter ( ); • extern int n;
4. int main ( ) • void alter ( )
5. { • {
6. cout<< n; • n = 10;
• }
7. alter( );
8. cout<< n;
9. return 0;
10. }

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Making Data and Functions Private

static int array [MAX];

int array2 [20];
int main ( )
{
...
}
static int privatefun ( )
{
...
}
double publicfun ( )
{
...
}

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Recursion

• Function makes a call to itself

• Repeatedly invokes itself until a condition is met
• Hence must have a return statement to exit

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Finding factorial using recursion
1. #include<iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int factorial(int x) {
4. if(x==1)
5. return 1;
6. else
7. x=x*factorial(x-1);
8. return x;
9. }
10. int main( ) {
11. int num;
12. num = factorial(5);
13. cout<<"\nFactorial of 5 is "<<num;
14. return 0;
15. }
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Default Arguments

Eg:
cin.ignore(1); & cin.ignore(4,’\n’);
square(6); & square(6, 10);

Syntax:

return_type func_name( arg1, arg2, …., argn = value){

//executable statements;
}

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Using default arguments

• int add(int,int=0);
• int main( ){
• cout<<add(10,20)<<endl;
• cout<<add(8)<<endl;
• return 0;
• }

• int add(int x,int y){

• return x+y;
• }

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Function overloading

void max (int, int);

void max (float, float);
void max (char , char);
void max (int, int, int);

Function calls will be:

max(87, 65);
max( 35.5f, 76.6f);
max( ‘J’, ‘L’);
max(45, 90, 23);

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Using function overloading
1. void add(int x,int y){ cout<<x+y<<endl;
2. }
3. void add(float x,float y) { cout<<x+y<<endl;
4. }
5. void add(int x,float y){ cout<<x+y<<endl;
6. }
7. void add(float x,int y){ cout<<x+y<<endl;
8. }
9. int main( ){
10. add(10,10);
11. add(30,20.15f);
12. add(16.57f,4);
13. add(3.25f,6.44f);
14. return 0;
15. }

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Ambiguity

1. void add(int x,int y=15){

2. cout<<x+y<<endl;
3. }
4. void add(int x,int y){
5. cout<<x+y<<endl;
6. }
7. int main( ){
8. add(13);
9. add(10,10);
10. return 0;
11. }

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Inline functions

• To avoid the run-time overhead when using functions

Eg: inline int min (int v1,int v2){
return (v1 < v2 ? v1 : v2 );
}

• Syntax

inline return_type function_name (argument_list){

//executable statements;
}

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Scope Resolution operator (::)

1. int count = 0;
• int main(void)
• {
• int count = 0;
• ::count = 1; // set global count to 1
• count = 2; // set local count to 2
• return 0;
• }

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Module 4: Pointers and References

• Overview
 Definition and declaration
 Pointer to an array
 Pointer arithmetic
 Pointers as function arguments
 Array of pointers
 Pointer to pointer
 Command line arguments
 Function pointers
 References in C++

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Pointer

• Variable which holds a only memory address

pointer variable = 65524

Name Num

Value 189

Memory address 65524

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Pointer declaration

datatype *pointerVariableName;

pointer declaration

Type of that variable whose

address will be stored by the
pointer

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Pointer declaration & initialization
Syntax for Initialization :

pointerVariableName = & variable;

Address Of

Declaration-cum-Initialization
datatype *pointerVariableName = &variable;

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Pointer example
1. int main( ) {
2. int x=10,y=20,z=30;
3. int *ptr = &x;
65514
5. cout<<"Value of
x:"<<x<<endl;
65516
6. cout <<"Value at
*ptr:"<<*ptr<<endl;
65518
7. cout <<"Value at 65524 ptr
&x:"<<*&x<<endl<<endl;
65520
30 z
9. cout <<"Address of
x:"<<(unsigned)( &x)<<endl; 65522
10. cout <<"Address pointed by the 20 y
pointer:"<<(unsigned)ptr<<endl 65524
; 10 x

12. cout<<"Changing the contents

at address pointed by ptr...
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Pointer example contd…

1. cout<<"Changing the ptr address ...

"<<endl;
2. ptr=&y;
3. cout<<"Value of y:"<<y<<endl;
65514
4. cout <<"Value at
*ptr:"<<*ptr<<endl<<endl;
65516

6. cout <<"Address of
65518
x:"<<(unsigned)(&y)<<endl; 65524 ptr
7. cout <<"Address pointed by the
pointer:"<<(unsigned)ptr<<endl; 65520 30 z
8.
9. cout<<"The size of the pointer 65522
20 y
is:"<<sizeof(ptr)<<endl;
10. return 0; 65524 10 x
11. }

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Pointer to an Array
1. int main ( ){
2. int ary[5]={10,20,30,40,50};
3. int *ptr, i;
4. for(i=0;i<5;i++){
5. ptr=&ary[i];
6. cout<<*ptr<<'\t';
7. }
8. cout<< endl<<"Size of pointer:"<<sizeof(ptr);
9. cout<<endl<< "Size of array:"<<sizeof(ary)<<endl;
10. return 0;
11. } 0 1 2 3 4
ary 10 20 30 40 50
100 102 104 106 108 110

ptr
100

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Pointer arithmetic

• Operations allowed on pointers

 Pointer and integer addition
 Pointer and integer subtraction
 Pointer and pointer subtraction
 Pointer and pointer relational operations

• Operations NOT allowed on pointers

 Pointer and pointer addition
 All division and multiplication operations

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Pointer addition

• ptr++ or ptr-- :
 Increments or decrements the pointer by the size in bytes
depending upon the data for which pointer is declared

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Accessing array elements using pointers
Hence, the previous program can also be written as:

3. int main( ){
4. int ary[5]={10,20,30,40,50};
5. int *ptr= ary;
6. for(;ptr<&ary[5];ptr++)
7. cout<<*ptr;
8. return 0;
9. }

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Pointers to Character Strings
1. void copy_string (char *from, char *to)
2. {
3. for ( ; *from != '\0'; ++ from, ++ to)
4. *to = *from;
5. *to = '\0';
6. }
Or, better still:
8. void copy_string (char *from, char *to)
9. {
10. while (*from)
11. *to ++ = *from ++;
12. *to='\0';
13. }

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Pointer subtraction

1. int main( ){
2. int ary[5]={10,20,30,40,50};
3. int *ptr,*ptr1=ary;
4. for(ptr=ary;ptr<&ary[5];ptr++){
5. cout<<*ptr;
6. }
7. cout<<“Number of elements in the array are:”<<ptr-
ptr1;
8. return 0;
9. }

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Example of pointer subtraction

1. /* Function to find the length of a string. */

2. int str_len (char *s)
3. {
4. char *p = s;
5. while (*p != '\0')
6. p ++;
7. return (p - s);
8. }

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Pointers as function arguments

• Two methods to call a function with arguments

 Call by Value
 Call by reference

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Pass by value

• int main( ) {
• void swap(int, int);
• int x=10, y=20;
• cout<<x<<‘\t’<<y; // 10 20
• swap(x,y);
• cout<<x<<‘\t’<<y; // 10 20
• return 0;
• }

• void swap(int num1, int num2) {

• int temp;
• temp=num1;
• num1=num2;
• num2=temp;
• }

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Pass by address
• int main( ) {
• void swap(int*, int*);
• int x=10, y=20;
• cout<<x<<‘\t’<<y; // 10 20
• swap(&x,&y);
• cout<<x<<‘\t’<<y; // 20 10
• return 0;
• }
• void swap(int *x, int *y) {
• int temp;
• temp=*x;
• *x=*y;
• *y=temp;
• }

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Pass by value vs. Pass by address
main( ) main( )
x y x y
10 20 10 20
65510 65512 65510 65512

swap(x,y); swap(&x,&y);

swap(int x, int y) swap(int *x, int *y)

x y x y
10 20 65510 65512
65524 65526 65524 65526

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Arrays of Pointers

Examples:
char *argv[4];

Syntax:

datatype *pointerName[arraySize];

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Array of pointers

• int main ( )
• {
• int num1 = 1, num2 = 2, num3 = 3;
• int i;
• int *iptr [3];
• iptr [0] = &num1;
• iptr [1] = &num2;
• iptr [2] = &num3;
• for (i = 0; i < 3; i ++)
• cout<< *iptr [i];

• return 0;
• }

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Array of pointers
int main( ) {
int ary1[3]={10,20,30};
int ary2[5]={2,4,6,8,10};
int ary3[7]={8,16,32,64,128,256,512},i;
int *ptr[3]; //collection of 3 pointers in an
array

ptr[0]=ary1; ptr[1]=ary2; ptr[2]=ary3;

for(i=0;i<3;i++)
cout<<(ptr[0]+i) ;
cout<< endl;
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
cout<<(ptr[1]+i) ;
cout<< endl;
for(i=0;i<7;i++)
cout<<(ptr[1]+i) ;
cout<< endl;
return 0;
}
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Array of pointers to character strings
int main ( )
{
int num;
cout<<“Enter month number ";
cin>>num;
cout<<"The month name is :“<<month (num) ;
return 0;
}
char *month (int n)
{
char *name[ ] = {"Illegal month", "January", "February",
"March", "April", "May", "June", "July", "August",
"September", "October", "November", "December"
};
return ( (n < 1 || n > 12) ? name [0] : name [n] );
}

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Pointer to pointer
int main( )
{
65514
int x=10;

65516
int *ptr1=&x;

65518
int **ptr2 = &ptr1;
65520 ptr3
int ***ptr3 = &ptr2; 65520
65522 ptr2
cout<<***ptr3; 65522
return 0; 65524 ptr1
} 65524
10 x

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Command Line Arguments

Syntax
main( int argc, char *
argv [ ])

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Accessing command line parameters

/* Program to type command line strings */

int main (int argc, char *argv [ ] )
{
int i;
for (i = 1; i < argc; i ++)
cout<<“arg “<<i<<“is :“<< argv [i] ;
}

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Function pointers
void show1(char x, char y) {
cout<<"\n Characters : “<<x<<“ & ”<<y;
}
void show2(int x, int y) {
cout<<"\n Numbers : “<<x<<“ & ”<<y;
}
int main( ){
void (*ptr)(int,int);
ptr=&show1; ptr('A','B');
ptr=&show2; ptr(50,60);
return 0;
}

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References

Eg:
int i;
int &x=i;

Syntax:

data_type & reference_variable = variable;

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Swapping two integers with references
• void swap(int &int1,int &int2){
• int temp = int2;
• int2 = int1;
• int1 = temp;
• }
• int main( ) {
• int num1 = 10;
• int num2 = 20;
• cout<<"Before swap:\tnum1: "<<num1<<"\tnum2:
"<<num2<<endl;
• swap (num1, num2);
• cout <<"After swap :\tnum1: "<<num1<<"\tnum2:
"<<num2<<endl;
• return 0;
• }

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Using References
1. int look_up (const int *array, int size, int value, int &occurs){
2. int index = -1;
3. for (int ix = 0; ix < size; ++ix)
4. if(array [ix] == value){
5. if (index == -1) index = ix;
6. ++occurs;
7. }
8. return index;
9. }
10. int main( ){
11. int arry[]={10,24,10,35,62,10,24},no_elements=0;
12. int position=look_up(arry,(sizeof arry)/(sizeof(int)),35,no_elements);
13. if(position==-1)
14. cout<<"Number is not in the array"<<endl;
15. else{
16. cout<<"Position:"<<position<<endl;
17. cout<<"No of occurances:"<<no_elements<<endl;
18. }
19. return 0;
20. }

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Module 5:Classes and Objects

• Overview
 Classes and Objects
 this pointer
 Constructors
 Dynamic Memory Allocation
 Destructors
 static Data Members and Member Functions
 const Functions

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Classes
• Classes are user defined data types
• Syntax
class tag_name
{
private:
// --- member variables & functions
protected:
// --- member variables & functions
public:
// --- member variables & functions
};

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Using class declaration
• class BankAccount { //default
access is private.
• unsigned acc_num;
• double balance;
• void deposit(double amt){
• balance+=amt;
• }
• void withdraw(double amt){
• balance-=amt;
• }
• void display( ){
• cout<<"Account NUMBER-"<<acc_num<<":"<<"\nRs
"<<balance<<"\n";
• }
• };
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Access Specifiers

• private : Members are accessible within the class only.

They are not inherited by the derived class.

• public : Members are accessible anywhere. They are also

inherited by the derived classes.

• protected : Members are accessible in the class itself &

also inherited by the derived classes

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Using Access Specifiers

• class BankAccount { //default

access is private.
• unsigned acc_num;
• double balance;
• public:
• void deposit(double amt){
• balance+=amt;
• }
• void withdraw(double amt){
• balance-=amt;
• }
• void display( ){
• cout<<"Account
NUMBER-"<<acc_num<<":"<<"\nRs "<<balance<<"\n";
• }
• };
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Using the member functions
1. int main( )
2. {
3. BankAccount ba;
4. ba.display( );
5. ba.deposit (5000);
6. cout<<"Balance after depositing Rs.5000/- :";
7. ba.display( );
8. ba.withdraw(1000);
9. cout<<"Balance after withdrawing Rs.1000/- :" ;
10. ba.display( );
11. return 0;
12. }

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Scope Resolution operator & class
members
1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. class X
4. {
5. public:
6. int count;
7. };
8. int X::count = 10; // define data member

10. int main ( ) {

11. int X = 0; // hides class type X
12. cout << X::count << endl; // use member of class X
13. return 0;
14. }

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Defining member functions using
operator ::
1. class BankAccount {
2. unsigned acc_num;
3. double balance;
4. public:
void setdata ( unsigned , double)
• void deposit(double);
• void withdraw(double);
• void display( );
• };

• void BankAccount :: withdraw(double amt) {

• balance-=amt;
• }

• void BankAccount :: deposit(double amt) {

• balance+=amt;
• }

• void BankAccount :: display( ) {

• cout<<"Account NUMBER-"<<acc_num<<":"<<"\nRs
"<<balance<<"\n";
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this pointer
void BankAccount :: setdata ( unsigned acc_num, double
balance)
{
this → acc_num = acc_num;
this → balance = balance;
}

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Constructors

• Automatic initialization done with special member function

called Constructors i.e.,
• Constructor is executed automatically whenever an object is
created.
• Constructors have,
 Same name as class
 No return type

• Constructors can take arguments

• Constructors can be overloaded

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Constructors
• Syntax to declare a constructor

class_name (argument_list);

• Syntax to define a constructor

class_name::class_name(argument_list){
// body of constructor function;
}

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Types of Constructors

• Default constructor
• Parameterized constructor
• Constructors with default arguments
• Copy constructors

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Default Constructors

• Syntax

class name{
public:
name( ){
// executable statements;
}
};

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Default Constructors Contd …
• BankAccount ( )
{ // default
constructor
• min_bal = 5000;
• acc_num = 2004;
• }

Using the member initialization list :

5. BankAccount ( ) : min_bal( 5000 ) , acc_num( 2004 )

6. { }

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Parameterized constructor

BankAccount (unsigned x) : min_bal ( 5000 ) ,

acc_num ( x )
{ }

BankAccount (double bal,unsigned x) : min_bal

(bal) , acc_num(x)
{ }

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Constructor Overloading
• class BankAccount { //default access is
private.
• unsigned acc_num;
• double balance;
• public:
• BankAccount( ):balance(5000),acc_num(2004)
• {}
• BankAccount(unsigned x):balance(5000),acc_num(x)
• {}
• BankAccount(double bal,unsigned
x):balance(bal),acc_num(x)
• {}
• void deposit(double amt){
• balance+=amt;
• }
• void withdraw(double amt){
• balance-=amt;
• }
• void display( ){
• cout<<"Account
NUMBER-"<<acc_num<<":"<<"\nRs "<<balance<<"\n";
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Constructor Overloading Contd …

• int main( ){
• BankAccount B1;
• B1.deposit(3500);
• B1.display( );

• BankAccount B2(3005); //BankAccount

B2=3005;
• B2.deposit(8000);
• B2.display( );

• return 0;
• }

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Constructors with default arguments

• //BankAccount (unsigned
x):balance(5000),acc_num(x)
• //{ }
•
• //BankAccount (double bal, unsigned x): balance
( bal ), acc_num (x)
• //{ }

• BankAccount (unsigned x ,double

bal=5000):balance(bal),acc_num(x)
• {}

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Explicit keyword
• #include<iostream>
• using namespace std;

• class BankAccount{
• unsigned acc_num;
• double balance;
• public:
• explicit BankAccount ( unsigned x ): balance ( 5000 ), acc_num
(x)
• {}
• bool compare_bal ( BankAccount s ){ return s.balance >
balance; }
• void deposit(double amt){
• balance+=amt;
• }
• void withdraw(double amt){
• balance-=amt;
• }
• void display(){
• cout<<"Account
NUMBER-"<<acc_num<<":"<<"\nBalance =Rs "<<balance<<"\n";
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Explicit keyword Contd …

1. int main( ){
2. BankAccount B2=3005; //error
3. B2.deposit(8000);
4. cout<<"\nB2 details...."<<endl;
5. B2.display( );

7. return 0;
8. }

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Copy constructor

• Used to declare and initialize an object from another object

Syntax to declare:

class_name ( class_name &);

Syntax to invoke c’tor:

class_name new_object = source_object;

OR

class_name new_object(source_object);

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Copy constructor example
• class BankAccount{
• unsigned acc_num;
• unsigned balance;
• public:
• BankAccount():balance(5000),acc_num(2004)
• {}
• BankAccount(BankAccount
&obj):balance(obj.balance),acc_num(2005)
• {}
• void deposit(unsigned x){
• balance+=x;
• }
• void withdraw(unsigned x){
• balance-=x;
• }
• void display( ){
• cout<<"Account
NUMBER-"<<acc_num<<":"<<"\nRs "<<balance<<"\n";
• cout<<"\n";
• }
• };
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Copy constructor example Contd …

• int main( ){
• BankAccount B1;
• cout<<"\nB1 deposits 3500\n";
• B1.deposit(3500);
• B1.display( );

• BankAccount B2(B1); // invoking copy ctor

• cout<<"\nB2 cloned B1...."<<endl;
• B2.display( );

• cout<<"\n";
• return 0;
• }

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Dynamic Allocation

• Used to allocate memory to objects at runtime

• Memory can be allocated using the new operator

Eg:
int *pi=new int;
int *pia = new int[10];
LinkList *ptr = new LinkList( );

• Memory can be de-allocated using the delete operator

delete ptr

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Dynamic Allocation Contd …

1. class BankAccount
2. {
3. unsigned acc_num;
4. double balance;
5. public:
6. BankAccount(unsigned x,double bal) : acc_num ( x ),
balance ( bal )
7. {}
8. void display( )
9. {
10. cout<<acc_num<<":"<<balance<<"\n";
11. }
12. };

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Dynamic Allocation Contd …

• int main( )
• {
• BankAccount *ptr=new BankAccount(333,3500);
• ptr->display( );
• delete ptr;
• return 0;
• }

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Destructors

• Automatically called when an object is destroyed .

• Syntax

class name{
public:
name( ){
// executable statements;
}
~name( ){
// executable statements;
}
};

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Destructors Example

• class BankAccount
• {
• unsigned acc_num;
• double balance;
• public:
• BankAccount( unsigned x, double bal) : acc_num ( x )
, balance( bal )
• { }
• ~BankAccount( )
• {
• cout<<"This is the bank account
destructor!"<<endl;
• }
• void display( ){
• cout<<acc_num<<":"<<balance<<"\n";
• }
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Destructors Example Contd…

1. int main( )
2. {
3. cout<<"For object created on the heap..."<<endl;
4. BankAccount *ptr=new BankAccount(333,3500);
5. delete ptr;

7. cout<<endl<<"For temporary object"<<endl;

8. BankAccount B1(334,4500);
9. return 0;
10. }

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Static Data Members

Syntax to declare:

static data-type data_member;

Syntax to assign a value:

Outside the class:

data-type ClassName :: data_member = value;

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Static Member functions

• Can access only other static members of the same class

Syntax to declare:

return_type static function_name(argument_list) ;

Syntax to access:

object::function_name(argument_list);

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Static Data Members and Member Functions
Example
• class BankAccount {
• unsigned acc_num;
• double balance;
• static int num;
• public:
• BankAccount ( ){
• acc_num=450;
• balance=5000.0;
• ++num;
• }
• BankAccount ( unsigned x, double bal){
• acc_num=x;
• balance=bal;
• ++num;
• }
• void deposit ( double amt){
• balance+=amt;
• }
• static void showNoObjects( ){
• cout<<"\nThe total number of objects created
are:"<<num<<endl;
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Static Data Members and Member Functions
Example
• void display( ){
• cout<<"\nAccount
NUMBER-"<<acc_num<<":"<<"\nRs "<<balance<<"\n";
• }
• };
• int BankAccount :: num;

• int main( ){
• BankAccount S1;
• S1.deposit( 3500 );
• S1.display( );

• BankAccount S2(451,3005); // BankAccount

S2=3005;
• S2.deposit( 8000 );
• S2.display( );
• BankAccount::showNoObjects( );
• cout<<endl;
• return 0;
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Const Objects and const Member
functions
• class Time{
• int hr,min,sec;
• public:
• Time(int h,int m,int s) {
• hr=h;
• min=m;
• sec=s;
• }
• void setTime(int h,int m,int s) {
• hr=h;
• min=m;
• sec=s;
• }
• void display( ) const {
• cout<<endl<<"the time is:";
• cout<<hr<<":"<<min<<":"<<sec;
• }
• };
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Const Objects and const Member
functions
• Time const noon (12,0,0 ) ; //Const
object

• int main( )
• {
• noon.display( );
• noon.setTime(5,6,7); //will be an error ;
• cout<<endl;
• return 0;
• }

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Mutable keyword
• class Time{
• int hr, min, sec;
• mutable int hr1;
• public:
• Time (int h , int m ,int s){
• hr=h;
• min=m;
• sec=s;
• }
• void setTime (int h, int m, int s) {
• hr=h;
• min=m;
• sec=s;
• }
• void display( ) const {
• hr1 = 2;
• cout<<endl<<"The time is:";
• cout<<hr<<":"<<min<<":"<<sec;
• }
• };
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Module 6: Friend keyword

• Overview
 Friend Functions
 Friend Classes

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Friend functions
• Used to access the private members of a class by non-
member functions

Syntax for declaring:

friend return_type function_name(argument list);

Syntax for defining:

function_name(argument list){ // Body of function
}

Syntax for calling:

function_name(argument list);
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Friend functions example
• class Time{
• int hr,min,sec;
• friend Time calculateTime(Time,Time);
• public:
• Time( ) {
• hr=0;
• min=0;
• sec=0;
• }
• Time(int hr1,int min1,int sec1) {
• hr=hr1;
• min=min1;
• sec=sec1;
• }
• void display( ){
• cout<<hr<<":"<<min<<":"<<sec<<endl;
• }
• };
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Friend functions example contd…
• //function calculateTime requires to access the private
members of class Time
• Time calculateTime (Time t1,Time t2)
• {
• Time result;
• result.hr=t1.hr+t2.hr;
• result.min=t1.min+t2.min;
• result.sec=t1.sec+t2.sec;
• return result;
• }

• int main( )
• {
• Time t1(3,3,5), t2(2,5,6) ;
• Time t3;
• t3=calculateTime(t1,t2);
• t3.display( );
• return 0;
• }
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Friend classes
• class Node{
• int x;
• friend class LinkedList;
• public:
• Node( ) : x(100)
• {}
• };
• class LinkedList {
• Node obj;
• public:
• void display( ){
• cout<<"the value of x is:"<<obj.x<<endl;
• }
• };

• int main( )
• {
• LinkedList ll;
• ll.display( );
• return 0;
• }
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Module 7: Operator Overloading

• Overview
 Overloading The Binary + operator
 Overloading The prefix operator
 Overloading The postfix operator

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Operator overloading

• Facility to give mutiple meaning to the set of predefined

operators.
• Syntax for declaring

return_type operator operator_symbol(argument_list);

• Syntax for defining

return_type operator operator_symbol(argument_list){

}

• Syntax for calling

class_object1 operator_symbol class_object2;

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Operator Overloading

• The following operators can be overloaded:

+ - * / %
^ = < > !=
+= -= & new delete
<> <= >= << >>
&& || ++ -- ()

Following operators cannot be overloaded:

sizeof, . , :: , ?:

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Operator Overloading

• Operator Overloading can be done by two methods:

 As a member function
 As a friend function

• No of parameters a Unary operator takes

 If declared as a member function is none
 If declared as a friend function is one

• No of parameters a Binary operator takes

 If declared as a member function is one
 If declared as a friend function is two

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Overloading the Plus operator as a Member
function
1. class Time{
2. int hr, min, sec; • Time
3. public: operator+(Time t2)
4. Time( ) • {
5. { • Time result;
6. hr=0; • result.hr=hr+t2.hr;
7. min=0; •
8. sec=0; result.min=min+t2.mi
9. } n;
10. Time (int hr, int min, int •
sec) { result.sec=sec+t2.sec
11. this->hr=hr; ;
12. this->min=min; • return result;
13. this->sec=sec; • }
14. } • };
15. void display( ) {
16.
cout<<hr<<":"<<min<<":"<
<sec<<endl;
17.Software}
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Overloading the Plus operator as a Friend
function
• class Time{
• int hr, min, sec; • Time operator+(Time
• public:
t1,Time t2)
• Time( ){ • {
• hr=0; • Time result;
• min=0; • result.hr=t1.hr+t2.hr;
• sec=0; •
• } result.min=t1.min+t2.mi
• Time( int hr, int min, int
sec){ n;
• •
this->hr= hr;
• result.sec=t1.sec+t2.sec;
this->min= min;
• return result;
• this->sec= sec;
• }
• }
• void display( ){
•
cout<<hr<<":"<<min<<":"<
<sec<<endl;
• }
• Software
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Operator Overloading Example

The call for both methods:

• int main( )
• {
• Time t1(3,3,5),t2(2,5,6);
• Time t3;
• t3=t1+t2; //this invokes the
operator overloaded function
• t3.display();
• cout<<endl;
• return 0;
• }

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Overloading the Prefix operator as a Member
function
1. class Time{
2. int hr, min, sec; • Time
3. public: operator++( )
4. Time( ) • {
5. { • Time result;
6. hr=0; • result.hr=++hr;
7. min=0; •
8. sec=0; result.min=++min;
9. } •
10. Time (int hr, int min, int sec) { result.sec=++sec;
11. this->hr=hr; • return result;
• }
12. this->min=min;
• };
13. this->sec=sec;
14. }
15. void display( ){
16.
cout<<hr<<":"<<min<<":"<<se
c<<endl;
17. }
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Overloading the Prefix operator as a Friend
function
• class Time{
• int hr, min, sec;
• public: • Time operator++
• Time( ){ (Time t)
• hr=0; • {
• min=0; • Time result;
• sec=0; • result.hr=++t.
• } hr;
• Time( int hr, int min, int sec){ •
• this->hr= hr; result.min=++t.
• this->min= min;
•
min;
this->sec= sec;
• }
• result.sec=++t.
• void display( ){ sec;
• • return result;
cout<<hr<<":"<<min<<":"<<sec< • }
<endl;
• }
• friend Time operator++(Time);
• };

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Operator Overloading for prefix operator
Example
The call for both methods:

• int main( )
• {
• Time t2(2,5,6);
• Time t3;
• t3=++t2; //this invokes the
operator overloaded function
• t3.display( );
• cout<<endl;
• return 0;
• }

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Postfix operator overloaded
As a member function: As a friend function:

• Time operator++ • Time operator++

( int){ (Time t, int){
• Time result; • Time result;
• result. hr= • result. hr=t.
hr++; hr++;
• result. min= • result. min=t.
min++; min++;
• result. sec= • result. sec= t.
sec++; sec++;
• return result; • return result;
• } • }

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Module 8: Inheritance

• Overview
 Inheritance Access Specifier
 Single Inheritance
 Multiple Inheritance
 Hybrid Inheritance

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Inheritance

• Creating a new class from an existing class

• Syntax:

class derived_class_name: access specifier baseClass_name

{
……
};

• Syntax for Multiple Inheritance

class derived_class_name: access specifier
baseClass1_name, access specifier baseClass2_name,
…
{
……
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Inheritance Access Specifier
Type of PRIVATE PROTECTED PUBLIC
Access MEMBERS MEMBERS MEMBERS
Specifier
private Not Inherited Inherited but Inherited but
become private become private
members of members of
derived class derived class
protected Not inherited Inherited but Inherited but
remain protected become protected
members of members of
derived class derived class
public Not inherited Inherited but Inherited but
remain protected become public
members of members of
derived class derived class

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Types of inheritance

• Single
• Multilevel
• Multiple
• Hybrid

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Single Inheritance: The Base Class

• class BankAccount{
• protected:
• int accNo;
• double balance;
• public:
• BankAccount( )
• {
• accNo=0;
• balance=5000;
• }
• void display( )
• {
• cout<<"Account Number:"<<accNo <<" has
balance = "<<balance;
• }
• };
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Single Inheritance :The Derived class
1. class SavingAccount : public BankAccount {
2. float minimumBalance;
3. float rateOfInterest;
4. public:
5. SavingAccount(float rofI)
6. {
7. rateOfInterest=rofI;
8. }

10. void display( ){

11. //invoking methods of other classes
12. BankAccount::display( );
13. cout<<"\nThe rate of Interest applied
is:"<<rateOfInterest<<endl;
14. }
15. };

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Single Inheritance Contd…

1. int main( )
2. {
3. SavingAccount S1(8.75f);
4. S1.display( );

6. return 0;
7. }

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Constructor Ordering
1. SavingAccount S1(8.75f);

3. class BankAccount { invokes

BankAccount( ) {
• accNo=0;
• balance=5000;
• }
• }; invokes

• class SavingAccount : public BankAccount {

• SavingAccount(float rofI) {
• rateOfInterest=rofI;
• }
• };

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Constructor Ordering contd…
• class BankAccount{
• protected:
• int accNo;
• double balance;
• public:
• BankAccount(int AccNO,double bal) {
• accNo=AccNO;
• balance=bal;
• }
• };
• class SavingAccount : public BankAccount {
• float minimumBalance;
• float rateOfInterest;
• public:
• SavingAccount(int AccNO,double bal,float
rofI):BankAccount(AccNO,bal)
• { rateOfInterest=rofI;
• }
• };
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Constructor Ordering contd…

int main( )
{
SavingAccount S1(204,10000.0,8.75f);
S1.display( );

return 0;
}

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Multiple Inheritance
class Membership{ class SavingAccount
protected: {
char typeOfMembership; static float minimumBalance;
public: float rateOfInterest;
Membership( ) public:
{} SavingAccount( )
Membership(char type) {}
{ SavingAccount(float rofI) {
rateOfInterest=rofI;
typeOfMembership=type;
} }
void display() void display( ) {
{ cout<<"\nThe rate of
cout<<"\nThe Interest applied
Membership is of is:"<<rateOfInterest;
}
type:"<<typeOfMembershi };
p; float
} SavingAccount::minimumBalance=5
};
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Multiple Inheritance Contd…

• class LoanAccount: public Membership, public

SavingAccount
• { };

• int main( )
• {
• LoanAccount B1;
• B1.display( ); //Ambiguity
error!
• return 0;
• }

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Hybrid Inheritance
class BankAccount{
protected:
int accNo;
double balance;
public:

BankAccount( ) {
accNo=0;
balance=0;
}
BankAccount(int AccNo,double bal) {
accNo=AccNo;
balance=bal;
}
void display( ) {
cout<<"Account Number:"<<accNo<<" has balance
= "<<balance<<endl;
}
};
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Hybrid Inheritance Contd…

class SavingAccount : class Membership :

public virtual BankAccount public virtual BankAccount
{ {
float minimumBalance; protected:
float rateOfInterest; char
typeOfMembership;
public:
public:
SavingAccount( )
Membership( )
{} {}
SavingAccount (int AccNo, Membership(char
double bal, type)
float {
rofI):BankAccount(AccNo,bal)
{ typeOfMembership=type;
rateOfInterest=rofI; }
};
}
};
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Hybrid Inheritance Contd…

class LoanAccount : public Membership, public

SavingAccount
{ };

int main( )
{
LoanAccount B1;
B1.display( );
return 0;
}

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Module 9: Polymorphism and Abstract
classes
• Overview
 Virtual functions
 Polymorphism Example
 Abstract classes
 Virtual Destructors

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Virtual functions

• Syntax

virtual return_type function_name(argument list);

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Virtual functions
class BankAccount{
protected:
int accNo;
double balance;
public:
BankAccount( ){ }
BankAccount(int AccNo,double bal)
{
accNo=AccNo;
balance=bal;
}
/*For polymorphism this function has to declared as virtual*/
virtual void display( )
{
cout<<"Account Number:"<<accNo<<" has balance =
"<<balance<<endl;
}
};
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Polymorphism Example
class SavingAccount : public
BankAccount class CurrentAccount : public
{ BankAccount
float minimumBalance; {
float rateOfInterest; protected:
public: double overDraftLimit;
SavingAccount(int AccNo, public:
double bal, CurrentAccount(double
float odl)
rofI):BankAccount(AccNo,bal {
) overDraftLimit=odl;
{ }
rateOfInterest=rofI; void display( )
{
} cout<<"\nThe
void display( ) { overdraft Limit for this
BankAccount::display(); accounts is:“
cout<<"\nThe rate of <<overDraftLimit<<endl;
Interest applied
}
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Polymorphism Example
int main( )
{
BankAccount B1(203,10000.0);
BankAccount *Baseptr=&B1;
Baseptr->display( );

SavingAccount S1(204,3000.0,9.0f);
Baseptr=&S1;
Baseptr->display( );//calls SavingAccount.display() if
display() is made virtual in base class, else calls
BankAccount.display( );

CurrentAccount C1(5000.0);
Baseptr=&C1;
Baseptr->display( );
//calls CurrentAccount.display( ) if display( ) is made
virtual in base class, else calls BankAccount.display( );
}
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Abstract classes

• No actual objects are created from it.

• A class in C++ is abstract if it contains at least one pure
virtual function
• A virtual function equated to zero is called a pure virtual
function

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Abstract classes Example

class BankAccount{
protected:
int accNo;
double balance;
public:
BankAccount( ){ }
BankAccount(int AccNo,double bal)
{
accNo=AccNo;
balance=bal;
}
/*For making this function a pure virtual function it has to
equated to zero*/
virtual void display( )=0;
};
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Virtual Destructors
class BankAccount {
protected:
int accNo;
double balance;
public:
BankAccount( ){ }
BankAccount(int AccNo,double bal) {
accNo=AccNo;
balance=bal;
}
/*For polymorphism this function has to declared as virtual*/
virtual void display( ){
cout<<"Account Number:"<<accNo<<" has balance =
"<<balance<<endl;
}
/* virtual destructors*/
virtual ~BankAccount( ) {
cout<<"\nInvoking base class destructor...";
}
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Virtual Destructors
class SavingAccount: public BankAccount {
float minimumBalance;
float rateOfInterest;
public:
SavingAccount ( int AccNo, double bal, float rofI) : BankAccount(
AccNo, bal) {
rateOfInterest = rofI;
}
void display( ) {
BankAccount:: display( );
cout <<"\n The rate of Interest applied is:"<<
rateOfInterest;
}
~SavingAccount ( ){
cout<<"\nInvoking Saving account destructor...";
}
};
int main( ){
BankAccount * Baseptr=new SavingAccount ( 204,
3000.0, 9.0f);
delete Baseptr;
}
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Module 10: Streams

• Overview
 Stream class hierarchy
 cin.get ( )/ cin.getline( ) methods
 cin.ignore( ) method
 Manipulators

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Stream Classes

 A stream is a general name given to a flow of data in an

input/output situation.
 Streams are called iostreams in C++

Advantages:
No formatting characters in streams.
Overloading of existing operators and functions possible

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Stream class hierarchy

ios

istream ostream

iostream
ifstream ofstream
fstream

istream_ iostream_ ostream_

withassign withassign withassign

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Reading strings

• Syntax

cin.get(signed char *s,int n,char_delim='\n');

cin.getline(signed char *s,int n,char_delim='\n')

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The get function
1. #include<iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. #define MAX 9
4. int main( )
5. {
6. char str0[MAX];
7. cout<<"Enter a string: ";
8. cin.get(str0,MAX);
9. cout<<str0<<"\n";
10. }

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The getline function

1. #include<iostream.h>
2. #define MAX 20
3. int main( )
4. {
5. char str1[MAX];
6. cout<<"Enter a string: ";
7. cin.getline(str1,MAX,'.');
8. cout<<str1<<"\n";
9. }

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Limitations of the get and getline
functions
1. int main( )
2. {
3. char str[30];
4. int code;
5. cout<<"Enter the code of the Employee ";
6. cin>>code;
7. cout<<"Enter the name of the Employee ";
8. cin.getline(str,30);
9. cout<<str<<" has code:"<<code;
10. cout<<"\n";
11.}

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 cin.ignore( )

• Extract and discard characters

• Eg :
cin.ignore(4,'\n');
cin.ignore(1);

Syntax:

istream& ignore ( streamsize n = 1, int delim = EOF );

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Using cin.ignore( )

1. int main( )
2. {
3. char str[30];
4. int code;
5. cout<<"Enter the code of the Employee ";
6. cin>>code;
7. cin.ignore(4,'\n');
8. cout<<"Enter the name of the Employee ";
9. cin.getline(str,30);
10. cout<<str<<" has code:"<<code;
11. cout<<"\n";
12. }

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Manipulators

•Special functions used to alter format parameters

Manipulator Parameter function

endl ‘\n’

setprecision Number of decimal precision

digits to be displayed
setfill Fill character fill

setw Variable width width

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Module 11: File I/O

• Overview
 Opening/ Closing a file
 reading /writing to a file char-by-char
 reading /writing an object to a file

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File i/o

• File stream classes

declared in fstream in the namespace std
ifstream
Used for file input operations
Derived class of istream

ofstream
Used for file output operations
Derived class of ostream

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Opening/Closing a file

• Two ways to open a file:

using open function
using the constructor

• To close a file
using close function

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Reading/Writing to File char-by-char
• #include<fstream>
• #include<iostream>
• using namespace std;
• int main( ) {
• char str[ ]= "Time flies over us, but leaves its
shadows behind\n";
• ofstream for_write (“ char_by_char.txt");
• cout<<"\nWriting into the file character by
character...";
• for ( unsigned i=0;i< strlen(str) ;i++)
• for_write.put(str[i]);
• for_write.close( );
• ifstream for_read("char_by_char.txt");
• char ch;
• cout<<"\nReading from the file character by
character and displaying ...\n";
• while(!for_read.eof( )){
• for_read.get(ch);
• cout<<ch;
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Reading/Writing an object to a File
#include<fstream>
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

class Person{
char name[40];
int age;
public:
void getData( ){
cout<<"\nEnter name:";cin>>name;
cout<<"Enter age:";cin>>age;
}
void displayData( ){
cout<<name<<endl;
cout<<age<<endl;
}
};
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Reading/Writing an object to a File
int main( )
{
Person P1,P2;
cout<<"\nEnter the data.\n";
P1.getData( );

ofstream data("Person_data.DAT");
cout<<"\nNow writing into the file..."<<endl;
data.write((char *)&P1,sizeof(Person));
data.close();

ifstream data1("Person_data.DAT");
cout<<"Now reading from the file..."<<endl;
data1.read((char *)&P2,sizeof(Person));

cout<<"\nData read is..."<<endl;

P2.displayData();
cout<<endl;
}
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Module 12: Exception Handling

• Overview
 Simple Exception Handling
 Catch-All Handler
 Re-throwing an exception
 Catching class type exceptions
 Handling derived class exceptions
 Unwinding the stack
 Throwing exceptions from constructors
 Using set_terminate ( ) function

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Exception handling

• Runtime Errors are called exceptions

• C++ exception handling has three keywords:

try
catch
throw

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Syntax of a try…catch
try { ………….
throw exception;
………….
}
catch(type1 arg) {
//catch block
}
catch(type2 arg) {
//catch block
}
catch(type3 arg) {
//catch block
}
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Simple Exception Handling

• #include<iostream>
• using namespace std;

• int main( )
• {
• try{
• cout<<"U R IN TRY BLOCK !!"<<endl;
• throw 10; //throw exception of type
integer.
• }
• catch(int){ //catch handler for integer.
• cout<<"U R IN CATCH BLOCK !!"<<endl;
• }
• }

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Catch-All Handler
int main( ) {
try{ int y;
cout<<"\n\nIn try block...";
cout<<"Enter the value of y:";
cin>>y;
if(y= =100)
throw y; //throw an excepiton of type int
else
cout<<"The value entered is:"<<y;
}
catch(float){
cout<<"In catch block for float... ";
}
catch(char *str){
cout<<"In catch block for string...“ <<str;
}
catch(...){
cout<<"In catch all block...";
}
cout<<"\nEND of program!!";
return 0;
} Software Pvt. Ltd., 312, Lok Center, Marol-Maroshi Road, Marol, Andheri (East), Mumbai 400 059. www.pragatisoftware.com
Pragati 228
Re-throwing an exception
void func1( ) int main( )
{ {
try{ try{
throw "SOMETHING went func1( );
wrong !!!"; }
} catch(const char
catch ( const char *s){ *s){
cout<<"Inside internal cout<<"\nBack in
handler !!"<<endl;
function main !!"<<endl;
cout<<"\n Rethrowing
the exception to the calling cout<<s<<endl;
function..."; }
throw; }
}
}

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Catching class type exceptions

class MyException{ int main( ) {

int num;
public:
try{
char msg[80]; cout<<"Enter a
int value; number \n";
MyException(){ cin>>num;
*msg=0; if(num<0)
value=0; throw
} MyException("Not a positive
MyException(char number !!",num);
*str,int what){ else
strcpy(msg,str); cout<<"The number is a
value=what; positive number:"<<num;
}
}
catch(MyException e){
}; cout<<e.msg<<":";
cout<<e.value;
}
cout<<endl;
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Handling derived class exceptions

class A{ }; int main( )

class B{ }; {
//class C inherits from B try{
and A throw c;
}
class C: public B, public catch (C d) {
A{ }; cout <<"\n Catch of
C c; derived \n \n";
B b; }
A a; catch ( B &a){
cout<<"\n Catch of base b
\n";
}
catch ( A &){
cout<<"\n Catch of base
a\n";
}
}
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Unwinding the stack
class Employee{
int acc_no; int main( )
{
char name[10];
try{
public: Employee emp(1,"Sunil");
Employee(int x,char cout<<"\nException
*str){ generated...";
acc_no=x; throw 1;
}
strcpy(name,str); catch ( int){
cout<<"\n In Exception
}
Handler"<< endl;
~Employee( ){ }
cout<<"\nIn the }
destructor";
}
};
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Throwing exceptions from constructors
class Engineer{
public:
Engineer( ){
cout<<"Inside Engineer constructor !!"<<endl;
}
~Engineer( ){
cout<<"Inside Engineer destructor !!"<<endl;
}
};
class Manager{
public:
Manager( ){
cout<<"Inside Manager constructor !!"<<endl;
}
~Manager( ){
cout<<"Inside Manager destructor !!"<<endl;
}
};
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Throwing exceptions from constructors Contd…
class EngineerManager : public Manager{
public:
EngineerManager ( ){
cout<<"Inside EngineerManager constructor !!
"<<endl; Engineer e;
throw -1;
}
~EngineerManager ( ){
cout<<"Inside EngineerManager destructor !!
"<<endl;
}
};
int main( ){
try{
EngineerManager EM;
}
catch(int){
cout<<"CAUGHT AN ERROR"<<endl;
}
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Using set_terminate ( ) function
void Big_crunch ( ){
cout<<"UNEXPECTED ERROR IN APPLICATION !!
"<<endl<<
“Exiting to os"<<endl;
exit(-1);
}

int main( ){
set_terminate ( Big_crunch);
try{
throw 1; //throw exception of type int.
}
catch ( char ){
cout<<"CAUGHT IN BLOCK";
}
return 0;
}

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Module 13: RTTI and Casting Operators

• Overview
 typeinfo class and using the typeid object
 dynamic_cast
 const_cast
 static_cast
 reinterpret_cast

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RTTI

• RTTI: Run Time Type Identification.

• This allows to identify object-type during program execution.

• Syntax: typeid(object);
• Uses #include<typeinfo.h>

• typeid returns a reference to an object of type type_info.

• type_info is a class that describes the type of object and
defines the following public members:
 bool operator ==(const type_info &ob);
 bool operator !=(const type_info &ob);
 bool before(const type_info &ob);
 const char *name( );
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typeinfo class
#include<iostream>
#include<typeinfo>
using namespace std;

class ClsBase{
virtual void func( ){
cout<<"In base class";
}
};

class class2{ };

class ClsDerv:public ClsBase{

void func( ){
cout<<"HI";
}
};
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Using typeid

int main( ){
int i,j;
float f;
char * chp;

ClsBase obj1,*ptr=0;
class2 obj2;
ClsDerv d1,*dptr=0;

cout<<"Data type of int i is:"<<typeid(i).name()<<endl;

cout<<"Data type of int j is:"<<typeid(j).name()<<endl;
cout<<"Data type of float f
is:"<<typeid(f).name()<<endl;
cout<<"Data type of pointer chp
is:"<<typeid(chp).name()<<endl;
cout<<"Data type of *chp
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Using typeid
if(typeid(i)==typeid(j))
cout<<"\nBOTH i and j are integers and of the same
type"<<endl;
if(typeid(i)==typeid(f))
cout<<"BOTH i and f are of the same type"<<endl;
else
cout<<"i and f are not the same type"<<endl;
cout<<endl;

if(typeid(obj1)==typeid(obj2))
cout<<"BOTH obj1 and obj2 are of the same
type"<<endl;
else
cout<<"obj1 and obj2 are not the same type"<<endl;
cout<<endl;

cout<<"\nThe number preceding the name indicates the

number of characters in the class name "<<endl;
cout<<"The type of obj1 is:"<<typeid(obj1).name( )
<<endl;
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Using typeid
cout<<"The type of obj1 is:"<<typeid(ptr).name( )
<<endl;
cout<<"The type of obj2 is:"<<typeid(dptr).name( )
<<endl;

ptr=&obj1;
dptr=&d1;
cout<<"The type of *ptr is:"<<typeid(*ptr).name( )
<<endl;
cout<<"The type of *dptr is:"<<typeid(*dptr).name( )
<<endl;

ptr=&d1;
cout<<endl;
cout<<"Assigning address of derv class object to base
ptr......."<<endl;

cout<<"Data type of ptr is:"<<typeid(ptr).name()<<endl;

cout<<"Data type of dptr
is:"<<typeid(dptr).name()<<endl;
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Casting Operators

• Explicit Casting operators

• Syntax:

cast_name <type>
(expression);
• dynamic_cast
• static_cast
• const_cast
• reinterpret_cast

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dynamic_cast
class Base void main( ){
{ Base *bp;
public: Derived *dp, d;
virtual void display( ) bp = &d;
{ if(!bp) cout<<"Casting failed";
cout<<"In base"; dp =
} dynamic_cast<Derived
}; *>(bp);
if(!dp)
class Derived:public Base cout<<"Casting failed";
{ else
public: cout<<"Dynamic casting
void display( ) successful !!”;
{ }
cout<<"In Derived";
}
};
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const_cast

• int square ( const int *val){

• int *ptr;
• ptr = const_cast<int*> ( val);
• *ptr = *val * *val;
• return *ptr;
• }

• int main( ){
• int num=5;
• cout<<"Number:"<<num;
• cout<<"Square:"<<square (&num);
• return 0;
• }

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static_cast

• int main( )
• {
• int cnt;
• double tmp;
• for(cnt=1; cnt<=10; cnt++)
• {
• tmp = static_cast<double> (cnt)/2;
• cout<<tmp<<"\n";
• }
• return 0;
• }

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reinterpret_cast

• int main( ){
• int num=100, add;
• int *ptr = &num;
• cout<<"num address:"<<(int)&num;
• add = reinterpret_cast<int> (ptr);
• cout<<"add value:"<<add;
• return 0;
• }

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Module 14: Templates

• Overview
 Template Function with one argument
 Template Function with two arguments
 Class Templates

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Templates

• Syntax for Function Template:

template <class Ttype> ret-type func-name

( parameter list)
{
// body of function
}

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Template Function with one argument
• template<class T>
• T abs(T a)
• {
• return (a<0)?-a:a;
• }
• int main( )
• {
• int num1=-34;
• num1=abs(num1);
• cout<<"Absolute value of the integer passed as an
argument: "<<num1<<endl;
• double num2=-23.45;
• num2=abs(num2);
• cout<<"Absolute value of the double passed as an
argument: "<<num2<<endl;
• float num3=3.56f;
• num3=abs(num3);
• cout<<"Absolute value of the float passed as an
argument: "<<num3<<endl;
• Software Pvt.cout<<endl;
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Template Function with two arguments
• template<class TY, class TB>
• void display(TY a,TB b){
• cout<<a<<endl<<b<<endl;
• }
• int main( )
• {
• int x=44;
• char y='S';
• char arr[]="Pragati software";
• float fp=7.8f;
• cout<<endl;
• display(x,y);
• cout<<endl;
• display(arr,fp);
• cout<<endl;
• return 0;
• }
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Class Template
• #include<iostream> 1. void pop( ){
• #include<string> 2. if(top>=0) {
• using namespace std; 3.
cout<<"Popping..."<<endl;
• template <class Any> 4. top--;
• class Stack{ 5. }
• Any arr[4]; 6. else
• int top; 7. cout<<"Stack is
• public: Empty!!";
• Stack( ) { 8. }
• top= -1; 9. void display( ){
• } 10. if(top<0) {
• void push( Any x) 11. cout<<"Stack is
• { Empty\n";
• if(top<4) 12. return;
• arr[ ++ top]=x; 13. }
• else 14. cout<<"Stack elements
• cout<<"Stack are:"<<endl;
Overflow!!"; 15. for(int i=top;i>=0;i--)
• Software}
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16. 251
Class Template
• int main( ) • cout<<"Stack of strings....."<<endl;
• { • Stack<string> S2;
• cout<<"Stack of • S2.push("Hi");
Integers....."<<endl; • S2.push("Hello");
• Stack<int> S1; • S2.push("What's");
• S1.push(3); • S2.display( );
• S1.push(33); • S2.pop( );
• S1.push(111); • S2.display( );
• S1.display( ); • cout<<"Pushing element ........."<<
• S1.pop( ); • S2.push("UP!!");
• S1.display( ); • S2.display( );
• cout<<"Pushing • cout<<"Popping 3 elements : "<<e
element"<<endl ; • S2.pop( );
• S1.push(23); • S2.pop( );
• S1.display( ); • S2.pop( );
• cout<<"Popping 3 • S2.display( );
elements"<<endl; •
• S1.pop( ); • return 0;
• S1.pop( ); • }
• SoftwareS1.pop(
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Defining Member functions of Class
Templates
• template <class Any> • cout<<"Stack Overflow!!";
• class Stack{ • }
• Any arr[4]; • template <class Any>
• int top; • void Stack<Any>::pop( ){
• public: • if(top>=0){
• Stack( ); •
• void pop( ); cout<<"Popping..."<<endl;
• void push( Any); • top--;
• void display( ); • }
• }; • else
• cout<<"Stack is
• template <class Any> Empty!!";
• Stack<Any>::Stack( ) • }
{ • template <class Any>
• top=-1; • void Stack<Any>::display(
• } ){
• if(top<0){
• template <class Any> • cout<<"Stack is
• void Empty"<<endl;
Stack<Any>::push(
Any x){ • return;
• if(top<4) • }
• (East),
Pragati Software Pvt. Ltd., 312, Lok Center, Marol-Maroshi Road, Marol, Andheri cout<<"Stack elements
Mumbai 400 059. www.pragatisoftware.com 253