Basis of Structural Design

Course 1 Introduction to Structures Structural Materials

Course notes are available for download at http://www.ct.upt.ro/users/AurelStratan/

Structures
Man-made structures
buildings bridges dams masts drilling platforms ships aircrafts, etc. skeleton of animals shell of snails spider's web tree trunk and branches, etc.

Natural structures

Structure: something which carries weight or resists loads and forces, and which may form a protective cover or skeleton for an object or living thing.

Some structures can fail

12.02.2009. Mall under construction in Oradea

Some structures can fail

12.02.2009. Mall under construction in Oradea

Some structures can fail

12.02.2009. Mall under construction in Oradea

Some structures can fail

12.02.2009. Mall under construction in Oradea

Some structures can fail

19.12.2008 failure of a silo near Vinga

Design criteria
Suitability for its function: a building should be designed and realised in a manner that will offer to its users a certain function Safety and serviceability:
Structures should resist loads and other external actions without collapse, protecting its inhabitants Structures should not develop excessive deformations and cracks, nor vibrate alarmingly

Aesthetics: buildings should be aesthetically pleasant, both individually and as a group Economy: generally, the above three criteria need to be fulfilled with a limited budget
Cost to design and build a structure Maintenance cost during the planned life

Structural materials
A building consists of the structure and other components used in order to protect and provide for building function and aesthetics (cladding, partitions, floors, etc.) Structural material is the one which is used in those parts of the structure which carry loads and give it strength and stiffness Properties of . structural materials:
strength stiffness ductility

. . deformation

Structural materials: properties

Strength (ultimate stress): the stress (load per unit area of the cross-section) at which the failure takes place
tension compression

force strength ductility stiffness deformation

Stiffness: the resistance of an elastic body to deformation Ductility: capacity of the material to deform into the inelastic range without significant loss of its load-bearing capacity

Structural materials: ductility

Ductile materials: able to deform significantly into the inelastic range Brittle materials:
fail suddenly by cracking or splintering much weaker in tension than in compression

force

force

ductile

brittle

deformation

deformation

Structural materials
"Traditional" materials: used by builders and engineers since the ancient times Stone and timber: occur naturally Bricks: man-made
sun-dried clay/mud bricks - from 4500 B.C. fired bricks - from 3000 B.C. calcium silicate bricks

Ancient concrete:
lime mixed with stone and sand: early civ. of the Middle East "hydraulic cement" - lime, stone, sand and silicates: Romans

Stone, bricks, ancient concrete:

weak weaker in tension than in compression

Stone and bricks masonry: units interconnected by even weaker mortar

Structural materials
Timber:
substantial tensile strength along the grain weak in compression and across the grain (difficult to realise connections in tension)

"Modern" materials: Portland cement concrete, steel, aluminium , etc. Portland cement concrete:
mixture of Portland cement, water, aggregates weaker in tension brittle

Steel (iron with low carbon content) and Aluminium (duraluminium alloy):
strong in tension and compression ductile

Structural materials: strength

Material Granite Limestone Brick Along grain Timber (spruce) Across grain Stone Portland Normal use cement High strength concrete Mild steel High strength steel Iron and Very highsteel strength prestressing wires Aluminium alloy (dural) Traditional Modern Ultimate strength u (N/mm2) Tensile Compression 40 200 5 40 6 60 120 30 3.5 2 6 355 700 20 60 355 700

2000 450

450

Specific strength
All structures have to support their own weight Can the size of a structure be increased indefinitely for it to be able to carry its own weight?

Problem: how long a bar of uniform cross-section can be before it breaks due to its own weight? Equate the weight of the bar to its tensile strength: Weight = Tensile resistance

Specific strength
Weight = Volume specific weight W=ALg Tensile resistance = Area ultimate tensile strength R = A u Equate weight to resistance: W = R A L g = A u L = u / ( g) = S = specific strength There is an absolute limit (= S) to the length that the bar can attain without breaking Larger a structure is, larger is the proportion of its own weight to the total load that can be carried by itself First to realise this: Galileo Galilei

Specific strength
For structures subjected to tension/compression, as the size of an object increases, its strength increases with the square of the ruling dimensions, while the weight increases with its cube For each type of structure there is a maximum possible size beyond which it cannot carry even its own weight Consequences:
it is impossible to construct structures of enormous size there is a limit to natural structures (trees, animals, etc.) larger a structure becomes, stockier and more bulky it gets
large bridges are heavier in proportions than smaller ones bones of elephants are stockier and thicker than the ones of mice

proportions of aquatic animals are almost unaffected by their size (weight is almost entirely supported by buoyancy)

Specific strength
Material Granite Stone Limestone Brick Along grain Timber (spruce) Across grain Portland Normal use cement High strength concrete Mild steel High strength steel Iron and Very highsteel strength prestressing wires Aluminium alloy (dural) Traditional Modern Ultimate strength u (N/mm2) Tensile Compression 40 200 5 40 6 60 120 30 3.5 2 6 355 600 20 60 355 600 Specific strength S (m) Tensile 1400 225 320 24000 700 90 270 4500 8000 Compression 7000 1800 3200 6000 900 2700 4500 8000

2000 450

450

26700 17000

17000

Specific strength
Stone, brick and concrete: used in compression Steel: used in tension Timber: excellent performance in terms of specific strength, especially in tension Aluminium: high specific strength Aircrafts must carry loads and must be capable of being raised into the air under their own power materials with high specific strength
wood was extensively used in early planes modern material: aluminium

Structural materials: stress-strain curves

Stress-strain curves provide "at a glance" information on:
strength stiffness ductility

Elastic region Inelastic region Steel: elastic region is almost linear Stone, brick, concrete, aluminium: elastic region is not linear

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Structural materials: stress-strain curves

Steel and aluminium: excellent ductility Concrete, brick: brittle Modulus of elasticity: E = / Unloading after loading in the elastic range NO permanent deformations Unloading after loading in the inelastic range permanent deformations present Permanent deformations need to be avoided in structures under service loads stresses should be kept in the elastic region under service loads factor of safety = ultimate strength / design stress

Structural materials: stiffness

Excessive flexibility is undesirable in structures
people dislike noticeable vibration and deflections in buildings and bridges large vibrations and deflections can damage (brittle) nonstructural components (partitions, glazing, floors, etc.)

Materials with large stiffness are generally desirable (steel is more advantageous than aluminium from this point of view) Elastic efficiency of materials:
average stress in the bar: = ALg / (2A) = Lg / 2 extension of the bar under its own weight = L / E = L2g / (2E) = L2 / (2M) specific modulus of the material - a measure of material stiffness M = E / ( g) the higher the value of M, the less it will extend under its own weight

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Structural materials: stiffness

The extension of a bar under its own weight is proportional to the square of the scale (a bar which is 10 times longer than a reference one will extend 102 = 100 times more than the reference one)

Structural materials: stiffness and ductility

Material Granite Limestone Brick Along grain Timber (spruce) Across grain Stone Portland Normal use cement High strength concrete Mild steel Modern High strength Iron and steel steel Very highstrength prestressing wires Aluminium alloy (dural) Traditional Modulus of elasticity Specific modulus E (N/mm2) Ductility M (m 105) 45 000 30 000 30 000 15 000 25 000 40 000 210 000 210 000 1.57 1.35 1.60 3.00 1.12 1.80 2.80 2.80 Brittle Large ductility Moderate ductility Low ductility Ductile Brittle NA

210 000 70 000

2.80 2.80

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Structural materials: ductility

Ductility is important for the "ultimate" behaviour of structures Most structures are designed to respond in the elastic range under service loads, but, given the uncertainties in real strength of material, behaviour of the structure, magnitude of loading, and accidental actions, a structure can be subjected to inelastic deformations A ductile material will sustain large deformations before collapsing, "warning" the people inside A ductile material allows for redistribution of stresses in statically indeterminate structures, which are able to support larger loads than in the case of a structure realised of brittle material

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