This book

is

DUE

on last date stamped below

SOUTHERN BRANCH,
OF C7VLIF0RNIA,

HISTORY OF THE THEORY OF NUMBERS

VOLUME
DIVISIBILITY
I

AND PRIMALITY

By Leonard Eugene Dickson

Professor of Mathematics in the University of Chicago

Published by the Carnegie Institution of Washington

Washington, 1919
/

'J

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

Publication No. 256, Vol.
I

PRESS OF GIBSON BROTHERS

WASHINGTON.

D. C.

'fl

&!::

steering*

'^vi-^

r7'

Mathenrstical

2^H-j
:D/^ifii

Sciences
libraiy

i
The
efforts of

PREFACE.
history of mathematics

Cantor and his collaborators show that a chronological down to the nineteenth century can be written in four large volumes. To cover the last century with the same elaborateness, it has been estimated that about fifteen volumes would be required, so extensive is the mathematical literature of that period. But to retain the chronological order and hence devote a large volume to a period of at most seven years would defeat some of the chief purposes of a history, besides making it very inconvenient to find all of the material on a particular topic. In any event there is certainly need of histories which treat of particular branches of mathematics up to the present time. The theory of numbers is especially entitled to a separate history on account of the great interest which has been taken in it continuously through the centuries from the time of Pythagoras, an interest shared on the one ^ extreme by nearly every noted mathematician and on the other extreme ^ by numerous amateurs attracted by no other part of mathematics. This v history aims to give an adequate account of the entire literature of the theory of numbers. The first volume presents in twenty chapters the material relating to divisibility and primality. The concepts, results, and authors cited are so numerous that it seems appropriate to present here an Jl introduction which gives for certain chapters an account in untechnical r^ language of the main results in their historical setting, and for the remaining chapters the few remarks sufficient to clearly characterize the nature of their
\

v^,

contents.

J'
*>

,.

*
!

Perfect numbers have engaged the attention of arithmeticians of every century of the Christian era. It was while investigating them that Fermat discovered the theorem which bears his name and which forms the basis of a large part of the theory of numbers. A_perfect number is one, like Euclid 6 = 1+2+3, which equals the sum of its divisors other than itself proved that 2^~'^{2^ \) is a perfect numbeflf 2^ 1 is a prime. For p = 2, 3, 5, 7, the values 3, 7, 31, 127 of 2''-l are primes, so that 6, 28, 496, 8128 are perfect numbers, as noted by Nicomachus (about A. D. 100). A manuscript dated 1456 correctly gave 33550336 as the fifth perfect number; it corresponds to the value 13 of p. Very many early writers believed that 2^ 1 But in 1536 Regius noted that is a prime for every odd value of p.
'
'

2^-1 = 511 = 7-73,

are not primes

211-1=2047 = 23-89

and gave the above fifth perfect number. Cataldi, who founded at Bologna the most ancient known academy of mathematics,

IV

PREFACE.
2''

noted in 1603 that a prime for p = 13,

composite if p is composite and verified that it is 19; but he erred in stating that it is also a prime 17, = In fact, Fermat noted in 1640 that 2'-'-l has the for p 23, 29, and 37. factor 47, and 2^'-l the factor 223, while Euler observed in 1732 that 2'' 1 has the factor 1103. Of historical importance is the statement made the first eleven perfect numbers are given by that in 1644 Mersenne by 2P-i(2P_i) for p = 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 67, 127, 257; but he erred at That 2" 1 is comleast in including 67 and excluding 61, 89, and 107. posite was proved by Lucas in 1876, while its actual factors were found by Cole in 1903. The primality of 2^^ 1, a number of 19 digits, was estab1887. Both lished by Pervusin in 1883, Seelhoff in 1886, and Hudelot Powers and Fauquembergue proved in 1911-14 that 2^^ 1 and 2^^ 1 are
is

and

primes.

The primality
respectively.

of 2'^

and Lucas

1 and 2 1 had been estabhshed by Euler Thus 2^ 1 is known to be a prime, and hence lead

to a perfect

number,

for the twelve values 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 61, 89,

107 and 127 of p. Since 2^' 1 is known (pp. 15-31) to be composite for 32 primes p ^257, only the eleven values p = 137, 139, 149, 157, 167, 193, 199,
227, 229, 241, 257

now remain

in doubt.

Descartes stated in 1638 that he could prove that every even perfect number is of Euclid's type and that every odd perfect number must be of the

form

where p is a prime. Euler's proofs (p. 19) were published after his death. Xd. immediate proof of the former fact was given by Dickson (p. 30). According to Sylvester (pp. 26-27), there exists no odd perfect number with fewer than six distinct prime factors, and none with fewer than eight if not But the question of the existence of odd perfect numbers divisible by 3. remains unanswered. A multiply perfect number, like 120 and 672, is one the sum of whose They were actively investigated divisors equals a multiple of the number. during the years 1631-1647 by IMersenne, Fermat, St. Croix, Frenicle, and Descartes. Many new examples hav^e been found recently by American
ps^,

writers.

Two numbers

are called amicable

if

each equals the

sum

of the aliquot

number means a divisor divisors of the other, where an other than the number itself. The pair 220 and 284 was known to the Pythagoreans. In the ninth century, the Arab Thabit ben Korrah noted that 2"/! and 2"s are amicable numbers if /j=3-2''-l, = 2>'2'^^-l and s = 9.22"-! _i are all primes, and n> 1. This result leads to amicable numbers
aliquot divisor of a
t

for

n = 4 and n = 7, but for no further value numbers is that by Euler who listed (pp. 45, 46) 62 pairs. At the age of 16, Paganini announced in 1866 the remarkable new pair 1184 and 1210. A few new pairs of very large numbers have been found by Legendre, Seelhoff, and Dickson.
n

=2

(giving the above pair),

^ 200

of n.

The

chief investigation of amicable

PREFACE.

Interesting amicable triples and amicable numbers of higher order have been recently found by Dickson and Poulet (p. 50). Although it had been employed in the study of perfect and amicable numbers, the explicit expression for the sum a{n) of all the divisors of n is reserved for Chapter II, in which is presented the history of Fermat's two problems to solve (T(x^)=y^ and <t{x^) =y^ and John Wallis's problem to find solutions other than a; = 4 and y = 5 oi (T{x^)=o-{y^). Fermat stated in 1640 that he had a proof of the fact, now known as Fermat's theorem, that, if p is any prime and x is any integer not divisible by p, then x^~^ l is divisible by p. This is one of the fundamental theorems of the theory of numbers. The case x = 2 was known to the Chinese as early as 500 B. C. The first published proof was given by Euler in 1736. Of first importance is the generalization from the case of a prime p to any integer n, published by Euler in 1760: if (/)(n) denotes the munber of positive integers not exceeding n and relatively prime to n, then x*^"^ 1 is divisible by n for every integer x relatively prime to n. Another elegant theorem states that, if p is a prime, l+jl-2-3. .{p l)\ is divisible by p; it was first pubUshed by Waring in 1770, who ascribed it to Sir John Wilson. This theorem was stated at an earlier date in a manuscript by Leibniz, who with Newton discovered the calculus. But Lagrange was the first one to publish (in 1773) a proof of Wilson's theorem and to observe that its converse is true. In 1801 Gauss stated and suggested methods to prove the generalization of Wilson's theorem: if P denotes the product of the positive integers less than A and prime to A, then P+1 is divisible by A if A =4, p"" or 2p"*, where p is an odd prime, while P 1 is divisible by A if A is not of one of these three forms. A very large number of proofs of the preceding theorems are given in the first part of Chapter III. Various generalizations are then presented (pp. 84-91). For instance, if iV = p/' p/*, where Pi, ..., p
.
.

are distinct primes,

a^-(a^/P'+
is

+a^/PO + (a^/P'P'+ ...)-

due to Gauss
for the case in

+(-l)''a^/^---P''

divisible

by N, a

fact

which a
is

is

a prime.

a composite number n. But Lucas proved the following converse of Fermat's theorem if a^ 1 is divisible by n when x = n l, but not when x is a divisor
divisible
for
:

Many

cases have been found in which o"~^

by n

|<n 1 of 71 1, then w is a prime. Any integral symmetric function

integral coefficients
I

of degree

is divisible by the prime p if c^ generalization to the case of a divisor p" is due to

1 with d of 1, 2, ., p is not a multiple of p 1.

. .

Meyer

(p. 101)

Nielsen

proved in 1893 that, if p is an odd prime and if k is odd and l<fc<p 1, the sum of the products of 1, 2, ., p 1 taken A; at a time is divisible by p^. Taking fc = p 2, we see that if p is a prime > 3 the numerator of the fraction
. .

VI
equal to
1

PREFACE.

+ 1/2+1/3+ +

+l/(p 1)

is

divisible

by
.
.

p'^,

a result

first

proved

Sylvester stated in 1866 that the sum of all products of n distinct numbers chosen from 1, 2, w is divisible by each prime > n 1 which is contained in any term of the set n 1 w, 1 There are various theorems analogous to these.

by Wolstenholme

in 1862.

m+

In Chapter IV are given properties of the quotient {uP~^ l)/p, which plays an important role in recent investigations on Fermat's last theorem (the impossibiUty of x'^-\-y^ = z^ if p>2), the history of which will be treated in the final chapter of Volume II. Some of the present papers relate to not necessarily a prime. TMiile Euler's ^-function was defined above in order to state his generalization of Fermat's theorem, its numerous properties and generalizations
(w*^"^
is

1)/,

where n

are reserved for the long Chapter V.

4>{d^

In 1801 Gauss gave the result that

was generalized H. G. Cantor in 1880, Busche in 1888, Zsigmondy in 1893, Vahlen in 1895, Elliott in 1901, and Hammond in 1916. In 1808 Legendre proved a simple formula for the number of integers ^ n which are divisible by no one of any given set of primes. The asymptotic value of +0(G) for G large was discussed by Dirichlet in 1849, Mertens in (f>{l)-\1874, Perott in 1881, Sylvester in 1883 and 1897, Cesaro in 1883 and 1886-8, Berger in 1891, and Kronecker in 1901. The solution of 4>{x)=g was treated by Cayley in 1857, Mmin in 1897, Pichler in 1900, Carmichael in 1907-9, Ranum in 1908, and Cunningham in 1915. H. J. S. Smith proved in 1875 that the m-rowed determinant, ha\ing as the element in the ith row and ji\i column any function fib) of the greatest common divisor 5 of i and j, equals the product of F{\), F{2),. ., F(m), where
.

-\-<i>{dk)

= n,

if di,

d^ are the divisors of n; this

by Laguerre

in 1872,

F(m)=/(m)-2/g)+2/(^J-...., m = py
In particular, F{m)=<t>{m) if f{8)=8. In several papers (pp. 128-130) Cesaro considered analogous determinants. The fact that 30 is the largest number such that all smaller numbers relatively prime to it are primes was first proved by Schatunowsky in 1893. A. Thacker in 1850 evaluated the sum 4>k{n) of the kth. powers of the integers ^n which are prime to n. His formula has been expressed m^ various symbolic forms by Ces^o and generalized by Glaisher and Nielsen./ Crelle had noted in 1845 that <piin) = |n0( n). In 1869 Schemmel considered the number of sets of n consecutive integers each < m and prime to m. In connection with linear congruence groups, Jordan evaluated the number of different sets of k positive integers ^?i whose greatest common divisor is prime to n. This generalization of Euler's (^-function has properties as simple as the latter function and occurs in many papers under a variety of notations. It in turn has been generalized (pp. 151-4).

PREFACE.

VII

The

properties of the set of all irreducible fractions, arranged in order of

magnitude, whose numerators are ^ m and denominators are ^ n (called a Farey series if m = n), have been discussed by many writers and applied to the approximation of numbers, to binary quadratic forms, to the composition of linear fractional substitutions, and to geometry (pp. 155-8). Some of the properties of periodic decimal fractions are already familiar tq the reader in view of his study of arithmetic and the chapter of algebra dealing with the sum to infinity of a geometric progression. For the generalization to periodic fractions to any base h, not necessarily 10, the
length of the period of the periodic fraction for 1/d, where d
is

is prime to h, such that h^ \ is divisible by d. Hence this Chapter VI, which reports upon more than 160 papers, is closely related to the following chapter and furnishes a concrete introduction to it. The subject of exponents and primitive roots is one of the important topics of the theory of numbers. To present the definitions in the customary,

the least positive exponent

compact language, we shall need the notion of congruence. If the difference of two integers a and 6 is divisible by m, they are called congruent modulo m and we write a=& (mod m). For example, 8=2 (mod 6). If n'= 1 (mod m), but n*^ 1 (mod m) for 0<s<e, we say that n belongs to the exponent e modulo m. For example, 2 and 3 belong to the exponent 4 modulo 5, while 4 belongs to the exponent 2. In view of Euler's generalization of Fermat's theorem, stated above, e never exceeds 0(m). If n belongs to this maximum exponent ^(n) modulo m, n is called a primitive root of m. For example, 2 and 3 are primitive roots of 5, while 1 and 4 are not. Lambert stated in 1769 that there exists a primitive root of any prime p, and Euler gave a defective proof in 1773. In 1785 Legendre proved that there are exactly 4>{e) numbers belonging modulo p to any exponent e which divides p 1. In 1801 Gauss proved that there exist primitive roots of m In particular, for if and only if m = 2, 4, p* or 2p*, where p is an odd prime. a primitive root a of a prime modulus p and any integer N not divisible by p, there is an exponent ind N, called the index of N by Gauss, such that N=a''"^^ (mod p). Indices play a role similar to logarithms, but we require two companion tables for each modulus p. The extension to a power For a general modulus, systems of indices of prime modulus is immediate. were employed by Dirichlet in 1837 and 1863 and by Kronecker in 1870. Jacobi's Canon Arithmeticus of 1839 gives companion tables of indices for each prime and power of a prime < 1000. Cunningham's Binary Canon of 1900 gives the residues of the successive powers of 2 when divided by each prime or power of a prime < 1000 and companion tables showing the powers of 2 whose residues are 1, 2, 3, In 1846 Arndt proved that, if ^ is a .. primitive root of the odd prime p, g belongs to the exponent p"~"^(p 1) modulo p'* if and only ii G = g^~^ 1 is divisible by p^, but not by p^'^\ where
. .

VIII

PREFACE.
taking

X<n;
more

X= 1, we
all

see that,

if

is

not divisible by

p^,

g'

is

a primitive

root of p^ and of

higher powers of p. This Chapter VII presents many theorems on exponents, primitive roots, and binomial congruences, and

primes < 10000. Lagrange proved easily that a congruence of degree n has at most n roots Lebesgue found the number of sets of solutions of if the modulus is a prime. 01^1"*+ (mod -\-akXk"=a p), when p is a prime such that p 1 is divisible by m. Konig (p. 226) employed a cyclic determinant and its minors to find the exact number of real roots of any congruence in one unknown; Gegenbauer (p. 228) and Rados (p. 233) gave generalizations to congruences in several unknowns. Galois's introduction of imaginary roots of congruences has not only led to an important extension of the theory of numbers, but has given rise to wide generalizations of theorems which had been obtained in subjects like linear congruence groups by applying the ordinary theory of numbers. Instead of the residues of integers modulo p, let us consider the residues of polynomials in a variable x with integral coefficients with respect to two moduH, one being a prime p and the other a polynomial f{x) of degree n which is irreducible modulo p. The residues are the p" polynomials in x of degree n 1 whose coefficients are chosen from the set 0, 1, These p1 residues form a Galois field within which can be performed addition, subAs a generahzation traction, multiplication, and division (except by zero) of Fermat's theorem, Galois proved that the power p" 1 of any residue except zero is congruent to unity with respect to our pair of moduli p and He avoided our second modulus f{x) by introducing an undefined f{x). imaginary root i of f{x) = (mod p) and considering the residues modulo p of polynomials in i; but the above use of the two moduH affords the only logical basis of the theory. In view of the fullness of the reports in the text 233-252) of the papers on this subject, further comments here are (pp. unnecessary. The final topics of this long Chapter VIII are cubic congruences and miscellaneous results on congruences and possess little general
cites various lists of primitive roots of

interest.

In Chapter

IX

are given Legendre's expression for the exponent of the

.

highest power of a prime p which divides the factorial 1-2. .m, and the generalization to the product of any integers in arithmetical progression;

many theorems on

the divisibility of one product of factorials by another product and on the residues of multinomial coefficients various determina;

tions of the sign in

1-2... (p l)/2==tl (mod

p);

and miscellaneous

congruences involving factorials. In the extensive Chapter are given many theorems and formulas concerning the sum of the kth. powers of all the divisors of n, or of its even or odd divisors, or of its divisors which are exact sth powers, or of those divisors

PREFACE.

IX

^'

,(

whose complementary divisors are even or odd or are exact sth powers, and the excess of the sum of the A;th powers of the divisors of the form 4m +1 of a number over the sum of the A;th powers of the divisors of the form 4m -f 3, as well as more technical sums of divisors defined on pages 297, 301-2, 305, 307-8, 314-5 and 318. For the important case k = 0, such a sum becomes the number of the divisors in question. There are theorems on the number Also of sets of positive integral solutions of UiU^. .Uk = n or of x''y^ = n. Glaisher's cancellation theorems on the actual divisors of numbers (pp. 310-11, 320-21). Scattered through the chapter are approximation and asymptotic formulas involving some of the above functions. In Chapter XI occur Dirichlet's theorem on the number of cases in the division of n by 1, 2, p in turn in which the ratio of the remainder to the divisor is less than a given proper fraction, and the generalizations on pp. 330-1; theorems on the number of integers ^n which are divisible by no exact sth power > 1 theorems on the greatest divisor which is odd or has specified properties; many theorems on greatest coromon divisor and least common multiple and various theorems on mean values and probability.
. . . .

I
'

The

casting out of nines or of multiples of 11 or 7 to check arithmetical

is

computations

of early origin.

the divisibility of one

This topic and the related one of testing number by another have given rise to the numerous

elementary papers cited in Chapter XII. The frequent need of the factors of numbers and the excessive labor required for their direct determination have combined to inspire the construction of factor tables of continually increasing limit. The usual method is essentially that given by Eratosthenes in the third century B. C. A special method is used by Lebon (pp. 355-6). Attention is called to Lehmer's Factor Table for the First Ten Millions and his List of Prime Numbers from 1 to 10,006,721, published in 1909 and 1914 by the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Since these tables were constructed anew with the greatest care and all variations from the chief former tables were taken account of, they are certainly the most accurate tables extant. Absolute accuracy is here more essential than in ordinary tables of continuous functions.

Besides giving the history of factor tables and

lists of

primes, this

Chapter XIII cites papers which enumerate the primes in various intervals, prime pairs (as 11, 13), primes of the form 4n+l, and papers listing primes written to be base 2 or large primes. Chapter XIV cites the papers on factoring a number by expressing it as a difference of two squares, or as a sum of two squares in two ways, or by use of binary quadratic forms, the final digits, continued fractions. Pell equations, various small moduli, or miscellaneous methods. Fermat expressed his belief that Fn = 2^"+l is a prime for every value of n. While this is true if n = 1, 2, 3, 4, it fails forn = 5 as noted by Euler. Later,

PREFACE.

Gauss proved that a regular polygon of m sides can be constructed by ruler and compasses if m is a product of a power of 2 and distinct odd primes each of the form Fn, and stated correctly that the construction is impossible if m In view of the papers cited in Chapter XV, F is is not such a product. composite if n = 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 18, 23, 36, 38 and 73, while nothing is known for other values >4 of n. No conoment will be made on the next chapter which treats of the factors of numbers of the form o"6" and of
certain trinomials.

In Chapter

XVII

are treated questions on the divisors of terms of a

recurring series and in particular of Lucas' functions

ao

and Q being relatively prime By use of these functions, Lucas obtained an extension of Euler's integers. generaUzation of Fermat's theorem, which requires the correction noted by Carmichael (p. 406), as well as various tests for primality, some of which have been emploj^ed in investigations on perfect numbers. Many papers on the algebraic theory of recurring series are cited at the end of the chapter. Euchd gave a simple and elegant proof that the number of primes is infiFor the generalization that every arithmetical progression n, n+m, nite. n-\-2m,. ., in which n and m are relatively prime, contains an infinitude of primes, Legendre offered an insufficient proof, while Dirichlet gave his classic proof by means of infinite series and the classes of binary quadratic Mertens and others forms, and extended the theorem to complex integers. obtained simpler proofs. For various special arithmetical progressions, the theorem has been proved in elementary ways by many writers. Dirichlet also obtained the theorems that, if a, 26, and c have no common factor, ax'^+2hxy-\-cy^ represents an infinitude of primes, while an infinitude of these and N primes are representable by any given linear form Mx+N with that the quadratic and linear N are such a, h, c, M, relatively prime, pro\^ded forms can represent the same number.
where a and
h are roots oi
x'^
.

Px-\-Q = Q, P

No complete proof has been found for Goldbach's conjecture in 1742 that every even integer is a sum of two primes. One of various analogous unproved conjectures is that every even integer is the difference of two consecutive primes in an infinitude of ways (in particular, there exists an infinitude No comment will be made on the further of pairs of primes differing by 2). representing numerous primes, polynomials XVIII: topics of this Chapter primes in arithmetical progression, tests for primality, number of primes between assigned limits, Bertrand's postulate of the existence of at least one
prime between x and 2x 2 for x>3, miscellaneous results on primes, diatomic series, and asymptotic distribution of primes.

PREFACE.
If

XI

/(m) in terms of

F(m)=2/(d), summed for all the divisors d of m, we can express F by an inversion formula given in Chapter XIX along with generalizations and related formulas. Bougaief called F{m) the numerical
integral of /(m).

The final Chapter XX gives many elementary results involving the digits numbers mainly when written to the base 10. Since the history of each main topic is given separately, it has been possible without causing confusion to include reports on minor papers and isolated problems for the sake of completeness. In the cases of books and journals not usually accessible, the reports are quite full with some indication
of

In other cases, proofs are given only when necessary to paper from others deriving the same result. The references were selected mainly from the Subject Index of the Royal Society of London Catalogue of Scientific Papers, volume 1, 1908 (with which also the proof-sheets were checked), and the supplementary annual volumes forming the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, Jahrbuch
of the proofs.
differentiate the
iiber die Fortschritte der Mathematik, Revue semestrielle des publications math^matiques, Poggendorff's Handworterbuch, Kliigel's Mathematische Worterbuch, Wolffing's Mathematischer Biicherschatz (a list of mathematical books and pamphlets of the nineteenth century), historical journals, such

as Bulletino di bibliografia e di storia delle scienze matematiche e fisiche, Bolletino BibUotheca Mathematica, Abhandlungen zur Geschichte
.

der mathematischen Wissenschaften, various histories and encyclopedias, including the Enclyclop^die des sciences mathematiques. Further, the author made a direct examination at the stacks of books and old journals
in the libraries of Chicago, California,

and Cambridge

Universities,

and

Trinity College, Cambridge, and the excellent John Crerar Library at Chicago. He made use of G. A. Plimpton's remarkable collection, in New

York, of rare books and manuscripts. In 1912 the author made an extended investigation in the libraries of the British Museum, Kensington

Museum, Royal Society, Cambridge Philosophical Society, Bibliotheque Nationale, Universite de Paris, St. Genevieve, I'lnstitut de France, University of Gottingen, and the Konigliche Bibhothek of Berlin (where there is a separate index of the material on the theory of numbers). Many
books have since been borrowed from various libraries; the Ladies' and other Diaries were loaned by R. C. Archibald. At the end of the volume is a separate index of authors for each of the twenty chapters, which will facilitate the tracing of the relation of a paper to kindred papers and hence will be of special service in the case of papers inaccessible to the reader. The concluding volume will have a combined index of authors from which will be omitted minor citations found in the
chapter indices.

XII

PREFACE.

The
inclose

the greatest integer

subject index contains a list of symbols; while [x] usually denotes ^x, occasionally such square brackets are used to

an addition to a quotation. The symbol * before an author's name signifies that his paper was not available for report. The symbol f
before a date signifies date of death.
Initials are

given only in the

first of

several immediately successive citations of an author. Although those volumes of Euler's Opera Omnia which contain his Commentationes Arithmeticae CoUectse have been printed, they are not yet available; a table showing the pages of the Opera and the corresponding pages in the present volume of this history will be given in the concluding

volume.

The author is under great obligations to the following experts in the theory of numbers for numerous improvements resulting from their reading the initial page proofs of this volume: R. D. Carmichael, L. Chanzy, A. Cunningham, E. B. Escott, A. Gerardin, A. J. Kempner, D. N. Lehmer, E.
Maillet, L. S. Shively,

and H.

J.

Woodall; also the benefit of D. E. Smith's

accurate and extensive acquaintance with early books and writers was fortunately secured and the author's special thanl<:s are due to Carmichael and
;

Kempner, who read the

final

page proofs with the same

errors

critical

attention

as the initial page proofs

and pointed out various

and

obscurities.

To
of

these eleven

men who gave

so generously of their time to perfect this

volume, and especially to the last two, is due the gratitude of every devotee number theory who may derive benefit or pleasure from this history. In return, such readers are requested to further increase the usefulness of this work by sending corrections, notices of omissions, and abstracts of papers marked not available for report, for insertion in the concluding volume. Finally, this laborious project would doubtless have been abandoned soon after its inception seven years ago had not President Woodward approved it so spontaneously, urged its completion with the greatest thoroughness, and given continued encouragement. L. E. Dickson.
November, 1918.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Chapter.
I.

page.

Perfect, multiply perfect,

Formulas for of Fermat and Wallis III. Fermat's and Wilson's theorems, generalizations and converses; p 1, modulo p symmetric functions of 1, 2, IV. Residue of (wp~^ l)/p modulo p V. Euler's (^function, generalizations; Farey series
11.
.

and amicable numbers the number and simi of divisors, problems

3
51

59
105 113
159
181

VI. Periodic decimal fractions; periodic fractions; factors of 10" ==!...

VII. Primitive roots, exponents, indices, binomial congruences

VIII. Higher congruences

223

IX. Divisibility of factorials and multinomial coefficients

X.

Sum and number

least

of divisors
divisibility, greatest

263 279
divisor,

XI. Miscellaneous theorems on

common

common

multiple

XII. Criteria for divisibility by a given number XIII. Factor tables, lists of primes

v^IV. Methods of factoring XV. Fermat numbers F = 22"+l

XVI. Factors of a"6 XVII. Recurring series; Lucas' Un, Vn ^VIII. Theory of prime numbers XIX. Inversion of functions; Mobius' function and derivatives XX. Properties of the digits of numbers Author index
Subject index
1

327 337 347 357 375 381 393 413

numerical integrals

ix{n);

441

453 467 484

(.

CHAPTER
PERFECT. MULTIPLY PERFECT.

I.

AND AMICABLE NUMBERS.

Perfect, Abundant, and Deficient Numbers.

By the aliquot parts or divisors of a number are meant the divisors, including unity, which are less than the number. A number, like 6 = 1 -h 2+3, which equals the sum of its aliquot divisors is called perfect (vollIf the sum of the aliquot divisors is less than the kommen, vollstandig) number, as is the case with 8, the number is called deficient (diminute, defective, unvollkommen, unvollstandig, mangelhaft). If the sum of the aliquot divisors exceeds the number, as is the case with 12, the number is called abundant (superfluos, plus quam-perfectus, redundantem, exc^dant,
.

iibervollstandig, iiberflussig, iiberschiessende)

Euclid^ proved that, if p = 1+2+2^+ number. He showed that 2"p is divisible

+2" is a by 1, 2,
. .

prime, 2"p
,
.

is
.

a perfect
.
.

2", p, 2p,

2'*~^p,

but by no further number less than itself. By the usual theorem on geometrical progressions, he showed that the sum of these divisors is 2"^. The early Hebrews^" considered 6 to be a perfect number. Philo Judeus^'' (first century A. D.) regarded 6 as the most productive of all numbers, being the first perfect number. Nicomachus^ (about A. D. 100) separated the even numbers (book I,
chaps. 14, 15) into abundant (citing 12, 24), deficient (citing 8, 14), and perfect, and dwelled on the ethical import of the three types. The perfect (I, 16) are between excess and deficiency, as consonant sound between acuter and graver sounds. Perfect numbers will be found few and arranged
fitting order; 6, 28, 496, 8128 are the only perfect numbers in the respective intervals between 1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, and they have the property of ending alternately in 6 and 8. He stated that Euclid's rule gives all the perfect numbers without exception.

with

Theon

of

(citing 6, 28),

Smyrna^ (about A. D. 130) distinguished between perfect abundant (citing 12) and deficient (citing 8) numbers.

^"S.

^Elementa, liber IX, prop. 36. Opera, 2, Leipzig, 1884, 408. Rubin, "Sod Hasfiroth" (secrets of numbers), Wien, 1873, 59; citation of the Bible, Kings, II, 13, 19. **Treatise on the account of the creation of the world as given by Moses, C. D. Young's transl. of Philo's works, London, 1854, vol. 1, p. 3. 'Nicomachi Gerasini arithmeticse Ubri duo. Nunc primdm typis excusi, in lucem eduntur. (Greek.) Parisiis, 1538. In officina Christian! WecheU. Theologumena arithmeticae. Accedit Nicomachi Gerasini institutio arithmetica ad fidem

codicum Monacensium emendata. Ed., Fridericus Astius. Lipsiae, 1817. (Greek.) Nicomachi Geraseni Pythagorei introductionis arithmeticae libri ii. Recensvit Ricardus Hoche. Lipsiae, 1866. (Greek.) 'Theonis Smymaei philosophi Platonici expositio rerum mathematicarum ad legendum Platonem utiHum. Ed., Ed. Hiller, Leipzig, 1878, p. 45.
Theonis Smymaei Platonici, Latin by Ismaele BuUialdo.
Paris, 1644, chap. 32, pp. 70-72.

History of the Theory of Numbers.

lamblichus* (about 283-330) repeated in effect the remarks
perfect,

[Chap.

by Nicoabundant, and deficient numbers, but made erroneous additions. He stated that there is one and but one perfect number in the successive intervals between 1, 10, 100,..., 100000, etc., to infinity. "Examples of a perfect number are 6, and 28, and 496, and 8128, and the like numbers, alternately ending in 6 and 8." He remarked that the Pythagoreans called the perfect number 6 marriage, and also health and beauty (on account of the integrity of its parts and the agreement existing in it). Aurelius Augustinus^ (354-430) remarked that, 6 being the first perfect number, God effected the creation in 6 daj's rather than at once, since the perfection of the work is signified by the number 6. The sum of the aUquot
machus on
But the sum of the aliquot parts of 9 falls short of it; likewise for 10. parts of 12 exceeds it. Anicius Manhus Severinus Boethius^ (about 481-524), in a Latin exposition of the arithmetic of Nicomachus, stated that perfect numbers are rare, easily counted, and generated in a very regular order, while abundant (superfluos) and deficient (diminutos) numbers are found to an unlimited extent and not in regular order. The perfect numbers below 10000 are
6, 28,

And these numbers alwaj^s end alternately in 6 and 8. 496, 8128. Munyos^ stated that Boethius added to EucUd's idea of perfect number

that of deficient (diminute) and abundant (redundantem) numbers. Isidorus of Seville^ (570-636) distinguished even and odd numbers, perfect and abundant numbers, linear, flachen and Korper Zahlen (primes, products of two, products of three factors). Alcuin^ (735-804) of York and Tours, explained the occurrence of the number 6 in the creation of the universe on the ground that 6 is a perfect number. The second origin of the human race arose from the deficient number 8; indeed, in Noah's ark there were 8 souls from which sprung the entire human race, showing that the second origin was more imperfect than the first, which was made according to the number 6.
,

^lamblichus Chalcidensis ex Coele-Syria in Nicomachi Geraseni arithmeticam introductionem, et de Fato. Accedit Joachimi Camerarii explicatio in duos libros Nicomachi. Ed., Samuel Tennulius. Amhemiae, 1668, pp. 43-47. (Greek text and Latin translation in parallel columns.) lamblichi in Nicomachi arithmeticam introductionem Uber ad fidem codicis Florentini.
Lipsiae, 1894. Ed., H. Pistelli. *De Civitate Dei, hber XI, cap. XXX, by Frizzo"' i' to lib. II, cap. 39.

(Greek.)
ed., B.

Dombart,

Lipsiae, 1877,

1,

p. 504.

The reference

"Arithmetica boetij, Augsburg, 1488; Cologne, 1489; Leipzig, 1490; Venice, 1491-2, 1499; Paris, [1496, 1501], 1503, etc.; lib. 1, cap. 20. "De generatione numeri perfecti." Opera Boetii, Venice, 1491-2, etc.; ed., Friedlein, Leipzig, 1867. "Institvtiones arithmeticae ad percipiendam astrologiam et mathematicas facultates necessariae. Auctore Hieronymo Mimj'os, Valentiae, 1566, f. 5, verso. [Augsburg, *Incipit epistola Isidori iunioris hispalensis Finit Uber etymologiarum In this book of etymologies, arithmetic is treated very briefly 1472]; Venice, 1483, etc. in Book 3, beginning f 15. Bibhotheca Rerum Germanicarum, tomus sextus: Monumenta Alcuiniana, Berlin, 1873, epistolae 259, pp. 818-821. Cf. Migne, Patrologiae, vol. 100, 1851, p. 665; Hankel, Geschichte Math., p. 311.
. .
.

Chap.

I]

PERFECT, MULTIPLY PERFECT, AND AmICABLE NUMBERS.

Thabit ben Korrah,^ in a manuscript composed the last half of the ninth century, attributed to Pythagoras and his school the employment of Let perfect and amicable numbers in illustration of their philosophy. Then (prop. 5), 2'*s is a perfect number if s is a prime; s = 1+2+ ... +2". 2"p is abundant if p is a prime <s, deficient if p is a prime >s, and the excess or deficiency of the sum of all the divisors over the number equals the difference of s and p. Let (prop. 6) p' and p" be distinct primes >2; = p'p"2" is oi the sum of the divisors

<N

a = (2"+i-l)(l+p'+p") + (2"-l)py.

Hence

is

abundant or

deficient according as

a-iV=(2"+^-l)(l+p'+p")-py>0or <0.
Hrotsvitha,^^ a

nun

in Saxony, in the second half of the tenth century,

28, 496, 8128.

mentioned the perfect numbers 6, Abraham Ibn Ezra^^" (tll67),

Ex.
3, 15,

stated that there

is

in his commentary to the Pentateuch, only one perfect number between any two

successive powers of 10.

mended

b. Jehuda Ankin^^'', at the end of the twelfth century, recomthe study of perfect numbers in the program of education laid out in his book "Healing of Souls." Jordanus Nemorarius^^ (tl236) stated (in Book VII, props. 55, 56) that every multiple of a perfect or abundant number is abundant, and every divisor of a perfect number is deficient. He attempted to prove (VII, 57) the erroneous statement that all abundant numbers are even. Leonardo Pisano, or Fibonacci, cited in his Liber Abbaci^^ of 1202, revised about 1228, the perfect numbers

Rabbi Josef

1 2^(2^-1) =6,

i 2^(2^-1) =28,

| 2^(2^-1)

=496,

excluding the exponent 4 since 2^ 1 is not prime. He stated that ceeding so, you can find an infinitude of perfect numbers.

by pro-

i^Manuscript 952, 2, Suppl. Arabe, Bibliotheque imperiale, Paris. Textual transl., except of the proofs which are given in modem algebraic notation as foot-notes [as numbers were represented by line, in the manuscript], by Franz Woepcke, Journal Asiatique, (4), 20, 1852, 420-9. "See Ch. Magnin, Theatre de Hrotsvitha, Paris, 1845. ""Mikrooth Gedoloth, Warsaw, 1874 ("Large Bible" in Hebrew). Samuel Ben Sdadias Ibn Motot; a Spaniard, wrote in 1370 a commentary on Ibn Ezra's commentary, Perush ai Perush Ibn Ezra, Venice, 1554, p. 19, noting the perfect numbers 6, 28, 496, 8128, and citing EucUd's rule. Steinschneider, in his book on Ibn Ezra, Abh. Geschichte Math. Wiss., 1880, p. 92, stated that Ibn Ezra gave a rule for finding all perfect numbers. As this rule is not given in the Mikrooth Gedoloth of 1874, Mr. Ginsburg of Columbia University infers the existence of a fuller version of Ibn Ezra's commentary. "^Quoted by Giideman, Das Jiidische Unterrichtswesen wahrend der Spanish Arabischen
*^In

i^Il

Arithmetica decern libris demonstrata .... Epitome i libros arithmeticos diui Seuerini Boetij Paris, 1496, 1503, etc. It contains Jordanus' "Elementa arithmetica decern libris, demonstrationibus Jacobi Fabri Stapulensis," and "Jacobi Fabri Stapulenais epitome in duos Hbros arithmeticos diui Seuerini Boetij." Liber Abbaci di Leonardo Pisano. Roma, 1857, p. 283 (Scritti, vol. 1).
. .
.

Periode, Wien, 1873. hoc opere contenta.

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap.

In the manuscripts^ Codex lat. Monac. 14908, a part dated 1456 and a part 1461, the first four perfect numbers are given (J. 33') as usual and the fifth perfect number is stated correctly to be 33550336. Nicolas Chuquet^^ defined perfect, deficient, and abundant numbers, indicated a proof of EucHd's rule and stated incorrectly that perfect numbers end alternately in 6 and 8. Luca Paciuolo, de Borgo San Sepolcro,^^ gave (f. 6) Euclid's rule, saying one must find by experiment whether or not the factor 1+2+4+. is prime, stated (f. 7) that the perfect numbers end alternately in 6 and 8, as In the fifth article (ff. 7, 8), he illustrated the 6, 28, 496, etc., to mfinity. finding of the aliquot divisors of a perfect number by taking the case of the fourteenth perfect number 9007199187632128. He gave its half, then the half of the quotient, etc., until after 26 divisions by 2, the odd number 134217727, marked " Indi^dsibilis " [prime]. Dividing the initial number by these quotients, he obtained further factors [1,2,..., 2'^, but written at length]. The proposed number is said to be evidently perfect, since it is the sum of these factors [but he has not employed all the factors, since the above odd number equals 2'-'^ 1 and has the factor 2^ 1 = 7] Although Paciuolo did not list the perfect numbers between 8128 and 90 .8, the fact that he called the latter the fourteenth perfect number imphes the error expressly
.

committed

bj^ Bo^illus.^"

Thomas Bradwardin^" (1290-1349) stated that there is only one perfect number (6) between 1 and 10, one (28) up to 100, 496 up to 1000, 8128 up
to 10000, from which these numbers, taken in order, end alternately in 6 and 8. He then gave EucUd's rule. Faber Stapulensis^^ or Jacques Lefevre (born at Etaples 1455, tl537) stated that all perfect numbers end alternately in 6 and 8, and that Euclid's
rule gives all perfect

numbers. Georgius Valla^^ gave the first four perfect numbers and observed that
is briefly described by Gerhardt, Monatsber. Berlin Ak., 1870, 141-2. See Catalogus codicum latinorum bibliothecae regiae Monacensis, Tomi II, pars II, codices nuna. 11001-15028 complectus, Munich, 1876, p. 250. An extract of ff. 32-34 on perfect numbers was published by MaximiUan Curtze, BibUotheca Mathematica,

"The manuscript

(2), 9,

1895, 39-42.

"Triparty en la science des nombres, manuscript No. 1436, Fonds Fran^ais, BibliothSque Nationale de Paris, written at Lyons. 1484. Published by Aristide Marre, Bull. Bibl. Storia Sc. Mat. et Fis.. 13 (1880), 593-659, 693-814; 14 (1881), 417-460. See Part 1, Ch. Ill, 3, 619-621, manuscript, ff. 20-21. "Summa de Arithmetica geometria proportioni et proportionalita. [Suma Venice, 1494.] Toscolano, 1523 (two editions substantially the same). "Arithmetica thome brauardini. Tractatus perutilis. In arithmetica speculativa a magistro thoma Brauardini ex libris eucUdis boecij & ahorum qua optimne excerptus. Parisiis, 1495, 7th unnumbered page. Arithmetica Speculativa Thome Brauardini nuper mendis Plusculis tersa et diligenter Impressa, Parisiis [1502], 6th and 7th unnumbered pages. Also undated edition [1510], 3d page. "Epitome (iii) of the arithmetic of Boethius in Faber's edition of Jordanus," 1496, etc. Also in Introductio Jacobi fabri Stapulesis in Arithmecam diui Seuerini Boetij pariter Jordani, Paris, 1503, 1507. Also in Stapulensis, Jacobi Fabri, Arithmetica Boethi epitome, Basileae, 1553, 40. "De expetendis et fvgiendis rebvs opvs, Aldus, 1501. Liber I ( = Arithmeticae I), Cap. 12.
. .

Chap.

I]

PERFECT, MULTIPLY PERFECT, AND AmICABLE NuMBERS.

.

"these happen to end in 6 or 8. .and these terminal numbers will always be found alternately." Carolus Bovillus^" or Charles de Bouvelles (1470-1553) stated that every perfect number is even, but his proof applies only to those of Euclid's type. He corrected the statement of Jordanus^^ that every abundant number is even, by citing 45045 [ = 5-9-7-ll-13] and its multiples. He stated that 2" 1 is a prime if n is odd, expUcitly citing 511 [ = 7-73] as a prime. He listed as perfect numbers 2"~^(2'* 1), n ranging over all the odd numbers ^ 39 [Cataldi^ later indicated that 8 of these are not perfect]. He repeated
the error that all perfect numbers end alternately in 6 and 8. He stated (f. 175, No. 25) that if the sum of the digits of a perfect number >6 be divided by 9, the remainder is unity [proved for perfect numbers of Euclid's type by Cataldi,^^ p. 43]. He noted (f. 178) that any divisor of a perfect number is deficient, any multiple abundant. He stated (No. 29) that one or both of 6n=i=l are primes and (No. 30) conversely any prime is of the form 6n=t 1 [Cataldi,^ p. 45, corrects the first statement and proves the second]. He stated (f. 174) that every perfect number is triangular, being 2" (2'' l)/2. Martinus^^ gave the first four perfect numbers and remarked that they

end alternately in 6 and 8. Gasper Lax'^^ stated that the perfect numbers end alternately in 6 and 8. V. Rodulphus Spoletanus^^ was cited by Cataldi,'*^ with the implication [Copy not seen.] of errors on perfect numbers.
Girardus Ruffus^^ stated that every perfect number is even, that most deficient, that, contrary to Jordanus,^^ the odd number 45045 is abundant, and that for n odd 2^* 1 always leads to a perfect number, citing 7, 31, 127, 511, 2047, 8191 as primes [the fourth and fifth are

odd numbers are

composite].
Feliciano^^ stated that all perfect numbers end alternately in 6 and 8. Regius^^ defined a perfect number to be an even number equal to the sum of its aliquot divisors, indicated that 511 and 2047 are composite, gave

correctly 33550336 as the fifth perfect

^''Caroli Bouilli

number, but said the perfect numbers

(dated 1509 at end), one (ff. 172-180) continetur: Liber de intellectu, De dated on last page, 1510, Paris, ex ofEcina Henrici Stephani. Numeris Perfectis, Biography in G. Maupin, Opinions et Curiosit^s touchant la Math., Paris, 1, 1901, 186-94. "Ars Arithmetica loannis Martini, Silicei: in theoricen & praxim. 1513, 1514. Arithmetica loannis Martini, Scilicei, Paris, 1519. "Arithmetica speculatiua magistri Gasparis Lax. Paris, 1515, Liber VII, No. 87 (end). *3De proportione proportionvm dispvtatio, Rome, 1515. "Divi Severini Boetii Arithmetica, dvobvs discreta hbris, Paris, 1521; ff. 40-44 of the commentary by G. Ruffus. "Libro di Arithmetica & Geometria speculatiua & praticale: Composto per maestro Francesco FeUciano da Lazisio Veronese Intitulato Scala Grimaldelli: Nouamente stampato. Venice, 1526 (p. 3), 1527, 1536 (p. 4), 1545, 1550, 1560, 1570, 1669, Padoua, 1629, Verona, 1563, 1602. *Vtrivsqve Arithmetices, epitome ex uariis authoribus concinnata per Hvdalrichum Regium. Strasburg, 1536. Lib. I, Cap. VI: De Perfecto. Hvdalrichvs Regius, Vtrivsque. ex variis Friburgi, 1550 [and 1543], Cap. VI, fol. 17-18.
of 13 tracts in his work,
.
.

Samarobrini Liber
.

De Perfectis Numeris

Que hoc volumine

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap. I

end alternately in 6 and 8. A multiple of an abundant or perfect number is abundant, a divisor of a perfect number is deficient. Cardan^^ (1501-1576) stated that perfect numbers were to be formed by Euclid's rule and always end with 6 or 8; and that there is one between any two successive powers of ten. De la Roche-^ stated in effect that 2""^ (2" 1) is perfect for every odd n, citing in particular 130816 and 2096128, given by n = 9, n = ll. This erroneous law led him to believe that the successive perfect numbers end alternately in 6 and 8. Noviomagus-^ or Neomagus or Jan Bronckhorst (1494-1570) gave Euclid's rule correctly and stated that among the first 10 numbers, 6 alone is perfect, among the first 10000 numbers, 6, 28,496, 8128 alone are perfect, etc., etc. [implying falsely that there is one and but one perfect number with any prescribed number of digits]. In Lib. II, Cap. IV, is given the sieve (or crib) of Eratosthenes, with a separate column for the multiples of 3, a separate one for the multiples of 5, etc. WilUchius^'^ (tl552) listed the first four perfect numbers and stated that to these are to be added a very few others, whose nature is that they end
.
.

either in 6 or 8.

Michael StifeP^ (1487-1567) stated that all perfect numbers except 6 are multiples of 4, while 4(8-1), 16(32-1), 64(128-1), 256(512-1), etc., to infinity, are perfect [error, Kraft^]. He later^- repeated the latter error,
listing as perfect

2X3, 4X7, 16X31, 64X127, 256X511, 1024X2047,

"&

so fort

an ohn end."

Every

perfect

munber

is

triangular.

(1517-1582) stated (1549, V left; 1554, p. 20) that the perfect numbers end in 6 or 8, that there is a single perfect number between any two successive powers of 10, and (1549, C III left; 1554, pp. 270-1) that
Peletier^^

4(8-1), 16(32-1), 64(128-1), 256(511),. .are perfect. statements were also given later by Peletier.^
.

The

first

two

^'Hieronimi C. Cardani Medici Mediolanensis, Practica Arithmetice, & Mensurandi singularis. Milan, 1537, 1539; Xiirnberg, 1541, 1542, Cap. 42, de proprietatibus numerorum mirificis. Opera IV, Lyon, 1663. -*Larismetique & Geometrie de maistre Estienne de la Roche diet Ville Franche, Nouuellement Imprimee & des fautea corrigee, Lyon, 1538, fol. 2, verso. Ed. 1, 1520. '"De Nvmeris libri dvo .... authore loanne Nouiomago, Paris, 1539, Lib. II, Cap. III. Reprinted, Cologne, 1544; Deventer, 1551. Edition by G. Frizzo, Verona, 1901, p. 132. 'Iodoci Vvillichii Reselliani, Arithmeticae libri tres, Argentorati, 1540, p. 37. '^Arithmetica Integra, Norimbergae, 1544, ff. 10, 11. "Die Cosa Cbristoffs Rudolffs Die schonen Exempeln der Coss Durch Michael Stifel Gebessert vnd sehr gemehrt, Konigsperg in Preussen, 1553, Anbang Cap. I, f. 10 verso, f. 11 (f. 27 v.), and 1571. "L'Arithmetiqve de lacqves Peletier dv Mans, departie en quatre Liures, Poitiers, 1549, 1550, 1553. ff. 77 v, 78 r. Reviie e augmentee par 1' Auteur, Lion, 1554 Troisieme edition, reucue et augmentee, par lean de Tovmes, 1607. "Arithmeticae Practicae methodvs facilis, per Gemmam Frisivm, Medicvm, ac Mathematicum conscripta .... In eandem loannis Steinii & lacobi Peletarii Annotationes. Antver.
. .

piae, 1581, p. 10.

Chap.

I]

PERFECT, MULTIPLY PERFECT, AND AmICABLE NUMBERS.

130816 [ = 256-511] is perfect. Lodoico Baeza^^ stated that Euchd's rule gives all perfect numbers. Pierre Forcadel" (tl574) gave 130816 as the fifth perfect number, implying incorrectly that 511 is a prime. Tartaglia^^ (1506-1559) gave an erroneous [Kraft ^^J list of the first twenty perfect numbers, viz., the expanded forms of 2"~^(2'* 1), for n = 2
Postello^^ stated erroneously that

and the successive odd numbers as

far as

n = 39.

He

stated that the

sums

1+2+4, 1+2+4+8, ..

.are alternately

prime and composite; and that

the perfect numbers end alternately in 6 and 8. The third ''notable property" mentioned is that any perfect number except 6 yields the remainder 1 when divided by 9. Robert Recorde^^ (about 1510-1558) stated that all the perfect numbers under 6-10^ are 6, 28, 496, 8128, 130816, 2096128, 33550336, 536854528 [the fifth, sixth, eighth of these are not perfect]. Petrus Ramus^ (1515-1572) stated that in no interval between successive powers of 10 can you find more than one perfect number, while in many At the end of Book I (p. 29) of his Arithintervals you will find none. meticae libri tres, Paris, 1555, Ramus had stated that 6, 28, 496, 8128 are the only perfect numbers less than lOOpOO. Franciscus Maurolycus*^ (1494-1575) gave an argument to show that every perfect number is hexagonal and hence triangular. Peter Bungus^^ (fieoi) gave (1584, pars altera, p. 68) a table of 20 numbers stated erroneously to be the perfect numbers with 24 or fewer In the editions digits [the same numbers had been given by Tartaglia^^]. of 1591, etc., p. 468, the table is extended to include a perfect number of 25 digits, one of 26, one of 27, and one of 28. He stated (1584, pp. 70-71 1591, pp. 471-2) that all perfect numbers end alternately in 6 and 28; employing Euclid's formula, he observed that the product of a power of 2 ending in 4 by a number ending in 7 itself ends in 28, while the product of one ending in 6 by one ending in 1 ends in 6. He verified (1585, pars
^"Theoricae Arithmetices Compendium h Guilielmo Postello, Lutetiae, 1552, a syllabus on one large sheet of arithmetic definitions. "Nvmerandi Doctrina, Lvtetiae, 1555, fol. 27-28. ''L'Arithmeticqve de P. Forcadel de Beziers, Paris, 1556-7. Livre I (1556), fol. 12 verso. 3*La seconda Parte del General Trattato di Nvmeri, et Misvre di Nicolo Tartagha, Vinegia, 1556, f. 146 verso. L' Arithmetiqve de Nicolas Tartagha Brescian .... Recueillie, & traduite d'ltalien en FranQois, par Gvillavme Gosselin de Caen, .... Paris, 1578, f. 98 verso, f. 99. 'The Whetstone of witte, whiche is the seconde parte of Arithmetike, London, 1557, eighth unnumbered page. ^''Petri Rami Scholarum Mathematicarum, Libri unus et triginta, k Lazaro Schonero recogniti & emendati, Francofvrti, 1599, Libr. IV (Arith.), p. 127, and Basel, 1578. "Arithmeticorvm hbri dvo, Venetiis, 1575, p. 10; 1580. Published with separate paging, at

end

of

Opuscula mathematica.

*^Mysticae

significationis liber in dvas divisvs partes, R. D. Petro Bongo Canonico Bergomate avctore. Bergomi. Pars prior, 1583, 1585. Pars altera, 1584. Petri Bungi Bergomatis Numerorum mysteria, Bergomi, 1591, 1599, 1614, Lutetiae Parisiorum, 1618, all four with the same text and paging. Classical and biblical citations on numbers (400 pages on 1, 2, On the 1618 edition, see Font^s, M6m. Acad. So. 12).
.
.

nvmerorvm

Toulouse,

(9), 5,

1893, 371-380.

10

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, i

seven numbers of his table [two being imperfect, however] that the sum of the digits of a perfect number exceeds by unity a multiple of 9. Every perfect number is triangular Every multiple of a perfect number is abundant, every (1591, p. 270).
prior, p. 238; 1591, p. 343) for the first

divisor deficient (1591, p. 464). Unicornus^^ (1523-1610) cited 2"- 1 (2^ 1) is always perfect for n

Bungus and repeated his error that odd and that all perfect numbers end

alternately in 6
fect

and
.

8.

Cataldi"^ (1548-1626) noted in his Preface that Paciuolo's^^ fourteenth per-

number

90.

.8 is in fact
is

+2^^ = 134217727, which

divisible

Citing the error of the latter, bers end alternately in 6 and 8, Cataldi observed (p. 42) that the fifth perfect number is 33550336 and the sixth is 8589869056, from 8191 =2'^- 1 and 131071=2^^ 1, respectively, proved to be primes (pp. 12-17) by actually trying as possible divisor every prime less than their respective square roots. He gave (pp. 17-22) the corresponding work showing 2^^ 1 to be prime. He stated (p. 11) that 2'*-! is a prime forn = 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, remarking that the prime n = ll does not yield a perfect number since He (p. 5) 2^^ 1=2047 = 23*89, while it is composite if n is composite. proved (p. 8) that the perfect numbers given by Euclid's rule end in 6 or 8. He gave (pp. 28-40, 48) a table of all divisors of all even and odd numbers

abundant since it arose from 1+2+4+ by 7,whereas Paciuolo said it was prime. Bovillus,^ and others, that all perfect num

and a table of primes < 750. Georgius Henischiib^^ (1549-1618) stated that the perfect numbers end alternately in 6 and 8, and that one occurs between any two successive powers of 10. He applied Euclid's formula without restricting the factor

^ 800,

2"!

to primes.

Johan Rudolff von Graff enried"*^ stated that all perfect numbers are given by Euclid's rule, which he applied without restricting 2" 1 to primes, Every perfect expressly citing 256X511 as the fifth perfect number.

number

is

triangular.

Bachet de Mezirac''^ (1581-1638) gave (f. 102) a lengthy proof of +2^* is a prime, but Euclid's theorem that 2'*p is perfect if p = l+2+
. . .

"De

I'arithmetica vniversale del Sig. loseppo Vnicorno, Venetia, 1598, f. 57. "Trattato de nvmeri perfetti di Pierto Antonio Cataldo, Bologna, 16C3. According to the Preface, this work was composed in 1588. Cataldi founded at Bologna the Academia Erigende, the most ancient known academy of mathematics; his interest in perfect numbers from early youth is shown by the end of the first of his "due lettioni fatte nell' Academia di Perugia" (G. Libri, Hist. Sc. Math, en ItaUe, 2d ed., vol. 4, Halle, 1865, p. 91). G. Wertheim, BibHotheca Math., (3), 3, 1902, 76-83, gave a summary of the Trattato. "Arithmetica Perfecta et Demonstrata, Georgii Henischiib, Augsburg [1605], 1609, pp. 63-64. "Arithmeticae Logistica Popularis Librii IIII. Jn welchen der Algorithmus in gantzen Zahlen Bern, 1618, 1619, pp. 236-7. u. Fracturen *^Elementorum arithmeticorum libri XIII auctori D a Latin manuscript in the Bibliothfeque de I'lnstitut de France. On the inside of the front cover is a comment on the sale of the manuscript by the son of Bachet to DaUbert, treasurer of France. A general account of the contents of the manuscript was given by Henry, Bull. Bibl. Storia Sc. Mat. e Fis., 12, 1879, pp. 619-641. The present detailed account of Book 4, on perfect numbers, was taken from the manuscript.
. . . .

Chap.

I]

PERFECT, MULTIPLY PERFECT, AND AMICABLE NUMBERS.

11

Every multiple of a perfect 103, verso) is abundant if p is composite. abundant number is abundant, every divisor of a perfect number is The product of two primes, other than 2X3, deficient (ff. 104 verso, 105). The odd number 945 is abundant, the sum of its is deficient (f. 105 verso). ahquot divisors being 975 (f. 107). Commenting (f. Ill verso, f. 112) on the statement of Boethius^ and Cardan^^ that the perfect numbers end alternately in 6 and 8, he stated that the fourth is 8128 and the fifth is 2096128 [an error], the fifth not being 130816 = 256X511, since 511 =7X73. Jean Leurechon^^ (about 1591-1670) stated that there are only ten perfect numbers between 1 and 10^^, listed them (noting the admirable property that they end alternately in 6 and 8) and gave the twentieth per[They are the same as in Tartaglia's^^ list.] fect number. Lantz^^ stated that the perfect numbers are 2(4-1), 4(8-1), 16(32-1), 64(128-1), 256(512-1), 1024(2048-1), etc. Hugo Sempilius^ or Semple (Scotland, 1594-Madrid, 1654) stated that there are only seven perfect numbers up to 40,000,000; they end alternately in 6 and 8. Casper Ens^^ stated that there are only seven perfect numbers <4-10'', viz., 6, 28, 496, 8128, 130816, 1996128 [for 2096128], 33550336, and that they end alternately in 6 and 8. Daniel Schwenter^^ (1585-1636) made the same error as Casper Ens.^^ Erycius Puteanus^^ quoted from Martiano Capella, lib. VII, De Nuptiis Philologiae, to the effect that the perfect number 6 is attributed to Venus; for it is made by the union of the two sexes, that is, from triad, which is male since it is odd, and from diad, which is feminine since it is even. Puteanus said that the perfect numbers in order are 6, 28, 496, 8128, 130816, 2096128, 33550336, and gave all their divisors [implying that 511, 2047, 8191 are primes], and stated that these seven and all the remaining end alternately in 6 and 8. Between any two successive powers of 10 is one perfect number. That they are all triangular adds perfection to the perfect. Joannes Broscius^"^ or Brocki remarked that there is no perfect number between 10000 and 10000000, contrary to Stifel,^^ Bungus,^^ Sempilius.^" Puteanus,^^ and the author of Selectarum Propositionum Mathematicarum, quas propugnavit, Mussiponti, Anno 1622, Maximilianus Willibaldus, Baro
(f.

or

^^Recreations math^matiques, Pont-^-Mousson, 1624; London, 1633, 1653, 1674 (these three EngUsh editions by Wm. Oughtred), p. 92. The authorship is often attributed to Leurechon's pupil Henry Van Etten, whose name is signed to the dedicatory epistle. Cf. Poggendorff, Handworterbuch, 1863, 2, p. 250 (under C. Mydorge); Bibliotheque des 6crivains de la compagnie de Jesus, par A. de Backer, 2, 1872, 731; Biograpliie Generale, 31, 1872, 10. "Institutionum Arithmeticarum hbri quatuor h loanne Lantz, Coloniae Agrippinae, 1630, p. 54. "De Mathematicis Disciphnis hbri Duodecim, Antverpiae, 1635, Lib. 2, Cap. 3, N. 10, p. 46. There is (pp. 263-5) an index of writers on geometry and one for arithmetic. "Thaumaturgus Math., Munich, 1636, p. 101; Coloniae. 1636, 1651; Venice, 1706. "Dehciae Physico-Mathematicae oder Mathemat: vnd Philosophische Erquickstunden, part I (574 pp.), Numberg, 1636, p. 108. "De Bissexto Liber: nova temporis facula qua intercalandi arcana .... Lovanii, 1637; 1640, pp. 103-7. Reproduced by J. G. Graevius, Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum (12 vols., 1694-9), Lugduni Batavorum, vol. 8.

12
in

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, i

Waldpurg. WTiile they considered 511X256 and 2047X1024 as perfect, 511 has the factor 7, and (as pointed out to him by Stanislaus Pudlowski) 2047 has the factor 23. Broscius stated that

2^-1 has the

if

is

factor 3 5 7 a multiple of 2 4 3

11

10

13 12

17 8

19 23 29 31 18 11 28 5.

contents of the second dissertation are given below under the date 1652. Descartes,^^ in a letter to Mersenne, November 15, 1638, thought he could prove that every even perfect number is of Euclid's type, and that every odd perfect number must have the form ps^, where p is a prime. He saw no reason why an odd perfect number may not exist. For p = 22021, s = 3'7-ll-13, ps^ would be perfect if p were prime [but p = 61-19^]. In a letter to Frenicle, January 9, 1639, Oeuvres, 2, p. 476, he expressed his belief that an odd perfect number could be found by replacing 7, 11, 13 in s by other values. Fermat^^ stated that he possessed a method of solving all questions relating to aliquot parts. Citing this remark, Frenicle^' challenged Fermat to find a perfect number of 20 or 21 digits. Fermat^^ replied that there is none with 20 or 21 digits, contrary to the opinion of those who believe that there is a perfect number between any two consecutive powers of 10. Fermat,^^ in a letter to Mersenne, June (?), 1640, stated three propositions which he had proved not without considerable trouble and which he called the basis of the discovery of perfect numbers: if n is composite, 2" 1 is composite; if n is a prime, 2" 2 is divisible by 2n, and 2" 1 is divisible by no prime other than those of the form 2kn-\-l [cf Euler^']. For example, 2"-l = 23-89, 2^^-l has the factor 223. Also 2"^^-! has the factor 47, Oeuvres, 2, p. 210, lett-er to Frenicle, October 18, 1640. Mersenne^ (1588-1648) stated that, of the 28 numbers* exhibited by

The

Ren^

"De numeris

perfectis disceptatio qua ostenditur a decern millibus ad centies centena millia, nullum esse perfectum numenim atque ideo ab unitate usque ad centies centena millia quatuor tantum perfectos numerari, Amsterdam, 1638. Reproduced as the first (pp. 115-120) of two dissertations on perfect numbers, they forming pp. 111-174 of Apologia pro Aristotele & Evchde, contra Petrvm Ramvm, & aUos. Addititiae sunt Dvae Disceptationes de Nvmeris Perfectis. Authore loanne Broscio, Dantiaci, 1652 (with a somewhat different title, Amsterdam, 1699). "Oeuvres de Descartes, II, Paris, 1898, p. 429. sOeuvres de Fermat, 2, Paris, 1894, p. 176; letter to Mersenne, Dec. 26, 1638. *'Oeuvres de Fermat, 2, p. 185; letter to Mersenne, March, 1640. osQeuvres, 2, p. 194; letter to Mersenne, May (?), 1640. "Oeuvres de Fermat, 2, pp. 198-9; Varia Opera Math. d. Petri de Fermat, Tolosae, 1679, p. 177; Precis des Oeuvres math, de P. Fermat et de 1' Arithmdtique de Diophante, par E. Brassinne, M6m. Ac. Imp. Sc. Toulouse, (4), 3, 1853, 149-150. F. Marini Mersenni minimi Cogitata Physico Mathematica, Parisiis, 1644. Praefatio Generahs, No. 19. C. Henry (Bull. Bibl. Storia Sc. Mat. e Fis., 12, 1879, 524-6) beheved that these remarks were taken from letters from Fermat and Frenicle, and that Mersenne had no proof. A similar opinion was expressed by W. W. Rouse Ball, Messenger Math., 21, 1892, 39 (121). On documents relating to Mersenne see Tinterm^diaire des

math.,

*Only 24 were given by Bungus.

Cf. Lucas."* 1895, 6; 8, 1901, 105; 9, 1902, 101, 297; 10, 1903, 184. While his table has 28 lines, one for each number of digits, there are no entry of numbers of 5, 11, 17, 23 digits.
2,

Chap.

I]

PERFECT, MULTIPLY PERFECT, AND AMICABLE NUMBERS.

13

Bungus,^^ chap. 28, as perfect numbers, 20 are imperfect and only 8 are
perfect
6,

28,

8128, 496, 137,438691328,

23550336 [for 33. .], 8589869056, 2305843008139952128,

.

which occur at the lines marked 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 10, 12 and 29 [for 19] of Bungus' table [indicating the number of digits]. Perfect numbers are so rare that only eleven are known, that is, three different from those of Bungus; norf is there any perfect number other than those eight, unless The ninth perfect you should surpass the exponent 62 in 1+2+2^+ .. number is the power with the exponent 68 less 1; the tenth, the power 128 the eleventh, the power 258 less l,i.e., the power 257, decreased by less 1 [The first 11 perfect numbers are unity, multiplied by the power 256. thus said to be 2"-'(2"-l) for n = 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 67, 127, 257, in He who would find 11 others will error as to n = 61, 67, 89, 107 at least.] know that all analysis up to the present will have been exceeded, and will remember in the meantime that there is no perfect number from the power 17000 to 32000, and no interval of powers can be assigned so great but that it can be given without perfect numbers. For example, if the exponent be 1050000, there is no larger exponent n up to 2090000 for which 2" One of the greatest difficulties in mathematics is to exhibit a is a prime. prescribed number of perfect numbers; and to tell if a given number of 15 or 20 digits is prime or not, all time would not suffice for the test, whatever use is made of what is already known. Mersenne" stated that 2^ 1 is a prime if p is a prime which exceeds by 3, or by a smaller number, a power of 2 with an even exponent. Thus 2^-1 is a prime since 7 = 2^3; again, since 67 = 3+2*^, 2^^ + 1 = 1... [for 2^ 1] is a prime and leads to a perfect number [error corrected by Understand this only of primes 2^ 1. Wherefore this property Cole^^^]. does not belong to the prime 5, but to 3, 7, 31, 127, 8191, 131071, 524287,
.

2147483647, and all such. Numbers expressible as the sum or difference two squares in several ways are composite, as 65 = 1+64 = 16+49. As he speaks of Frenicle's knowledge of numbers, at least part of his results are doubtless due to the latter. In 1652, J. Broscius (Apologia,^^ p. 121) observed that while perfect numbers were deduced by Euclid from geometrical progressions, they may be derived from arithmetical progressions:
of

6=

1+2+3,

28 =

1+2+3+4+5+6+7,
illis

496 =

1+2+3+ ... +31.

fNeque enim

exponentem numerum 62, perfectus est potestas exponentis 68, minus 1. Decimus, potestas exponentis 128, minus 1. Vndecimus denique, potestas 258, minus 1, hoc est potestas 257, unitate decurtata, multiplicata per potestatem 256.
vllus est alius perfectus ab progressionis duplae ab 1 incipientis.
octo, nisi superes

Nonus enim

*T. Marini Mersenni Novarvm Observationvm Physico-Mathematicarum^ Tomvs III, Parisiis, 1647, Cap. 21, p. 182. The Reflectiones Physico-Math. begin with p. 63; Cap. 21 is quoted in Oeuvres de Fennat, 4, 1912, pp. 67-8.

14

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, i

the proof by Bungus*' alternately with end 6 and they that not show 28, since Bungus does perfect numbers. well as The numbers as 130816 and imperfect included Puteanus,^^ are perfect by abundant. After giving a cited as 2096128, 2" = of forn form Broscius expanded 1, 100, of the 0, table (p. 130, seq.) 2" = divisors of (n prime 1 of the but showing no 1, gave a table 100), n is any one of the primes, other when than 11 and factor prime 23, less = = the factors n ll, are for n the For factor 47 is 23, 89; than 100. 23, omitting unity, there remain only Thus 23 numbers out of the first given. hundred which can possibly generate perfect numbers. Contrary to Cardan, ^^ but in accord with Bungus,^^ there is (p. 135) no perfect number between 10* and 10\ Of Bungus' 24 numbers, only 10 are perfect (pp. 135-140): those with 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 10, 12, 18, 19, 22 digits, and given by
. . .

He stated that while perfect numbers end with 6 or 28,

2'-i(2'*-l) for

n = 2,

3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 29, 31, 37,

respectively.

The

pri-

was taken on the authority of unnamed predecessors. There are only 21 abundant numbers between 10 and 100, and all of them are even; the only odd abundant number <1000 is 945, the sum of whose aliquot di\isors is 975 (p. 146). The statement by Lucas, Th^orie

maUty of the

last three

des nombres, 1, Paris, 1891, p. 380, Ex. 5, that 3^-5-79 [deficient] is the smallest abundant number is probably a misprint for 945 = 3^-5-7. This error is repeated in Encyclopedic Sc. Math., I, 3, Fas. 1, p. 56. Johann Jacob Heinlin^- (1588-1660) stated that the only perfect numbers <4-10' are 6, 28, 496, 8128, 130816, 2096128, 33550336, and that all perfect numbers end alternately in 6 and 8. Andrea Tacquet^^ (Antwerp, 1612-1660) stated (p. 86) that Euclid's Referring to the 11 numbers given as rule gives all perfect numbers. perfect by Mersenne,^^ Tacquet said that the reason why not more have been found so far is the greatness of the numbers 2^ 1 and the vast labor
of testing their primaUty.

Frenicle^ stated in 1657 that EucUd's formula gives all the even perfect numbers, and that the odd perfect numbers, if such exist, are of the form p/c^, where p is a prime of the form 4n+l [cf. Euler^^]. Frans van Schooten^^ (the younger, 1615-1660) proposed to Fermat that he prove or disprove the existence of perfect numbers not of Euclid's
type.

Joh. A. Leuneschlos^^ remarked that the infinite multitude of numbers contains only ten perfect numbers; he who will find ten others will know
'*Joh.

Jacobi Heinlini, Synopsis Math, praecipuas totius math .... Tubmgae, 1653. Synopsis Math. Universalis, ed. Ill, Tubingae, 1679, p. 6. English translation of last by Venterus Mandey, London, 1709, p. 5. "Arithmeticae Theoria et Praxis, Lovanii, 1656 and 1682 (same paging), [1664, 1704]. Hia

opera math., Antwerpiae, 1669, does not contain the Arithmetic. "Correspondence of Chr. Huygens, No. 389; Oeuvres de Fermat, 3, Paris, 1896, p. 567. "Oeuvres de Huygens, II, Correspondence, No. 378, letter from Schooten to J. Wallis, Mar. 18, 1658. Oeuvres de Fermat, 3, Paris, 1896, p. 558. "Mille de Quantitate Paradoxa Sive Admiranda, Heildelbergae, 1658, p. 11, XLVI, XLVII.

Chap.

I]

PERFECT, MULTIPLY PERFECT, AND AmICABLE NUMBERS.

15

that he has surpassed all analysis up to the present. Goldbach" called Euler's attention to these remarks and stated that they were probably taken from Mersenne, the true sense not being followed. Wm. Leybourn^^ hsted as the first ten perfect numbers and the twentieth those which occur in the table of Bungus.^^ "The number 6 hath an eminent Property, for his parts are equal to himself." Samuel Tennulius, in his notes (pp. 130-1) on lamblicus,^ 1668, stated that the perfect numbers end alternately in 6 and 8, and included 130816 = 256-511 and 2096128 = 1024-2047 among the perfect numbers. Any multiple Tassius^ stated that all perfect numbers end in 6 or 8. is of a perfect abundant number abundant, any divisor or of a perfect the first eight known perfect deficient. He gave as numbers the is number Mersenne.^" listed by first eight Joh. Wilh. Pauli^ (Philiatrus) noted that if 2" 1 is a prime, n is, but not conversely. For n = 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 2"-l is a prime; but 2^^-l is divisible by 23, 2^^ 1 by 47, and 2*^ 1 by 83, the three divisors being

2n+l.
G. W. Leibniz'^^ quoted in 1679 the facts stated by Pauli and set himself the problem to find the basis of these facts. Returning about five years later to the subject of perfect numbers, Leibniz implied incorrectly that 2^^ 1 is a prime if and only if p is. ninth perfect numbers are Jean Prestet^^ (tl690) stated that the fifth,
.
.

23550336

[for

33.

.],

8589869056, 137438691328, 238584300813952128 2305. .39952128], 2''^-2^'\

.

[for

[Hence 2'*-^(2'*-l) for 7i = 13, 17, 19, 31, 257. The numerical errors were noted by E. Lucas,i24 p 7g4 j Jacques Ozanam^^ (1640-1717) stated that there is an infinitude of perfect numbers and that all are given by Euclid's rule, which is to be applied only when the odd factor is a prime. Charles de Neuveglise^^ proved that the products 3-4, ., 8-9 of two consecutive numbers are abundant. All multiples of 6 or an abundant number are abundant.
.

1, 1843; letters to Euler, Oct. 7, 1752 (p. 584), Nov. 18 593). '^Arithmetical Recreations; or Enchriridion of Arithmetical Questions both Delightful and

"Correspondence Math. Phy8.,ed.,Fus8,

(p.

Profitable, London, 1667, p. 143. "Arithmeticae Empiricae Compendium, Johannis Adolfi Tassii.

Ex recensione Henrici Siveri,

Hamburgi, 1673, pp.

"Manuscript

13, 14.

^"De nvmiero perfecto, Leipzig, 1678, Magister-disputation. in the Hannover Library. Cf. D. Mahnke, Bibhotheca Math.,
53-4, 260.

(3), 13,

1912-3,

"Nouveaux elemens des Mathematiques, ou

1689,
I,

Principes generaux de toutes les sciences, Paris,

154-5.

"Recreations mathematiques et physiques, Paris and Amsterdam, 2 vols., 1696, I, 14, 15. "Traits methodique et abreg6 de toutes les mathematiques, Trevoux, 1700, tome 2 (L'arithm^tique ou Science des nombres), 241-8.

16

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

John Harris,"^ D. D., F. R. S., stated that there are but ten perfect numbers between unity and one million of millions. John Hiir^ stated that there are only nine perfect numbers up to a hundred thousand million. He gave (pp. 147-9) a table of values of 2" forn = l,. ., 144. Christian Wolf" (1679-1754) discussed perfect numbers of the form
.

y"x [where x, y are primes].

The sum
. .

of its aliquot parts is

.

l+y+
which must equal
y'^x.

+i/"+a:+?/x+

+i/""'x,

Thus
. . .

x = {l-\-y+

+2/")M
Then
if

d = y^-l-yl,

-7/""^
this requires

He stated* that y = 2, x = l +2+

x
. . .

is

an integer only when d =

this x
is

and that
is

+2".

a prime, 2"x

a perfect number.

This is said to be the case forn = 8 and n = 10, since 2^ 1 = 51 1 and 2^' 1 = 2047 are primes, errors pointed out bj^ Euler.^^ A. G. Kastner^^ was not satisfied with the argument leading to the conclusion y = 2. Jacques Ozanam^^ listed as perfect numbers

2(4-1), 4(8-1), 16(32-1), 64(128-1), 256(512-1), 1024(2048-1),.

without expUcit mention of the condition that the final factor shall be prime, and stated that perfect numbers are rare, only ten being known, and all end in 6 and 8 alternately. [Criticisms by Montucla,^ Gruson.-^] Johann Georg Liebnecht^ said there were scarcely 5 or 6 perfect numbers up to 4.10"; they always end alternately in 6 and 8. Alexander ]Malcolm^^ observed that it is not yet proved that there is no He stated that, if pA is a perfect perfect number not in Euclid's set. number, where p is a prime, and if and is not a factor of A, then is an abundant number [probably a misprint for MA, as the condi= 5, and =20 is abundant, while tions are satisfied when p = 7, .4=4, Af^ = 25 is deficient]. Christian Wolf^- made the same error as Casper Ens.^^

MM

M<p

MA

^'Lexicon Technicum, or an Universal English Dictionarj' of Arts 1704; ed. 5, vol. 2, London, 1736.

and

Sciences, vol.

I,

London,

"Arithmetik, London, ed. 2, 1716, p. 3. ^'Elementa Matheseos Universae, Halae Magdeburgicae, vol. I, 1730 and 1742, pp. 383-^, of the five volume editions [first printed 1713-41]; vol. I, 1717, 315-6, of the two volume edition. Quoted, with other errors, Ladies' Diary, 1733, Q. 166; Leybourn's ed., 1, 1817, 218; Button's ed., 2, 1775, 10; Diarian Repository, by Soc. Math., 1774, 289. *"Jam ut X sit numerus integer, nee in casu speciali, si y per numerum explicetur, numerus partium aliquotarum diversus sit a numero earundem in formula general!; necesse est ut

d = l."

"Math. Anfangsgrlinde, I, 2 (Fortsetzung der Rechnenkunst, ed. 2, 1801, 546-8). "Recreations math., new ed. of 4 vols., 1723, 1724, 1735, etc., I, 29-30. '"Grund-Satze der gesammten Math. Wiss. u. Lehren, Giessen u. Franckfurt, 1724, *iA new system of arithmetik, theoretical & practical, London, 1730, p. 394. "Mathematisches Lexicon, I, 1734 (under Vollkommen Zahl).

p. 21.

Chap.

Il

PERFECT, MULTIPLY PERFECT, AND AmICABLE NUMBERS.

17

Leonard Euler^^ (1707-1783) noted that

a prime; for instance,
2^'

and 8m 1 are primes, [Proof by Lucas.^^sj posite for n = ll, 23, 83, 131, 179, 191, 239, etc. factor 431, 22^-1 the Furthermore, 2^^-l has the factor 223, 2^^-l the
factor 1103, 2"^

2'' 1 may be composite for n 1 = 23-89, contrary to Wolf.'^^ If n = 4m 2" 1 has the factor 8m 1, so that 2^-1 is com-

''However, I venture to assert the factor 439, etc. that aside from the cases noted, every prime less than 50, and indeed than 100, makes 2"~^(2" 1) a perfect number, whence the eleven values 1, 2, 3, I derived these 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 41, 47 of n yield perfect numbers. results from the elegant theorem, of whose truth I am certain, although I is divisible by the prime n+1, if neither a nor h is." have no proof: aJ^ [For later proofs by Euler, see Chapter III on Fermat's theorem.] Euler's errors as to n = 41 and 47 were corrected by Winsheim,^ Euler^^ himself,

and

Plana.i^o

Michael Gottlieb Hansch^ stated that 2^* 1 is a prime if n is any of the twenty- two primes ^79 [error, Winsheim,^^ Kraft^^]. George Wolfgang Kraft^^ corrected Stifel's^^ error that 511-256 is per-

and the error of Ozanam (Elementis algebrae, p. 290) that the sum of the divisors of 2*" is a prime, by noting that the sum forn = 2 is 511 = 7-73 and n6ted that false perfect numbers were listed by Ozanam.'^^ Kraft presented (pp. 9-11) an incomplete proof, communicated to him by Tobias Maier [cf. Fontana^^^], that every perfect number is of Euclid's type. Let 1, m, n, .be the aliquot parts of any perfect number pA, .,p, A,. where p and A are the middle factors [as 4 and 7 jn 28]. Then
fect
all
.

must be unity, whence whence g = 2r/D', D' = r lr/nr/m. From I>' = 1, r = 2n/I)", D" = n ln/m. From D" = l, n = 2m/(m 1), m 1 = 1, m = 2, n = 4, r = 8, etc. Thus the aliquot parts up to the middle must be the successive powers of 2, and A must be a prime, since otherwise there would be new divisors. For p = 2"~\ we get A =2" 1. Kraft observed that if we drop from Tartaglia's^^ list of 20 numbers those shown to be imperfect by Euler's^^ results, we have left only eight perfect numbers 2"-^(2"-l) for n^39, viz., those for n = 2, 3, 5, 7, 13,
Solving for A, he stated that the denominator = q lq/r q/n q/m. Again, 'p = 2q/D,

D = l,

17, 19, 31.

For
if

these, other

Tartaglia,
finally get

we add
(p.

unity

than the first, as well as for the false ones of the digits, then add the digits of that sum, etc., we All perfect numbers end 14) [proof by WantzeP^^].

in 6 or 28.
*3Comm. Acad. Petropol.,
Collectae,
I,

Commentationes Arithmeticae 6, 1738, ad annos 1732-3, p. 103. Petropoli, 1849, p. 2. ^Epistola ad mathematicos de theoria arithmetices nouis a se inuentis aucta, Vindobonae [Vienna], 1739.

"De numeris

perfectis,

Comm.

Acad. Petrop.,

7,

1740, ad annos 1734-5, 7-14.

18

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, i

Johann Christoph Heilbronner^^ stated that the perfect numbers up to 4-10' are 6, 28, 496, 8128, 130816,2096128. "The fathers of the early church and many wTiters always held this number 6 in high esteem. God completed the creation in 6 days and since all things created by Him perfect, he wished the work of creation completed according to the
as being a perfect

came out number 6

number." L. Euler" deduced from Fermat's theorem, which he here proved by

use of the binomial theorem, the result* that, if m is a prime, 2"* 1, when composite, has no prime factors other than those of the form wn+l. J. Landen^^ noted that 196 is the least number 4a;'*, where x is prime, the

sum of whose ahquot parts exceeds the number by 7.

L. Euler^^ gave a table of the

prime factors of 2" 1

for

n^37.

C. N. de Winsheim^ noted that 2^'^ 1 has the factor 2351, and stated that 2" 1 is a prime for n = 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, composite for the remaining n<48, but was doubtful as to n = 41, thus reducing the Hst of perfect numbers given by Euler^ by one or perhaps two. He suspected that n = 41 leads to an imperfect number since it was excluded by the acute Mersenne,^ who gave instead 2^^(2^" 1) as the ninth perfect number. He remarked that the basis of Mersenne's assertion is doubtless to be found in the stupendous genius of Mersenne which perhaps recognized more truths than he could demonstrate. He discussed the error of Hansch^ that 2" ! is a prime if n is a prime ^ 79. G. W. Kraft^^ considered perfect numbers AP, where P is a prime [not dividing A]. Thus a{P-\-l)=2AP, where a is the sum of all the divisors of A. Hence a/ {2 Let 2A a = l, a property a) equals the prime P. holding for A =2"". Then P = 2"'+^ 1 and the resulting numbers are of

Euchd's type.

knew only seven

19,

L. Euler,^- in a letter to Goldbach, October 28, 1752, stated that he perfect numbers, viz., 2p~^(2^ 1) for p = 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17,

of

and was uncertain whether 2^^ 1 is prime or not the form 64n+l and none are <2000).

(a factor is necessarily

^^Historia

matheseos universae. Accedit recensio elementorum compendiorum et openim math, atque historia arithmetices ad nostra tempora, Lipsiae, 1742, 755-6. There is a 63-page

^^ovi

*We

Ust of arithmetics of the 16th century. Comm. Ac. Petrop., 1, 1747-8, 20; Comm. .\rith., I, 56, 39. may simpUfy the proof by using the fact that 2 belongs to an e.xponent e modulo p (p a prime) such that e divides p 1. For, if p is a factor of 2'" 1, is a multiple of e, whence e equals the prime m. Thus p 1 =n7. If we take m>2, we see that n is even since

p is odd and conclude with Fermat^' that, if m is an odd prime, 2" 1 is divisible by no primes other than those of the form 2km + l. "Ladies' Diary, 1748, Question 305. The Diarian Repository, Collection of all the mathematical questions from the Ladies' Diary, 1704-1760, by a society of mathematicians, London, 1774, 509. Button's The Diarian Miscellany (from Ladies' Diarj-, 1704-1773), London, 1775, vol. 2, 271. Leyboiu-n's Math. Quest, proposed in Ladies' D., 2, 1817,
9-10.

"Opuscula
"Novi

varii argumenti, Berlin, 2, 1750, 25;

Comm.

Arith.,

1,

1849, 104.

Ac. Petrop., 2, 1751, ad annum 1749, mem., 68-99. "/bid., mem., 112-3. ^Corresp. Math. Phys. (ed., Fuss), I, 1843, 590, 597-8.

Comm.

Chap.

I]

PERFECT, MULTIPLY PERFECT, AND AmICABLE NUMBERS.

19

G. W. Kraft^^ stated (p. 114) that Euler had communicated to him priHe stated (p. 121) vately in 1741 the fact that 2*^-1 is divisible by 2351. that if 2^ 1 is composite {p being prime), it has a factor of the form 2q'^p l, where g is a prime [including unity], using as illustrations the

by Euler. ^^ Of the numbers 2" 1, n a prime ^71, 71 stated to be prime by Hansch,^^ six are composite, while the cases 53, are in doubt (p. 115). A. Saverien^^ repeated the remarks by Ens^^ without reference. L. Euler^^ stated in a letter to Bernoulli that he had verified that 2^^ 1
factorizations noted
.

is

a prime by examining the primes up to 46339 which are contained in the

possible forms

248n+l and 248n+63

of divisors.
2"== 1

L. Euler^^ gave a prime factor of

for various values of n,

but no

new
is of

cases

2^1 with n a prime.

posthumous paper, proved that every even perfect number Euclid's type. Let o = 2"6 be perfect, where b is odd. Let B denote the sum of the divisors of b. The sum {2'*^^ l)B of the divisors of a must equal 2a. Thus 6/5 = (2"+^-l)/2"+\ a fraction in its lowest terms.
L. Euler,^^ in a

= (2^+^ 1 )c. If c = l, 6 = 2"'*'^ 1 must be of its divisors is 5 = 2""^^ whence Euclid's formula. the divisors of b is not less than 6+2""''^ 1+c+l;
Hence
6

a prime since the If c>l, the sum

sum

of

hence

^^ 2"+nc+l)
6=
h

2"+'

'^2"+^-l'

contrary to the earlier equation. The proof given in another posthumous paper by Euler^^ is not complete. L. Euler^^ proved that any odd perfect number must be of the form y.4x+ip2^ where r is a prime of the form 4nH-l [Frenicle^]. Express it as a product ABC. of powers of distinct primes. Denote by a, b, c, .the = 2 ABC .... sums of the divisors oi A, B,C,. ., respectively. Then abc Thus one of the numbers a, b, say a, is the double of an odd number, and the remaining ones are odd. Thus B, C,. are even powers of primes, while A =r*^"^^ In particular, no odd perfect number has the form 4n+3. Amplifications of this proof have been given by Lionnet,^^^ Stern, ^^'^ Sylvester, ^^^ Lucas. ^" See also Liouville^ in Chapter X. Montucla^^ remarked that Euclid's rule does not give as many perfect numbers as believed by various writers; the one often cited [Paciuolo^] as
. . . . . . . . .

since 511

the fourteenth perfect number is imperfect; the rule and 2047 are not primes.
"Novi Comm. Ac.

by Ozanam^^

is

false

Petrop., 3, 1753, ad annos 1750-1. "Dictionnaire universel de math, et physique, two vols., Paris, 1753, vol. 2, p. 216. ^Nouv. Mim. Acad. BerUn, ann6e 1772, hist., 1774, p. 35; Euler, Comm. Arith., 1, 1849, 584. "Opusc. anal., 1, 1773, 242; Comm. Arith., 2, p. 8. "De numeris amicabihbus, Comm. Arith., 2, 1849, 630; Opera postuma, 1, 1862, 88. '^Tractatus de numerorum doctrina, Comm. Arith., 2, 514; Opera postuma, 1, 14-15. "Recreations math, et physiques par Ozanam, nouvelle 6d. par M., Paris, 1, 1778, 1790, p. 33. Engl, transl. by C. Hutton, London, 1803, p. 35.

20

History of the Theory of Numbers.

Johann Philipp
Griison^^''

[Chap. I

made
is

noted that,

if

2"x

is

perfect and x
.
.

the same criticism an odd prime,

.

of

Ozanam"^ and

1+2+
M.

.+2'' = 2'*x-a:-2x-.

.-2'*-^x

= x.

Fontana^"^ noted that the theorem that all perfect numbers are triangular is due to Maurolycus^^ and not to T. Maier (cf. Kraft^^). Thomas Taylor^"- stated that only eight perfect numbers have been found so far [the 8 listed are those of Mersenne^^j. J. Struve^^^ considered abundant numbers which are products ahc of three distinct primes in ascending order; thus

ob+o+M-l >C, ah-a-h-1

;
'

.^ >C + 1.

i_i_l_jL
a
h

ab
[except 2-5'7].
is

The

case

a^3
c

is

easily excluded,

also a

= 2, 6^5

For
if

a = 2, 6 = 3,

any prime
a6c

> 3,

6c

is

abundant.

Next, abed

abundant

^"^'

For a = 2, 6 = 3, c = 5 any prime d [>c]. Of the numbers

J.

(a6+ac+6c+a+6+c+l)' or 7, and for a = 2, 6 = 5, c = 7,

>d+i.

abed is abundant for 52 are abundant. 1000,

Westerberg^*^ gave the factors of 2"='=1 for n = l,..., 32, and of

10''l,n = l,..., 15. O. Terquem^^ Usted 2*^-1 and 2*^-1 as primes. L. WantzeP" proved the remark of Kraft*^ that if A^i be the sum of the digits of a perfect number N>6 [of Euclid's type], and N2 the sum of the digits of A^i, etc., a certain iV, is unity. Since iV=l(mod 9), each Ni=l
9), while the NiS decrease. V. A. Lebesgue^^ stated that he had a proof that there is no odd perfect number with fewer than four distinct prime factors. For an even perfect

(mod

number

2"?/

y'^"

+prrY = (1 +y+

+y')

d +^+

+^')

und Geheimnisse der Arithmetik, erster Theil, Berlin, 1796, p. 85, and Zusatz (end of Theil I). <Memorie dell' Istituto Nazionale Ital., mat., 2, pt. 1, 1808, 285-6. '*The elements of a new arithmetical notation and of a new arithmetic of infinites, with an appendix .... of perfect, amicable and other numbers no less remarkable than novel,
""Enthiillte Zaubereyen

London, 1823, 131. ^''Ueber die so gennannten numeri abundantes oder die Ueberfluss mit sich fiihrenden Zahlen, besonders im ersten Tausend unsrer Zahlen, Altona, 1827, 20 pp. *'**De factoribus numerorum compositorum dignoscendis, Disquisitio Acad. CaroUna, Lundae, 1838. In the volume, Meditationum Math publice defendent C. J. D. Hill, Pt. II, 1831.
i^Nouv. Ann. Math.,
337. i"76id., 552-3.
^<*Ibid., p.
3,

1844. 219

(cf.

553).

Chap.

I]

PERFECT, MULTIPLY Perfect, and Amicable Numbers.

. . .

21

than

the impossibility of which is evident when the exponents j3, 7, are other 1, 0, 0, ., a case giving Euclid's solution [cf. Desboves^^'].
.

C. G. Reuschle^^* gave in his table C the exponent to which 2 belongs modulo p, for each prime p<5000. Thus 2" 1 has the factor 1399 for n = 233, the factor 2687 forn = 79, and 3391 for n = 113 [as stated exphcitly by Le Lasseur^^^'^^^]. ^iso 23514513 for n = 47, 1433 for w = 179, and 1913 for n = 239. In the addition (p. 22) to Table A, he gave the prime factors of 2^* 1 for various n's to 156, 37 being the least n for which the decomposition is not given completely, while 41 is the least n for which no factor is known.

For 34 errata in Table C, see Cunningham^^ of Ch. VII. F. Landry^^^ gave a new proof that 2^^ 1 is a prime. Jean Plana^^ gave (p. 130) the factorization into two primes:

2*^-1

= 13367X 164511353.

His statement (p. 141) that 2^^ 1 has no factor < 50033 was corrected by Landry^^^ (quoted by Lucas, "^ p. 280) and Gerardin."' Giov. Nocco^" showed that an odd perfect number has at least three distinct prime factors. For, if a"*6'* is perfect, 2a- = V-T^'

01

6"

=^

-^,

whence
^

Q^""^^

_ (a-l)b"+l
6"+^-l
'

2(5-1)" 2(6 -l)a""

But the minunum values
of a, h are 3, 5.

a+fe(a6"+26"-'+2)=2+6(26"+2a6"-^).

Thus 6(a 2)>2a 2,

a6'+26"-'>26"+2a6''-\

a6''-26" = 6"-^-6(a-2)>6'*-^(2a-2),

perfect

contrary to the earlier equation. In attempting to prove that every even number 2'"6Vd' ... is of EucUd's type, he stated without proof that

2-+16V.

=(2"'+^-l)J5C.

.,

B= \ / 1
= C,
. .
.

C=c

-,..

require that 2"*+^

= B,

6"

= 2^"+^ - 1

d'

(the first

two

of

which

results

yield Euclid's formula).

F. Landry^^^ stated (p. 8) that he possessed the complete decomposition of

factors of

2"l(n^64) except for 2^^1, 2Hl, and gave (pp. 10-11) the 2^^-l and of 2"+l for n = 65, 66, 69, 75, 90, 105.

"^Mathematische Abhandlung, enthaltend neue Zahlentheoretische Tabellen sammt einer dieselben betreflfenden Correspondenz mit dem verewigten C. G. J. Jacobi. Prog., Stuttgart, 1856, 61 pp. Described by Kummer, Jour, fur Math., 53, 1857, 379. ^'Proc6des nouveaux pour demontrer que le nonabre 2147483647 est premier. Paris, 1859. Reprinted in SpLinx-Oedipe, Nancy, 1909, 6-9. ""Mem. Reale Ac. Sc. Torino, (2), 20, 1863, dated Nov. 20, 1859.
'"Alcune teorie su'numeri pari, impari, e perfetti, Lecce, 1863. "^Aux math^maticiens de toutes les parties du monde: communicatidn but la decomposition des nombres en leurs facteurs simples, Paris, 1867, 12 pp.

22

History of the Theory of Numbers.

It includes the entries

[Chap. I

F. Landry"^ soon published his table. byLucas^2o.i22).

(quoted

2-l=431-9719-2099863, 2*^-1=23514513.13264529, 253-1 = 6361.69431-20394401, 2^^-1 = 179951.3203431780337,

the least factors of the first two of which had been given by Euler.^' ' This table was republished by Lucas^-^ (p. 239), who stated that only three l)/3, 2^*+l, each being conjectured entries remain in doubt: 2^^ 1, (2^^ a prime by Landry. The second was believed to be prime by Kraitchik.^^^"

Landr>''s factors of

2"+l,

for

28^n^64

were quoted

elsewhere."^''

Jules Carvallo^^* announced that he had a proof that there exists no odd Without indication of proof, he stated that an odd perperfect number.

number must be a square and that the ratio of the sum of the divisors an odd square to itself cannot be 2. The first statement was abandoned in his published erroneous proof, ^^^ while the second follows at once from the fact that, when p is an odd prime, the sum of the 2n+l divisors, each
fect

of

odd, of p^" is odd. E. Lucas^^^ stated that long calculations of his indicated that 2^ and 2^^ - 1 are composite [cf Cole,^" Powers^^^]. See Lucas- of Ch. XVII. E. Lucas^^^ stated that 2^^ 1 and 2^^^ 1 are primes. E. Catalan^^^ remarked that, if we admit the last statement, and note that 2^ 1, 2^ 1, 2^ 1 are primes, we may state empirically that, up to a certain limit, if 2" 1 is a prime p, then 2^ 1 is a prime g, 2^ 1 is a prime,
.

etc. [cf. Catalan^^^].

G. de Longchamps^^'^ suggested that the composition of 2"1 might be obtained by continued multiplications, made by simple displacements from right to left, of the primes written to the base 2. E. Lucas^^^ verified once only that 2^^^ 1, a number of 39 digits, is a prime. The method will be given in Ch. XVII, where are given various results relating indirectly to perfect numbers. He stated (p. 162) that he had the plan of a mechanism which will permit one to decide almost instantaneously whether the assertions of Mersenne and Plana that 2" 1 is a prime for n = 53, 67, 127, 257 are correct. The inclusion of n = 53 is an error of citation. He tabulated prime factors of 2" 1 for n^40. E. Lucas^^^ gave a table of primes with 12 to 16 digits occurring as a factor in 2"-l for n = 49, 59, 65, 69, 87, and in 2''+l forn = 43, 47, 49, 53, The 69, 72, 75, 86, 94, 98, 99, 135, and several even values of n>100.
'"Decomposition des nombres Paris, 1869, 8 pp.
2"=!= 1

en leurs facteurs premiers de n

=1

^ n = 64, moins quatre,

"3<Sphinx-0edipe, 1911, 70, 95. "'^L'interm^diaire des math., 9, 1902, 186. '"Comptes Rendus Paris, 81, 1875, 73-75. "'Sur la th^orie des nombres premiers, Turin, 1876, p. 11; TWorie des nombres, 1891, 376. "Nouv. Corresp. Math., 2, 1876, 96. i^Comptes Rendus Paris, 85, 1877, 950-2. "sBull. Bibl. Storia Sc. Mat. e Fis.; 10, 1877, 152 (278-287). Lucas"- " of Ch. XVII. "'Atti R. Ac. Sc. Torino, 13, 1877-8, 279.

Chap.

I]

PERFECT, MULTIPLY PERFECT, AND AmICABLE NUMBERS.

23

was made by H. Le Lasseur. To the latter attributed (p. 283) the factorization of 2'*-! for n = 73, 79, 113. These ^^ had been given without reference by Lucas. E. Lucas^^^ proposed as a problem the proof that if 8q+7 is a prime,
verification of the primality
is

24a+3_i

is

not.

E. Lucas^^^ stated as new the assertion of Euler^^ that if 4m 1 and 8m 1 are primes, the latter divides A = 2*"*~^ 1. E. Lucas^^^ proved the related fact that if 8m 1 is a prime, it divides A. For, by Fermat's theorem, it divides 2^"*"^ 1 and hence divides A or 2^~^H-1. That the prime 8m 1 divides A and not the latter, follows from Euler's criterion that 2^^"^^''^ 1 is divisible by the prime p if 2 is a quadNo reference was made ratic residue of p, which is the case if p = 8m='=l. to Euler, who gave the first seven primes 4m 1 for which 8m 1 is a prime. Lucas gave the new cases 251, 359, 419, 431, 443, 491. Lucas^^^ elsewhere stated that the theorem results from the law of reciprocity for quadratic Later, Lucas^^^ again expressly residues, again without citing Euler. claimed the theorem as his own discovery. T. Pepin^^^ noted that if p is a prime and q = 2^ 1 is a quadratic non6^, then qisa, prime if and only if (a hi) (o residue of a prime 4n 1 = a^ hi) / is a quadratic non-residue of q. A. Desboves^^^ amplified the proof by Lebesgue^^^ that every even perfect number is of Euclid's type by noting that the fractional expression in Lebesgue's equation must be an integer which divides y^z'^ and hence is a term of the expansion of the second member. Hence this expansion = 2. produces only the two terms in the left member, so that (j8+l)(7+l) Thus one of the exponents, say /3, is unity and the others are zero. The same proof has been given by Lucas^^^ (pp. 234-5) and Th^orie des Nombres, Desboves (p. 490, exs. 31-33) stated that no odd perfect 1891, p. 375. number is divisible by only 2 or 3 distinct primes, and that in an odd perfect number which is divisible by just n distinct primes the least prime is less than 2". F. J. E. Lionnet^^* amplified Euler's^^ proof about odd perfect numbers. F. Landry^^^ stated that 2^^=*= 1 are the only cases in doubt in his table."' Moret-Blanc^^ gave another proof that 2^^ 1 is a prime.

""Assoc. franQ. avanc. sc, 6, 1877, 165. 2iNouv. Corresp. Math., 3, 1877, 433.

i"Mess. Math.,

7,

1877-8, 186.
1,

AJso, Lucas.""

1878, 236. i^^BuU. Bibl. Storia Sc. Mat. e Fis., 11, 1878, 792.

iAmer. Jour. Math.,

The

results of this

paper

will

be cited

in

Ch.

XVI.
^Recreations math., ed.
2,

1891,

1,

p. 236.

"^Comptes Rendus

Paris, 86, 1878, 307-310.

"'Questions d'algebre 616mentau-e, ed. 2, Paris, 1878, 487-8. '"Nouv. Ann. Math., (2), 18, 1879, 306. "sBull. Bibl. Storia Sc. Mat., 13, 1880, 470, letter to C. Henry. "Nouv. Ann. Math., (2), 20, 1881, 263. Quoted, with Lucas' proof, Sphinx-Oedipe, 4,
1909, 9-12.

24

History of the Theory of Numbers.

H. LeLasseur found
after^^^

[Chap,

1878 and apparently just before^^^ 1882

that 2'*-l has the prime factor 11447 if n = 97, 15193 if n = 211, 18121 if 71 = 151, 18287 if n = 223, and that there is no divisor <30000 of 2"-l for the 24 prime values of n, n^257, which remain in doubt, viz. [cf. Lucas^^^],
61,

67,

71,

89, 101, 103, 107, 109, 127, 137, 139, 149,

157, 163, 167, 173, 181, 193, 197, 199, 227, 229, 241, 257.

attempted again^^* to prove the non-existence of odd .u\ where y,. .u are distinct odd primes. He began by noting that one and only one of the exponents n, ., r is odd [Euler^^]. .<u, and call their number From the definition of a Let y<z< perfect number,
J.

Carvallo^^^

perfect

numbers
.

y^'z^

jjl.

"'

u1

'

l'u

The

fractions in this inequality

form a decreasing

series.

Hence

fe)'>^.
Thus w(2 A;)<2.
to be positive),
it

^<A'
By
was concluded

-~i>^'
(p, 10)

H^r
2
A:,

a petitio principii (the division by

that

not

known

^<2i:^'

^^<2,

y> 2i/(M-i)_i

[This error, repeated on p. 15, was noted by P. Mansion. ^^] For a given n, there is at most one prime between the two limits (of difference < 2) for y. A superior limit is found for 2 as a function of y. An incomplete computation is made to show that, if /x>8, z <y-\-l. It is shown (p. 7) that an odd perfect number has a prime factor greater than the prime factor w entering to an odd power, since w+l divides the sum of the divisors. In a table (p. 30) of the first ten perfect numbers, 2^^ 1 and 2*^ 1 are entered as primes [contrary to Euler^^ and Plana^^]. E. Catalan^^^ stated that 2^ 1 is a prime if p is a prime of the form 2^ 1. If correct this would imply that 2^^^ 1 is a prime [cf. Catalan^^^]. E. Lucas^^^ repeated the remark of LeLasseur^^^ on the 24 prime values According to a of n^257 for which the composition of 2^ 1 is in doubt.
"iSince these four values of n are included in the list by Lucas^** of the 28 values of n ^ 257 for which the composition of 2"! is unknown. Cf. Lucas^^^ p. 236. Later, Lucas^^s credited LeLasseur "2Lucas, Recreations math., 1, 1882, 241; 2, 1883, 230. with these four cases as well as n = 73 [Eulers^] and n = 79, 113, 233 [cf. Reuschlei"]. The last four cases were given by Lucas"*, while the last three do not occur in the table (Lucasi24^ pp 7gg_9) by LeLasseur of the proper divisors of 2" 1 for each odd n, n<79, and for a few larger composite n's. The last three were given also by Lucas"^ (p. 236)

without reference. '"Th^orie des nombres parfaits, par "<Mathesis, 6, 1886, 147.

M.

Jules Carvallo, Paris, 1883, 32 pp.

'"Melanges Math., Bruxelles,

'"Mathesis,
6,

1,

1885, 376.

1886, 146.

Chap.

IJ

PERFECT, MULTIPLY PERFECT, AND AMICABLE NUMBERS.

Pellet, 2"

25

communication from

is

divisible

by 6n+l

if

n and 6n+l are

primes such that 6n+l =4L^+27M^ [provided* n= 1 (mod 4), i. e., L is odd]. M. A. Stern^" amplified Euler's^^ proof concerning odd perfect numbers. E. Lucas^^^ repeated the statement [Desboves^^^] that an odd perfect number must contain at least four distinct primes. G. Valentin^^^ gave a table, computed in 1872, showing factors of 2" 1 for n = 79, 113, 233, etc., but not the new cases of LeLasseur.^^^ The primality of iV = 2^ 1, a number of 19 digits, considered composite by Mersenne and prime by Landry, was established by J. Pervusin" and The latter claimed to verify that there is no P. Seelhoff ^^^ independently. factor <N^'^ of the form 8?i+7, abbreviating the work by use of various numbers of which iV is a quadratic residue; thus iV is a prime or the product Since iV = 2(2^)^ 1, 2 is a quadratic residue of any prime of two primes. It was verified that 3^= 1 (mod N), factor of N, so that the factor is 8n=i= 1. = where i8 (iV 1)/9. If N=fF, where F is the prime factor 8n-|-l, then 3^^1(mod F) and, by Fermat's theorem, 3^~^=l(mod F). It is stated without proof that one of the exponents /S and F 1 divides the other. Cole^^^ regarded the proof as unsatisfactory. Seelhoff proved that a perfect number of the form is of Euclid's type if p and r are primes and p<r. The condition is

pV

r''+\2-p)-2r''{l-p)-p
If

p > 2, the denominator

is

negative.

Hence p = 2 and
p=
l,

^'=2K^'

2'+'

= r+;j-j,

r=2-+'-l.

His statements (p. 177) about the factors of 2" 1, n = 37, 47, 53, 59, were corrected by him {ibid., p. 320) to accord with Landry.^^^ P. Seelhoff ^^^ obtained the known factors of these 2" 1 and proved that 2^^ 1 is a prime, by use of his method of quadratic residues. H. Novarese^^^ proved that every perfect number of Euclid's type ends in 6 or 28, and that each one > 6 is of the form 9A;+1. Jules Hudelot"^ verified in 54 hours that 2^^ 1 is a prime by use of the test by Lucas, Recreations math., 2, 1883, 233.
Correction by Kraitchik, Sphinx-Oedipe,
"'Mathesis,
6, 6,

1911, 73; Pellet, 7, 1912, 15.

1886, p. 248.

"8/6td., p. 250.

""Archiv Math. Phys., (2), 4, 1886, 100-3. ""Bull. Acad. Sc. St. Petersb., (3), 31, 1887, p. 532; Melanges math.
1881-8, 553; communicated Nov. 1883. "iZeitschr. Math. Phys., 31, 1886, 174-8. "Archiv Math. Phys., (2), 2, 1885, 327; 5, 1887, 221-3 (misprint forn *Jomal de sciencias math, e astr., 8, 1887, 11-14. [Servais"*.] "Mathesis, 7, 1887, 46. Sphinx-Oedipe, 1909, 16.

astr. ac. St. P^tersb., 6,

= 41).

26

History of the Theory of Numbers.

CI. Servais"^ republished the proofs

[Chap, i

by

Novarese^"*^

a'"6'* is

not perfect

if

and

h are

odd primes.

For,

and proved that by the equations [Nocco"^]

a-+i_l = 6"(a-l),

b''+^-l=2a"'(6-l),

we

obtain,

by

subtraction,

Thus2a'">6". Since a^3, a'"+^^3a"'>a'"+6'*>a+6-l. He next proved that, if an odd perfect number is divisible by only three distinct primes a, h, c, two of them are 3 and 5, since [as by Carvallo^^^]

04)04)04)<l
Taking a = 3, 6 = 5, we have c<16, whence c = 7, 11, or 13. He quoted from a letter from Catalan that the sum of the reciprocals of the divisors of a perfect number equals 2. E. Cesaro^*^ proved that in an odd perfect jiumber containing n distinct prime factors, the least prime factor is ^n\/2. CI. Servais^^^ showed that it does not exceed n since, if a<h<c<
.
.

a+1
a
c

a-\-2

whence
s is

\ a+1 a a+1 a+2 a-\-n \ ^ 2i^. alb1 a r a a+1 a+n 2(a l)<a+n 1, a<n+l. If is the (m l)th prime

ah
.

>

'

factor

and

the

772th,

and

if

a-l'b-l"l-l
then

^L<2,
s<
^L{nm)-\-2

s+1
s J.
J.

s+nm
'

_.

s
^'^^

'

'

s-\-nm-\-l

>2,

'

2L

reproduced Euler's^^ proof that every even perfect EucUd's type. From the fact that |.|-<2, he concluded that there is no odd perfect number a'"6'*. For the case of three prime factors he obtained the result of Servais^'*^ in the same manner. He proved that no odd perfect number is divisible by 105 and stated that there is none with fewer than six distinct prime factors. Sylvester^^^ and Servais^^*^ gave complete proofs that there exists no odd perfect number with only three distinct prime factors.
Sylvester
of

number

is

iMathesis, 7, 1887, 228-230. /6id., 245-6. "'Mathesis, 8, 1888, 92-3. "8Nature, 37, Dec. 15, 1887, 152 (minor correction,

p. 179); Coll.

Math. Papers,
4,

4,

1912, 588.

"'Comptes Rendus
""Mathesis,
8,

Paris, 106, 1888,

8,

403-5 (correction,

p. 641);

reproduced with notes by P.

1912, 604, 615.

Mansion, Mathesis,
1888, 135.

1888, 57-61.

Sylvester's Coll.

Math. Papers,

Chap.

I]

PERFECT, MULTIPLY PERFECT, AND AMICABLE NUMBERS.

27

Sylvester ^^^ proved there is no odd perfect with fewer than eight distinct prime factors. Sylvester^^^ proved there is no odd perfect

number not

divisible

by 3

number with four

distinct

prime

factors.

spoke of the question of the non-existence of odd perfect of the ages comparable in difficulty to that which previously to the labors of Hermite and Lindemann environed the subject He gave a theorem useful for the investiof the quadrature of the circle." gation of this question: For r an integer other than 1 or 1, the sum -\-r^~^ contains at least as many distinct prime factors as p l+r+r^+ contains divisors >1, with a possible reduction by one in the number of prime factors when r= 2, p even, and when r = 2, p divisible by 6. E. Catalan ^^^ proved that if an odd perfect number is not divisible by 3, 5, or 7, it has at least 26 distinct prime factors and thus has at least 45 In fact, the usual inequality gives digits.
Sylvester^^^

numbers as a "problem

lTl3--

^2

^^^^"3 5 7

11

<2

3 5

7<^-^^^^3,
is

By

Legendre's table IX, Theorie des nombres, ed. 2, 1808; ed. the values of P{w) up to w; = 1229, we see that I ^ 127. But 127

1830, of the 27th

prime >7. R. W. D.

and 2^^ 1 as primes. E. Lucas^^ proved that every even perfect number, aside from 6 and 496, ends with 16, 28, 36, 56, or 76; any one except 28 is of the form 7k='= 1 any one except 6 has the remainder 1,2, 3, or 8 when divided by 13, etc. E. Lucas^" reproduced his^^^ proofs and the proof by Euler,^^ and gave
Christie^^^ erroneously considered 2^^
(p.

375) a

list

of

known

factorizations of 2"

1.

Genaille^^^ stated that his

tical

means

of applying in

machine "piano arithm^tique " gives a praca few hours the test by Lucas {ibid., 5, 1876, 61)

for the primality of 2"

J.

Fitz-Patrick and G. ChevreP^^ stated that 2^8(229-1) is perfect. E. Fauquembergue^^ found that 2'' 1 is composite by a process not yielding its factors [cf. Mersenne,^" Lucas,^^^ Cole^'^^]. A. Cunningham^^^ called 2^ 1 a Lucassian if p is a prime of the form 4A;+3 such that also 2p+l is a prime, stating that Lucas^^^ had proved that 2'' 1 has the factor 2p+l. Cunningham listed all such primes p<2500
i"Comptes Rendus Paris, 106, 1888, 448-450; ^mid., 522-6; Coll. M. Papers, IV, 611-4.
Coll.

M.

Papers, IV, 609-610.

""Nature, 37, 1888, 417-8; Coll. M. Papers, IV, 625-9. ""Mathesis, 8, 1888, 112-3. M6m. soc. sc. Ukge, (2), 15, 1888, 205-7 (Melanges math., III). *Math. Quest. Educat. Times, 48, 1888, p. xxxvi, 183; 49, p. 85. "Mathe8is, 10, 1890, 74-76. "'Theorie des nombres, 1891, 424-5. "'Assoc, frang. avanc. sc, 20, I, 1891, 159. "'Exercices d'Arith., Paris, 1893, 363. ""L'interm^diaire des math., 1, 1894, 148; 1915, 105, for representations by u*+67t;*. ""British Assoc. Reports, 1894, 563.

28
and considered

History of the Theory of Numbers.

it

[Chap,

probable that primes of the forms 2''1, 2'^S (if not yielding Lucassians) generally yield prime values of 2^ 1, and that no other primes will. All known and conjectured primes 2^ 1, with p prime,
fall

under

this rule.

In a letter to Tannery/^- Lucas stated that Mersenne^'^^ implied that a necessary and sufficient condition that 2^1 be a prime is that p be a prime of one of the forms 2^"+l, 2^''3, 2^"+^ 1. Tannery expressed his behef that the theorem was empirical and due to Frenicle, rather than to Fermat, and noted that the sufficient condition would be false if 2^' 1 is composite [as is the case, Fauquembergue^^]. Goulard and Tannery^^^ made minor remarks on the subject of the last

two papers.
A. Cunningham^^ found that 2^^' - 1 has the factor 7487. This contradicts LeLasseur's^^- statement on di visors < 30000 of Mersenne's numbers. A. Cunningham^^^ found 13 new cases (317, 337, 547, 937, .) in which 2^1 is composite, and stated that for the 22 outstanding primes 5^257 [above list^^- except 61, 197] 2^ 1 has no divisor < 50,000 (error as to The factors obtained in the mentioned 13 cases q = lSl, see Woodall^^). were found after much labor by the indirect method of Bickmore,^^^ who gave the factors 1913 and 5737 of 2-^^-1.
.
.

A. Cunningham^" gave a factor of 2^-1 for g = 397, 1801, 1367, 5011 for five larger primes q. C. Bourlet"^ proved that the sum of the reciprocals of all the divisors di of a perfect number n equals 2 [Catalan ^^^], by noting that n/di ranges with di over the divisors of n, so that 2n = 'Zn/di. The same proof occurs in II Pitagora, Palermo, 16, 1909-10, 6-7. M. Stuyvaert^^^ remarked that an odd perfect number, if it exists, is a sum of two squares since it is of the form pk^, where p is a prime 4n+l

and

[Frenicle,^ Euler^sj

T. Pepin^" proved that an odd perfect number relatively prime to 3-7, 3-5 or 3-5-7 contains at least 11, 14 or 19 distinct prime factors, respectively,

and can not have the form

is

6/cH-5.

F. J. Studnicka^^^ called Ep = 2''-\2''-l) an Euclidean a prime. The product of all the divisors <Ep of Ep
is

number
is

if

2^-1

E/~'^.

When
p
of

Ep

which are unity and the

written in the diadic system (base 2), it has 2p last p 1 are zero.

digits,

the

first

"^L'interm^diaire des math., 2, 1895, 317. i/6Mi., 3, 1896, 115, 188, 281. ^"Nature, 51, 1894-5, 533; Proc. Lond. Math. Soc, 26, 1895, 261; Math. Quest. Educat. Times, 5, 1904, 108, last footnote. iBritish Assoc. Reports, 1895, 614. iOn the numerical factors of a"-l, Messenger Math., 25, 1895-6, 1-44; 26, 1896-7, 1-38. French transl. by Fitz-Patrick, Sphinx-Oedipe, 1912, 129-144. 155-160. "Troc. London Math. Soc, 27, 1895-6, 111.

"8Nouv. Ann. Math.,

"Mathesis,
(2), 6,

(3), 15,

1896, 299.
13, 1897,

1896, 132.

''"Memou-e Accad. Pont. Nuovi Lincei,

"'Sitzungsber.

345-420.

Bohm.

Gesell., Prag, 1899,

math,

nat.,

No.

30.

Chap.

I]

PERFECT, MULTIPLY PERFECT, AND AmICABLE NUMBERS.

29

is no odd perfect numa is relatively prime to that of thinking error the but made ber a'^b^c'^, 6^+. .+6+1. He attempted to show that p = 2" 1 is a prime if and only if p divides iV = 3*^+1, where fc = 2"~^ 1 [false for a = 2, since p = S, = 4:]. He restricted his argument to the case a odd, whence p = 1 (mod 3) Then, if p is a prime, 3 is a quadratic residue of p, so that ( 3)^^~^^^^=1 (mod p), whence p divides N. Conversely, when this congruence holds, he concluded falsely that z^=3 (mod p) has two and only two roots, so that p is expressible in a single way as a sum of a square and the triple of a square and hence is prime. To show the error, let p = ab, where a = 23, 6 = 3851 are primes; then

Mario Lazzarini^" attempted to prove that there

.

g-l

6-1

(-3)11

+ 1= _2a6,(-3)

=-l(mod5),(-3)

=(-3)^^-^^^=

-1 (mod a),

whence (3)^^"^^^^=! (mod p). Cipolla remarked (p. 288) that we may without deduce from a result of Lucas^^ that p is a prime if it divides dividing 3*+l for any divisor 8 of p=2"~^ 1. F. N. Cole^'^ found that 2^"^ - 1 is the product of the two primes 193707721 761838257287. In the footnote to p. 136, he criticized the proof by Seelis hoff"^ of the primality of A^ = 2^^ 1 and stated he had verified that prime by an actual computation of a series of primes of which iV is a

quadratic residue. R. D. Carmichael^^^ proved that any even perfect number Write d for 2'*+^ 1. Then, as usual, is of Euclid's type.

Tp2\

.p/"

d
If

pf
than
d,

\
it,

p/
so that 1

n>2.

Pi is less
left

being an aliquot divisor of

+ 1/p,

exceeds the

member

of the inequality.

2^ 1 for A. Cunningham^^^ gave the residues of primes g^lOl. A. Turcaninov^"^ (Turtschaninov) proved that an odd perfect number has at least four distinct prime factors and exceeds 2000000. A. Gerardin^^^ noted the error by Plana. ^^ A. Gerardin^^^ stated the empirical laws: If n is a prime of the form 24a^+ll and if 2" 1 is composite, the least factor is of the form 24?/ +23
"^Periodico di mat. insegn. sec, 18, 1903, 203; criticized by C. Ciamberlini, p. 283, and by M. Cipolla, p. 285. i"Bull. Amer. Math. Soc, 10, 1903-4, 134-7. French transl., Sphinx-Oedipe, 1910, 122-4.
Cf. Fauquembergue.^^" i^^Annals of Math., (2), 8, 1906-7, 149.
I'sproc.
i'6

Hence n = 2, p2 = d. =2^"*, 2*, etc., modulo A;

London Math. Soc, (2), 5, 1907, 259 [250]. Vest, opytn. fiziki (Spaczinskis Bote), Odessa, 1908,
No. 465-6 (213-9), No. 470 (314-8).

No. 461

In Russian.

(pp. 106-113), Cf. Bourlet.is*

No. 463 (162-3),

'"L'interm^diaire des math., 15, 1908, 230-1. '"Sphinx-Oedipe, Nancy, 3, 1908-9, 113-123; Assoc, frang. avanc sc, 1909, 145-156. In Wiskundig Tijdschrift, 10, 1913, 61, he added that in the remaining three cases <257, n = 107, 167, 227, the least divisor (necessarily >1 mUlion) is respectively 5136 y+2783,

8016 y+335, 10896 J/+5903.

30
{e. g.,

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, i

n = ll,

59, 83, 131, 179, 251).

If

is

a prime 24a:+23 and 2'*-l

(e. g.,

is

composite, the least factor is of the

form

48?/

+47

n = 47,

?/

= 48,

factor

2351; n

71, 191, 239). (unverified, factors of 2" 1,

= 23,

Gerardin^^^ gave tables of the possible, but

n<257.

A. Cunningham^^o gave the factor 150287 of 2^^^-\. A. Cunningham^^^ found the factor 228479 of 2^^-l. T. M. Putnam^^^ proved that not all of the r distinct prime factors of a perfect number exceed 1 +r/loge2 and hence do not all equal or exceed 1 +3r/2. L. E. Dickson^^^ gave an immediate proof that every even perfect number is of Euclid's type. Let 2"g be perfect, where q is odd and n > 0. Then (2"+^ l)s = 2'^'^^q, where s is the sum of all the divisors of q. Thus s = q-\-d, where d = q/{2''^^ l). Hence d is an integral divisor of q, so that q and d Hence d = \ and 5 is a prime. are the only divisors of q. H. J. WoodalP^^ obtained the factor 43441 of 2^^^-l. R. E. Powers^^^ verified that 2^^ 1 is a prime by use of Lucas' test on the series 4, 14, 194, .... H. Tarry^^^ made an incomplete examination. E. Fauquembergue^^^ proved that 2^^ 1 is a prime by writing the residues of that series to base 2. A. Cunningham^^^ noted that 2^ 1 is composite for three primes of 8 digits. On the proof-sheets of this history, he noted that the first two should be
g = 67108493,

p = 134216987;

= 67108913,

p = 134217827.

observed that 2'^''+^-\=F^-2(?, F = 2"+^l = 2m+l, G2 = m2+(m+l)2-(2")2. H. Tarry^^^^ verified for the known composite numbers 2^1, where p is a prime, that, if a is the least factor, 2" 1 is composite. A. Gerardin added empirically that, if p is any number and a any divisor of 2^ 1 a = 8m =t 1 not being of the form 2" 1 then 2" 1 is composite. A. Cunningham^^^ noted that, if g is a prime,
G^rardin^^^''

G = 2"l,

M^ = 2^-\ = T^-2{quY={qtf-2U\
a prime it can be expressed in the forms A^-]-?>B^ G'^-\-QH'^, and in one or the other of the pairs of forms f^au^ {ci = '^, 14, 21, 42). He discussed M^ to the base 2.
If

Mq

is

>'Sphinx-Oedipe, 3, 1908-9, 118-120, 161-5, 177-182; 4, 1909, 1-5, 158, 168; 1910, 149, 166. ""Proc. London Math. Soc, (2), 6, 1908, p. xxii. "iL'intermddiaire des math., 16, 1909, 252; Sphinx-Oedipe, 4, 1909, 4e Trimestre. 36-7.

"2Amer. Math. Monthly, 17, 1910, 167. ^^Ibid., 18, 1911, 109. Proc. London Math. Soc, (2), 9, '"Bull. Amer. Math. Soc, 16, 1910-11, 540 (July, 1911). Mem. and Proc. Manchester Literary and Phil. Soc, 56, 1911-12, No. 1, 5 pp. 1911, p. xvi. Sphinx-Oedipe, 1911, 92. Verification by J. Hammond, Math. Quest. Solutions, 2,
1916, 30-2. iBull. Amer. Math. Soc, 18, 1911-12, 162 (report of meeting Oct., 1911). Monthly, 18, 1911, 195. Sphinx-Oedipe, Feb., 1912, 17-20. "Sphinx-Oedipe, Dec, 1911, p. 192; 1912, 15. (Proc. London Math. Soc,

Amer. Math.
(2),

10,

1912,

Records of Meetings, 1911-12,

p.

ii.)

^"Ibid., 1912, 20-22. "^Messenger Math., 41, 1911, 4. "saBuU. Soc. Philomatiquesde Paris, (10), 3, 1911, 221. isseSphinx-Oedipe, 6, 1911, 174 186, 192. ""Math. Quest. Educ Times, (2), 19, 1911, 81-2; 20, 1911, 90-1, 105-6; 21, 1912, 58-9, 73.

Chap.i]

Perfect, Multiply Perfect, and Amicable Numbers.

31

A. Cunningham^^o found the factor 730753 of 2^^^-l. V. Ramesam^^i verified that the quotient of 2"^-l by the factor 228479 [Cunningham^^^] is the product of the primes 48544121 and 212885833. A. Aubry^^^ stated erroneously that ''Mersenne affirmed that 2" 1 is a prime, for n^257, only for n = l, 2, 3, 4, 8, 10, 12, 29, 61, 67, 127, 257 (which has now been almost proved) this proposition seems to be due to What Mersenne^" actually stated was that the first 8 perfect Frenicle.^'" numbers occur at the lines marked 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, etc., in the table by Bungus. A. Cunningham^^^'' noted that M113, M151, M251 have the further factors 23279-65993, 55871, 54217, respectively. Cf. Reuschle^o^ Lucas^^s A. Gerardin^^-^ noted that there is no divisor < 1000000 of the composite Mersenne numbers not already factored. Let d denote the least divisor li q = 60z^+43, then d=47 (mod 96), except for of 2- 1, g a prime ^257. If the cases given by Euler's^^ theorem (verified for 43, 163, 223).
;

= 40w+33, d=7 (mod 24), verified for 73, (mod 24), verified for 31, 61, 151, 181, 211.
.

113, 233.

If 5

= 30m+l, d=l

E. Fauquembergue^^^'' proved that 2^^ 1 is composite by means of Lucas' test with 4, 14, 194,. ., written to base 2 (Ch. XVII). L. E. Dickson^^^ called a non-deficient number primitive if it is not a multiple of a smaller non-deficient number, and proved that there is only a finite number of primitive non-deficient numbers having a given number As a of distinct odd prime factors and a given number of factors 2. corollary, there is not an infinitude of odd perfect numbers with any given number of distinct prime factors. There is no odd abundant number with fewer than three distinct prime factors; the primitive ones with three are
3^5-7,

32527,

325.72,

3^5211,

3^13,

3*5^13,

3*52132,

3^5^132.

There

is given a list of the numerous primitive odd abundant numbers with four distinct prime factors and lists of even non-deficient numbers of certain types. In particular, all primitive non-deficient numbers < 15000 are determined (23 odd and 78 even). In view of these lists, there is no odd

perfect

number with four or fewer distinct prime factors (cf Sylvester^*^"^^^) A. Cunningham^^* gave a summary of the known results on the composition of the 56 Mersenne numbers Mq = 2^ 1, q a prime ^257. Of these, 12 have been proved prime: M^, 5 = 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 61, 89, 127; while 29 of them have been proved composite. Thus only 15 remain in
.

""British Assoc. Reports, 1912, 406-7. Sphinx-Oedipe, 7, 1912, 38 (1910, 170, that 730753 is a possible factor). Cf. Cunningham"*. i"Nature, 89, 1912, p. 87; Sphinx-Oedipe, 1912, 38. Jour, of Indian Math. Soc, Madras, 4
1912, 56.

"K)euvres de Fermat,
"2"

Mem. and

i* Sphinx-Oedipe, 7, 1912,

4, 1912, 250, note to p. 67. Proc. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc, 56, 1911-2, No. num^ro special, 15-16.

1.

"'^ Ibid., Nov., 1913, 176. iAmer. Jour. Math., 35, 1913, 413-26.

"*Proc. Fifth International Congress, I, Cambridge, 1913, 384-6. Proc. London Math. Soc, British Assoc. Reports, 1911, (2), 11, 1913, Record of Meeting, Apr. 11, 1912, xxiv. 321. Math. Quest. Educat. Times, (2), 23, 1913, 76.

32
doubt:

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap.

q = 101, 103, 107, 109, 137, 139, 149, 157, 167, The last has no factor under one million, R. E. Powers. ^^^^ No one of the other 14 has a factor under Up verified t^dce with the collaboration of A. G^rardin.
229, 241, 257.

193, 199, 227, as verified by

one milhon, as
to the present

three errors have been found in Mersenne's assertion; Mqj has been proved composite (Lucas,^^ Cole^^^), while Mqi and Mgg have been proved prime

(Pervusin," Seelhoff,^*^ Cole,^"^ Powers^^^). It is here announced that M^^ has the factor 730753, found with the collaboration of A. Gerardin. J. ]McDonnell^^^ commented on a test by Lucas in 1878 for the primality
of

2"-l.

L. E. Dickson^^ gave a table of the even abundant numbers <6232. R. Niewiadomski^^^ noted that 2^^^ 1 has the factor 4567 and gave known factors of 2'* 1. He gave the formula 2^'"+^-l = (2^'"+2"*-l)^+(22"'-2'"-l)^ + l. G. Ricalde^^^ gave relations between the primes p, q and least solutions of 22+i_i = pg, c'-2dr = q. al-2h^ = p, R. E. Powers^^^ proved that 2^" 1 is a prime by means of Lucas'^^ test in Ch. XVII. E. Fauquembergue^'''' proved that 2^ 1 is prime for p = 107 and 127, composite for p = 101, 103, 109. T. E. Mason-^ described a mechanical de\'ice for applying Lucas'"^

method

for testing the primality of

2^^

2^^'*'^

1.
.
.

and 2^^ 1 are composite by means R. E. Powers^^ proved that .and 4, 14, 194. (Ch. XVII), respectively. of Lucas' tests with 3, 7, 47, A. Gerardin^^ gave a history of perfect numbers and noted that 2^1 can be factored if we find t such that m = 2pt-\-\ is a prime not dividing +2^2'-^^^ since 2-p'-1= (2^-1)8 (mod m). Or we may 8 = 1+2^+22^+ 2^1 in two ways in the form x^2y'. seek to express On tables of exponents to which 2 belongs, see Ch. VII, Cunningham
. .

and Woodam'^

Kraitchik.^-^

Additional Papers of a Merely Expository Character.

W. W. Rouse
-

1886, 100-1, 178. 21, 1891-2, 34-40, 121. Pontes (on Bovnius^"), Mem. Ac. Sc. Toulouse, (9), 6, 1894, 155-67. J. Bezdicek, Casopis Mat. a Fys., Prag, 25, 1896, 221-9. Hultsch (on lamblichus), Nachr. Kgl. Sachs. Gesell., 1895-6. H. Schubert, Math. Mussestunden, I, Leipzig, 1900, 100-5. M. Nasso, Revue de math. (Peano), 7, 1900-1, 52-53.

E. Catalan, Mathesis,
Ball,

(1), 6,

Messenger Math.,

i*'Sphinx-Oedipe, 1913, 49-50. i*London Math. Soc, Records of Meeting, Dec, 1912, v-vi. "Quart. Jour. Math., 44, 1913, 274-7. '"L'interm^diaire des math., 20, 1913, 78, 167. "s/btd., 7-8, 149-150; cf. 140-1. Bull. Amer. Math. '"Proc. London Math. Soc, (2), 13, 1914, Records of meetings, xxxi.x. Soc, 20, 1913^, 531. Sphinx-Oedipe, 1914, 103-8. 20<>Sphinx-Oedipe, June, 1914, 85; I'interm^diaire des math., 24, 1917, 33. -"Proc Indiana Acad. Science, 1914, 429-431. 2Proc London Math. Soc, (2), 15, 1916, Records of meetings, Feb. 10, 1916, xxii. "Sphinx-Oedipe, 1909, 1-26.

Chap.

I]

PERFECT, MULTIPLY PERFECT, AND AMICABLE NUMBERS.

33

G. Wertheim, Anfangsgriinde der Zahlentheorie, 1902. G. Giraud, Periodico di Mat., 21, 1906, 124-9. F. Ferrari, Suppl. al Periodico di Mat., 11, 1908, 36-8, 53, 75-6 (Cipolla). P. Bachmann, Niedere Zahlentheorie, II, 1910, 97-101. A. Aubry, Assoc, frang. avanc. sc, 40, 1911, 53-4; 42, 1913; Tenseignement math., 1911, 399; 1913, 215-6, 223. *M. Kiseljak, Beitrage zur Theorie der vollkommenen Zahlen, Progr. Agram,
1911.
*J.
J.

Vaes, Wiskundig Tijdschrift, 8, 1911, 31, 173; 9, 1912, 120, 187. Fitz-Patrick, Exercices Math., ed. 3, 1914, 55-7.

Multiply Perfect Numbers.

multiply perfect or pluperfect number n is one the sum of whose n and 1, is a multiple of n. If the sum is mn, is called the multiplicity of n. For brevity, a multiply perfect number of multiThus an ordinary perfect number is shall be designated by P^. plicity a P2. Although Robert Recorde^^ in 1557 cited 120 as an abundant number, since the sum of its parts is 240, such numbers were first given names and investigated by French writers in the seventeenth century. As a P3 equals one-half of the sum of its aliquot divisors or parts (divisors KPs), it was called a sous-double; a P4 equals one-third of the sum of its aliquot parts and was called a sous-triple; a P5 a sous-quadruple; etc. F. Marin Mersenne proposed to R. Descartes^^ the problem to find a sous-double other than P^^^^ = 120 = 2^3-5. The latter did not react on the question until seven years later. Mersenne^"^ mentioned (in the Epistre) the problem to find a P4, a P5 or a P^, a P3 besides 120, and a rule to find as many as one pleases. He remarked (p. 211) that the P3 120, the P4 240 [for 30240?] and all other abundant numbers can signify the most fruitful natures. Pierre de Fermat^"- referred in 1636 to his former [lost] letter in which he gave "the proposition concerning aliquot parts and the construction to find an infinitude of numbers of the same nature." He^^^ found the second P3, viz., P3<2) = 672 = 2^3-7. Mersenne^* stated that Fermat found the 1 3 7 15 P3 672 and knew infallible rules and analysis 2 4 8 16 to find an infinitude of such numbers. He^^ 3 5 9 17 later gave [Fermat's] method of finding such P3: Begin with the geometric
divisors, including

'""Oeuvres de Descartes, 1, Paris, 1897, p. 229, line 28, letter from Descartes to Mersenne, Oct or Nov., 1631. ^"iLes Preludes de I'Harmonie Universelle ou Questions Curiouses, Utiles aux Predicateurs, aux Theologiens, Astrologues, Medecins, & Philosophes, Paris, 1634. '"Oeuvres de Fermat, 2, Paris, 1894, p. 20, No. 3, letter to Mersenne, June 24, 1636.

"^Oeuvres de Fermat, 2, p. 66 (French transl. 3, p. 288), 2, p. 72, letters to Mersenne and Roberval, Sept., 1636. '"Harmonic Universelle, Paris, 1636, Premiere Preface Generale (preceded by a preface of two pages), imnumbered page 9, remark 10. Extract in Oeuvres de Fermat, 2, 1894, 20-21. "'Mersenne, Seconde Partie de I'Harmonie Universelle, Paris, 1637. Final subdivision: Nouvelles Observations Physiques et Math^matiques, p. 26, Observation 13. Extract in Oeuvres de Fermat, 2, 1894, p. 21.
,

34
progression
former.

History of the Theory of Numbers.

2, 4, 8, ...
.

[Chap.

Subtract unity and place the remainders above the unity and place the sums below. Then if the quotient of the (n+3)th number of the top line by the nth number of the bottom line is a prime, its triple multiplied by the (n+2)th number of the middle Thus if ?i = l, 15/3 is a prune and 3-5-8 = 120 is a P3. For line is a P3. n = 3, 63/9 is a prime and 3-7-32 = 672 is a P3. [This rule thus states in effect that 3-2"+2p is a P3 if p = (2'+3-l)/(2"+l) is a prune.] The third P3, discovered by Andr6 Jumeau, Prior of Sainte-Croix, is

Add

P3^'^

= 523776 = 29311-31.

In April, 1638, he communicated it to Descartes^^ and asked for the fourth P3 (the fifth and last of St. Croix's challenge problems). Descartes^*^^ stated that the rule ^^^ of Fermat furnishes no P3 other than 120 and 672 and judged that Fermat did not find these numbers by the formula, but accommodated the formula to them, after finding them by trial. Descartes^^^ answered the challenge of St. Croix with the fourth P3,
P3^'^

= 1476304896 = 2^33.1143.127.
six P4:

Soon afterwards Descartes^ ^ announced the following

= 30240 = 2^335.7, P4(2) =32760 = 2^325.7.13, P^^^^ = 23569920 = 2^335. 1 1 -31 P4(*) = 142990848 = 2^327.11.13.31, P4(^> = 66433720320 = 2^^335. 1 1 .43. 1 27, P4^^ =403031236608 = 2^3327.11.13.43.127,
P4^i)

and the sous-quadruple

Ps^^^

= 14182439040 = 2^3^5.7-11217.19.

He

stated that his analysis had led him to a method which would require time to explain in the form of a rule, but that he could find, for example, a sous-centuple, necessarily very large. Fermat apparently responded to the fifth challenge problem of St. Croix on the fourth P3. Without warrant, Descartes^^" suspected that Fermat had not found independently the fourth P3, but had learned from some one in Paris of its earlier discovery by Descartes. Fermat^^^ indicated that he analytic could solve all questions conpossessed an method by which he
'"^Oeuvres de Descartes,
2, Paris, 1898, p. 428, p. 167 (latter without name of St. Croix); cf. Oeuvres de Fermat, 2, 1894, pp. 63-64. "'Oeuvres de Descartes, 2, 1898, p. 148, letter to Mersenne, May 27, 1638. ^osQeuvres de Descartes, 2, 1898, 167, letter to Mersenne, June 3, 1638. '"'Oeuvres de Descartes, 2, 1898, 2.50-1, letter to Mersenne, July 13, 1638. In June, 1645, Descartes, 4, 1901, p. 229, again mentioned the first two of these Pt. ""Oeuvres de Descartes, 2, 1898, 273, letter to Mersenne, July 27, 1638. "^Oeuvres de Fermat, 2, 1894, p. 165, No. 4; p. 176, No. 1; letters to Mersenne, Aug. 10 and Dec. 26, 1638.

Chap.

I]

PERFECT, MULTIPLY PERFECT, AND AmICABLE NUMBERS.

35

cerning aliquot parts, apart from the testing of the primaUty of a number n, \/n as a divisor. knowing no method except the trial of each number Descartes"^ gave the following rules for multiply perfect numbers:

<

is a P3 not divisible by 3, then 3n is a P4. a P3 is divisible by 3, but by neither 5 nor 9, then 45P3 is a P4. III. If a P3 is divisible by 3, but not by 7, 9 or 13, then 3-7-13 P3 is a P4. IV. If n is divisible by 2^ but by no one of the numbers 2^, 31, 43, 127, then 31n and 16-43-127n are proportional to the sums of their I.

If

II. If

aliquot parts.

V. If

is

not divisible by 3 and

if

3n

is

a P^k, then n

is

a Ps^.

By
p ^4
(2)
)

P4<3^ P^^^K

applying rule II to P3^^\ Ps^^\ P3^*^ Descartes obtained his P^^^^ By applying rule III to Ps^'\ Ps^^\ Ps^''\ he obtained his
(4) (6)
5

p ^4 In the same letter, Descartes expressed to Mersenne a desire to know what Frenicle de Bessy had found on this subject. Frenicle wrote direct p ^4
to Descartes,

who

in his reply^^^ expressed his astonishment that Frenicle

the above rules for finding P4, since Descartes had P4 from four P3, at a time when Mersenne had stated Desto Descartes that it was thought to be impossible to find any at all. cartes stated that, since one can find an infinity of such rules, one has the means of finding an infinitude of P^- From one of Frenicle's P5 (communicated to Descartes by Mersenne),

should regard as

sterile

deduced by them

six

Ps^^)

= 30823866178560 = 2i3^5-72l3- 19-23-89,

= 31998395520 = 2^3^5.72.13.17.19.

Descartes

(p.

475) derived the smaller P5:

Pg^^)

tion of names.

Mersenne^^^ listed various P^ due to his correspondents, without citaHe listed the above Ps^'^ (^ = 1, 2, 3, 4) and remarked that "un excellent esprit "^^^ found that when
P3^'^

= 459818240 = 2^5.7.19.37.73
is

is

multiplied

by

3,

the product
P4(^

a P4:

= 2^3.5.7.19.37.73,

attributed to Lucas^^^
"^Oeuvres,

by

Carmichael.^^^

2, 1898, 427-9, letter to Mersenne, Nov. 15, 1638. "'Oeuvres de Descartes, 2, 1898, 471, letter to Frenicle, Jan. 9, 1639. '"Les Nouvelles Pensees de Galilei, traduit d'ltalien en Frangois, Paris, 1639, Preface, pp. 6-7. Quoted in Oeuvres de Descartes, 10, Paris, 1908, pp. 564-6, and in Oeuvres de Fermat, 4,

1912, pp. 65-66. '"Frenicle de Bessy, according to the editors of the Oeuvres de Fermat, 2, 1894, p. 255, note 2; 4, 1912, p. 65, note 2 (citing Oeuvres de Descartes, 2, letter Descartes to Mersenne, Nov.
15, 1638, pp. 419-448 Descartes of the P|^*)
[p.
(i

429]).

= 2,

It is clear that the discoverers Fermat, St. Croix, and 3,4) are not meant. It is attributed to Legendre"" by

Carmichael.*'*

36
There are

History of the Theory of Numbers.

listed Descartes' six

[Chap,

P^ and P^^^^ Frenicle's Ps^\ and also

P4^) =45532800 = 2^3^5217.31, P4^^^ = 43861478400 = 2^3^5223.31.89,

and the erroneous P5 508666803200 (not divisible by 5^+5-|-l), probably a misprint for the correct P5 (in the list by Lehmer^'^)
P5^'^

= 518666803200 = 2^^3'5-72l3- 19-31

A part of these Pm, but no new ones, were mentioned by Mersenne^" in (Oeuvres de Fermat, 4, 66-7.) 1644; the least P3 is stated to be 120. In 1643 Fermat^ ^^ cited a few of the P^ he had found:
Ps^^^

= 51001 180160 = 2^*5.7.19.31.151

P4^'^)

= 14942123276641920 = 2^3^5.17.23.137.547.1093, = 1802582780370364661760 = 22335.72l32l9.31.61. 127.337, Ps^^ = 87934476737668055040 = 2^^3^5.7313. 19-37.73. 127, Pg(i) = 223375374113133^7231.41.^1.241.307.467.2801, Pg(2) = 22735537.11.13219.29.31.43.61.113.127.
P5(^)
all P^n-

He

stated that he possessed a general method of finding Replying to Mersenne's query as to the ratio of
Pg(3)

= 22^3^5^11.13219.31243.61.83.223.331.379.601.757

X 1201.7019.823543-616318177:100895598169
aUquot parts, Fermat^^^ stated that it is a Pq, the prime and 898423 [on the finding of these factors, see Ch. jXIV, references 23, 92, 94, 103]. Note that 823543 = 7^ Descartes^^^ constructed P3^2) = 572 = 21.32 by starting with 21 and noting that (r(21) =32, o-(32) =63 = 3.21, for a defined as on p. 53. Mersenne^^ noted that if a P3 is not divisible by 3, then 3P3 is a P4 [rule I of Descartes^^-]; if a P5 is not divisible by 5, then 5P5 is a Pq, etc. He stated that there had been found 34 P4, 18 P5, 10 Pg, 7 P7, but no Pgso far.
to the
of its

sum

factors of the final factor being 112303

Broscius (Apologia,^* p. 162) cited the P4^'^ [of Descartes^"^]. are mentioned in the 1770 edition of Ozanam's'^ Recreations, I, p. 35, and in Hutton's translation of Montucla's^^ edition,
J.

In 1652,

The P3 120 and 672

I,

p. 39.

A.
/3,

M.
.

7,

.are distinct

No new

Legendre^^^ determined the Pm of the form 2"a/37 odd primes, for 7n = 3, n^8; ?n=4, n = 3, 5; P were found.
.

where

a,

m = 5, n = 7.

2, 1894, p. 247 (261), letter to Carcavi; Varia opera, p. 178; Pr^cia des oeuvres math, de Fermat, par E. Brassinne, Toulouse, 1853, p. 150. 3'^Oeuvers de Fermat, 2, 1894, 255, letter to Mersenne, April 7, 1643. The editors (p. 256, note) explained the method of factoring probably used by Fermat. The sum of the aliquot parts of 23 is 223iV, where N = 616318177, and the sum of the aliquot parts of is 2-7? iVf = 898423. As does not occur elsewhere in Pe., it is to be expected as a factor of

"*Oeuvres,

the

final factor of Pe.

"8Manuscript published by C. Henry, Bull. Bibl. Storia Sc. Mat. e Fis., 12, 1879, 714. '^Thor^ie des nombres, 3d ed., vol. 2, Paris, 1830, 146-7; German transl. by H. Maser, Leipzig, The work for n? =3 was reproduced by Lucas'^" without reference. 2, 1893, 141-3.

Chap.

I]

PERFECT, MULTIPLY PERFECT, AND AmICABLE NUMBERS.

37

E. Lucas^^o ga^g a table of P^ of the form 2''-\2''-l)N which includes only 15 of the 26 Pm given above and no additional P^, m>2, except two erroneous P5
2^3^5-72.1l2.19.23.89,

2i^5-72l3.19237-73-127,

If we replace 7^ attributed elsewhere^^^ by him to Fermat. former, we obtain a correct P5 listed by Carmichael 'P"^
P5(7>

by 7

in the

= 2'3*5-7. 11219.23-89.

the second, we replace 5-7^ by 3^-5-7^ we obtain Fermat's P^-^K A. Desboves^^^ noted that 120 and 672 are the only P3 of the form 2"-3-p, where p is a prime. D. N. Lehmer^^^ gave the additional P:
If in
p^(i2) P^(i3)

^22325.7213.19,

= 23272l3.19237.73-127,
=2213^527.19.23231.79.89.137.547.683.1093, =2193^5^7211. 13.19.23.31.41. 137.547.1093,
=22^3^5.7211.13.17.19231.43.53.127.379.601.757.1801.

P5
Pg(4)

Pg(5)

He

P4 at

readily proved that a P3 contains at least 3 distinct prime factors, a least 4, a P5 at least 6, a Pq at least 9, a P^ at least 14. J. Westlund324 proved that 2^3.5 and 2^3.7 are the only P3 of the form

and Pi<P2<P3. He^^^ proved that the only P3 = Pi"p2P3P4, Pi<P2<P3<P is P3^'^ =293.11.31. A. Cunningham^^^ considered P^ of the form 2^ \2^l)F, where F is There exists at least one such P^ for every q to be suitably determined. up to 39, except 33, 35, 36, and one for g = 45, 51, 62. Of the 85 P^ found, the only one published is the largest one, viz., for q = Q2, giving Pq^^^ with
V\'V2Vzy where the p's are primes

F = 3^5'72ll. 13.19223.59.71.79.127.157.379.757.43331.3033169;
= 3 at most one has a given q. while none have m>6, and for in 1902 (but did not publish) the two P7 = 2^H2^^-1)P, where

He

found

F = C.192127 or 0.19^51-911, C = 3i^-5^.7^.1M3.17-23.31-37-41.43.61.89.97-193.442151.

R. D. CarmichaeP^^ has shown that there exists no odd P^ with only three distinct prime factors; that 2^3-5 and 2^3.7 are the only P^ with only
Mat. e Fis., 10, 1877, 286. In 253-5-7, listed as a Pt, 3 is a misprint for 3. Here the factor 11^ IS^ of Fermat's P(') '"Lucas, Theorie des Nombres, 1, Paris, 1891, 380. is given erroneously as lllS^, while the Pe^i^ of Descartes is attributed to Fermat. '^Questions d'Algebre, 2d ed., 1878, p. 490, Ex. 24. '^'Annals of Math., (2), 2, 1900-1, 103-4. "^Annals of Math., (2), 2, 1900-1, 172-4. '"Annals of Math., (2), 3, 1901-2, 161-3. '"British Association Reports, 1902, 528-9. '"American Math. Monthly, 13, Feb., 1906, 35-36.
'20Bull. Bibl. e Storia

717 8 5

38

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

three distinct prime factors ;^^^ that those with only four distinct prime factors are^^" the P^^^^ of St. Croix^"^ and the P4^'^ of Descartes f^ and that the even P with five^^^ distinct prime factors are P3^^\ Pi^\ Pi^^ of Descartes^"^' ^"^

and

P^^^^ of

Mersenne.^"
if

CarmichaeP^^'* stated and J. Westlund proved that

n>4, no P has

only n distinct prime

1

factors.

Carmichael's^^^ table of multiply perfect numbers contains the misprint of Descartes' Pi^\ and the erroneous entry 919636480 for the final digit

in place of its half, viz., P^-^^ of Mersenne.^^^

Pg(7)

The only new P^

is

= 2^^3^527211. 13-17.19-3143.257.

All P,;,< 10^

were determined; only known ones were found. CarmichaeP^^ gave an erroneous P5 and the new P^:
p^(i4)^2"3272l3-1923M27.151,
p^(i5)^2253^52l9-31.683.2731-8191, p^(i6)^225365-19-23-137-547-683-1093-2731-8191.

Carmichael and T. E. Mason^^ gave a table which includes the above hsted 10 P2, 6 P3, 16 P4, 8 P5, 7 Pq, together with 204 new multiply perfect Of the latter, 29 are of multiplicity 7, each numbers P, (i = 3, 7) having a very large number of prime factors. No P7 had been previously
. . .

published. [As a generalization, consider numbers n the sum of the kth. powers of whose divisors < n is a multiple of n. For example, n = 2p, where p is a prime 8/1 3 and k is such that 2*^+1 is divisible by p; cases are p = 3,

k = l; p

= 5,

k = 2; p = ll, k = 5; p = 13,

A;

= 6.]
sum
of the aliquot

Amicable Numbers.

Two numbers

are called amicable*

if

each equals the

divisors of the other.

According to lamblichus^ (pp. 47-48), "certain men steeped in mistaken opinion thought that the perfect number was called love by the Pythagoreans on account of the union of different elements and affinity which exists in it; for they call certain other numbers, on the contrary, amicable numbers, adopting virtues and social quahties to numbers, as 284 and 220, for the parts of each have the power to generate the other, according to the rule WTien asked what is a friend, he of friendship, as Pythagoras affirmed. Aristotle so defined replied, 'another I,' which is shown in these numbers. a friend in his Ethics."
Aimalsof Math.,
there
"'Bull.
is

(2), 7,

1905-6, 153;

8,

1906-7, 49-56;

9,

1907-8, 180, for a simpler proof that

no Pa = Pi^p^Vi^t c> 1.
(2), 8,

""Annals of Math.,

1906-7, 149-158.
Fr. transl., Sphinx-Oedipe,

Amer. Math. Soc, 15, 1908-9, pp. 7-8. wi^Amer. Math. Monthly, 13, 1906, 165. Bull. Amer. Math. Soc, 13, 1906-7, 383-6. "Sphinx-Oedipe, Nancy, 5, 1910, 166.

Nancy, Nancy,

5,

1910, 164-5. 1910, 161-4.

Fr. transl., Sphinx-Oedipe,

5,

"Proc. Indiana Acad. Sc, 1911, 257-270. *Amiable, agreeable, befreundete, verwandte.

Chap.

I]

PERFECT, MULTIPLY PERFECT, AND AMICABLE NUMBERS.

36

In the ninth century the Arab Thabit ben Korrah^ (prop. 10) noted that 2'*/i^ and 2"s are amicable numbers if
(1)
/i

= 3-2"-l,
literally, if
t

f=3-2"-i-l,

= 9'2^''-'-l
= (2"+^+2'*-2)2''+^-l.

are primes
/l

> 2,

= 2+2^

= z-2''-\

= H-2+...+2^

for amicable numbers was se invicem amantes. In the article which F. Woepcke^'^ translated this Arabic manuscript into French, he noted that a definition of these numbers, called congeneres, occurs in the 51st treatise (on arithmetic) of Ikhovan Algafa, manuscript 1105, anciens
in

The term used

fonds arabes, p. 15, of the National Library of Paris. Among Jacob's presents to Esau were 200 she-goats and 20 he-goats, 200 ewes and 20 rams (Genesis, XXXII, 14). Abraham Azulai^^^ (15701643), in commenting on this passage from the Bible, remarked that he had found written in the name of Rau Nachshon (ninth century A. D.): Our ancestor Jacob prepared his present in a wise way. This number 220 (of goats) is a hidden secret, being one of a pair of numbers such that the parts And Jacob had this in of it are equal to the other one 284, and conversely. mind; this has been tried by the ancients in securing the love of kings and
dignatories.

Ibn Khaldoun^^ related "that persons who have concerned themselves with talismans affirm that the amicable numbers 220 and 284 have an influence to establish a union or close friendship between two individuals. To this end a theme is prepared for each individual, one during the ascendency of Venus, when that planet is in its exaltation and presents to the moon an aspect of love or benevolence; for the second theme the ascendency should be in the seventh. On each of these themes is written one of the specified numbers, the greater (or that with the greater sum of its aliquot parts?) being attributed to the person whose friendship is sought." The Arab El Madschriti,^^! or el-Magriti, (flOOT) of Madrid related that he had himself put to the test the erotic effect of ''giving any one the smaller number 220 to eat, and himself eating the larger number 284." Ibn el-Hasan^"'' (tl320) wrote several works, including the "Memory of Friends," on the explanation of amicable numbers. Ben Kalonymos^^^^ discussed amicable numbers in 1320 in a work written for Robert of Anjou, a fragment of which is in Munich (Hebr. MS. 290, f. 60). A knowledge of amicable numbers was considered necessary by Jochanan Allemanno (fifteenth century) to determine whether an
aspect of the planets
^^^Baale Brith

was

friendly or not.
Bible], Wilna, 1873, 22.

Abraham [Commentary on the

hist.

Quotation suppUed by

Mr. Ginsburg.
'^oProlegomenes

d'Ibn Khaldoun, French transl. by

De

Slane, Notices et Extraits des

Manuscrits de

la Bibl. Imperiale, Paris, 21, I, 1868, 178-9.

"^'Manuscript Magriti; Steinschneider, Zur pseudoepigraphischen Literatur inbesondere der geheimen Wissenschaften des Mittelalters, Berlin, 1862, p. 37 (cf. p. 41). '""H. Suter, Abh. Gesch. Math. Wiss., 10, 1900, 159, 389. "*Hebr. Bibl., VII, 91. Steinschneider, Zeitschrift der Morgenlandischen Ges., 24, 1870, 369.

Chap.

I)

PERFECT, MULTIPLY PERFECT, AND AmICABLE NUMBERS.

41

and derived as did Descartes the

2, 8,

64.

We

first three pairs of amicable numbers from various later writers attributed the rule to shall see that

Descartes.

Mersenne^^ again in 1644 gave the above three pairs of amicable numbers, the misprints in both^^^ of the numbers of the third pair being noticed at the end of his book, and stated there are others innumerable. Mersenne^ in 1647 gave without citation of his source the rule in the form 2-2% 2-2"/i<, where 1 = 3-2'' -1, h = 2t+l, s = ht+h-i-t are primes
[as in (1)].

Frans van Schooten,^^^ the younger, showed how to find amicable numbers by indeterminate analysis. Consider the pair 4a:, 4yz [x, y, z odd primes]; then 7-\-7y+7z+Syz = 4x. 7+3a: = 4i/0,
Eliminating
8x, Syz,
x,

yielding 284, 220.

and

get 2 = 34-16/(2/ 3). The case ^ = 5 gives 2;= 11, ^' = 71, He proved that there are none of the type 2x, 2yz, or argued that no pair is smaller than 284, 220. For 16.x, 16yz,

we

he found 2=15-l-256/(i/ 15), which for y = 47 yields the second known There are none of the type 32a;, S2yz, or type 64a:, Myz. For 128a:, pair. 1281/2, he got 2= 127-^16384/(1/ -127), which for 2/ = 191 yields the third known pair. Finally, he quoted the rule of Descartes. W. Leyboum^^ stated in 1667 that ''there is a fine harmony between these two numbers 220 and 284, that the aliquot parts of the one do make and this harmony is not to be found in many other numbers." up the other In 1696, Ozanam''^ gave in great detail the derivation of the three known pairs of "amiable" numbers by the rule as stated by Descartes, whose name was not cited. Nothing was added in the later editions.'^' ^^ Paul Halcke^^" gave Stifel's^^ rule, as expressed by Descartes.^^^ E. Stone^^^ quoted Descartes' rule in the incorrect form that 2^''pq and 3-2"p are amicable if p = 3-2'* 1 and g = 6-2'* 1 are primes. Leonard Euler^^^ remarked that Descartes and van Schooten found only three pairs of amicable numbers, and gave, without details, a fist of 30 pairs, all included in the later paper by Euler.^^^ G. W. Kraft^^^ considered amicable numbers of the type APQ, AR, where P, Q, R are primes not dividing A. Let a be the sum of all the divi.

sors of

Then

{R-{-l)a = APQ-^AR. R+1 = {P+1){Q+1), Assuming prime values of P and Q such that the resulting R is prime, he sought a number A for which A /a has the derived value. For P = 3, Q = 1 1
"'Not noticed
66-7).
in the correction (left in

doubt) in Oeuvres de Fermat,

4,

1912, p. 250 (on pp.

One

error

is

noted

in Broscius*^, Apologia, 1652, p. 154.

:

"'Exercitationum mathematicarum libri quinque, Ludg. Batav., 1657, liber V sectiones triginta miscellaneas, sect. 9, 419-425. Quoted by J. Landen.*^ ""Deliciae Mathematicae, oder Math. Sinnen-Confect, Hamburg, 1719, 197-9. *"New Mathematical Dictionary, 1743 (under amicable) "'De numeria amicabilibus. Nova Acta Eruditorum, Lipsiae, 1747, 267-9; Comm. Arith. Coll.,
II,

-Novi

Comm.

1849, 637-8. Ac. Petrop., 2, 1751, ad

annum

1749,

Mem., 100-18.

42
then A:a

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, i

= S:5; he took A = 3B, S^B, 3^5, but found no solution. For = = p 5, Q 41, we have 72 = 251, 38A = 21a; set A = 495, whence 3-576 = 38-75, where b is the sum of the divisors of B; set B = 9C, whence C:c =
13:14, C=13, yielding the amicable numbers 5-41A., 251A, where A = 3^-7213 = 5733 [the pair VII in Euler's^'^^ ijgt and (7) in the table below]. Again, to make A/a = 3/8, set A = 35, whence a = 46 and the condition is Using 5 = 28, we get 6 = 25, whence 5 is a perfect number prime to 3.

A = 84.

sum of the the rule of Descartes. L. Euler^*^^ obtained, in addition to two special pairs, 62 pairs [including two false pairs] of amicable numbers of the type am, an, in which the
For use
in such questions, Kraft gave a table of the

divisors of each

number^ 150.

He quoted

common factor a the sum of all the

is

relatively

prime to both

vi

and

n.

He

wrote

jm

for

divisors of

m.

The

conditions are therefore

jm=jn,
If

fa-jm = a{m-{-n).

m and n are both primes, then 7n = n and we have a repeated perfect number. Euler treated five problems. (1) Euler's problem 1 is to find amicable numbers apq, ar, where p, q, r,
number we have r = xy \, where x p-\-\, y = q-\-\. xyi a = a{2xy x y).
6/c,
a.

are distinct primes not dividing the given

dition

From the first conFrom the second,

Then

Let a/{2a \a) equal

a fraction in

its

lowest terms.

y = bx/{cx b),

{cx

b){cy b)=b^.

Thus x and y
(li)

are to be found

by

expressing 6^ as a product of two factors,

increasing each
Fu-st,

and dividing the results by c. takea = 2". Then6 = 2^ c=l, x, 2/ = 2"**+2^

6,

by

Letri-A; = m.

Then
p = 2"(22*=+2*)-l,
g

= 2'"(l+2*)-l,
2'"''"^

= 2^"'(2^''+^+2^''+2'')-l.

When

are amicable. Euler noted these three are primes, 2"*"^^'^^ and that the rule communicated by Descartes to van Schooten is obtained by taking A:= 1, and stated that 1, 3, 6 are the only values ^ 8 of which yield amicable numbers (above^^^). For k = 2 or 4, Euler remarked that r is divisible by 3; for k = 3, vi<Q, and for k = 5, mS2, p, q, or r is composite.

(I2)

If

e+1

divides a,

Take a = 2J, where /=2"+^+e is a prune. Then 2a-fa = e+l. we have c = l. Set e+ 1 = 2^, A;^?n, n = m+A:. Then

/=2*(2'"+^

+ l)-l,
is

a = 2"'+i,

= 27,
whence

b""={x-b){y-b).

For k =
If

l,

/=2'"+2+l

to be a prime,

m+2

is

a power of

2.

w = 0,

6=/=5, and

either x

= y, p = q;

or x, y = Q,30; p, q

= 2, If q are to be distinct and prime to 10. resolved into distinct even factors; in the four resulting cases, p,
p and
'"De numeris amicabilibus, Opuscula varii argumenti, 2, 1750, 23-107, French transl. in Sphinx-Oedipe, Nancy, 1849, 102-145.
Berlin;
1,

29, whereas /=17, 68^ is to be

q,

= 5,

r are
1,

Comm.

Arith.,

1906-7,

Supplement

I-LXXVI.

Chap.

I]

PERFECT, MULTIPLY PERFECT, AND AMICABLE NUMBERS.

43

not

= 6, /=257, Euler examined only the In the next case all prime. case* x 6 = 2^-257, finding q composite. = 1, 3 [m = 4 is easily excluded]. For A; = 2, Euler excluded

(13)

For

k^n

in (I2),

= 2*", where m = kn. 6 = 2"+i+2"'+"-l=/

2"'2/-fe

Then

must be a prime.

Thus we must take

2'"x-6 = l,
If

as the factors of 6^

= 62,

whence z = 2" +2"+^"'", y-=hx.

m = 1,

one of

/=2'+2-l,

p = 2^+'-l

has the factor 3 and yet must be a prime; hence n=l, g = 27. If m = 2, Euler treated the cases n^5 and found (for n = 2) the pair (4) of the table. For m odd and >1, / or p has the [For 6^n^l7, / or p is composite.]
factor
3.

(14)

For m = 4, n^ 17, no solution results. For a = 2"(gr l)(/i 1), where the last two factors are prime,

set

d = 2a-fa.

Then
ig

- 2^*+^) {h - 2^^+^) =d- 2"+^

2^""+^

Euler treated the cases n^3, d = 4, 8, 16, finding only the pair (9). (15) Special odd values of a led (56-65) to seven pairs (5)-(8), The cases a = 3^.5, 32-72-13-19 were unfruitful. (11)-(13). problem 2 is to find amicable numbers apq, ars, where p, q, Euler's (2)
r, s

are distinct primes not dividing the given

number

a.

Since

jP'j2

['>''] s,

we may

set

p = ax l,

= ^y l,

= /3x 1,

= ay l.
The second

We

fa:a = 2bc:h, where b and condition fa- fpq = a{pq+rs) gives

set
ca/3x2/

c are relatively

prime.

= 6(a+iS) (x+2/) -26.

Multiply

by ca^. Then [ca^x-h{a+^)][ca^y-b(a+^)] = h\a+^y-2hca^. Given a, ^, a and hence b, c, we are to express the second member as a product of two factors and then find x, y. For a = l, i3 = 3, = 2^ Euler obtained the pairs (a), (28). For a = 2, ^ = 3, a = 32-5-13, he got (32); for a = l, /3 = 4, a = 3^-5, (30). The ratio a:^ may be more complex, as 5 :21 or 1 :102, in (7). As noted by K. Hunrath,^^^* the numbers (7) are not amicable. Nor are the ratios as given, although these ratios result if we replace 8563 by 8567 = 13-659. This false pair occurs as XIII in Euler's^^^ list. (3) Problem 3 is derived from problem 2 by replacing s by a number /
it

not necessarily prime.

Let h be the greatest

common

divisor of

ff=hg

andp+l = ^x.

Thenr-{-l=xy, q-{-l = gy.

Also

ghxyfa=f{afr)=a(pq+fr)^a\{hx-l){gy-l)+f{xy-l)\.
*A11 the remaining cases are readily excluded.

""BibUotheca Math.,

(3), 10,

1909-10, 80-81.

44

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[see case (1)].

[Chap,

Multiply by 6/a and replace bja by 2ab ac

exy bhx hgy = b{fl),

Thus

e=bfbgh-{-cgh.

Thus L^b'^gh+be{fl)
and they are

is

to be expressed as the product

PQ

of
is

two factors
unfruitful.

to be equated to

exbg,

ey bh. The

case a = 2

Then 6 = 4, c = l, e = 4/ 3^/i. The case/= 3 is excluded (3i) Let a = 4. = For/ =5, g = 2, h = S, we again get (a) and also (j3). 0. since it gives e = = For/=5, ^ 1, h 6, we get only the same two pairs. For a prime /^ 7, no new solutions are found. For /= 5-13, (51) results. The cases /= 11, 13 are fruitless, (32) Let a = 8, whence 6 = 8, c = L while /= 17 yields (16). The least composite/ yielding solutions is 11-23,
giving (44), (45), (46). This fruitful case led Euler to the more convenient = hP, = gQ, L = PQ. The problem is now to resolve notations (88)

ff into

two

factors,

Af N, such that
,

M+bff
are integers
(33)

N+bff
in
is

and primes, while

a = 16.

(23);

Let for/=23,

r+1 = {p+l){q+l)/jf, r For/=17, we obtain the pairs (21),

for/=47,
(18);

a prime.

(22);

for/=19,
Cases

(17), (19), (20);

for/=

17-167, (49).

/=31, 17-151 are fruitless [the last since 129503 has the factor 11, not noticed by Euler]. (34) For a = 3^-5 or 32.7-13, 6 = 9, c = 2; the first a with/=7 yields (30). (4) Problem 4 relates to amicable numbers agpq, ahr, where p, q, r are primes. Eventually he took also g and h as primes. We may then set g-\-l km, h-\-\ = kn. For m = \, n = 3, a = 4 or 8, no amicables are found. Form = 3, n = l, the cases a =10, A: = 8 and a = 3^-5, ^' = 8, yield (38), (55). He discussed amicable (5) Euler's final problem 5 is of a new type. numbers zap, zbq, where a and 6 are given numbers, p and q are unknown
primes,
6

while z

is

unknown but

relatively

prime to

a,

6,

p,

q.

Set

JoM = m:n, where m and n are relatively prime. Since(p-fl)j a = (54-l)j6, we may set p-\-\=^nx, q-{-\=mx. The usual second condition gives
nx\a'{z = za{nx l)-j-zb{mx l),
/

-^

j^
its

nxfa
-,

1^ r* {na-\-mb)x a b

Let the latter fraction in

Since
if

lowest terms be r/s.

Then

= kr, jz = k$.

f{kr)'^kCr,

we have
r'

s'^ff.

Hence we have the

useful theorem:

z:Cz = r':s', s'<\r', then

(5i)
(52)

have a common factor > 1. = The unfruitful case 6 1, was treated like the next. = 5, 6=1, whence w = 6, n = l, 2:J z = 6a::llx 6. By Let

and

s'

a = 3,

the

theorem in (5), x must be divisible by 2 or 3. Euler treated the cases x = 3(3^+1), x = 2{2t+\). But this classification is both incomplete and

Chap.

I]

PERFECT, MULTIPLY PERFECT, AND AMICABLE NUMBERS.

Since p
.

45

= x l is to be prime, x is even (since a; = 3 makes z Hence x = 2P,z:fz = QiP:llPS. By the theorem in (5) QP and IIP 3 have a common factor 2 or 3, so that P is either odd or divisFor P = Ql, the ratio is that of 126 to 22Z 1 which as before must ible by 6. have the common factor 3, whence l = 3t-\-l. Then z:fz = 4:{St-{-l) :22t-\-7,
overlapping.
divisible by p = 2)
,

prime numbers, whence 22t+7'^f4(31+1), and or k>3. For A; = 0, we obtain the pair 220, 284. hence t = 2k, k = The next value >3 of A; for which p = x l and q = Qxl are primes is k = Q, giving p = 443, g = 2663, numbers much larger than those in the
a
ratio

of

relatively

(unnecessary) cases treated

by Euler.
e

d not divisible by 37; the cases For the remaining case P odd,

= 1,

2,

Then z:jz = 4-37:271; set z = S7''d, 3 are excluded by the theorem in (5).
Euler treated those values ^100 and obtained the pair
a, b,

P = 2Q-\-l,

of Q, and also Q = 244, for which p and q are primes in (I3), two pairs in (I5), and (14), (15).
(53)

Euler treated in 112-7 various sets

and obtained

(a)

and nine

new

pairs given in the table.

In the following table of the 64 pairs of amicable numbers obtained by numbering of any pair is the same as in Euler's list, but the pairs have been rearranged so that it becomes easy to decide if any proposed As noted by F. Rudio,^^^'' (37) contained the mispair is one of Euler's. print 3^ for 3^, w^hile (7) and (34) are erroneous, 220499 being composite (311-709); he checked that all other entries are correct.
Euler, the
(38) 2-5{7:
(4) 22-23{^27^^

60659
(1)

22{^jll
(51)

131187

23-29-673

2^^^^ -2267

(a)22

5-131 17-43

i3) 2^(^32

251 107

(29) 2^-ll{17:263
,,,. 23/11-23-2543 ^**^ ^

(9)

2M3.17{3||09
23/11-29-239
"^

^' ^ 1647-719
(43)
2'

,45. 23(ll-23-1871 V4^) ^ \467-1151

.4Q. 23/11-163-191 ^4u; z

1383-1907

(47) ^*'^

11-59-173

1191449

47-2609
2^-19-41 26-199

131.11807

(16)

2^(M:^^
24/17-167-13679 I809.51071

^4; ^ \29-47-59
(21)

(60)

/23-41-467 ^^^1 \25-19-233

,r.,.

(49) KV6) z

2417'5119

(oo\ 94/17-10303

2^{}9gl439
(23)

(^)2^{83lo39(f-l)

(2) 2^

[23-47

\1151

(50) z \tM)

2423-47-9767 |i583.7io3
(36)
.24) (.Z4J

(19)
(18)

2^{i:t2?

,17s 24/23-1367 ^^'^ "^153-607

2^-67{|72411
26/59-1103 L J79.827

2^{i:?^ o/79- 11087 (27) ^^^^ ^

(25) z K^Q) 2P-12671 ^227-2111

,3.

(26)

2^{^|JJ^f
z

27/191-383

/90X r,8/383-9203
K^-6)

\383-2309
5-17 (5) 32-7-13[

|ii5i.3067

(37) s^-sgi'ig''
(15) 32.7-13-4M63<

107

(7)

32-72-13{|5Y

{b2)Z^-l-\Z^^lll]f

5-977

5867

(14) 32-72-13-97

5193
1163

(10) 32-5- 19-37

(710^

(35) 32.5.19{7^227

3^-5-13gl9l9
(8)

3^-5-7{i?2S

(6)

'"^Bibliotheca Math.,

(3), 14,

1915, 351-4.

46
(31) S^-5'13{ll:]f (33)

History of the Theory of Numbers.

(54) 3.5^{}1:^9.179

[Chap,

^g^ ^,_^_^^,^^l29.5m
(12)

33.5.13.19^/2711

(32) 3^-5-13{^^:^J

S^.r-lVlsl^lf^^'

^g^^ 3,.-,.

^g.^gjl 1-220499

(41)33.7.13.23|JJ;1%367
(30) 33.5{[7^1j
(11) 3^.5.1l{29g89 (53)

^^^^^^
(42) 33.5.23(11 -.J^SIT

(55)

S^-5{',lll%^
3^.7.11M9{g97019

(56)
(53)

(57)3^.7.11M9{^3^6959^
(59^

3.7M3.53{ll4211

3s.7M3.19{419

3^.7M3.19{53g6959^
jS,

Euler's final

list

of 61 pairs did not include the pairs a,

7, although he

had obtained a four times in the body of his paper, viz., in (2), (3i), (63); Moreover, these three unlisted pairs occur as jS twice in (3i); 7 in (2). VIII, IX, and XIII among the 30 pairs in Euler's^^^ earlier list, a fact noted on p. XXVI and p. LVIII of the Preface by P. H. Fuss and N. Fuss to
Euler's

Comm. Arith. Coll., who failed to observe that these three pairs occur in the text of Euler's present paper. Nor did these editors note that the fourth mentioned case of divergence between the two lists is due merely to the misprint^^^'' of 57 for 47 in (43) of the present list, so that the correctly printed pair XXVIII of the list of 30 is really this (43) and not a new pair, as supposed by them. From the fact that Euler obtained in his posthumous tract^ on amicable numbers the pairs a, jS (once on p. 631 and again on p. 633 and finally on p. 635), the editors inferred, p. LXXXI of the Preface, that the tract differs in analysis from the long paper just discussed. But no new pairs are found, while the cases treated on pp. 631-2 are merely problems 1 and 2 of Euler's preceding paper. It is different with p. 634, where Euler started with two numbers like 71 and 5-11 which, by his table, have the same sum, 72, of divisors, and required a number a relatively prime to them such that 71a

and 55o are amicable. The single condition is 72J a=(71+55)o, whence ja:a = 7A. Thus a has the factor 4. If a = 46, where b is odd, then
Ch = h = l, and the pair 284, 220 results. The case a = 86 is impossible. This method was used in a special way by Kraft^^^ who limited the numbers from which one starts to a prime and a product of two primes.

In the Encyclopedie Sc. Math.,

I, 3i,

p. 59,

note 320,

it is

stated that this

posthumous tract contains four pairs not in Euler's list of 61, two pairs being those of Fermat^^^ and Descartes.^^^ But these were fisted as (2) and (3) by Euler and were obtained by him in case (li) and attributed to Descartes.
E. Waring^^^ noted that
2'*x, 2''yz

are amicable

if

2"'?/z_2"+^

+l
'

2^"

2"-l
where
x^ y, z

i/-2"+l

are primes

and

?/

2"H-1

divides

2^**.

He

cited the first

two

such pairs of amicable numbers.

3"G. Enestrom, Bibliotheca Math., (3), 9, 1909, 263. 3*Meditationes algebraicae, 1770, 201; ed. 3, 1782, 342-3.

Chap.

I]

PERFECT, MULTIPLY PERFECT, AND AmICABLE NUMBERS.

first

47

three pairs were given in an anonymous work.^^ In 1796, J. P. Gruson^ (p. 87) gave the usual rule (1) leading to the three first known amicable pairs (verwandte Zahlen). A. M. Legendre^^^ attributed the rule (1) to Descartes.

The

gave a process leading to the choice of P and Q, left ^^ ^ave A:a = R+l:PQ-\-R = 2R-P-Q. Thus arbitrary by \R{2Aa)a\ /A, while PQ is given by Kraft's second equation. P-(-Q= roots of a quadratic equation. For example, if are the P and Hence Q = A 4, then 8P, SQ = R-7VR^-Q2R-QS.
G.
S. KliigeP^^

Kraft.^^^

lies between 60 and 61. Thus we a;^ 62a: 63 = i^ for such that is divisible by The first available 61 7 8. R, ^ P=ll, pair 5 and the amicable 284. In general, giving 220, R is 71, Q under the radical a^R^+2^R-\-y sign can be made equal to the quantity the arbitrary) choice of R. of by square ai^+P ip

The

positive root of

try primes

John Gough^^^ considered amicable numbers

distinct primes not dividing
a.

ax, ayz,

where

x, y, z

are

Let q be the

sum

of the aliquot divisors

of a.

Then
a+q-\-qx = ayz,
first

x+l = {y+l){z+l).
.

ayz< (l+a:)a/4, while 2y-2z>x-\-l by the second, If q^a/i, the = Let r", Then Q'=(a l)/(r' 1), Thusg'>a/4. a where r is a prime > 1 = a(5 or implies r 2 3. which with g>a/4 He proved that Tt^S. r)>4, = Schooten.^^^ whence r 2, the case treated by van
gives

Osterprogramm, 1815, on amicable numbers. A. M. Legendre^^ discussed the amicable numbers of the type (li) of Legendre noted that Euler^^^ (with Euler's m, k replaced by miJi,,fx). 2^'""''^ (2*^+1)^ = 1 is of the form s^ 1 and hence composite, if k is even; r also that, if A: = 3, p = 9-2'"+3-l, g = 9-2"'-l, one of which is of the form s^ 1. He considered the new case k = 7 and found for m = l that p = 33023, = q 257, r = 8520191, stating that if r be a prime we have the amicable numbers 2^pq, 2V. This is in fact the case.^^^ For ^ = 1, we have the ancient rule (1); he proved that for n^l5 it gives only the known three pairs of amicable numbers. Paganini^'^^, at age 16, announced the amicable numbers 1184 = 2^37, 1210 = 2.5.11"^, not in the list by Euler^^'*, but gave no indication of the
J. Struve^^^ cited his

method

of discovery.

^^'EncyclopMie methodique.
1793,
I,

116.

Cf. Les

.Amusemens des Sciences Math, et Phys., nouv. amusemens math., Lille, 1749, 315.
.

6d.,

Padoue,

"Th6orie des nombres, 1798, 463.

New

8Math. Worterbuch, 1, 1803, 246-252 [5, 1831, 55]. Series of the Math. Repository (ed., Th. Leyboum), vol. 2, pt. 2, 1807, 34-39. He cited Button's Math. Diet., article Amicable Numbers, taken from van Schooten^^'. ""Theorie des nombres, ed. 3, 1830, II, 472, p. 150. German transl. by H. Maser, Leipzig,
1893, II, p. 145.

"iTchebychef, Jour, de Math., 16, 1851, 275; Werke, 1, 90. T. Pepin, Atti Ace. Pont. Nuovi Lincei, 48, 1889, 152-6. Kraitchik, Sphinx-Oedipe, 6, 1911, 92. Also by Lehmer's Factor Table or Table of Primes. '"B. Nicol6 I. Paganini, Atti deUa R. Accad. Sc. Torino, 2, 1866-7, 362. Cf. Cremona's Ital.
transl. of Baltzer's

Mathematik,

pt. III.

48

History of the Theory of Numbers.

(Chap,

(though the contrary

P. Seelhoff^^^ treated Euler's^^ problems 1 and 2 by Euler's methods is implied), and gave about 20 pairs of amicable
to Euler, with

numbers due

due credit

for only three pairs.

The only

new-

pairs (pp. 79, 84, 89) are

Q2721Q in oQf83-1931 6 i A^-Ay'^'^|i62287

^ef 139-863 "^1167.719.

E. Catalan^^^ stated empirically that if ??i is the sum of the divisors and n2 is the sum of the divisors <ni of ?ii, etc., then n, nj, n2, have a limit X, where X is unity or a perfect number. J. Perrott"^ [Perott] noted that there is no limit for n = 220, since

<n of n,

^1

= 713=

=284,

n2

= n4=

=220.

H. LeLasseur^^*^ found that for n< 35 the numbers (1) are all odd primes, and hence give amicable numbers, only when n = 2, 4, 7. Josef Bezdicek^^^ gave a translation into Bohemian of Euler,^^ without credit to Euler, and a table of 65 pairs of amicable numbers. Aug. Haas"^ proved that, if and A^ are amicable numbers,

M
m

l/S-+l/si=l,
n
where

and n range over

so that

all divisors of

and

iV, respectively.

For,

2w = Sn = M+iV,

m~ M
If

'

n~ N ~
becomes that

N
of Catalan.
^"'^

M = N, N

is

perfect

and the

result

A. Cunningham^'^ considered the sum s{n) of the divisors <n of ?i and wrote s^{n) for s]s(??)}, etc. For most numbers, s^(n) = l when A; is sufficiently large. There is a small class of perfect and amicable numbers, and a small class of numbers n (even when n< 1000) for which s''{n) increases

beyond the practical power of calculation [cf. Catalan^'^]. A. Gerardin^^" proved that the only pairs 2^-5a;, 2-yz of amicable numbers, where x, y, z are odd primes, are Euler's (a), (^3) the only pairs 2*-23x,
;

2^yz are Euler's (17), (19), (20). He cited the Exercices d'arithm^tique of Fitz-Patrick and Chevrel; also Dupuis' Table de logarithmes, which gives

24 pairs of amicable numbers. G^rardin^^^ proved that the only pair Sxy, S2z is Euler's (60). He an incomplete examination of 16-53a;, IQyz, but found no new pairs.
3"Archiv Math. Phys., 70, 1884, 75-89. "*Bull. Soc. Math. France, 16, 1887-8, 129.
'"76id., 17, 1888-9, 155-6.

made

Mathesis,

8, 1888, 130.

"Lucas, Theorie dcs nombres, 1, 1891, 381. "'Casopis mat. a fys., Praze (Prag), 25, 1896, 129-142, 209-221. "8/6id., 349-350. "Proc. London Math. Soc, 35, 1902-3, 40. ""Matheshs, 6, 1906, 41^4. "'Sphinx-Oedipe, Nancy, 1906-7, 14-15, 53.

Chap.

I]

PERFECT, MULTIPLY PERFECT, AND AmICABLE NUMBERS.

49

G^rardin^^^ proved that the three numbers (1) with n = m-f 2 are not all = 38 and 53 not being decided. Replacing 60, the cases primes if 34< and A; by 2^+1 in case (li) of Euler^^'*, we get the pair 2"pg, by

m^

m+1

2"r,

where n = m+2g-]-2,

p = 2"*+2''+^P-l,

= 2"*+^P-l,

= 22'"+2''+3p2_i^

with P = 2^^'*"^ l. For 9^ = 0, we have the case (1) just mentioned; all values m^200 are excluded except m = 38, 74, 98, 146, 149, 182, 185, 197. The case gr= 1 is excluded since i/ or 2 is a difference of two squares. For For g = 3, all 29, 34, 37, 49. g = 2, all values m ^ 60 are excluded except = excluded except m 8, 15, 23, 92. values <100 are 0. Meissner,^^^ using the notation of Cunningham,^^^ noted that n and s{n) are amicable if s^(n)=n and raised the question of the existence of numbers n for which s''{n)n for k^S, so that n, s{n),. .,s*~^(n) would give amicable numbers of higher order. He asked if the repetition of the operation s, a finite number (k) of times always leads to a prime, a perfect or amicable number; also if k increases with n to infinity. On these ques-

m=

tions, see Dickson^^^

and

Poulet.^^^

A. Gerardin^^^ stated that the only values n<200 for which the numbers (1) are all primes are the three known to Descartes. L. E. Dickson^^^ obtained the two new pairs of amicable numbers
2*-12959-50231,
2*- 17- 137-262079;

2*- 10103-735263,

2^-17-137-2990783,

treating the type IQpq, 16-17-137r, where These are amicable if and only if

by

p, q, r are distinct

odd primes.

p = m+9935,

g = w+9935,

= 4(w+n) +88799,

wn = 2^3*7-23-73.

Although Euler^^ mentioned this type (33) in 95, he made no discussion of it since r always exceeds the limit 100000 of the table of primes accessible An examination of the 120 distinct cases led only to the above to him. two amicable pairs. Dickson^^ proved that there exist only five pairs of amicable numbers in which the smaller number is <6233, viz., (1), (a), (^), (60) in Euler's^^* In the notation of Cunningham,^^^ the chain table, and Paganini's^^^ pair. n, s{n), s^{n), .is said to be of period k if s^(n) =n. The empirical theorem of Catalan'^* is stated in the corrected form that every non-periodic chain contains a prime and verified for a wide range of values of n. In particular, if n<6233, there is no chain of period 3, 4, 5, or 6. For k odd and > 1, there is no chain arii, an2, n^ aUk of period k in which /ii, have no common factor and each rij is prime to a> 1.
. .
. . .

'^^Sphinx-Oedipe, 1907-8, 49-56, 65-71 some details are inaccurate, but the results correct. 'S'Archiv Math. Phys., (3), 12, 1907, 199; Math.-Naturw. Blatter, 4, 1907, 86 (for k=3). '** Assoc, frang. avanc. sc, 37, 1908, 36-48; I'intenn^diaire des math., 1909, 104. '8*Amer. Math. Monthly, 18, 1911, 109. "Quart. Jour. Math., 44, 1913, 264-296.
;

50

History of the Theory of Numbers.

P. Poulet'^' discovered the chain of period five,

[Chap,

71

= 12496 = 24-11.71,
s^{n)

s(n)= 2^- 1947, s\n)

= 2^-967,

s\n) =2^-23-79, sHn) =2^.1783,

with

=n; and noted

that 14316 leads a chain of 28 terms.

Generalizations of Amicable Numbers.

Daniel Schwenter^^ noted in 1636 that 27 and 35 have the same sum of Kraft^^^ noted in 1749 that this is true of the pairs 45, 3-29; In 1823, Thomas Taylor^^^ called two such 39, 55; 93, 145; and 45, 13-19. numbers imperfectly amicable, citing the pairs 27, 35; 39, 55; 65, 77; 51, George Peacock^o used the same 91; 95, 119; 69, 133; 115, 187; 87, 247. term. E. B. Escott^"^ asked if there exist three or more numbers such that each

ahquot parts.

equals the sum of the [aliquot] divisors of the others. A. G^rardin^^ called numbers with the same sum of aliquot parts nombres associes, citing 6 and 25; 5-19, 7-17, and 11-13, and many more sets. An equivalent definition is that the n numbers be such that the product of n 1 by the sum of the aliquot divisors of any one of them shall equal the sum of the aliquot divisors of the remaining n 1 numbers. L. E. Dickson^^ defined an amicable triple to be three numbers such that the sum of the aliquot divisors of each equals the sum of the remaining two numbers. After developing a theory analogous to that by Euler^* for amicable numbers, Dickson obtained eight sets of amicable triples in which two of the numbers are equal, and two triples of distinct numbers:
293-3370,
3-896,
5- 16561a,

11-296,

99371o 3596

(a
(6

= 25.3-13), = 2i*.5-19-31-151).

^L'intermddiaire des math., 25. 1918, lOO-l. ""Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, London, I, 1845, 422.
"L'interm6diaire des math., 6, 1899, 152. ""Sphinx-Oedipe, 1907-8, 81-83. MAmer. Math. Monthly, 20, 1913, 84-92.

CHAPTER

II.

FORMULAS FOR THE NUMBER AND SUM OF DIVISORS. PROBLEMS OF FERMAT AND WALLIS.
Formula for the Number of the Divisors of a Number.
Cardan^ stated that a product P oi k distinct primes has 1+2+2^+ aUquot parts (divisors <P). Michael StifeP proved this rule and found^ the number of divisors of 2*3^52p, where P = 7-11.13-17-19-23-29, by first noting that there are oi P according to Cardan's rule and hence 1+2+ .+64 divisors
.

-\-2^~'^

<P

128 divisors of P. The factor 5^ gives rise to 128+128 more divisors, so that we now have 384 divisors. The factor 3^ gives 3.384 more, so that we have 1536. Then the factor 2* gives 4.1536 more. Mersenne* asked what number has 60 divisors; since 60 = 2-2-3-5, subtract unity from each prime factor and use the remainders 1, 1, 2, 4 as exponents; thus 3^-2*-7-5 = 5040 (so much lauded by Plato) has 60 divisors. It is no more difficult if a large number of aliquot parts is desired. I. Newton^ found all the divisors of 60 by dividing it by 2, the quotient 30 by 2, and the new quotient 15 by 3. Thus the prime divisors are 1, 2, 2, Their products by twos give 4, 6, 10, 15. The products by threes 3, 5. give 12, 20, 30. The product of all is 60. The commentator J. Castillionei, of the 1761 edition, noted that the process proves that the number of all divisors of a'"6'*. .is (m+l)(n+l) .if a, 6, .are distinct primes. 373-6 proving that a product of k Frans van Schooten^ devoted pp. to 2''' distinct primes has 1 aliquot parts and made a long problem (p. 379) of that to find the number of divisors of a given number. To find (pp. 380-4) the numbers having 15 aliquot parts, he factored 15+1 in all ways and subtracted unity from each factor, obtaining abed, a^bc, a%^, a^b, a^^. By comparing the arithmetically least numbers of these various types, he found (pp. 387-9) the least number having 15 aliquot parts. John Kersey'^ cited the long rule of van Schooten to find the number of aliquot parts of a number and then gave the simple rule that Oi" a^" has (e+l) divisors in all if ai, a are distinct primes. (6i+l) John Wallis^ gave the last rule. To find a number with a prescribed number of divisors, factor the latter number in all possible ways; if the
. . . . .

iPractica Arith. & Mensurandi, Milan, 1537; Opera, IV, 1663. *Arithmetica Integra, Norimbergae, 1544, lib. 1, fol. 101. 'Stifel's posthumous manuscript, fol. 12, preceding the printed text of Arith. Integra; cf. E. Hoppe, Mitt. Math. Gesell. Hamburg, 3, 1900, 413. *Cogitata Physico Math., II, Hydravhca Pnevmatica, Preface, No. 14, Paris, 1644. (Quoted by Winsheim, Novi Comm. Ac. Petrop., II, ad annum 1749, Mem., 68-99). Also letter from Mersenne to Torricello, June 24, 1644, Bull. Bibl. Storia Sc. Mat., 8, 1875, 414-5. Arithmetica UniversaUs, ed. 1732, p. 37; ed. 1761, I, p. 61. De Inventione Divisorum. Exercitationum Math., Lugd. Batav., 1657. ^The Elements of Algebra, London, vol. 1, 1673, p. 199. A Treatise of Algebra, London, 1685, additional treatise, Ch. III.

61

52
factors are
r, s,
.

History of the Theory of Numbers.

.

[Chap, ii

the required number is p''~^q'~^ are ., where p, q,. any distinct primes. WTien the number of divisors is odd, the number The number of ways A^ = a^b^ can be itself is a square, and conversely.
.,
. . . .
.

.or \-\-k, expressed as a product of two factors is A = |(a+l)(j3+l) is not or is a square. according as Jean Prestet^ noted that a product of k distinct primes has 2'' divisors, while the ?ith power of a prime has n+1 divisors. The divisors of a^h^c^ are the 12 divisors of or}?, their products by c and by c^, the general rule not being stated explicitly. Pierre R^mond de Montmort^ stated in words that the number of .(e+l) if the a's are distinct primes. divisors of Oi**. .a*" is (ci+l) Abb^ Deidier^^ noted that a product of k distinct primes has
. .

^+^+(2) + (3)+
divisors, treating the
series

and

find

2*").

To

problem as one on combinations (but did not sum the find the number of divisors of 2*3^5^ he noted that

five are

powers of 2 (including unity). Since there are three divisors of 3^, multiply 5 by 3 and add 5, obtaining 20. In view of the two divisors of 5^, multiply 20 by 2 and add 20. The answer is 60. E. Waring^- proved that the number of divisors of a"'?)". .is (m+1) are distinct primes, and that the number is a square if (n+1) .if a, 6, of its divisors is odd. number the .are relatively prime in pairs, the E. Lionnet^^ proved that if a, b, c, the product of the number of divisors of divisors of abc. .equals number is a square or not, for According as number number b, etc. a of a by the or of its divisors is odd even. the number T. L. Pujo^^ noted the property last mentioned. ty, where <i, Emil Hain^^ derived the last theorem from a"* = (<i < denote the divisors of a. A. P. Minin^^ determined the smallest integer with a given number of
.
. . . . . . .
.

divisors.

^n^v) is the least G. Fontene'" noted that, if 2"3^. .mV (a^/S^ number with a given number of di\4sors, then I'+l is a prime, and /x+1 is a prime except for the least number 2^3 ha\'ing eight di\'isors.
.
.

Formula for the Sum of the Divisors of a Number.

is

'

a prim6, the

R. Descartes,^^ in a manuscript, doubtless of date 1638, noted that, if p sum of the aliquot parts of p" is (p" l)/(p 1). If 6 is the

"Nouv. Elemens des Math., Paris, 1689, vol. 1, p. 149. Not in ed. 1, 1708. loEssay d'analyse sur les jeux de hazard, ed. 2, Paris, 1713, p. 55. "Suite de I'arithm^tique des g^om^tres, Paris, 1739, p. 311. i^Medit. Algebr., 1770, 200; ed. 3, 1782, 341. "Nouv. Ann. Math., (2), 7, 1868, 68-72. "Les Mondes, 27, 1872, 653-4. "Archiv Math. Phys., 55, 1873, 290-3. "Math. Soc. Moscow (in Russian), 11, 1883-4, 632. "Nouv. Ann. Math., (4), 2, 1902, 288; proof by Chalde, 3, 1903, 471-3. *'"De partibus ahquotis numerorum," Opuscula Posthuma Phys. et Math., Amstelodami, 1701, p. 5; Oeuvres de Descartes (ed. Tannery and Adams, 1897-1909), vol. 10, pp. 300-2.

Chap.

II]

FORMULAS FOR NUMBER AND SUM OF DiVISORS.

53

sum

of the aliquot parts of a, the

sum

of the

If b is the

sum

of the

ahquot parts

of a

and

if

ahquot parts of ap is 6p+a+6. x is prime to a, the sum of the

aUquot parts

of ax"" is

^n

[=^'+^K-j^)-^^\'
may
(n,

Descartes^^ stated a result which

(1)

be expressed by the formula

<j{nm)=(T{n)(T{m)
(T{n) is
:

m relatively prime),
and n) of w. by 5. Enter 5
Here he

where
in

the

sum
13.

of the divisors (including 1

solved n

(T(n)

=5

Thus n must be

divisible

A B column A and (r(5) = 6 in column B. Then enter the factor 2 in column A and (r(2) =3 in column B. Having two threes 5 in column B, we enter 9 in column A and cr(9) = 13 in B. Every 2 3 number except 13 in column B is in column A. Hence the 9 13 product 5-2-9 = 90 is a solution n. Next, to solve n a- (n) = 5 14, we enter also 13 in column A and 14 in B, and obtain the soluIf ?i is a perfect number, 5n: (7(5n) = 5: 12 and, if n?^6, 15n: tion 90-13.

23

(r(15n)

= 5:16. Descartes^^ stated that he possessed a general rule [illustrated above] for finding numbers having any given ratio to the sum of their aliquot parts. Fermat^^ had treated the same problem. Replying to Mersenne's
4,

remark that the sum

of the aliquot parts of 360 bears to 360 the ratio 9 to Fermat^^ noted that 2016 has the same property. John Wallis^^ noted that Frenicle knew formula (1). Wallis^^ knew the formula
(2)

^(a6^...)
these formulae were

= 211^1-*^^.... 01 a 1
before 1685, the date set

Thus

known

by Peano,^^ who

attributed

them

to Wallis.^^

G. W. Kraft^^ noted that the method of Newton^ shows that the sum of .(S+1). the divisors of a product of distinct primes P, ., S is (P+1) He gave formula (1) and also (2), a formula which Cantor^" stated had probably not earlier been in print. To find a number the sum of whose divisors is a square, Kraft took PA, where is a prime not dividing A.
.

If

(r(A)=a, then (r(PA)

^^"De
la

= (P-f-l)a

will

be the square of

(P+l)5

if

P=

fagon de trouver le nombres de parties aliquotes in ratione data," manuscript Fondsnouv. acquisitions, No. 3280, ff. 156-7, Bibliothfeque Nationale, Paris. Pub' Ushed by C. Henry, BuU. Bibl. Storia Sc. Mat. e Fis., 12, 1879, 713-5. ^Oeuvres, 2, p. 149, letter to Mersenne, May 27, 1638. K)euvre8 de Fermat, 2, top of p. 73, letter to Roberval, Sept. 22, 1636. "Oeuvres, 2, 179, letter to Mersenne, Feb. 20, 1639. ''^ommercium Epistolicum, letter 32, April 13, 1658; French transl. in Oeuvres de Fermat, 3,
frangais,

553.

"Commercium

March, 1658; Oeuvres de Fermat, 3, 515-7. Turin, 1901, 100-1. "Novi Comm. Ac. Petrop., 2, 1751, ad annum 1749, 100-109. "Geschichte Math., 3, 595; ed. 2, 616.
Epist., letter 23,
3,

"Formulaire Math.,

54
a/S^ 1; for aUquot parts

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[ChapII

whence P = 5. Again, the sum of the The numbers AP and BPQ have the same of 3P~ is (2+-P)^. = sum of divisors if a(P+l) 6(P+1)(Q+1), i. e., if Q = a/6-l; takmg a = 24, 6 = 6, we have Q = 3, a prime, .4 = 14, B = 5 (by his table of the sum of the divisors of 1,. ., 150); this problem had been solved otherwise by

A = 14,

take

B = 2,

Wolff."
L. Euler^^ gave a table of the prime factors of o-(p), a(p^), and <t(p^) for each prime p<1000; also those of aip") for various a's for p^23 (for He proved formulas (1) and (2) here and in instance, a ^36 when p = 2). his^ posthumous tract, where he noted (p. 514) all the cases in which

a{n) =a-(?70

= 60.
(2).

E. Waring^2 proved formula

He^

noted that

if

P = arir.

.and

Q = a'^h^
(2/+ 1)
.

than Q.
. .

where m a,n ^,... are large, then a{PQ)/a{P) is just If a'br..=A and If A = {1-1)\, <t{IA)/(t{A)^1-^1.
,
. . .
.
. .

greater

(x+l)

a{A)

is

distinct primes, For a, 6, a maximum, then a'"''"^ = 6""^^ = not a maximum. He cited numbers with equal sums of divisors:
is

6 and 11, 10 and 17, 14 and 15 and 23. L. Kronecker^^ derived the formulas for the number and sum of the divisors of an integer by use of infinite series and products. E. B. Escott^^ listed integers whose sum of divisors is a square.

Problems of

Fer\la.t

and Wallis on Sums of Divisors.

Fermat'*^ proposed January 3, 1657, the two problems: (i) Find a cube which when increased by the sum of its aUquot parts becomes a square;* (ii) Find a square which when increased for example, 7^ + ( 1 + 7 + 7^) = 20^. aliquot parts becomes of its a cube. by the sum of both problems and proreplied that unity is solution WalUs^^ a John other than 16 and 25, such Find two squares, posed the new problem: (m) parts of its ahquot the resulting sums that if each is increased by the sum

are equal.

Brouncker*^ gave 1/n^ and 343/n^ as solutions

(!)

of

problem

(i).

"Elementa Analyseos, Cap. 2, prob. 87. Opuscula varii argumenti, 2, Berlin, 1750, p. 23; Comm. Arith., 1, 102 (p. 147 for table to 100). Opera postuma, I, 1862, 95-100. F. Rudio, Bibl. Math., (3), 14, 1915, 351, stated that

"Comm.

there are fully 15 errors. Opera postuma, Arith., 2, 512, 629.

I,

12-13.

Meditationea Algebr., ed. 3, 1782, 343. (Not in ed. of 1770.) "Vorlesungen iiber Zahlentheorie, I, 1901, 265-6. ^Amer. Math. Monthly, 23, 1916, 394. *Erroneou8ly given as "cube" in the French tr., Oeuvres de Fermat, 3, 311. '"OeuvTes, 2, 332, "premier d6fi aux mathdmaticiens;" also, pp. 341-2, Fermat to Digby, June These two problems by Fermat 6, 1657, where 7' is said to be not the only solution. were quoted in a letter by the Astronomer Jean H6v4hus, Nov. 1, 1657, pubhshed by C. Henry, Bull. Bibl. Storia Sc. Mat. e Fis., 12, 1879, 683-5, along with extracts from the Commercium EpistoUcum. Cf. G. Wertheim, Abh. Geschichte Math., 9, 1899, 558-561, 570-2 ( = Zeitschr. Math. Phys., 44, Suppl. 14). "Commercium Epistohcum de Wallis, Oxford, 1658; Walhs, Opera, 2, 1693. Letter II, from WaUis to Brouncker, Mar. 17, 1657; letter XVI, Walhs to Digby, Dec. 1, 1657. Oeuvres de Fermat, 3, 404, 414, 427, 482-3, 503-4, 513-5. **Commercium, letter IX, Wallis to Digby; Fermat'e Oeuvres, 3, 419.

Chap.

II]

PkOBLEMS ON SUMS OF DiVISORS.

55

Frenicle^^ expressed his astonishment that experienced mathematicians should not hesitate to present, for the third time, unity as a solution. Wains'*^ tabulated <r{x^) for each prime a:<100 and for low powers of 2, 3, 5, and then excluded those primes a: for which (T(rc^)has a prime factor By similar eliminations and successive not occurring elsewhere in the table. trials, he was led to the solutions^^ of (i)
:

a=3^5-lM3-41-47, 6=2-3-5-13-41-47;

7a, 7b,

adding that they are identical with the four numbers given by Frenicle.*'' Note that o-(a) is the square of 2^3^5-7-lM3-17-29-61, while a{b) is the square Wallis^^ gave the further solutions of a{x^) = y^: of 2^3V7-13-17-29.
a:=17-3147-191, 2-3-5-13-17.314M91,
?/=2^325-13-17-29-37,
2^^33527. i3.;^7.29237^

3'5-lM3-17-31-4M91,

2'23^5-7-lM3-17-29237-61,

and the products

Wallis^^

of each x by 7. gave solutions of his problem (m)

2^3.37, 2-19-29;

29-67, 2-3-5-37;

223-1M9-37, 2'7-29.67; 2^7.29.67, 3-5-1M9-37.

Frenicle*^ gave 48 solutions of WalUs' problem (m), including 2-163 11-37; 3-11-19, 7-107; 2-5-151, 3^-67; also 83 sets of three squares having the

same sum

of divisors, for

example, the squares of

5-11-37-151,
(7

2^11.37-151,

3^67-163,

= 3^7^19-31-67-1093;
<500)
where
for

also various such sets of

n squares (with prime

factors

n^l9,

for example, the squares of ac, ad, 4:bd, 46c, 5bd,

and

56c,

6 = 13-37-191-359, d = 3-ll-19. c = 7.107, a = 2-5-29-47-67-139, Frans van Schooten^" made ineffective attempts to solve problems
(i),

(n).

Frenicle^^
a:

gave the solution

t/

= 225-7.11-37-67-163-191-263-439-499,
(n),

= 327^3- 19-31^67- 109

of

problem

a{x^)=y^; also a

new
i/

solution of a{x^)=y^:

a;

= 255-7-31-73-241-243-467,

= 2i23253ii. 13217.37.41. 113.193.257.

XXII, to Digby, Feb. 3, 1658. Cf. Leibnitii et BernouUii Commercium philos. et math., I, 1795, 263, letter from Johann Bernoulli to Leibniz, Apr. 3, 1697. "Letter XXIII, to Digby, Mar. 14, 1658. "The same tentative process for finding this solution a was given by E.Waring, Meditationes Algebraicae, 1770, pp. 216-7; ed. 3, 1782, 377-8. The solution 6 = 751530 was quoted by Lucas, Thiorie des nombres, 1891, 380, ex. 3. **Solutio duorum problematum circa numeros cubos 1657, dedicated to Digby [lost work]. See Oeuvres de Fermat, p. 2. 434, Note; WaUis." "Letter XXVIII, March 25, 1658; WaUis, Opera, 2, 814; Wallia". Letter XXIX, Mar. 29, 1658; WaUis^^. "Letter XXXI, Apr. 11, 1658. "Letter XXXIII, Feb. 17, 1657 and Mar. 18, 1658. "Letter XLIII, May 2, 1658.
^'Letter
.

56
Wallis^'^ for

History of the Theory of Numbers.

use in problem
(ii)

[Chap, ii

gave a table showing the sum of the < 500. Excluding numbers in whose divisor sum occurs a prime entering the table only once or twice, there are
divisors of the square of each
left

number

the squares of 2, 4, 8, 3, 5, 7, 11, 19, 29, 37, 67, 107, 163, 191, 263, 439, 499. a very long process of exclusion he found only two solutions within the limits of the table, viz., Frenicle's" and

By

(rj(7.11-29.163-191439)2[

]3.7-13-19-31-67(^

Jacques Ozanam" stated that Fermat had proposed the problem to find a square which with its aliquot parts makes a square (giving 81 as the answer) and the problem to find a square whose aliquot parts make a square. For the latter, Ozanam found 9 and 2401, whose aliquot parts make 4 and 400, and remarked that he did not believe that Fermat ever solved these questions, although he proposed them as if he knew how. Ozanam^ noted that the sum of 961 = 31^ and its aliquot parts 1 and 31 is 993, which equals the sum of the aliquot parts of 1 156 = 34". As examples of two squares with equal total sums of divisors [WaUis' problem (m)], he cited 16 and 25, 326^ and 407^, while others may be derived by multiplying these by an odd square not divisible by 5. The sum of all the divisors of 9^ is 11^ that of 20^ is 31l The numbers 99 and 63 have the property that the sum 57 of the aliquot parts of 99 exceeds the sum 41 of the aliquot parts of 63 by the square 16; similarly for 325 and 175. E. Lucas^^ noted that the problem to find all integral solutions of
(1)
is

l-\-x+z^-\-x^

= y^
y = 2uv,
l.

equivalent to the solution of the system

(2)

l+x = 2w2,

l+x2 = 2t;2,

and stated that the complete solution is given by that of 2y^ x^ = E. Gerono^^ proved that the only solutions of (1) are
(x,
2/)

= (-l,

0),

(0,

1),

(1,

2),

(7,

20).

E. Lucas^^ stated that there is an infinitude of solutions of Fermat's problem (i); the least composite solution is the cube of 2-3-5-13'41-47, the sum of whose divisors is the square of 2^3^5^7- 13- 17-29. [This solution was given by Frenicle.^] For the case of a prime, the problem becomes (1). A. S. Bang^^ gave for problem (i) the first of the three answers by Wallis;*' for (it), (7(43098^) = 1729^ for {in), 29-67, 2-3-5-37 of Wallis^* and the first two by Frenicle;^^ all without references.
Treatise of Algebra, 1685, additional treatises, Ch. IV. De Billy, Nov. 1, 1677, published by C. Henry, Bull. Bibl. Storia Sc. Mat. e Fia., 12, Reprinted in Oeuvres de Fermat, 4, 1912, p. 140. 1879, 519. "Recreations Math6matiques et Phys., new ed., 1723, 1724, 1735, etc., Paris, I, 41-43. "Nouv. Corresp. Math., 2, 1876, 87-8. Nouv. Ann. Math., (2), 16, 1877, 230-4. "Bull. Bibl. Storia Sc. Mat. e Fis., 10, 1877, 287. "Nyt Tidsskrift for Mat., 1878, 107-8; on problems in 1877, 180.

"A

"Letter to

Chap.

II]

PROBLEMS ON SUMS OF DiVISORS.

57

E. Fauquembergue,^^ after remarking that (1) is equivalent to the sys(2), cited Fermat's^" assertion that the first two equations (2) hold only for a: = 7 [aside from the evident solutions a: = 1, 0], which has been proved by Genocchi.^^ H. Brocard^^ thought that Fermat's assertion that 7^ is not the only solution of problem (i) implied a contradiction with Genocchi.^^ G. Vacca {ihid., p. 384) noted the absence of contradiction as (i) leads to equation (1) only if a: be a prime. C. Moreau^ treated the equation, of type (1),

tem

= x*+ While he used the language of extracting the square root of written to the base x, he in effect put X={x^-\-a)^, 0<a<x. Then a^ = x+1, 2ax^ = x^-\-x^, whence 2a = a^, a = 2, x = 3, y = ll. E. Lucas^ stated that {x^-\-y^)/{x+y) =^ has the solutions
.
.

(3,-1, 11),

(8, 11,

101), (123, 35, 13361),.

Moret-Blanc^^ gave also the solutions (0, E. Landau^^ proved that the equation

1, 1), (1, 1, 1).

T=y^
1

impossible in integers (aside from x = 0, ?/ = =fc 1) for an infinitude of values of n, viz., for all n's divisible by 3 such that the odd prime factors of n/3, if any, are all of the form 6y 1 (the least such n being 6). For, setting +a:^+l. n = 3m, we see that y^ is the product of x^+x+1 and F = x^"'~^-{(mod x^+ These two factors are relatively prime since x^=l gives a: Hence x^+x+lis Si square, which is impossible for a; f^ since it lies 1)
is
.

F=m

between

x^

and

(a:+l)^.

Brocard^^ had noted the solution a: = 1, y=m, if n = mP. A. Gerardin^^ obtained six new solutions of problem (i)
a:

= 2.47.193.239.701,

2/

= 2^3l5M3M7.97.149.

x = 2.5.23.41.83.239, x = 3.13.23.47.83.239, X = 2.3.13.23.83.193.701,

a; a;

y = 2\S\5\7.1S\29.53. y = 2^^3^517.13117.53. y = 2^3^5^7.13.17.53.97.149.

2/
?/

= 3.5.13.41.193.239.701, = 2.5.13.43.191.239.307,

Also <t{N^)=S^

= 2^3l5l7.13M7.29.97.149. = 2i^32.5MlM7.29.37.53.113.197.241.257. for Ar = 3-7-ll-29-37, ^ = 3-7-13-19-67.

"Nouv. Ann. Math.,

(3), 3, 1884, 538-9. '"Oeuvres, 2, 434, letter to Carcavi, Aug., 1659. "Nouv. Ann. Math., (3), 2, 1883, 30&-10. Cf. Chapter

on Diophantine Equations of order

2.

"L'intermMiaire des math., 7, 1900, 31, 84. "Nouv. Ann. Math., (2), 14, 1875, 335.
Ibid., 509. 76id., (2), 20, 1881, 150.

"L'interm^diaire des math., 8, 1901, 149-150. "Ibid., 22, 1915, 111-4, 127.

58

History of the Theory of Numbers.

G^rardin^^ gave five new solutions of (i) i/ = 2^3.5M3.37.61.157. X = 3.11.31.443.499, = 2/ = 2^3.5ni. 13.37.61.157. 2.3^31.443.449, x
a;

[Chap.ii

= 11

17.41 .43.239.307.443.499,
2/

= 2^2 3^5'.7.11. 13^29^.37.61. 157. = 17.23.41.211.467.577.853, 2.11. x = 2^''.3^5l7.13M7.292.53.61. 113.193.197.

t/

x = 3ni. 13.23.83.193.701, = 293'537.11. 13.17.53.61.97.149,

?/

the last following from

his*^^

fourth pair in \'iew of

a{SnV):
s{x) =g^,

a{2'S')

= 2'3.nm^:

233.52

= 2=11-612;

5=.

A. Cunningham and J. Blaikie^^ found solutions of the form x = 2'p of where s{n) is the sura of the divisors <n of n.

product of aliquot parts.

Paul Halcke'^^ noted that the product of the aliquot parts of 12, 20, or 45 is the square of the number; the product for 24 or 40 is the cube; the product for 48, 80 or 405 is the biquadrate. E. Lionnet"^ defined a perfect number of the second kind to be a number equal to the product of its aliquot parts. The only ones are p^ and pq, where p and q are distinct primes.
"L'interm^diaire des math., 24, 1917, 132-3. "Math. Quest. Educ. Times, (2), 7, 1905, 68-9. "Dehciae Math, oder Math. Sinnen-Confect, Hamburg, 1719, 197, Exs. 150-2. "Nouv. Ann. Math., (2), 18, 1879, 306-8. Lucas, Th6orie des nombres, 1891, 373, Ex. 6

CHAPTER
1,2

III.

FERMAT'S AND WILSON'S THEOREMS, GENERALIZATIONS AND CONVERSES; SYMMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF

P-\ MODULO

P.

Fermat's and Wilson's Theorems; Immediate Generalizations.

divisible

The Chinese^ seem to have known as early as 500 B. C. that 2^2 is by the prime p. This fact was rediscovered by P. de Fermat^

Shortly afterwards, Fermat^ stated while investigating perfect numbers. that he had a proof of the more general fact now known as Fermat's theorem: 1 is If p is any prime and x is any integer not divisible by p, then x^~^

divisible

by

p.

G.

W.

Leibniz^ (1646-1716) left a manuscript giving a proof of Fermat's

.

Let p be a prime and set x = a+6+c+. .. Then each multiappearing in the expansion of x^ 2a^ is divisible by p. Take a = 6 = c=...=l. Thus a;^ a: is divisible by p for every integer x. G. Vacca^ called attention to this proof by Leibniz. Vacca^ cited manuscripts of Leibniz in the Hannover Library showing that he proved Fermat's theorem before 1683 and that he knew the theorem now known as Wilson's^^ theorem: If p is a prime, l (p 1)! is divisible by p. But Vacca did not explain an apparent obscurity in Leibniz's statetheorem.

nominal

coefficient

ment

[cf.

Mahnke'^].

D. Mahnke'' gave an extensive account of those results in the manuscripts of Leibniz in the Hannover Library which relate to Fermat's and Wilson's theorems. As early as January 1676 (p. 41) Leibniz concluded, from the expressions for the ^th triangular and yth. pyramidal numbers, that
(2/+l)2/=2/'-2/=0 (mod
2),

{y+2){y+l)y=y'-y=0 (mod

3),

and similarly for moduU 5 and 7, whereas the corresponding formula for modulus 9 fails for y = 2, thus forestalling the general formula by Lagrange.^* On September 12, 1680 (p. 49), Leibniz gave the formula now known as Newton's formula for the sum of like powers and noted (by incomplete

induction) that

all

exponent

p,

when p

is

the coefficients except the a prime, so that

. .
.

first

are divisible

by the

a''+h''+c''-{-

= {a+h+c+

.Y

(mod

p).

Taking a = b=

=1, we obtain Fermat's theorem as

(1

binomial coefficients in

+ 1)^ 1 1

are divisible

above.'* That the by the prime p was

^G. Peano, Formulaire math., 3, Turin, 1901, p. 96. Jeans.^^" ''Oeuvres de Fermat, Paris, 2, 1894, p. 198, 2, letter to Mersenne, 2; p. 209.

June

(?),

1640; also p. 203,

"Oeuvres, 2, 209, letter to Frenicle de Bessy, Oct. 18, 1640; Opera Math., Tolosae, 1679, 163. *Leibnizens Math. Schriften, herausgegeben von G. J. Gerhardt, VII, 1863, 180-1, "nova algebrae promotio." Bibliotheca math., (2), 8, 1894, 46-8.
Bolletino di BibUografia Storia Sc. Mat., 2, 1899, 113-6. 'Bibliotheca math., (3), 13, 1912-3, 29-61.

69

60
proved
that

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

hi

Mahnke gave reasons (pp. 54-7) for believing in 1681 (p. 50). Leibniz rediscovered independently Fermat's theorem before he became acquainted, about 1681-2, with Fermat's Varia opera math, of 1679. In 1682 (p. 42), Leibniz stated that (p-2)!=l (mod p) if p is a prime [equivalent to Wilson's theorem], but that {p2)l=m (mod p), if p is composite, m ha\dng a factor > 1 in common wdth p. De la Hire^ stated that if k-'"^^ is divided by 2(2r+l) we get A; as a
remainder, perhaps after adding a multiple of the divisor. For example, if kr' is divided by 10 we get the remainder k. He remarked that Carr^ had observed that the cube of any number /:<6 has the remainder k when divided by 6. L. Euler^ stated Fermat's theorem in the form: If n+1 is a prime dividing neither a nor h, then a" 6" is divisible by n+1. He was not able to give a proof at that time. He stated the generaUzation If e = p'"~Hp 1) and if p is a prime, the remainder obtained on dividing a* by p"" is or 1 [a special case of Euler^^]. He stated also that ii m, n, p,. are distinct primes not dividing a and if A is the 1. c. m. of m 1, n 1, p 1, ., then o"* 1 is divisible by mnp [and a* 1 by m'' n\ .ii k = A rrC~^n^~^ .]. Euler^ first published a proof of Fermat's theorem. For a prime p,
:
.
.

2''

= (l + l)^ = l+p-h(^)H-...+p+l = 2+mp, 3P = (l+2)P = l+A:p+2^ 3^-3- (2^-2) = A:p,

(l+o)P-(l+a)-(aP-a)=np.

(1+0)"= 1+np+aP,
Hence

if a^a is divisible by p, also (1+a)" (1+a) is, and hence also (a+2)''-(a+2),. ., (a+6)P-(a+6). For a = 2, 2" - 2 was proved divisible by p. Hence, wTiting x for 2+6, we conclude that x^x is divisible by p
.

for

any integer
G.

x.

W.

Kraft^^ proved similarly that 2" 2

is

= 7np.

based, hke his first, on the binomial theorem. If a, 6 are integers and p is a prime, (a+6)" a" 6" is divisible by p. Then, if a^ a and 6^ 6 are di\'isible by p, also (a+6)" a 6 is di\4sible by p.
L. Euler's^- second proof

Take
a=

= \.

Thus (a+1)" a 1

is

divisible

1, 2, 3,

... in turn,

we conclude

that 2'' 2,

by p 3" 3,

if
.

a^a
,

is.

Taking

c^

are divisible

by p.
L. Euler^^ preferred his third proof to his earlier proofs since it avoids the use of the binomial theorem. If* p is a prime and a is any integer not
*Hist.

Acad. Sc. Paris, annee 1704, pp. 42-4; ra4m., 358-362.

Petrop., 6, 1732-3, 106;

Comm. Ac.

Coram.

Arith.,

1,

1849, p.
Arith.,

2.

[Opera postuma,
21.

I,

1862,

167-8 (about 1778)]. ^Comm. Ac. Petrop., 8, ad "Novi Comm. Ac. Petrop.,

annum
3,

1736, p. 141;

Comm.

1, p.

ad annos 1*50-1, 121-2.

"Novi Comm. Ac. Petrop., 1, 1747-8, 20; Comm. Arith., 1, 50. Also, letter to Goldbach, Mar. 6, 1742, Corresp. Math. Phys. (ed. Fuss), I, 1843, 117. An extract of the letter is given in Nouv. Ann. Math., 12, 1853, 47. "Novi Comm. Ac. Petrop., 7, 1758-9, p. 70 (ed. 1761, p. 49); 18, 1773, p. 85; Comm. Arith., 1, 260-9, 518-9. Reproduced by Gauss, Disq. Arith., art. 49; Werke, 1, 1863, p. 40.

Chap.

Ill]

FerMAt's AND WiLSON's THEOREMS.

61

by y, at most p 1 of the positive residues < p, obtained by dividing by p, are distinct. Let, therefore; a" and a", where ix^v, have the same residue. Then a""" 1 is divisible by p. Let X be the least positive Then \,a,a^,..., a^~^ have disinteger for which a^ \ is divisible by p. IfX = p 1, Fermat's tinct residues when divided by p, so that X^p L theorem is proved. If X<p 1, there exists a positive integer k ik<p) which is not the residue of a power of a. Then k, ak, a^k, ., a^~^k have distinct residues, no one the residue of a power of a. Since the two sets If X< (p 1)/2, we start with give 2X distinct residues, we have 2X^ p 1. a new residue s and see that s, as, a^s, ., a^~^s have distinct residues, no one Hence X^ (p 1)/3. Proceeding in the residue of a power of a or of a^k. Thus d^~^ 1 is divisible by a'' 1 this manner, we see that X divides p L and hence by p. L. Euler^^ soon gave his fundamental generalization of Fermat's theorem from the case of a prime to any integer N: Euler's theorem: If n=(f){N) is the number of positive integers not exceeding N and relatively prime to N, then x" 1 is divisible by N for every integer x relatively prime to N.
divisible
1, a, a^,
.

Let
divided

be the least positive integer for which

,

x"

has the residue

when

by N. Then the residues of 1, a:, a:^, ... x"'^ are distinct and prime to N. Thus v^n. If v<n, there is an additional positive integer a less than A'' and prime to N. Then, when a, ax, ax^, ., ax"'^ are divided by N, the residues are distinct from each other and from those of the powers of x. Thus, 2v^n. Similarly, if 2v<n, then Zv^n. It follows in this manner
.

that V divides n.
J.

H. Lambert^^ gave a proof

proof

of

the

first

by

Euler.^"

If h is

Fermat's theorem differing shghtly from not divisible by the prime p, 6^"^ 1 is

divisible

by

p.

For, set 6

= c+L

Then

6^-^-1 =-l+c''-i + (p-l)c^-2+...+l

= -l+c^-'-c^-2 +0^"^-

+1+Ap,

where

is

an

integer.

The intermediate terms equal

c+1
Hence

c+1
-fA-/,

/='
P(c+1)

'

The theorem will thus follow by induction if / is shown to be integral. [Take p>2, so that p 1 is even.] Then c^"^ 1 is divisible by c+l, and by the hypothesis for the induction, by p. Since c-\-l = h is relatively
prime to
p,

is

an

integer.
8, 1760-1, p. 74; Lipsiae, 1769, 109.

"Novi Comm. Ac. Petrop.,

Comm.

Arith.,

1,

274-286;

2,

524-6.

"Nova Acta Eruditorum,

62

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

hi

E. Waring^^ first published the theorem that [Leibniz] l (p 1)! is by the prime p, ascribing it to Sir John Wilson^^ (1741-1793). Waring (p. 207; ed. 3, p. 356) proved that if a^ a is divisible by p, then (a+1)'' a 1 is, since {a+iy = a^-\-pA-\-l, "a, property first invented by Dom. Beaufort and first proved by Euler." J. L. Lagrange^^ was the first to publish a proof of Wilson's theorem. Let

divisible

(x+l)(x+2)

(x+p-l) =x''-^+AiX^-'+

-h^p-i.
.

R eplace x by x + 1 and multiply the resulting equation by x + 1 with the original equation multiplied by x+p, we get
{x+p){x^-'+.
.
.

Comparing

+A,_,) = {x+ir+Ai{x+ir-' +

+^p_i(x+l).
powers
of x.

Apply the binomial theorem and equate Thus

coefl5cients of like

Let p be a prime.

Then, for

0<k<p,

(j)

is

an integer
p.

divisible

by

p.

Hence

Ai, 2A2,

{p2)Ap_2 are

divisible

by

Also,

(P-1)4,..=

(P +
is
if

(PI})A:+(P-2)^+... = 1+^+A,+ ...+^,.2.

by
p.

Thus 1+Ap_i
Moreover,

divisible

By

the original equation, Ap_i

= (p 1)!,

so that Wilson's theorem follows.

is

any

integer, the proof

shows that

xP-^-l-(x+l)(x+2)...(x+p-l)
is

divisible

integers

x+1,.

by the prime .,x+p 1

.

p.
is

If

is

not divisible by

p,

some one
is

of the

divisible

by

p.

Hence

x''"^

1
By

divisible

by

p, giving Fermat's theorem. Lagrange deduced Wilson's theorem from Fermat's. for the differences of order p 1 of P~\ ., n^~^,
.

the formula^*

(1)

(p-i)\=p^-'-{p-i){p-iy-'+(^p~^){p-2r-'

-(^3^)(p-3)^-^+.
Dividing the second obtain the residue

.+(-1)^-^

member by

p,

and applying Fermat's theorem, we

"Meditationes algebraicae, Cambridge, 1770, 218; ed. 3, 1782, 380. "On his biography see Nouv. Corresp. Math., 2, 187.6, 110-114; M. Cantor, Bibliotheca math.,
(3), 3,

1902, 412;

4,

1903, 91.

"Nouv. M6m. Acad. Roy. BerUn, 2, 1773, ann^e 1771, p. 125; Oeuvres, 3, 1869, 425. Cf. N. Nielsen, Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Forh., 1915, 520. "Euler, Novi Comm. Ac. Petrop., 5, 1754-5, p. 6; Comm. Arith., 1, p. 213; 2, p. 532; Opera
postuma, Petropoli,
1,

1862, p. 32.

Chap.

Ill]

FeRMAt's AND WiLSON's THEOREMS.

63

Lagrange proved the converse of Wilson's theorem: If n divides then n is a prime. For n = 4m+l, w is a prime if (2-3. .2my has the remainder 1 when divided by n. For n = 4m 1, if (2m 1)! has the remainder ==1. L. Euler^" also proved by induction from a: = n to n+1 that
Finally,
l

+ (n 1)!,

(2)

xl

= a'-x{a-ir+(^iya-2r-(^f){a-Sr+...,
(1) ior

which reduces to
(3)

x = p l, a = p; and more generally,

. . .

a^_n{a-ir+(^){a-2y-

+(-l)^Q (a-A:r+

=|^,

^^

x<n x = n.

D'Alembert^^ stated that the theorem that the difference of order of a*" had been long known and gave a proof. L. Euler^^ made use of a primitive root a of the prime p to prove Wilson's theorem (though his proof of the existence of a was defective). When l,a,a^, ., oF~^ are divided by p, the remainders are 1, 2, 3, p 1 in some Hence a(p-i)(p-2)/2 j^^s the same remainder as (p 1) !. Taking p>2, order. we may set p = 2n+l. Since a" has the remainder 1, then a"a^"^'*~^\ and hence also (p 1)!, has the remainder 1. P. S. Laplace^^ proved Fermat's theorem essentially by the first method of Euler^ without citing him: If a is an integer <p not divisible by the prime p,
is

^l

= \a-l^lY = \\{a-iy+p{a-iy-'+
a a a

+l[

aV-^-\=-\{a-lY-\-l-a+hp{a-V)\ =^^\{a-iy-^-l+hp]
Cv

Hence by induction a^~^ l

is

divisible

by

p.

For a>p,

set

a = np+q and
of powering:

use the theorem for q. He gave a proof of Euler's^^ generalization

if

by the method
and
if

n = p''p{\
d

.,

where

then

p, Pi,... are distinct primes,

is

prime to

n,

is

divisible

by

n,

where

-"(^)(^)
q = p''-\p-l), Set
a'^ = x.

='^'
..

= pr-\Pi-l)P2''-\p2-l)..
divisible

theorem

Then a' l=x'" 1 is and a^~^ l = hp, we find

by
is

x 1.

Using the binomial

that

aj

divisible

by

p".

"Novi Comm. Ac.

Petrop., 13, 1768, 28-30. "Letter to Turgot, Nov. 11, 1772, in unedited papers in the Biblioth^que de I'lnstitut de France. Cf. BuU. Bibl. Storia Sc. Mat. e Fis., 18, 1885, 531. "Opuscula analytica, St. Petersburg, 1, 1783 [Nov. 15, 1773], p. 329; Comm. Arith., 2, p. 44; letter to Lagrange (Oeuvres, 14, p. 235), Sept. 24, 1773; Euler's Opera postuma, I, 583. "De la Place, Th^orie abr^g^e des nombres premiers, 1776, 16-23. His proofs of Fermat's and Wilson's theorems were inserted at the end of Bossut's Algdbre, ed. 1776, and reproduced by S. F. Lacroix, Trait6 du Calcul Diff. Int., Paris, ed. 2, vol. 3, 1818, 722-4, on p. 10 of which is a proof of (2) for o=a; by the calculus of differences.

64

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, ill

From

the (p l)th order of differences for x""^

1,

{x+p-ir-'-i-{p-i)\{x-\-p-2r-'-i\

+ (^p~^y,{x-{-p-sr-'-i\
l

Set x = l and use Fermat's theorem. Hence E. Waring/^ 1782, 380-2, made use of
x'
.

+ (p 1)!
.

is

divisible

by

p.

= xix-l). .{x-r-{-l)-\-Pxix-l). .(x-r+2) +Hx(x-l)+Ix, +Qxix-1) .(x-r+3)+

.
.

where

P = H-2+
1,

-f (r

products of

2,..., r

1), Q = PA^B, etc., B denoting the sum of the 1 two at a time, and A^ = l+2+ +(r 2).
. . .
.

Then

r+2'+

.+x^ = -^{x+l)x{x-l)

r+1

.ix-r+l)+-{x+l)x. ..{x-r+2)
r

+-^(x+l)x. ..{x-r+3)+.
Take

+^ix+l)x{x-l)-\-Ux+l)x.
.

r = x and let x+1 be a prime. By Fermat's theorem, V, 2"^, ., x' each has the remainder unity when divided by x+1, so that their sum has the remainder x. Thus l+x\ is divisible by x+1. Genty^^ proved the converse of Wilson's theorem and noted that an
.

equivalent test for the primahty of p is that p divide ( - 1)". For n = (p+ 1)/2, the latter expression is \ (^zi) !^

(p n)!(n 1)! 2 i [Lagrange^^].

Franz von Schaffgotsch^^ was led by induction to the fact (of which he n 2 can be paired gave no proof) that, if n is a prime, the numbers 2, 3, so that the product of the two in any pair is of the form xn+1 and the two of a pair are distinct. Hence, by multipUcation, 2-3...(n 2) has the remainder unity when divided by n, so that (n 1)! has the remainder n 1. For example, if n = 19, the pairs are 2-10, 4-5, 3-13, 7-11, 6-16, 8-12, 9-17, 14-15. Similarly, for n any power of a prime p, we can so pair the integers <n l which are not divisible by p. But for n=15, 4 and 4 are paired, also 1 1 and 1 1 Euler^^ had already used these associated
.
. .

residues (residua sociata).

F. T. Schubert^^" proved
of

by induction that the nth order

of differences

r, 2",....isn!.

A. M. Legendre-^ reproduced the second proof by Euler^^ of Fermat's theorem and used the theory of differences to prove (2) for a = x. Taking a; = p 1 and using Fermat's theorem, we get (p 1)!=(1 1)" 1 (mod p).
"Histoire et

m6m. de
d.

I'acad. roy. sc. insc.

de Toulouse,

3,

1788 (read Dec.

4, 1783), p. 91.

"Abhandlungen
"Opusc.
Arith.
1,

Bohmischen

Gesell. Wiss., Prag, 2, 1786, 134.

1783 (1772), 64, 121; Novi Comm. Ac. Petrop., 18, 1773, 85, 26; 480, 494, 519. ""Nova Acta Acad. Petrop., 11, ad annum 1793, 1798, mem., 174-7. "Th6orie des nombres, 1798, 181-2; ed. 2, 1808, 166-7.
anal., 1,

Comm.

Chap.

Ill]

FeRMAt's AND WiLSON's THEOREMS.

if n is a prime, 2, 3, product of the two of a pair
. .

65

C. F. Gauss^^ proved that,

in pairs such that the

n 2 can be associated
is

of the

form xn+1.

This step completes Schaffgotsch's^^ proof of Wilson's theorem. Gauss^^ proved Fermat's theorem by the method now known to be that used by Leibniz^ and mentioned the fact that the reputed proof by Leibniz had not then been published. Gauss^*^ proved that if a belongs to the exponent t modulo p, a prime, In fact, a primitive root p of p then a-a^-a^ .a^^i lY'^^ (mod p). may be chosen so that a=p^^~^^'\ Thus the above product is congruent
. .

to p*,

where

Thus p*=(p~2~}''^^ = ( 1)'"*"^ (mod

a^,.
(
.

.,

aF~^ are congruent to

1, 2,

. .

When a is a primitive root, a, 1 in some order. Hence (p 1) != p

p).
is

1)^.

This method of proving Wilson's theorem

essentially that of

Euler.22

Gauss^^ stated the generalization of Wilson's theorem: The product of the positive integers < A and prime to A is congruent modulo ^ to 1 if A = 4, p"* or 2p^, where p is an odd prime, but to 1 if ^ is not of one of these three forms. He remarked that a proof could be made by use of associated numbers^^ with the difference that a;^=l (mod A) may now have roots other than 1 also by use of indices and primitive roots^ of a

composite modulus.
S. F. Lacroix^^ reproduced Euler's^^ third proof of Fermat's theorem without giving a reference. James Ivory^^ obtained Fermat's theorem by a proof later rediscovered by Dirichlet.^" Let be any integer not divisible by the prime p. When l)N are divided by p, there result p disthe multiples N, 2N, SN, ., {p tinct positive remainders <p, so that these remainders are 1, 2, ., p in some order .^^ By multiplication, N^~^Q = Q-\-mp, where Q = (p 1)!. Hence p divides iV^~^ 1 since it does not divide Q. Gauss^^ used the last method in his proof of the lemma (employed in his third proof of the quadratic reciprocity law): If k is not divisible by the odd prime p, and if exactly /x of the least positive residues of k, 2k,. ., l{p-l)k modulo p exceed p/2, then k^p-'^^^^= ( - 1)" (mod p) [Cf Grunert.^^]

''^Disquisitiones Arith., 1801, arts. 24, 77; 2*Disq. Arith., art. 51, footnote to art. 50. soDisq. Arith., art. 75.

Werke,

1,

1863, 19, 61.

^iDisq. Arith., art. 78.

32Compl4ment des 416mens d'alglbre, Paris, ed. 3, 1804, 298-303; ed. 4, 1817, 313-7, "New Series of the Math. Repository (ed. Th. Leybourn), vol. 1, pt. 2, 1806, 6-8. "A fact known to Euler, Novi Comm. Acad. Petrop., 8, 1760-1, 75; Comm. Arith., 1, 275; and to Gauss, Disq. Arith., art. 23. Cf. G. Tarry, Nouv. Ann. Math., 18, 1899,
149, 292.

^''Comm. soc. reg.

transl.

so.

by H. Maser, Berhn,

Gottingensis, 16, 1808; Werke, 1889, p. 458.

2,

1-8.

Gauss' Hohere Arith.,

German

66
J.

History of the Theory of Numbers.

A. Gninert^ considered the series

[Chap,

hi

K
to

n]

which Euler's

(3)

= n-- (^) (71-1)-+ (n-2rreduces for a = n, x = m, and proved

n]=n\[m l, n l] + [w 1,
n]\

.,

that

[m,

This recursion formula gives

[m,n]

(m = 0, l,...,n-l);

[72,

n]=n\

[cf. (2)],

Any
is

[m, n] is di\isible

by

n\.

di\isible

by

w+1

if

the latter

As by the proof of Lagrange,^^ is a prime >n. Again,

[m, n]

+ 1)"
(

which

for x

= 0, h=l,

gives [m,

m]=ml.
.

G. Horner^" proved Euler's theorem by generaUzing Ivory's^^ method. r^ are the integers If ri, and prime to m, then riN, r^N have the r's as their residues modulo m. P. F. Verhulst^^ gave Euler's proof^^ in a sUghtly different form. F. T. Poselger^^ gave essentially Euler's^ first proof. G. L. Dirichlet^ derived Fermat's and Wilson's theorems from a common source. Call m and n corresponding numbers if each is less than the prime p and if mn=a (mod p), where a is a fixed integer not di\dsible by p (thus generahzing Euler's-^ associated numbers). Each number 1, 2, ., p 1 has (5ne and but one corresponding number. If a:"=a (mod p) has no integral solution, corresponding numbers are distinct and
. .

W.

<m

(p-l)!=a^-^)''2 (modp).

But
is

if

A;

is

a positive integer

<p

p A', and the product of the numbers has the same residue as a^^~^^^^, whence
case a =

such that ^'^=a (mod p), the second root 1, other than k and pk, 1, ., p
.
.

(p-l)!=-a^-i^/2(j^Q^p)

The

leads to Wilson's theorem.

By

the latter,

we have

a(p-i)/2=i (modp),
"Math. Abhandlungen, Erste Sammlung, Altona, 1822, 67-93. Some of the results were quoted by Gnmert, Archiv Math. Phys., 32, 1859, 115-8. For an interpretation in factoring of [m, n], see Minetola'" of Ch. X. "Annals of Phil. (Mag. Chem. .), new series, 11, 1826, 81. >8Corresp. Math. Phys. (ed. Qu^telet), 3, 1827, 71. "Abhand. Ak. Wiss. Berhn (Math.), 1827, 21.
.
.

"Jour,

fiir

Math.,

3,

1828, 390;

Werke,

1,

1889, 105.

Dirichlet," 34.

Chap.

Ill]

FeRMAT's AND WiLSON's THEOREMS.

67

or according as A;^=a (mod p) has or has not integral the sign being Squaring, we obtain Fermat's theorem. solutions (Euler's criterion). [Cf. Moreau.-^^^] Finally, Dirichlet rediscovered the proof by Ivory .^^ .^^ J. Binet^^ also rediscovered the proof by Ivory A. Cauchy^^ gave a proof analogous to that by Euler.^" An anonymous writer^^ proved that if n is a prime the binomial coeffi-

cient (n

l)k

has the residue

. .

1)*'

modulo

n, so that

{l+xr-'-l=-x+x^-

.+x''-\

{l+x)\{l+xy-^-l\^x{x''-^-l),

modulo n. Thus Fermat's theorem follows by induction on x as in the proof by Euler.^^ V. Bouniakowsky^ gave a proof of Euler's theorem similar to that by Laplace. ^^ If a^h is divisible by a prime p, aP^-'ifo^""' is divisible by p", are distinct primes, provided p>2 when the sign is plus. Hence if p, p' ,. where t = p''~^p"''~^ if a=*=6 is divisible o'6' is divisible by iV = p"p"*'. provided the p's are > 2 if the sign is plus. Replace a by its by pp' (p l)th power and 6 by 1 and use Fermat's theorem; we see that a' l is divisible by N if e=(f}{N). The same result gives a generalization of
.
. .

Wilson's theorem^

U?)-l)!t^'*"+l=0(modp").
{ibid., 563-4) Gauss'^" proof of Wilson's theorem. A. Grunert^^ used the known fact that, if 0<k<p, then k, 2k,. ., 1 in some order modulo p, a prime, (p l)k are congruent to 1, 2, ., p to show that kx=l (mod p) has a unique root x. Wilson's theorem then follows as by Gauss. If {ibid., p. 1095) we square Gauss' formula,^^ we get Fermat's theorem. Giovanni de Paoli^ proved Fermat's and Euler's theorems. In

He gave
J.

(x+iy=x^-\-i-{-pS,,

where p

is

a prime, S^

is

an

integer.

Change x
x-l

to x

1,

.
.

2, 1

and add the

resulting equations.

Thus

x^-x^p^S,.
Replace x by
a:"*,

divide
1

by

x"^

and

set

y = x^~'^.

Thus
and

rReplace

= pXm,
{p

X^=XSz"'/x'' = integer.

by 2m,...,
.

l)m,

Y=l +Xrn+X2m-\-

+X(,^i),n.

add the Thus

resulting equations,

set

r"-l=p(y"-l)F^ = p^X^7^.
"Jour, de I'^cole polytechnique, 20, 1831, 291 (read 1827). Cauchy, Comptes Rendus Paris, 12, 1841, 813, ascribed the proof to Binet. Exer. de math., 4, 1829, 221; Oeuvres, (2), 9, 263. R^sumg analyt., Turin, 1, 1833, 10. Jour. fiir Math., 6, 1830, 100-6. "M6m. Ac. Sc. St. P^tersbourg, Sc. Math. Phys. et Nat., (6), 1, 1831, 139 (read Apr. 1, 1829). "Kliigel's Math. Worterbuch, 5, 1831, 1076-9. "Opuscoli Matematici e Fisici di Diversi Autori, Milano, 1, 1832, 262-272.

68

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

hi

Change

to

mp,

. .

T/zp""^.

Thus

2/-^

- 1 = p(^-^ - 1) F^, = p^X^y^F^,,

Hence x^^^ 1 is divisible by N for iV" = p" and so for any N. For X odd, x^ 1 is divisible by 8, and x*'" 1 by 2(x^*" 1). As above, he found that x' - 1 is divisible by 2* for t = m-2'-^, i> 2. Thus, if iV = 2'n, n odd, X* 1 is divisible by N for A: = 2*"^0(n). A. L. Crelle^^ employed a fixed quadratic non-residue v of the prime p, and set j^=ry, vf=Vj (mod p). By multipUcation of
ip-jf=rj, and use
of v^^~'^^'^=

vf=v^ (mod p)
get

(i =

1,

^^)

\, we

-](p-l)!f2=nr,v,= (p-l)! (modp).

F. Minding^* proved the generaUzed Wilson theorem. Let P be the product of the tt integers a, /3, and relatively prime to A. Let ., A = 2''p"'g"r* where p, q,r,. are distinct odd primes, and 0. Take a quadratic non-residue t of p and determine a so that a=t (mod p), o=l (mod 2qr. .). Then a is an odd quadratic non-residue of A. Let ax=a (mod A). For ^9^x, a, let i3?/=a (mod A). Then y^^a, x, jS. In this way the TT numbers a, j8, can be paired so that the product of the two in any pair is =a (mod A), whence P=a''^^ (mod A). First, let A = 2''p^ Then a'=-l (mod p"^), s = p"*-^(p-l)/2, whence (mod^) if M = Oor L But, if m>1,
.
.

<A

m>

P=-l

a^={-iy
Next,
let

=l(modp'"),

a^=/
in

=l(mod2''),

P= + l(modA).

a*= 1 to the power (mod p"). A like congruence holds moduli g", r^ ., and 2", whence P=4-l (mod A). Finally, let A = 2", /x>L Then a= 1 is a quadratic non-residue of 2" and, as above, P= ( 1)^ (mod A),l = 2""^. The proof of Fermat's theorem due to Ivory^^ is given by Minding on p. 32.
m>l, n>l,

A.

Raising the above

2''"V~^(? !)
.

>

we

get a'^^=-\-l

J. A. Grunert*^ gave Horner's^^ proof of Euler's theorem, attributing the case of a prime to Dirichlet instead of Ivory .^^ part of the generalized

Wilson theorem was proved as follows: Let ri,. integers <p and prime to p. Let a be prime to

.,

r,

p.

denote the positive In the table

riflVg, r2a^rg,

. .

rqa\

'Abh. Ak. Wiss. Berlin (Math.), 1832, 66. Reprinted." "Anfangsgriinde der Hoheren Arith., 1832, 75-78. "Math. Worterbuch, 1831, pp. 1072-3; Jour, fiir Math. 8, 1832, 187.

Chap.

Ill]

FeKMAT's AND WiLSON's THEOREMS.

69

If this term be TkO^rk, replace it single term of a row is =1 (mod p). by (prk)a\^-l. Next, if r^^a^^ =f1, raVi=l, then rk-^ri=p and one of the r is replaced by pr^. Hence we may separate riO, ., r^a into q/2 pairs such that the product of the two of a pair is = 1 (mod p) Taking a = 1, we get ri .rg= 1 (mod p). The sign was determined only for the case p a prime (by Gauss' method).

A. Cauchy^*^ derived Wilson's theorem from

*Caraffa^^ gave a proof of Fermat's theorem.

(1),

page 62 above.

E. Midy^^ gave Ivory's^^ proof of Fermat's theorem, W. G. Horner^^ gave Euler's^^ proof of his theorem. G. Libri^^ reproduced Euler's proof^^ without a reference. Sylvester^^ gave the generalized Wilson theorem in the incomplete form
that the residue
is

1.

Th. Schonemann^^ proved by use of symmetric functions of the roots that if s"+6i2;""^+ ... =0 is the equation for the pth powers of the roots of x^+aiX^~^-{- ... =0, where the a's are integers and p is a prime, then hi=af (mod p). If the latter equation is (x 1)'' = 0, the former is 2'*-(nP+pQ)2"-^+. ..=0, and yet is evidently (2:-l)'* = 0. Hence
71^=71

(mod

p).

Brennecke^^ elaborated one of Gauss'^^ suggestions for a proof of the generalized Wilson theorem. For a>2, x^=l (mod 2) has exactly four incongruent roots, == 1, ='= (l+2"~^), since one of the factors x=^l, of difference 2, must be divisible by 2 and the other by 2""^. For p an odd prime, let ri, ., r^ be the positive integers <p" and prime to p", taking ri = l, r^ = p" 1. For 2^s^)u 1, the root x of r^x^l (mod p") is distinct from Thus 7-2, ... r^_i may be paired so that the product of the two Ti, r^, r^. of a pair is =1 (mod p"). Hence ri .r^= 1 (mod p"). This holds also for modulus 2p". For a > 2,
.
.

W.

(2-i-i)(2-i+l)=-l,
Finally, let N=p''M, where Then m=(f>{M) is even. The
rj>rj+p'^,

ri.

.r^=-\-l

(mod

2").

M
.,

is

divisible

integers

<N and prime to p are

(i

by an odd prime, but not by

p.

rj+2p%..

r,.+(M-l)p

= l,.

.,

m).
if

integers <iV and prime to N. Hence j, we obtain denotes the product of all the integers < and prime to iV,

For a fixed

\N\

\N\^{n.
ForiV = pV.-.,

.r^)'^=l

(mod

p").

\N\=1 (mod O,--, whence jiVt^l

(modiV).

"R6suin6 analyt., Turin, 1, 1833, 35. "Elem. di mat. commentati da Volpicelli, Rome, 1836, I, 89. "De quelques propri^t^s des nombres, Nantes, 1836. "London and Edinb. Phil. Mag., 11, 1837, 456. "M6m. divers savants ac. sc. Institut de France (math.), 5, 1838, 19. "Phil. Mag., 13, 1838, 454 (14, 1839, 47); Coll. Math. Papers, 1, 1904, 39. "Jour, fiir Math., 19, 1839, 290; 31, 1846, 288. Cf. J. J. Sylvester, Phil. Mag., "Jour, fiir Math., 19, 1839, 319.

(4), 18,

1859, 281.

70

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap.

HI

A. L. Crelle^^ proved the generalized Wilson theorem. By pairing each root <T of x-=l (mod s) with the root sa, and each integer a<s, prime to s and not a root, with its associated number a', where aa'=\ (mod s), we 1 or 1 see that the product of all the integers <s and prime to s is number n of pairs of roots o-, sois as the even or odd. (mod s) according two in every way as a product of factors v, u, whose To find n, express s g. c. d. is 1 or 2; in the respective cases, each factor pair gives a single root Treating four subcases at length it is shown that the num(T or two roots. ber of factor pairs is 2^" in each case, where k is the number of distinct odd primes dividing s and then that n is odd if s = 4, p"* or 2p", but even if n is not of one of these three forms. A. Cauchy^^" proved Fermat's theorem as had Leibniz.'* V^^ (S. Earnshaw?) proved Wilson's theorem by Lagrange's method and noted that, if Sr is the sum of the products of the roots of AqX"'+Aix"'~^-\(mod p) taken r at a time, then AoSi { iyAi is divisible by p. Paolo Gorini^" proved Euler's theorem 6'=1 (mod A), where t=(f>(A), p^'^ which by arranging in order of magnitude the integers (A) p', p", After omitting the numbers in (A) which are less than A and prime to A. Let 5^"^ be the least of are di\'isible by h, we obtain a set (B) q',. ., q^^\ the latter which when increased by A gives a multiple of h

=+

(C)

g(-)+A = p^'^^6.
(A) coincide with those in sets (B)

The numbers*
(D)

and (D)
(a-1)

p%p"b,...,p^-%.
cancellation of
p',

Hence by multiplication and

(F)

q'...qH''-^

To
by

each number (B) add the least b, say (G) q'+g'A,..., q^^+g^^A.

i(0 = p^''\..p^ multiple of A which

gives a

sum
is

divisible
q^''^-\-A

The

least

of

these

Each number (G) is <6A and all are distinct. The quoby di\'iding the numbers (G) by h are prime to A and hence included among the p^^V-j P^'\ whose number is ta-\-l=l, so that each arises as a quotient. Hence
p^^^h,

by

(C).

tients obtained

(H)

n(g+^A)=PA+g'.
this

.g^'^

= p'
p's.

pW-a+l
We
get

Combine
q'.
.

with (F) to eliminate the

.g6''-W-"+i

= PA+5'.

.q

(0

6'-l

= QA.

"Jour, fur Math., 20, 1840, 29-56. Abstract in Bericht Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1839, 133-5. 8aM6m. Ac. Sc. Paris, 17, 1840, 436; Oeuvres, (1), 3, 163-4. "Cambr. Math. Jour., 2, 1841, 79-81. "Annali di Fisica, Chimica e Mat. (ed., G. A. Majocchi), Milano, 1, 1841, 255-7. *To follow the author's steps, take A = 15, 6 = 2, whence = 8, i = 4, (A) 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14; 15 = 8-2, ?(<>) =8, a = 5; (D) 2, 4, 8, 14; (F) 171113 2 = 8111314; (B) 1, 7, 11, 13; (C) 1 (G) 1 15,7 15, 11+15;13 15, each g = l; the quotients of the latter by 2 are 8, 11, 13, 14, viz., last four in (A); (H) P.15 + 1.7.11.13=8.11.13.14.2; the second member ifl 1-71113 2" by (F). Hence 171113 (28-l) = 15P.

Chap.

Ill]

FeRMAT's AND WiLSON's THEOREMS.

71

E. Lionnet^^ proved that,

of 1,.
.

.,

p1

is

divisible

the products of Since

(l
l

1, ... ,p

if p is an odd prime, the sum of the mth powers by p for 0<m<p l. Hence the sum P^ of taken w at a time is divisible by p [Lagrange^^].

+ l)(l+2)...(H-p-l) = l+Pi+P2+...H-Pp-2+(p-l)!,
is

+ (p 1)!

divisible

by

p.

E. Catalan^^ gave the proofs by Ivory^^ and Horner.^^ C. F. Arndt^^ gave Horner's proof; and proved the generalized Wilson theorem by associated numbers. O. Terquem^^ gave the proofs by Gauss^^ and Dirichlet.^ A. L. Crelle^^ republished his proof'*'' of Wilson's theorem, as well as that by Gauss^ and Dirichlet.^ Crelle^^ gave two proofs of the generalized Wilson theorem, essentially that by Minding^^ and that given by himself.^^ is the number of distinct odd prime factors of z, and 2^" is the highest If power of 2 dividing z, and r is a quadratic residue of z, then (p. 150) the number n of pairs of roots x of x^=r (mod z) is 2""^ if = or 1, 2" if = 2, 2"'^^ if w>2. Using the fact (p. 122) that the quadratic residues of z are the e=(f){z)/(2n) roots of r*=l (mod z), it is shown (p. 173) that, if v is any integer prime to z, y*'^^^'''*=l (mod z), "a, perfection of the Eulerfj,

Fermat theorem."
L. Poinsot^^ failed in his

theorem.

He began

as

had

Crelle.^^

attempt to prove the generalized Wilson But he stated incorrectly that the

number n of pairs of roots =^x of x^^l (mod s) equals the number v of ways of expressing s as a product of two factors P, Q whose g. c. d. is 1 or 2. For each pair =^x, it is implied that x1 and x+1 uniquely determine P, Q. For s = 24, n = y = 4; but for the root x = 7 (or for x = 17), a: 1 yield P, Q = 3, 8, and 6, 4. To correct another error by Poinsot, let n be the number of distinct odd prime factors of s and let 2"* be the highest power of 2 dividing s; then y = 2''-^ 2", 3-2''-^ or 2"+^ according as w = 0, 1, 2, or ^3, whereas [Crelle*^^] n = 2''-\ 2''-\ 2^ 2"+^ No difficulty is met (pp. 53-5) in case the
modulus
integers
is

a power of a prime.
to

He

noted

(p. 33)

that

if Vi, r2,

are the

modulo tt/ti, Tr/ra, Thus, by Euler's theorem, 7r^= 1. This does not imply that 7r= =*= 1 as cited by Aubry,!" pp. 30O-I. Poinsot (p. 51) proved Euler's theorem by considering a regular polygon of N sides. Let x be prime to N and < N. Join any vertex with the xth vertex following
it,

<N and prime N to

N, and tt is their product, they are congruent ..., whence T=Tr''~^ (mod N), where v=(f){N).

the

new

vertex with the a:th vertex following

it,

etc.,

thus

defining a regular (star) polygon of

sides.

With the same

x,

derive

"Nouv. Ann. Math.,

/6td., 462-4.

1,

1842, 175-6.

Archiv Math. Phys., 2, 1842, 7, 22, 23. "Nouv. Ann. Math., 2, 1843, 193; 4, 1845, 379. Jour. fur Math., 28, 1844, 176-8.
8/bid., 29,

1845, 103-176.

^Jour.

de Math.,

7,

10, 1845, 25-30. 1846, 168, 367.

German

exposition

by

J.

A. Grunert, Archiv Math. Phys.,

72
similarly a

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap.

hi

new A^-gon, etc., until the initial polygon is reached.^ The number )U of distinct polygons thus obtained is seen to be a divisor of <t>{N), the number of polygons corresponding to the various a:'s. If in the initial polygon we take the x^th vertex following any one, etc., we obtain the Hence of and thus also x"^^^ has the remainder unity when initial polygon. [When completed this proof differs only shghtly from that divided by N. by Euler."] E. Prouhet^^ modified Poinsot's method and obtained a correct proof Let r be the number of roots of x^=l of the generalized Wilson theorem. (mod N), and w the number of ways of expressing iV as a product of two

= 2'"pi" p/", where the p's are distinct 2""^ if m = 0. By considering if m>0, 1^ = odd primes, evidently = or 2, r = w; if w = 1, r = 4iy if divisors of 1, it is proved that r = 2u' if m>2. Hence r = 2" if m = or 1, 2"+^ if m = 2, 2"+^ if m> 2. By Crelle,^^ (mod N). the product P of the integers <A'' and prime to N is =( Thus for jLt>0, P= + l unless m = or l,/i = l, viz., N = p^ or 2p'; while, for ^ = 0, N = 2"', m>2, we have r = 4, P=-\-l.
relatively

prime
a: =*=

factors.

If AT

w; = 2*'

ttz

1)''''^

Friderico Arndt'^ elaborated Gauss'^^ second suggestion for a proof of Let gf be a primitive root of the modulus the generalized Wilson theorem. p" or 2p", where p is an odd prime. Set y=0(p"). Then g, g^,. ., g" are congruent to the numbers less than the modulus and prime to it. If P is Hence P=-l. the product of the latter, P^g''-'^^^'^ But g"^=-l. Next, if n>2, the product of the incongruent numbers belonging to an = AB, exponent 2"""* is =1 (mod 2"). Next, consider the modulus and prime and B are relatively prime. The positive integers < where
.

to

M are congruent modulo M to Ayi-\-Bxj, where the

<B and prime to B.
a
7ri
3

0:^

are

<A and prime

to A, the yi are

But,
.

if

a=0(A),
.

= 'n.{Ayi+BXj)=B''xi.
=1

.Xa=Xi.

.x^

(mod A),

P=riTr2. ..^{x^.. .xJ'^^^Hniod A).

By

resolving

M into a product of powers of primes and applying the above

P=l
.
.

(mod M). the sign in J. A. Grunert^^ proved that if a prime n+l>2 divides no one of the .a+l, and integers ai, ., a, nor any of their differences, it divides aia2. stated that this result is much more general than Wilson's theorem (the case aj=j). But the generalization is only superficial since ai,. ., a are congruent modulo n+1 to 1,..., n in some order. His proof employed Fermat's theorem and certain complex equations involving products of at differences of n numbers and sums of products of n numbers taken
results,

we determine
.

a time.
J. F.
osCf. P.

Heather^^ gave without reference the

first results

of Grunert.^^

Bachmann, Die Elemente der Zahlentheorie, 1892, 19-23. Nouv. Ann. Math., 4, 1845, 273-8. "Jour, fvir Math., 31, 1846, 329-332. "Archiv Math. Phys., 10, 1847, 312. "The Mathematician, London, 2, 1847, 296.

Chap.

Ill]

FeRMAT's AND WiLSON's THEOREMS.

73

A. Lista'^^ gave Lagrange's proof of Wilson's theorem. V. Bouniakowsky'^^ gave Euler's^^ proof. P. L. Tchebychef^^ concluded from Fermat's theorem that

(a:-l)(x-2).
is

.(x-p+l)-a;^-i+l=0 (mod

p)
.

an identity if p is a prime. Hence if Sj is the sum of the products of 1, p 1 taken j at a time, Sj=0 (i<p 1), Sp_i= 1 (mod p), the last being
. .

Wilson's theorem.

gave an incomplete statement and proof of the generalby use of associated numbers. Likewise futile was his attempt to extend Dirichlet's^" method [not cited] of association into pairs with the product = a (mod m) to the case of a composite m. E. Desmarest" gave Euler's^^ proof of Fermat's theorem.
Sir F. PoUock'^^

ized Wilson theorem

0. Schlomilch^^'' considered the quotient

{p_ () (_i)p+ () (_2)pJ. J. Sylvester'^*

f/n!.

took x =
.

l, 2,.

.,

p1

in turn in
. .

{x-l){x-2)
where p
linear
is

(x-p+l) =x^-'+A,x^-^+
. .

+A,_i,

a prime.

Since x^~^=l
in Ai,
.

and homogeneous

(mod p), there result p 1 congruences Ap_2, Ap-i+1, the determinant of whose
1, 2,
.

coefficients is the

product of the differences of

.
.

p 1 and hence not

giving Wilson's

divisible

by

p.

Thus Ai=0,..., Ap_i+1=0, the

last

theorem.

W. Brennecke'^^ proved Euler's theorem by the methods of Horner^^ and Laplace, ^^ noting that
{a^-y=l (mod
p^),

(a^-i)^'=l

(mod

p^), ....

He gave
J.

the proof by Tchebychef ^^ and his own proof." T. Graves^" employed nx=n+l (mod p), where p is a prime, and stated that, for n = l,..., p 1, then x=2,..., p in some order. Also x=p ior n = p l. Hence 2-3. .(p l)=p 1 (mod p). H. Durege^^ obtained (2) for a = x and Grunert's^^ results on the series [m, n] by use of partial fractions for the reciprocal o( x(x l) .{x n). E. Lottner^^ employed for the same purpose infinite trigonometric and algebraic series, obtaining recursion formulae for the coefficients.
.
.

"Periodico Mensual Cienciaa Mat. y Fis., Cadiz, 1, 1848, 63. T*BuU. Ac. Sc. St. P6tersbourg, 6, 1848, 205. "Theorie der Congruenzen, 1849 (Russian); in German, 1889, 19. Same proof by Serret, Cours d'algebre sup^riem-e, ed. 2, 1854, 324. ^Proc. Roy. Soc. London, 5, 1851, 664. "TMorie des nombres, Paris, 1852, 223-5. ""Jour, fur Math., 44, 1852, 348. "Cambridge and Dublin Math. Jour., 9, 1854, 84; Coll. Math. Papers, 2, 1908, 10. "Einige Satze aus den Anfangsgriinden der Zahlenlehre, Progr. Realschule Posen, 1855. soBritish Assoc. Report, 1856, 1-3. "Archiv Math. Phys., 30, 1858, 163-6. "/bid., 32, 1859, 111-5.

J.

A.

74
J.

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

hi

M.

Toeplitz^ gave Lagrange's proof of Wilson's theorem. A. Stern^ made use of the series for log (1 x) to show that

1+x+xH.
Multiply together the series for

. .

=-^ =
lx

e'+*'/2+^/3+...^

e', e'*^^,

etc.

By

the coeflBcient of

x^.

p!

P'

(p-2)!'

Take p a prime.

No

term

of s has a factor

in the denominator.

Hence

(p-l)! = ^-tfcli^ = integer. P Wilson's obtained theorem by taking x = p l Lebesgue^^ A. V.

(1-s)

in

pX
k=i
If

Hk+l)

{k-\-p-2)

=x(x+l)

(x+p-1).

a composite number ?^4, (P 1)! is di\'isible by P. He (p. 74) attributed Ivory's^^ proof of Fermat's theorem to Gauss, without reference. G. L. Dirichlet^^ gave Horner's" and Euler's^^ proof of Euler's theorem and derived it from Fermat's by the method of powering. His proof (38) of the generalized Wilson theorem is by associated numbers, but is somewhat simpler than the analogous proofs. = p^pi' .... For Jean Plana" used the method of powering. Let

is

prime to N, M^~'^

= 1 +pQ.

Hence

for e = (p{p^pi'), M" ! is divisible bj' p'' and p/' and hence by their product, etc. Plana gave also a modification of Lagrange's proof of Wilson's theorem by use of (2) take x=a = p l, subtract the expansion of (1 1)""^ and write the resulting series in reverse order:

Thus

(p-l)!+l = (^2^)(2^-^-l)-(V)(3^-^-l)+... -(^:D](p-2)^-^-lt + 1(p-i)''-'-ifH. F. Talbot^^ gave Euler's^^ proof of Fermat's theorem. proved the last statement of Euler.^ C. Sardi^^ gave Lagrange's proof of Wilson's theorem. P. A. Fontebasso^*^ proved (2) for x = a by finding the first term of the and then setting y = 0,h = l. ath order of differences ofy'',{y+hy,{y-\-2hy,.
J. Blissard^^"
.
.

Leipzig, 1860, 391. "Introd. thdorie des nombres, Paris, 1862, 80, 17. "Zahlentheorie (ed. Dedekind), 19, 20, 127, 1863; ed. 2, 1871; ed. 8'Mem. Acad. Turin, (2), 20, 1863, 148-150. "Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 23, 1864, 45-52. ss^'Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 6, 1866, 26-7. "Giomale di Mat., 5, 1867, 371-6. "Saggio di una introd. arit. trascendente, Treviso, 1867, 77-81.

^'Archiv Math. Phys., 32, 1859, 104. "Lehrbuch der Algebraischen Analysis,

3,

1879, ed. 4, 1894.

Chap.

Ill]

FeRMAT's AND WilSON's THEOREMS.

.

75

fraction to base
.

.a of the periodic C. A. Laisant and E. Beaujeux^^ used the period ai B for the irreducible fraction pi/q, where q is prime to B. li P2,. ., Pn are the successive remainders,
.

Bpi = aiq+p2,

Bp2 = a2q+P3,.

.,

Bpr,

= anq+Pi.
.

Starting with the second equation, we obtain the period a2. .aai for P2/qSimilarly for ps/q,. ., Pn/qThus the f=(p{q) irreducible fractions with denominator q separate into sets of n each. Hence /=A;n. Since 5'*=!,
.

B^=l (modg).
L. Ottinger^-

employed
.

differential calculus to

show

that, in

P={a+d){a+2d).. \a+ip-l)d\ =aP-i+Ci^~V-2d+C2^-V-3d2_|__ ^

3=1

q~ri1, 2,
,
.

Cr being the

sum

of the products of
(r

A;

taken

r at

a time.

Hence,

if

is

a prime, C?~^

= 1,

.,

p 2)

is

divisible

by

p,

and
p).

P=aP-i+c^-2d. ..{p-l)d (mod

For a = d = l, this gives 0=l + (p 1)! (mod p). H. Anton^^ gave Gauss' ^^ proof of Wilson's theorem. J. Petersen^^ proved Wilson's theorem by dividing the circumference of a circle into p equal parts, where p is a prime, and marking the points Designate by 12. .p the polygon obtained by joining 1 with 2, 1, ., p. 2 with 3,. ., p with 1. Rearranging these numbers we obtain new polygons, not all convex. While there are p! rearrangements, each polygon can be designated in 2p ways [beginning with any one of the p numbers as first and reading forward or backward], so that we get (p 1)!/2 figures. Of The others are congruent in sets of p, since by these ^(p 1) are regular. rotation any one of them assumes p positions. Hence p divides (p 1)!/2 -(p-l)/2 and hence (p-2)!-l. Cf. Cayley^o^. To prove Fermat's theorem, take p elements from q with repetitions in all ways, that is, in q^ ways. The q sets with elements all alike are not changed by a cyclic permutation of the elements, while the remaining q^ q sets are permuted in sets of p. Hence p divides q^q. [Cf. Perott,^^
. . . .

Bricard.i"]

F. Unferdinger^^ proved

by use

of series of exponentials that

2''-(';')(^-ir+(2)(^-2r-...+(-ir(^)(2-mr
'

"Nouv. Ann. Math., (2), 7, 1868, 292-3. "Archiv Math. Phys., 48, 1868, 159-185.
''Ibid., 49,

1869, 297-8. "Tidsskrift for Mathematik, (3), 2, 1872, 64-65 (Danish). "^Sitzungsberichte Ak. Wisa. Wien, 67, 1873, II, 363.

76
is

History of the Theory of Numbers.

ii

[Chap,

hi

zero

n<m,

but,

if

ti^tt^,

equals

where

may be identified with a property of periodic fractions [cf. Laisant^^]. Let be prime to R. Taking R as the base of a scale of notation, divide 100. .by A^ and let gi .g be Then (72" l)/iV = Q'i. .5. Unless the n remainders r^ the repetend. and prime to A^, we divide r/ 00. .by A^, where exhaust the integers r/ is one of the integers distinct from the r,-, and obtain n new remainders r/. divides R'^'-^ l. In this way it is seen that n divides (p{N), so that [At

For n = m, the initial sum equals Em = rn\. P. Mansion^ noted that Euler's theorem

<N

bottom

this is Euler's^* proof.]

P. Mansion^^ reproduced this proof, made historical remarks on the theorem and indicated an error by Poinsot.^^ Franz Jorcke^^ reproduced Euler's^^ proof of Wilson's theorem. G. L. P. V. Schaewen^^ proved (2) with a changed to p, by expanding

the binomials. Chr. ZeUer^o" proved that, for

n ?^ 4,

by n unless n is a prime such that n 1 divides x, in which case 1 (mod n) the expression is A. Cayley^^ proved Wilson's theorem as had Petersen.^^ = 2'pi''\ .p'", where the p's are disE. Schering^^^ took a prime to tinct odd primes and proved that x^=a (mod m) has roots if and only if a is a quadratic residue of each Pi and if a l (mod 4) when 7r = 2, a=l (mod 8) when 7r>2, and then has \l/{m) roots, where \p{m)=2'', 2""^^ or 2"''"^, according as 7r<2, 7r = 2, or 7r>2. Let a be a fixed quadratic residue Set a.- =maj. The of m and denote the roots by ^aj (j = l,. ., 4'/2). than integers and prime to m, other the ay, a/, may be <}>{m)\f/{ni) = aja'j=a where (mod m). From the denoted by aj, a/ (i |iA+lj- ? 20)j
is divisible

<m

latter

and aja/=a

(i

= l,

.,

^/2),

we

obtain,
.r^

by

multiplication,

^i^(m)

= (_j)}*(m)^^

(mod w),

Messenger Math., 5, 1876, 33 (140); Xouv. Corresp. Math., 4, 1878, 72-6. "Th6orie des nombres, 1878, Gand (tract). *Uber Zahlenkongruenzen, Progr. Fraustadt, 1878, p. 31. "Die Binomial Coefficienten, Progr. Saarbriicken, 1881, p. 20. looBull. des sc. math, astr., (2), 5, 1881, 211^. "'Messenger of Math., 12, 1882-3, 41; CoU. Math. Papers, 12, p. 45. iwActa Math., 1, 1882, 153-170; Werke, 2, 1909, 69-86.

Chap.

Ill]

FeRMAt's AND WiLSON's THEOREMS.

77

and prime to m. Taking a=l, we have where the Vj are the integers Applying a like argument when a is a Wilson theorem. generahzed the
quadratic non-residue of

<m

[Minding^^],

we

get

^J^(m)^^^_ .r^=(_l)^'^(') (mod m).

This investigation is a generaUzation of that by Dirichlet.*" .{x-\-p l), and F^ for the E. Lucas^"^ wrote Xp for x{x-\-l) taken at time. Thus a the products of 1, p g
.
.

sum

of

^ ~rA p-i^
Replacing p by
1,
. .

~r

~rA p-i^ Xp.

.,

in turn

and

solving,

we

get

where
plp2

pn p+1
Y'*~p

(-l)"-^+'A-p+i =

r^

o...iri
1 on the F's being dropped. After repeating the argument the subscript p by Tchebychef^^, Lucas noted that, if p is an odd prime, A_p+i=l or (mod p), according as p 1 is or is not a divisor of n. G. Wertheim^^ gave Dirichlet's^^ proof of the generalized Wilson

theorem; also the first step in the proof by Arndt.^ W. E. HeaP''^ gave without reference Euler's^'* proof. E. Catalan^^ noted that if 2n+l is composite, but not the square of a prime, n\ is divisible by 2n+l; if 2n+l is the square of a prime, (n!)^ is
divisible

by 2n+l.

C. Garibaldi^"^ proved Fermat's theorem by considering the number of combinations of ap elements p at a time, a single element being selected from each row of the table

en

^12.

.eia

^pl ^p2

^pa.

From

all possible combinations are to be omitted those containing elements 1. Let An denote the number of from exactly n rows, for n = l, ., p combinations p at a time of an elements forming n rows, such that in each combination occur elements from each row. Then
. .

--iV-tO^"'BuU. Soc. Math. France, 11, 1882-3, 69-71; Mathesis, 3, 1883, 25-8. i^Elemente der Zahlentheorie, 1887, 186-7; Anfangsgriinde der Zahlenlehre, 1902, 343-5
(331-2).

"'Annals of Math., 3, 1887, 97-98. M6m. soc. roy. so. LiSge, (2), 15, 1888 (Melanges Math., Ill, 1887, 139). "^Giornale di Mat., 26, 1888, 197.

78

History of the Theory of Numbers.

e^

[Chap,

hi

Take each
tions

=1

then

N = a^
0"=

becomes the sum

of all products of

smce the number of the specified combinap factors unity, one from each row

of the table.

Thus
(

^j=a

(mod

p).

Genese^^ proved Euler's theorem essentially as did Laisant.'^ If ^(n) F. Daniels^^^ proved the generahzed Wilson theorem. and prime to n, he proved by inducdenotes the product of the integers For, if pi, tion that ^(p')= 1 (mod p') for p an odd prune. ., p are the integers < p' and prime to it, then pi +jp', ., Pn +ip' (i = 0, 1 p 1)

R.

W.

M.

<n

are the integers

< p'"^^ and

. .

prime to
l^,

it.

He proved
iA(2)
I

similarly

by induction

that

1/^(2')

(mod 4). (mod m), (mod m),

= + ! (mod 2') if 7r>2. If m = a''b^ and n = (mod n) lead by \l/{n) =

.

r)

= l (mod 2), //(4)=-l a new prime, then \p(m)=e the preceding method to \l/{mn) = e'^^"^
Evidently

where

is

viz., 1,

unless

n = 2.
if

The theorem now

x
is

follows easily.
. .

are ., where A, B,. powers of distinct primes, and if (f){A), (l>{B),. ., then In case A = 2^', A:> 2, we may replace (j){A) by its half. To x'^= 1 (mod n). get a congruence holding whether or not x is prime to n, multiply the former congruence by x", where a is the greatest exponent of the prime factors of n. Note that <}>-\-<T<n [Bachmann^^^' "^]. CarmichaeP^^ wrote X(n) for 0. E. Lucas^^^ found A^~^x^~^ in two ways by the theory of differences. Equating the two results, we have

E. Lucas^^^ noted that,

prime to n = AB is the 1. c. m. of

(p-i)!=(p-ir^-(^7^)(p-2ri+...-(^:^)i p-i
Each power on the
right
is

=1

(mod

p)

Thus

(p-l)!=(l-l)p-i-l=-l (modp).
P. A.

number
allowed,

of circular permutations of
is

MacMahon^^^ proved Fermat's theorem by showing that the p distinct things n at a time, repetitions
h<l>(d)p^^',
ft

where d ranges over the divisors of

n.

For n a prime,

this gives
^^

p"+(n l)p=0,

p"=p (mod

n).

Another specialization led to Euler's generalization. E. Maillet^^^ applied Sylow's theorem on subgroups whose order is the highest power p'' of a prime p dividing the order m of a group, viz.,
"^British Association Report, 1888, 580-1. ""Lineaire Congruenties, Diss. Amsterdam, 1890, 104-114. ""BuU. Ac. Sc. St. P6tersbourg, 33, 1890, 496. ">Mathesis, (2), 1, 1891, 11; Th^orie des nombres, 1891, 432. ""Proc. London Math. Soc, 23, 1891-2, 305-313. "'Recherches sur les substitutions, Thse, Paris, 1892, 115.

Chap.

Ill]

FeRMAT's AND WiLSON's THEOREMS.

79

'm

= pN{l+np), when h = l. For the sjonmetric group on p letters, m = p\ and N = p \, so that (p 1)!= 1 (mod p). There is exhibited a special group for which m = pa^, N = a, whence a^=a (mod p).
G. Levi"* failed in his attempt to prove Wilson's theorem.

Let b and

a={p l)h have the least positive residues ri and r when divided by p. Then r+ri = p. Multiply h/p = q+ri/p by p 1. Thus ri(p 1) has the
same residue as
a, so

that

ri(p-l)=r+mp,

- = q{p-l)+m+-

Ci

that ri(p l)=r, falsely, as the example p = 5, 6 = 7, shows. last equation to r+ri = p and concluded that ri = l, r = p l, The fact that this argument is independent so that (a+l)/p is an integer. of Levi's initial choice that 6 = (p 2) and his assumption that p is a prime

He concluded He added the

shows that the proof is fallacious. Axel Thue"^ obtained Fermat's theorem by adding

a''-{a-iy = l+kp,
[PaoU*^].

{a-iy-{a-2y = l+hp,
.,

...,

P-0^=1
By adding

divisible

Then by p for J = 1,.

the differences A^i^(j) of the first order of F{x)=x^~'^ are

.

p-2;

likewise A^/^(l),.
(i = l,.
.

.,^''-^F{l),
.,

A^+i/r(o)=A^F(l)-A^(0)

p-2),

we

get

-A^-^/?'(0)

= 1+AV(1)-A2/?'(1)+.

.+A^-2F(1),

(p-l)!+l=0(modp).

N. M. Ferrers" repeated Sylvester's"^^ proof of Wilson's theorem. M. d'Ocagne"^ proved the identity in r:

(r+l)^+i+^^i^SPfcl^PV(^+l)'^'"''(-0*'=r'+' + l,
where g = [(A;+l)/2] and P^"^ is the product of n consecutive integers of which m is the largest, while P^ = L Hence if /c+1 is a prime, it divides (j,_[_j)A:+i_^fc+i_2^ and Fermat's theorem follows. The case k = p l shows that if p is a prime, q={p l)/2, and r is any integer,

S
t=i

P%-.^i

PV(^+l)''"''(-^)*=0 (mod

g!).

T. del Beccaro"^ used products of linear functions to obtain a very compUcated proof of the generalized Wilson theorem. A. Schmidt"^ regarded two permutations of 1, 2, ., p as identical if one is derived from the other by a cyclic substitution of its elements. From one of the (p 1)! distinct permutations he derived a second by adding
.

"*Atti del R. Istituto Veneto di Sc, (7), 4, 1892-3, pp. 1816-42. "'Archiv Math, og Natur., Kristiania, 16, 1893, 255-265.

'"Messenger Math., 23, 1893-4, 56. "^Jour. de I'^cole polyt., 64, 1894, 200-1. "8Atti R. Ac. Lincei (Fis. Mat.), 1, 1894, 344-371.
""Zeitschrift

Math. Phys.,

40, 1895, 124.

80

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

hi

be the least number unity to each element and replacing p+1 by 1. Let For of repetitions of this process which will yield the initial permutation. = l or p. There are p 1 cases in which m = \. Hence p a prime,

(p

1) (p 1) is divisible by p. Cf Petersen.^^ Many proofs of (3), p. 63, have been given. ^^

! .

D. von Sterneck^-^ gave Legendre's proof of Wilson's theorem. L. E. Dickson^-^ noted that, if p is a prime, p(p 1) of the p! substitutions on p letters have a linear representation x'=ax-\-h, a^O (mod p), while the remaining ones are represented analytically by functions of degree > 1 which fall into sets of p^(p 1) each, viz., aJ{x-^h)-\-c, where a is prime top. Hencep!p(p l) is a multiple of p^(p l), and therefore (p 1)!+1 is a multiple of p. C. Moreau^-^ gave without references Schering's^^ extension to any modulus of Dirichlet's^ proof of the theorems of Fermat and Wilson. H. Weber^'^ deduced Euler's theorem from the fact that the integers and prime to m form a group under multiplication, whence every integer belongs to an exponent dividing the order 0(m) of the group. E. Cahen^-^ proved that the elementary symmetric functions of 1,. ., p 1 of order <p 1 are divisible by the prime p. Hence

Km

(a:-l)(a:-2).
identically in x.
J. Perott^-^

.(a:-p+l)=xP-^+(p-l)! (modp),
l

The

case x =

gives Wilson's theorem, so that also Ferq^ ''con-

mat's theorem follows.

gave Petersen's^^ proof of Fermat's theorem, using

figurations" obtained

by placing the numbers

arranged in a line. It is noted that the proof is for example, if p = 4, g = 2, the set of configurations derived from 1212 by cyclic permutations contains but one additional configuration 2121. L. Kronecker^^^ proved the generalized Wilson theorem essentially as

2,..., q into p cases, not vaUd for p composite;

1,

had Brennecke.^^
G. Candido^^^ made use of the identity

aP+6P= (a+6)P-pa6(a+6)P-2+
^^_^).
1-2.

p(p-2r+10...(p-r-l)
.

.,,_^

^^^

.r

Take p a prime and 6= 1.

Thus

a^

a=(a 1)^ (a 1) (mod

p).
A. Capelli

"L'mterm6diaire des math., 3, 1896, 2&-28, 229-231; 7, 1900, 22-30; 8, 1901, 164. Giornale di Mat., 31, 1893, 310. S. Pincherle, ibid., 40, 1902, 180-3. "iMonatshefte Math. Phys., 7, 1896, 145. Annals of Math., (1), 11, 1896-7, 120. i"Nouv. Ann. Math., (3), 17, 1898, 296-302. i^Lehrbuch der Algebra, II, 1896, 55; ed. 2, 1899, 61. ^"l6ment3 de la throne des nombres, 1900, 111-2. >'Bull. des Sc. Math., 24, I, 1900, 175. i"Vorlesungen uber Zahlentheorie, 1901, I, 127-130. "'Giomale di Mat., 40, 1902, 223.

Chap.

Ill]

FeRMAT's AND WiLSON's THEOREMS.

81

P. Bachmann^^^ proved the first statement of Lucas."*' He gave as a of Euler's theorem (p. 320) the proof by Euler,^^ and of the generaUzed Wilson theorem (p. 336) essentially the proof by Arndt.^ J. W. Nicholson^^^ proved the last formula of Grunert.^^ Bricard^^^ changed the wording of Petersen's^^ proof of Fermat's theorem. Of the q^ numbers with p digits written to the base q, omit the q numbers with a single repeated digit. The remaining q^q numbers fall into sets

"new" proof

each of p distinct numbers which are derived from one another by cyclic permutations of the digits. G. A. Miller^^^ proved the generalized Wilson theorem by group theory. The integers relatively prime to g taken modulo g form under multiplication an abelian group of order (f){g) which is the group of isomorphisms of a But in an abelian group the product of all the elecyclic group of order g. ments is the identity if and only if there is a single element of period 2. It is shown that a cyclic group is of order p", 2p* or 4 if its group of isomorphisms contains a single element of period 2. V. d'Escamard^^^ reproduced Sylvester's''^ proof of Wilson's theorem. K. Petr^^* gave Petersen's^ proof of Wilson's theorem. Prompt^^ gave an obscure proof that 2^~^ 1 is divisible by the prime p. G. Arnoux^^ proved Euler's theorem. Let X be any one of the v=4>{m) integers a, /3, 7, We can solve the con., prime to m and <m.
. .

gruences

aa'=/3/3'=77'=

=\
|S,
. .

Here

a',

jS',

.form a permutation of

a,

(mod m). Thus

.

V=\

In particular, for X = l, we get (a/3. .)^=1. Hence for any X prime to m, (mod m). [Of. Dirichlet/" Schering,i2 C. Moreau.i^^] .)^ 1 as did Arnoux^^^, but inferred R. A. Harris^^^" proved that (aj8
. . .

falsely that a./3

= 1.

A. Aubry^^'^ started, as had Waring in 1782, with

where yp = a:(a; 1).

x=

.(x p+1).

Then
. . .

x'+i-a;'^=

F+i+A7+
\n\

-I-MF3+F2.

Summing

for

1,

.
.

p 1 and

setting Sk =
,

l*+2*+

+ (p 1)*, we get
\2\

_\nl\_

,MJ3J

n+2

w+1

Niedere Zahlentheorie, I, 1902, 157-8. ""Amer. Math. Monthly, 9, 1902, 187, 211. "iNouv. Ann. Math., (4), 3, 1903, 340-2. "2Annals of Math., (2), 4, 1903, 188-190. Cf. V. d'Escamard, Giornale di Mat., 41, 1903, 203-4; U. Scarpis, ihid., 43, 1905, 323-8. "Giomale di Mat., 43, 1905, 379-380. i=^Casopis, Prag, 34, 1905, 164. ^"Remarques sur le theorSme de Fennat, Grenoble, 1905, 32 pp. "'Arithm^tique Graphique; Fonctions Arith., 1906, 24. iMath. Magazine, 2, 1904, 272. "'L'enseignement math., 9, 1907, 434-5, 440.

82

History of the Theory of Numbers.

. .

[chap.

hi

Hence, if p is a prime and n<p 1, where \k\ =p{p l) .(p k). s=0(n<p 1), Sp_i= (p 1)!. Thus Hence But Si^O. Sn+iSn0. Wilson's theorem follows from Fermat's. Without giving references, Aubry (p. 298) attributed Horner's" proof of Euler's theorem to Gauss; the proof (pp. 439-440) by Paoli^^ (and Thue^^^) of Fermat's theorem to Euler^^; the proof (p. 458) by Laplace^^ of Euler's theorem by powering to Euler. R. D. CarmichaeP^^ noted that, if L is the 1. c. m. of all the roots z of Hence except when n 0(2) = a, and if a: is prime to L, then a:= 1 (mod L). and n/2 are the only numbers whose </)-function is the same as that of n, ^pM = ^ holds for a modulus which is some multiple of n. A practical
is given. method of finding R. D. CarmichaeP^^ proved the

first result

by

Lucas.^^

J.

A.

Donaldson^^ deduced Fermat's theorem from the theory of

periodic fractions.

W. A. Lindsay"^ proved Fermat's theorem by use of the binomial theorem. ^^ J. I. Tschistjakov"^ extended Euler's theorem as had Lucas. P. Bachmann^^^ proved the remarks by Lucas,^^ but replaced <f>+(r<n
stating that the sign is if n is divisible by at least two distinct primes. A. Thue^^ noted that a different kinds of objects can be placed into n given places in o" ways. Of these let 11'^ be the number of placings such that each is converted into itself by not fewer than n applications of the operation which replaces each by the next and the last by the first. Then U2 is divisible by n. If n is a prime, 1/1 = a"" a and we have Fermat's theorem. Next, a''=2[/a, where d ranges over the divisors of n. Finally,

by 71^0 +(7,

>

if

p, 5,

. .

r are the distinct

prime factors of

n,

C/^=S(-l)?a"/^=0 (mod
.

n),

where D ranges over the distinct divisors oi pq. .r, while is the number prime factors of D. Euler's theorem is deduced from this. H. C. PockUngton^^^ repeated Bricard's^^^ proof. U. Scarpis^^^ proved the generalized Wilson theorem by a method similar The case of modulus 2^" (X>2) is treated by induction. to Arndt's.^ Assume that Ilr=l (mod 2^), where ri, ., r are the v=4>{2^) odd integers 2^"+^ and <2^. Then rj, ., r ri+2^, ., r+2'' are the residues modulo Next, let the modulus be their product is seen to be =1 (mod 2''"''^).
of
. .
.

"BuU. Amer. Math. Soc,

"'/bid., 16, 1909-10, 232-3.

15, 1908-9, 221-2.

""Edinburgh Math. Soc. Notes, 1909-11, 79-84.

"i/bwf., 78-79.

"^Tagbl. XII Vers. Russ. Nat., 124, 1910 (Russian). iNiedere Zahlentheorie, II, 1910, 43-44. '*^Skrifter Videnskaba-Selskabet, Christiania, 1910, No. >Nature, 84, 1910, 531. iPeriodico di Mat., 27, 1912, 231-3.

3,

7 pp.

Chap.

Ill]

FeEMAT's AND WiLSON's ThEOKEMS.

.

83

n = pi'

.p^'*

{h>2), n9^2p^.
h

Then a system
n
'

of residues

modulo

n,

each

prime to

n, is given

by S A,r with
i=l

A
where
Let

\</>(pi0
}

w)
<p(n/pi-i\
^

r^ ranges over a system of residues modulo pi"', each prime to p,. be the product of these SA,rj. Since AiAj is divisible by n if iT^j,

p_2Ai^W(nr,)^
t=i

(modn).

Thus

1,

and hence by n. proved Fermat's theorem. A. Bottari^^^ proved Wilson's theorem by use of a primitive root [Gauss^]. J. Schumacher^^^ reproduced Cayley's^^ proof of Wilson's theorem. A. Arevalo^^ employed the sum /S of the products taken n at a time of 2, p 1. By the known formula
is

P 1

divisible

by each

p^

*Illgner^^^

it

follows

by induction that Sn
a{a+r)..
.

is

divisible

by the prime p
.
.

if

n<p 1.

In

the notation of Wronski, write

a^^*"

for
=a''-\-Sia''-''r+
.

\a+ip-l)r\
Also,

.+Sp_iar^-\

For a = r =
r

l,

we have p! = l+*Si+.

giving Wilson's theorem.

.-\-Sp^i, whence >Sp_i= 1 (mod p), a^^''=a^a'r^~^. Dividing by a and taking

= l, we have
(a+l)(^-^^/^=a^-i-l (modp).
left

The

member

theorem.

is divisible by p if o is not. Hence we have Fermat's Another proof follows from Vandermonde's formula

(x+ay^'= S
(xi

(J)x^p-''^^'a^^'=x''^'+a''^'
. . .

(mod

p),

+xy'-=x,^/'+

+a^/^

a^/''=a-P^

the factor a and set r = 0; we obtain Fermat's theorem. Prompt^^^ gave Euler's^^ proof of his theorem and two proofs of the type sketched by Gauss of his generalization of Wilson's theorem; but obscured the proofs by lengthy numerical computations and the use of unconven-

Remove

tional notations.

F. Schuh^^^ proved Euler's theorem, the generalized Wilson theorem, and discussed the symmetric functions of the roots of a congruence for a

prime modulus.
"^Lehrsatz uber
'"II Boll.

x" x,

Uaterrichts Blatter

fiir

Math.

u.

Naturwisa., Berlin, 18, 1912, 15.

Matematica Gior. Sc.-Didat.,

11, 1912, 289.

'"Zeitschrift Math.-naturwiss. Unterricht, 44, 1913, 263-4. ""Revista de la Sociedad Mat. Espafiola, 2, 1913, 123-131. "'Demonstrations nouvelles des th^orlmes de Fermat et de Wilson, Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1913, 18 pp. Reprinted in Tinterm^diaire des math., 20, 1913, end. "^Suppl. de Vriend der Wiskunde, 25, 1913, 33-59, 143-159, 228-259.

84

History of the Theory of Numbers.

G. Frattini^^ noted that,
if

[Chap,

hi

F{a,

j3,

is

a homogeneous symmetric
. . .

poljTiomial, of degree g with integral coefficients, in the integers a, /3, and prime to m, and if F is prime to 7??, then k= 1 (mod m) for less than In fact, ever>' integer A- prime to m.

F(a,

jS,.

.)

= F{ka,

k^,..

.)

= k^F{a,
.

0,...)

(mod m).
Another

Taking

to be the product a^.

is

.,

we have

Euler's theorem.

corollary

u\l+j)=l + (p-l)l
for

(modp),

p a prime, which implies Wilson's theorem. *J. L. Wildschlitz-Jessen^^^ gave an historical account

of

Fermat's and

Wilson's theorems. E. Piccioh^" repeated the work of Dirichlet.'*

The Generalization F{a,N) =

C. F. Gauss^^ noted that,
<;
is
if

(mod N) of Fermat's Theorem.

.
.

N=pi^

.p/* (p's distinct primes),

=1
is

x<i<k

a prime, the quotient being the number of irrecongruences modulo a of degree and highest coefficient unity. ducible
divisible

by

N when a

He proved
(1)

that

a^=2F(a,

d),

F{a,\)=a,

where d ranges over all the divisors of N, and stated that this relation read[See Ch. XIX on inversion.] ily leads to the above expression for F (a, N). the generalization that if a is a power p" of a Th. Schonemann^^^ gave
prime, the number of congruences of degree A^ irreducible in the Galois field of order a is N~'^F{a, N). An account of the last two papers and later ones on irreducible congruences will be given in Ch. VIII. J. A. Serret^^^ stated that, for any integers a and iV, F{a, N) is divisible by N. For N=p\ p a prime, this implies that
a</>(pO

=l

(modpO,

is prime to p, a case of Euler's theorem. in any Kantor^^^ showed that the number of cycHc groups of order He obtained birational transformation of order a in the plane is N~^F{a, N) (1) and then the expression for F(a, N) by a lengthy method completed for

when a
S.

special cases.
iwPeriodico di Mat., 29, 1913, 49-53. i^Nyt Tidsskrift for Mat., 25, A, 1914, 1-24, 49-68 (Danish). i"Periodico di Mat., 32, 1917, 132-4. "oPosthumous paper, Werke, 2, 1863, 222; Gauss-Maser, 611. "iJour. fiir Math., 31, 1846, 269-325. Progr. Brandenburg, 1844. i"Nouv. Ann. Math., 14, 1855, 261-2. "'AnnaU di Mat., (2), 10, 1880, 64-73. Comptes Rendus Paris, 96, 1883, 1423.

Chap.

Ill]

GENERALIZATIONS OF FeRMAT's THEOREM.

Pellet^^^

85
is

Ed. Wey^^^^ E. Lucas^^^ and

divisible

gave direct proofs that F{a, N)

by

N for any integers a, N.

divisibility of

H. Picquet^^^ noted the

F{Zm l, N) by iV
at the

tion of certain curvilinear polygons of

N sides,

in an enumerasame time inscribed

divisi-

and circumscribed
bility of F{a,

in a given cubic curve.

He. gave a proof of the

function F{a,
(2)

N) by N, requiring various subcases. He N) is characterized by the two relations

stated that the

F{a, np") ^F{a''\ n) -F{a''"\ n),

F^a, p')=a^'-a''"\

where a

is any integer, n an integer not divisible by the prime p. A. Grandi^^ proved that F{a, N) is divisible by by writing

it

as

^N _ ^N/p, _
j

^^N/p,
\

_ ^Nlp,p,-^ j^ ^^N/p, _ ^N/p,v,^ +

-f-

+
Each
of these binomials

{a^/p^P'-a^/PiP^p>)
is

...

J -I-

...

divisible

by

pi' since

G. Koenigs^^* considered a uniform substitution

z'

=4>{z)

and
like

its

nth

power

equation If x belongs to the index of lower index are said to belong to the index n. Thus the roots belonging to the n, so do also (^i{x) for i\,..., n 1. index n are distributed into sets of n. If a is the degree of the polynomials in the numerator and denominator of 0(s), the number of roots belonging to the index n is F{a, n), which is therefore divisible by n. MacMahon's^^^ paper contains in a disguised form the fact that F(a, N) Proofs were given by E. Maillet"^ by substitution is divisible by N. groups, and by G. Cordone.^^^ Borel and Drach^'^" made use of Gauss' result that F{p, N) is divisible for every prime p and integer N, and Dirichlet's theorem that there by to any given integer a exist an infinitude of primes p congruent modulo prime to N, to conclude that F(a, N) is divisible by N. L. E. Dickson^^^ proved by induction (from k to k-{-l primes) that F{a, N) is characterized by properties (2) and concluded by induction that F{a, N) is divisible by N. A like conclusion was drawn from
z" =4)n{z).

Those roots

of

2 0^(2) =0 which

satisfy

no

\F{a,

N)\'-F{a, N)=Fia, qN) (mod

the relations

q),

where g

is

a prime.
F{a,

He gave
n)

nN) = Fia"",

- i F(a^/^-, n) + S Fia"^^"'"', n)-...

n)l

+ {-TyF{a^^'''-'",
F{a,N)=i:<l>id),
"Casopis, Prag,
11, 1882, 39.

""Comptes Rendus

/6td., p. 1136, 1424.

Paris, 96, 1883, 1300-2. Jour, de I'^cole polyt., cah. 54, 1884, 61, 85-91.

i"Atti R. Istituto Veneto di Sc, (6), 1, 1882-3, 809. i"Bull. des sciences math., (2), 8, 1884, 286. "Rivista di Mat., Torino, 5, 1895, 25. ""Introd. th^orie dea nombres, 1895, 50.

"^Annals of Math.,

(2), 1,

1899, 35.

Abstr. in

Comptes Rendus

Paris, 128, 1899, 1083-6.

86

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

hi

where d ranges over those divisors of a^ 1 which do not divide d l for 0<t;<iV; while, in the former, Pi,. ., Pa are the distinct prime factors of N, and n is prime to N. L. Gegenbauer^^- wrote F(o, n) in the form S/i(c^)a"'''', where d ranges over the divisors of n, and nid) is the function discussed in Chapter XIX on Inversion. As there shown, 2ju(d) =0 if n> 1. This case fix) =ijl{x) is used to prove the generaUzation If the function /(x) has the property that
.

2/((i) is divisible

then for every integer a the function l!>f{d)a'''^ is Another divisible by n, where in each sum d ranges over the divisors of n. special case, f{x) =4>{x), was noted by MacMahon.^^^ J. Westlund^^^ considered any ideal Am. o. given algebraic number field, P^ of ^, the norm n(^) of ^, and proved the distinct prime factors Pi, that if a is any algebraic integer,
n,
.

by

^nU) _^gn{A)ln{Pi) _|_2^n(^)/n(PiPj) _

is

4-

n'^'>(^)/(Pi.

-Pi)

always divisible by A. J. Vdlyi^^^ noted that the number of triangles similar to their nth pedal but not to the dih. pedal {d<n) is
Xin) =^P{n)

-^^(^) Vp/ +2'A(-^)

^PlP2^

.,

if

He are the distinct prime factors of n, and yp{k)=2^{2^ \). Pi> P2, proved that x(^) is divisible by n, since if the nth pedal to ABC is the first one similar to ABC, a like property is true of the first pedal, ., (n l)th of period n. [Note triangles fall into that the sets of n each pedal, so x(^)

that x(n)=P(4, n)-F(2, n).] A. Axer^^^ proved the following generalization of Gegenbauer's"^ theorem:
If G(ri,
. . .

r/i)

is

any polynomial with

2/(rf)G(ri"^.

integral coefficients,

and

if,

when d

ranges over all the divisors of n,

.

.,

rC'^)=Q (mod n)
Txq,
. . .

a particular set of values a particular function for which Go is prime to n, then not a set of solutions of Gq, and r^. every G and every set ri,
for
. .

G = Gq and
,
.

r/,o,

it

holds for

Further Generalizations of Fermat's Theorem.

For the generalization to Galois imaginaries, see Ch. VIII. For the generalization by Lucas, see Ch. XVII, Lucas,^^ Carmichael.^' On :x^= 1 (mod n) for x prime to n, see Cauchy,^^ Moreau,^^ Epstein,"' of Ch. VII. 0. H. MitchelP'^ considered the 2* products s of distinct primes dividing k = pi...pf and denoted by r/A;) the number of positive integers X,<k which are divisible by s but by no prime factor of k not dividing s.
i^Monatshefte Math. Phys., 11, 1900, 287-8. i"Proc. Indiana Ac. Sc, 1902, 78-79. "Monatshefte Math. Phys., 14, 1903, 243-2.53. "MonatBhefte Math. Phys., 22, 1911, 187-194. "Amer. Jour. Math., 3, 1880, 300; Johns Hopkins Univ. Circular,

1,

1880-1, 67, 97.

Chap.

Ill]

GENERALIZATIONS OF FeRMAt's THEOREM.

of

87 modulo k

The products of the various X^ by any one Hence to the Xg in some order.
X/^w=ie^

them

are congruent

(modifc),

where R^ is the corresponding one of the 2' roots of x^^x (mod k). The analogous extension of Wilson's theorem is HXs^^Rs (mod k), the sign being minus only when k/a = p'', 2p' or 4 and at the same time a/s is odd. Here <r = np/^ if s = np,. Cf. Mitchell,^" Ch. V. F. RogeP^^ proved that, if p is a prime not dividing n,

n-i = l+(f)(7i-l) + (|)(n-l)2+... + (f)(n-l)Hp,

where p

A:

^,

is divisible by every prime lying between k and p+l. Borel and Drach^^ investigated the most general polynominal in x divisfor all integral values of x, but not having all its coefficients ible by = p''q^, where p, q,. .are distinct primes, and if divisible by m. If are the most general polynomials divisible by p", q^,. ., P{x), Q{x),. is evidently respectively, that for

{P{x)+p'^f{x)\\Q{x)+q'g{x)\....

For

a<p+l,

the most general P{x)

is

proved to be

iMx)Mx),
P{x)
is

Mx) =p''-\x^-x)\
For a<2(p+l), the most general

where the/'s are arbitrary polynomials.

s/,<A,+
k=l

k=l

ste,

rp,=ct>{x){x^-xy-Y-''-\

where

4>{x)

nomials.

= {x^xyp^~^{x^x), and the/'s, g's are arbitrary polyNote that ^^(x) -p'''-'^<f>lx) is divisible by p^'+^+K Cf. Nielsen.^^^
X
p*""^

E. H. Moore^^^ proved the generalization of Fermat's theorem:

Xi''"*-^

XiP

=n H

m p

p
. . .

{Xk+Ck+iXk+i+

+c^xj (mod

p).

Xi

F. Gruber^^^
integers
(1)
is

<n

showed that, if n is composite and and prime to n, the congruence

x'

ai,

. .

a<

are the ^=0(n)

l = (x fli).
if

.(x a)

(mod

n)
is

an identity

in x

if

and only

n=4

or 2p, where

a prime 2*+l.

"Archiv Math. Phys., (2), 10, 1891, 84-94 (210). ""Introduction th^orie des nombres, 1895, 339-342. ">BuU. Amer. Math. Soc, 2, 1896, 189; cf. 13, 1906-7, 280. "Math. Nat. Berichte aus Ungarn, 13, 1896, 413-7; Math, term^s ertesito, 14, 1896, 22-25.

88

History of the Theory of Numbers.

E. Malo^^ employed integers -4/ and set u = afz,

[Chap. Ill

e=
Since f^ d='Eu''/k {k = n,

w
l-u"
=ScOpX''-Ma:.

m+n,

2m-\-n,

2^x^=2^^'^' k P
where k takes the values
is

p
.
.

p-ltkt

n,

w+n,
if

.which are ^p/fi.

If

no prime factor

of such a k occurs in the denominator of the expansion of cop/p, the latter

an

integer; this

is

the case

is

a prime and /x= 2.

For
.0-2

w = n = l, = 2,
ix

^(-)-(2)-(3)- +
we
get
o3p

ax a-3.

= a^a and

hence Fermat's theorem.

L. Kronecker^^ generalized Fermat's

and Wilson's theorems

to

modular

systems.

R. Le Vavasseur^^ obtained a result evidently equivalent to that by Moore^^^ for the non-homogeneous case Xm = l' M. Bauer^^^ proved that if n = p'm, where m is not divisible by the odd prime p, and Oi, ., a< are the t=<l>{n) integers <n and prime to n,
.

{x-ai)
identically in
{x'^
a:.

.(a:-a,)

= (xP-i-l)'/<P-'Hmod p'),

iy^^. Hence

when d is

p = 2 and 7r> 1, the product is identically congruent to he found the values of d, n for which (1) holds modulo d, a divisor of n. If p denotes an odd prime and q a prime 2*+ 1, the
If

values are

Chap.

Ill]

GENERALIZATIONS OF FeRMAT's ThEOREM.

Sauer^^'^

89

Richard

proved that,

\i

a,h, a h are prime to

k,

a^+a^-^6+a^-V+
since a*""^^ 6*"^^=a 6.

+?)*'=1

(mod

k),

<P

= (p{k),

congruence valid if a, 6 are prime to If p is an odd prime dividing a=F6,

Changing alternate signs to minus, we have a k, and if 0+6 is not divisible by k.

is

divisible

by p, but not by p^. A. Capelli^^^ showed that, if

ah

a, 6

are relatively prime.

=[V]+[V]+i'
m = p" or 2p^,
every

the greatest integer ^ x. Bauer^^^ proved that, if p is an odd prime and satisfies the congruence integer x relatively prime to

where

[x] is

M.

m (a;p-i _ l)p"- = (x+A^i)

{x-\-ki)

(mod m),
and prime
to

where

/bi,

is

not

., ki denote the l=<l){m) integers p" or 2p", every integer a: prime to 4,

. .

<m

m>2.

If

m satisfies the

congruence

(x^^-^y^-iy^(x+ki)

(x+ki) (mod m).

L. E. Dickson^^^ proved Moore's^^^ theorem by invariantive theory. N. Nielsen^^^ proved that, if ^{x) is a polynomial with integral coefficients not having a common factor > 1, and if for every integral value of x the value of ^{x) is divisible by the positive integer m, then
p-i

^{x) = (f>{x) o)p{x)+

S
8=
1

rrip-s

A,

cos(x),

o)n{x)=x{x-\-l)

.{x+n-1),

where 4>(x) is a polynomial with integral coefficients, the Ag are integers, p is the least positive integer for which p is divisible by m, and mp_s is the least positive integer I for which s\l is divisible by m. Cf. Borel and
!

Drach.i8

H. S. Vandiver^^^ proved that, = pi gruent residues modulo

if
. .

V ranges over .pl^, while U

a complete set of inconranges over those F's

which are prime to m,

A;

ll{x-V)^^tXx''^-xT"'%
modulo w, where t^ = {mlpg^^y, ^^^ is due to Bauer.^^^'
e

n(a;-C7)=Si,(a;P-'-l)*'('")/(p-^>,

= </)(p/)

For w = p", the second congruence

""Eine polynomische Verallgemeinerung des Fermatschen Satzes, Diss., Giessen, 1905. "Dritter Internat. Math. Kongress, Leipzig, 1905, 148-150. Archiv Math. Phys., (3), 17, 1910, 252-3. Cf. Bouniakowsky^s of Ch. XI. "'Trans. Amer. Math. Soc, 12, 1911, 76; Madison Colloquium of the Amer. Math. Soc, 1914,
39-40.

"<Nieuw Archief voor Wiskunde,

iAnnals of Math.,
(2), 18,

(2), 10,

1913, 100-6.

1917, 119.

90

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

hi

Further Generalizations of Wilson's Theorem; Related Problems.

J. Steiner-
Gi,

proved that,

if

02,..., Op-it of degree k, modulo p, a prime, then A^,.

Ak is the sum of all products of powers of and the o's have incongruent residues p^O ., Ap_2 are divisible by p.
\Ap-2-^i\Ap^i,
.

He

first

showed by induction that

z
=2i.p^i-\-AiA.p^2~T'
.

Xk={x-ai).
^2 = 01^ + 0102+
For example,
. . .

^i = Oi+. .+ap_i, O2^+O2O3+ +0iOp_2 + +oJ_2,

.{x-ttk),
. .
.

to obtain x^ he multipUed the respective tenns of

V=(X Oi)(x 02) + (01+02) (x 0i)+0i^

Let Oi,..., Op_i have the p l in some order, modulo p. For x 02 divisible by p, x^~^=Ap_i = a{~^ (mod p), so that Ap_2Xi and hence also Ap_2 is divisible by p. Then for x=a3, ^p_3X2 and ^p_3 are divisible by p. For x = 0,
X,

by

(a:-03)+a3, (x 02)+02, (x oO+Oi.

1,.
.

residues

.,

the initial equation yields Wilson's theorem. C. G. J. Jacobi"''^ proved the generahzation If Oi,. ., a have distinct residues f^ 0, modulo p, a prime, and Pr^m is the sum of their multipUcative
ai
:
.

= l,

combinations with repetitions

m at a time, Pnm is divisible by p for w = p n, We

p-n+1,..., p-2. Note that Steiner's Ah

(1)
][
.

is

Pp-k.kPfil

have
'

7:r^7v^^^^.=i+9h+^2+--: (x-o) "x""^x"+i^x"+2"^ (x-oi)

I

J^

Pn2

P..= :^a;^-'/Dj, ' """,=;

Dj =
Let

{cLj

- Oi)

(Oj

- a,_i) (oy - Oy+i)

. .

(o,

- J

0=2 Oy /D,
j=i

{k<n-l).
Hence
if

n+m-l = k+^{p-\).
'

Then o^+^-^^o/
.

(mod

p).

A;<Cn

Di

.Dr,Pn,=D,

.Dj:a)/D

P^^^O (mod
. .

p).

follows by taking /3 = 1 and ^' = 0, 1, ., n 2 in turn. H. F. Scherk^- gave two generaUzations of Wilson's theorem. Let p be a prime. By use of Wilson's theorem it is easily proved that

The theorem

(p-n-l)!^(-ir^^(modp),
n!

where x

is

an integer such that px=l (mod

1, 2,

n!).

Next,

let

C/

denote the

sum

of the products of

of partial fractions

it is

^ taken proved that

. .

at a time with repetitions.

By

use

(p-r-l)!C;_,_i+(-l)'-=0(modp)
It
is

(r<p-l).

stated that
fiir

""Jour,

Math.,

13, 1834, 356;

""/bid., 14, 1835, 64-5;

'"Bericht iiber die 24. 1847, 204-208.

Werke 2, p. 9. Werke 6, 252-3. Versammlung Deutscher Naturforscher und Aerzte

in 1846,

Kiel,

Chap.

Ill]

Genekalizations OP Wilson's Theorem.

91

C;.r-iCr-' + {-iy^O,
H. F.

C:,-m\^0 (modp),

^ = ^-

Scherk^''^ proved Jacobi's theorem and the following: Form the Pnh of the multiplicative combinations with repetitions of the hth class of any n numbers less than the prime p, and the sum of the combinations without repetitions out of the remaining pn 1 numbers <p; then the sum or the difference of the two is divisible by p according as h is odd or even. Let Cl denote the sum of the combinations with repetitions of the hth If 0<h<p l, class oi 1, 2,. ., k; Al the sum without repetitions.

sum

Ci^O (mod

p),

j = p-k,..

.,

p-2;

Cl+,^Cl

For h = p-l, Ci;ik=n+1 for k = l,..., p. For h = m{p-l)+t, Cl=Ci when k<p+l. For l<h<k, the sum of Cl and A^ is divisible by For h<2k, ClAl is divisible A;^(fc+1)^; likewise, each C and A if /i is odd. /c is divisible by 2k-\-l. by 2A:H-1. The sum of the 2nth powers of 1,
.
.

K. HenseP'^ has given the further generalization: are n-\-v = p l integers congruent modulo p to 1, 2, and
.

If ai,
. .

.
.

a,^, 61,

.
.

6,

p1
.=^B

in

some

order,

^l/{x)

= (x-b,)... (rr-6J =x'-B,x'-'+

p),

any j, Pnj^i iy'Bj^ (mod mod p 1 and Bh = {k>v).

then, for

where

jo is

the least residue of j

For

Steiner's

Z,

Z^(a;)=a:^-i-l

(mod

p).

Multiply

(1)

by

a:"(x^-^-l).

Thus
.

X''rP{x)^X'-'+PnlX^-'+

.+Pnp-2X + Pnp-l-l

+ ^"^~^"^ X
Hence

+... + ^"^^^"^"' X
Replace
\f/{x)

(modp).

by

its initial

expression and compare coefficients.

p^j^i-iyBj{j=i,...,v).
Taking v=j = p 2 and choosing 2,...,

p1

for

61,...,

we

get

1= (p 1)! (mod

p).

Converse of Fermat's Theorem.

In a Chinese manuscript dating from the time of Confucius it is stated erroneously that 2""^ 1 is not divisible by n if n is not prime (Jeans^^^). Leibniz in September 1680 and December 1681 (Mahnke,^ 49-51) stated incorrectly that 2'* 2 is not divisible by n if n is not a prime. If n = rs,

where r is the least prime factor of n, the binomial coefficient (") was shown to be not divisible by n, since n 1,..., n r+1 are not divisible by r, whence not all the separate terms in the expansion of (1 + 1)" 2 are
^o^Ueber die Theilbarkeit der Combinationssummen aus zahlen, Progr., Bremen, 1864, 20 pp.

den natiirlichen Zahlen durch Prim1,

^"Archiv Math. Phys.,

(3), 1,

1901, 319; Kronecker's Zahlentheorie

1901, 503.

92
divisible

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

hi

by n. From this fact Leibniz concluded erroneously that the expression itself is not divisible by n. Chr. Goldbach^^ stated that {a-\-by a^ b^ is divisible by p also when p is any composite number. Euler (p. 124) points out the error by noting that 2^^ 2 is divisible by neither 5 nor 7. In 1769 J. H. Lambert^'* (p. 112) proved that, if ^"-l is divisible by a, and d" 1 by 6, where a, b are relatively prime, then d' l is divisible by ab if c is the 1. c. m. of m, n (since divisible by d"* 1 and hence by a) This was used to prove that if g is odd [and prime to 5] and if the decimal fraction for l/g has a period oi g 1 terms, then ^ is a prime. For, if ^ = a6 [where \, a, b are relatively prime integers > 1], 1/a has a period of terms, and 1/6 a period of n terms, n^b l, so that the number of terms in the period for 1/^ is ^ (a 1)(6 1)/2<(7 1. Thus Lambert knew at least the case /c = 10 of the converse of Fermat's theorem (Lucas^"' ^^'). An anonymous writer ^^^ stated that 2n+l is or is not a prime according as one of the numbers 2"=*= 1 is or is not divisible by n. F. Sarrus^^^ noted the falsity of this assertion since 2^'^ 1 is divisible by the composite number 341.
.

m^a

In 1830 an anonymous writer^ noted that a"~^ 1 may be divisible by n when n is composite. In a^~^ = /cp+1, where p is a prime, set k = \q. Then
^(P-i)=l
(jjjojj

pqy

Ti^us oP-i
;

=l

if

a-i

=l

(mod

pq),

and the

last will

hold if g 1 is a multiple of p 1

for example, ifp

= ll,g' = 31,a = 2, whence

if

2340=1 (mod 341). V. Bouniakowsky^^3 proved that

if

A^

is

a product of two primes and

iV 1 is divisible by the least positive integer a for which 2"=1, whence 2^~^=1 (mod N), then each of the two primes decreased by unity is divisible by a. He noted that 3^=1 (mod 91 = 7-13). E. Lucas^^^ noted that 2''~^=1 (mod n) for 71 = 37-73 and stated the true converse to Fermat's theorem: If a"" ! is divisible by p for x = p l, but
then p is a prime. F. Proth^^* stated that, when a is prime to n, n is a prime if a*= 1 for a:= (n 1)/2, but for no other divisor of (n 1)/2; also, if a''=l
for
is

not for

x<p lf

(mod n) (mod n)

x = n l, but for no divisor <\/n of n 1. If 71 = 7^-2*^+1, where m odd and < 2*", and if a is a quadratic non-residue of n, then n is a prime If p is a prime >^\/n, n = mp+l is a if and only if a^"~^^/^= 1 (mod n). prime if a"~^ 1 is divisible by n, but a^'^l is not. *F. Thaarup^^' showed how to use a"~^=l (mod ti) to tell if n is prime. E. Lucas^^^ proved the converse of Fermat's theorem: If a^=l (mod ti) for a: = 71 1, but not for x a proper divisor oi n 1, then n is a prime.
I, 1843, 122, letter to Euler, Apr. 12, 1742. "'Annales de Math. (ed. Gergonne), 9, 1818-9, 320. ^"Ibid., 10, 1819-20, 184-7. "M6m. Ac. Sc. St. P6tersbourg (math.), (6), 2, 1841 (1839), 447-69; extract in Bulletin, 6, 97-8. "*Assoc. frang. avanc. sc, 5, 1876, 61; 6, 1877, 161-2; Amer. Jour. Math., 1, 1878, 302.

""Corresp. Math. Phys. (ed. Fuss),

"'Comptes Rendus Paris, 87, 1878, 926. "Nyt Tidsskr. for Mat., 2A, 1891, 49-52.
*"Th6orie des nombres, 1891, 423, 441.

Chap.

Ill]

CONVERSE OF FeRMAt's THEOREM.

93

according as
p. 142].

G. Levi^^* was of the erroneous opinion that P is prime or composite it is or is not a divisor of 10^"^ 1 [criticized by Cipolla,^^^

is

K. Zsigmondy^^^ noted that, if g is a prime =1 or 3 (mod 4), then 2q+l a prime if and only if it divides (2*+l)/3 or 2^ 1, respectively; 4g+l is a prime if and only if it divides (2^*+l)/5. E. B. Escott^^^ noted that Lucas'^^^ condition is sufficient but not
if

necessary. J, H. Jeans^^ noted that

primes such that 2^=2 =2 (mod pq), and found this to be the case (mod g), p), then for pg = 11-31, 19-73, 17-257, 31-151, 31-331. He ascribed to Kossett the
p, q are distinct

2^=2 (mod

2^^

result

2"-^=l (mod n)

for

n = 645.
.
.
.

A. Korselt^^^ noted this case 645 and stated that a^=a (mod p) if and only if p has no square factor and p 1 is divisible by the 1. c. m. of pi 1, p 1, where pi, ., p are the prime factors of p. J. FraneP^^ noted that 2^^ =2 (mod pq), where p, q are distinct primes, requires that p 1 and g 1 be divisible by the least integer a for which 2''=1 (mod pq). [Cf. Bouniakowsky.^^^] L. Gegenbauer222 noted that 2^''-^=l (mod pq) if p = 2'-l = /cpr+l and q = KT-\-l are primes, as for p = Sl, q = ll. T. Hayashi^^^ noted that 2'' 2 is divisible by n = 11-31. If odd primes and q can be found such that 2^=2, 2^=2 (mod pq), then 2^' 2 is divisible p by pq. This is the case if p 1 and q 1 have a common factor p' for which
. .

2"''=!

(mod

pq), as for

p = 23, g = 89,

p'

= ll.

= 2''-l and p is a Ph. Jolivald224 asked whether 2^-^=1 (mod N) if prime, noting that this is true if p = ll, whence iV = 2047, not a prime. E. Malo^^^ proved this as follows:
AT-l =2(2^-1-1) =2pw,
2^-^

= (2^)2- = (Ar+l)2-=i

(modiV).

N = a^1, and a

G. Ricalde^^^ noted that a similar proof gives a^~''+^=l (mod N) if is not divisible by the prime p. H. S. Vandiver^^^ proved the conditions of J. FraneP^^ and noted that they are not satisfied if a< 10. Solutions for a = 10 and a = 11 are ^3 = 11-31

and 23-89, respectively. H. Schapira^^^ noted that the

8Monat8hefte Math. Phys., 4, 1893, 79. *iL'mtenn4diaire des math., 4, 1897, 270. 220Messenger Math., 27, 1897-8, 174. ''"L'interm^diaire des math., 6, 1899, 143.
^Ibid., p. 142. =""Monatshefte
'^'Jour. of

test for the primality of

that

a^=l

Math. Phys., 10, 1899, 373. the Physics School in Tokio, 9, 1900, 143-4. Wiss., 28, 1910, 25-26. *"L'interm4diaire des math., 9, 1902, 258.
^lUd.,
10, 1903, 88.
*^Ibid., p. 186.

Reprinted in Abhand. Geschichte Math.

*"Amer. Math. Monthly, 9, 1902, 34-36. Tchebychef's Theorie der Congruenzen, ed.

2,

1902, 306.

94

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap. Ill

(mod N) ioT q = Nl, but for no smaller q, is practical only if it be known that a small number a is a primitive root of N. G. Arnoux--^" gave numerical instances of the converse of Fermat's theorem. M. Cipolla^^^ stated that the theorem of Lucas^^' impUes that, if p is a prime and A: = 2, 4, 6, or 10, then kp-\-l is a prime if and only if 2^'^=1 (mod kp-\-l). He treated at length the problem to find a for which a^~^ 1 (mod P), given a composite P; and the problem to find P, given a. In particular, we may take P to be any odd factor of (a^" l)/(a^ 1) if p 2^~^= 1 (mod P) for P = F^F^ is an odd prime not dividing a^ 1. Again,

=
.

m>n>
q
;

.>s,

if

and only

if

2'>m, where
;

P, = 2^''4-l

is

a prime.

If

= 2p \ are primes and a is any quadratic residue of q, then a^~^ = 1 (mod pq) we may take a = 3 if p = 4n+3 a = 2\i p = 4n+ 1 both a = 2 and a = 3if p = 12A:+l;etc.
p and
;

l (mod n) if e'' 1 contains two or more E. B. Escott^^ noted that e"~^ primes whose product n is =1 (mod a), and gave a list of 54 such n's. A. Cunningham^^^ noted the solutions n = FsF^F^QF7, n = F^. .P15, etc. [cf. CipoUa], and stated that there exist solutions in which n has more than 12 prime factors. One with 12 factors is here given by Escott. T. Banachiewicz^^^ verified that 2^2 is divisible by for composite is and < 2000 only when
.

341

= 11-31, 561=3-1M7, 1387 = 19-73, 1729 = 7-13-19, 1905 = 3-5-127. Since 2^2 is evidently divisible by N for every N = Fk = 2^ +1, perhaps
(a

Fermat was thus led to his false conjecture that every Fk is a prime. R. D. CarmichaeP^^ proved that there are composite values of n product of three or more distinct odd primes) for which e"~^=l (mod

n)

holds for every e prime to n. J. C. Morehead^^ and A. E. Western proved the converse of Fermat's theorem. D. Mahnke^ (pp. 51-2) discussed Leibniz' converse of Fermat's theorem in the form that n is a prime if a:"~^=l (mod n) for all integers x prime to n and noted that this is false when n is the square or higher power of a prime or the product of two distinct primes, but is true for certain products of three or more primes, as 3-11-17, 5-13-17, 5-17-29, 5-29-73, 7-13-19. R. D. CarmichaeP^^ used the result of Lucas^^" to prove that a^~^ l (mod P) holds for every a prime to P if and only if P 1 is divisible by X(P). The latter condition requires that, if P is composite, it be a product of three or more distinct odd primes. There are found 14 products P of

8 Assoc, frang., 32, 1903, II, 113-4.

"Annali di Mat., (3), 9, 1903-4, 138-160. ""Messenger Math., 36, 1907, 175-6; French transl., Sphinx-Oedipe, 1907-8, 146-8. "'Math. Quest. Educat. Times, (2), 1^, 1908, 22-23; 6, 1904, 26-7,55-6. Spraw. Tow. Nauk, Warsaw, 2, 1909, 7-10. "'Bull. Amer. Math. Soc, 16, 1909-10, 237-8.
^Ibid., p.
2.

"Amer. Math. Monthly,

19, 1912, 22-7.

Chap.

Ill]

SYMMETRIC FUNCTIONS MoDULO

p.

95

three primes, as well as P = 13-37-73457, for each of which the congruence holds for every a prime to P. Welsch^se stated that ifk = 4n-\-l is composite and < 1000, 2^-^ 1 (mod k) only for A; = 561 and 645; hence 71**= 1 (mod k) for these two k's. P. Bachmann^^^ proved that x^'^~^'= 1 (mod pq) is never satisfied by all integers prime to pq if p and q are distinct odd primes [Carmichael^^^].

Symmetric Functions of

1, 2,.

.p 1 Modulo
this topic

p.

Report has been made above of the work on

by Lagrange, ^^

Lionnet," Tchebychef,^^ Sylvester,'^^ ottmger,^^ Lucas,!"^ Cahen,!^^ Aubry,^"

Arevalo,^^^ Schuh,^^^ Frattini,!^^ steiner,^^^ Jacobi,^^! Hensel.^o^

We

denote l"+2"+ E. Waring^^ wrote a, j3,

shall
.

+(p I)'* by
.
. .

.for 1, 2,
. . .

x,
.

s^, and take p to be a prime. and considered

= a^^^y'
odd and

^a^^^y'

+a"/3^7'' ....
is

If

<

= a+6+c+

.is
.

<a:,

andx+1

prime,

s is divisible

by (x+l)^.

If

even and prime to 2a; +1, s is divisible by 2a;-f 1. V. Bouniakowsky^^^ noted that s^ is divisible by p^, if p> 2 and m is odd and not =1 (mod p 1); also if both w=l (mod p 1) and m=0 (mod p). +a;% C. von Staudt252 proved that, if S,Xx) = 1+2"+
a, 6,
.

t<2x and

.are all

S^{ah)=bSM+naSn-iia)Si{b-l) (mod 2S2n+i{a)^{2n+l)aS2M (mod a^).

If a,h,.
.

a"),

.,

are relatively prime in pairs,

S,Xah...l)
ah.
.

SM
'

S^il)
'
'

= integer.

.1

is

A. Cauchy253 proved that 1 +l/(p-l)=0 (mod p). 1/2+ G. Eisenstein^^^ noted that s^= 1 or (mod p) according as not divisible by p 1. If w, n are positive integers <p 1,
. .

is

or

'iyia+iy^O
according as

or

(p_f_ J'

(mod

p),

m+n<or^p 1.
.
. .

noted that, when a takes the values 1, p 1, then (ax)" has the same residues modulo p as a", order apart. By addition, SnX'*=Sn (mod p). Take x to be one of the numbers not a root of a;"=l. Hence s=0 (mod p) if n is not divisible by p 1.
L. Poinsot^^^
,

^''L'mtermMiaire des math., 20, 1913, 94. *'Archiv Math. Phys., (3), 21, 1913, 185-7. ""Meditationes algebraicae, ed. 3, 1782, 382. ">BuIl. Ac. Sc. St. P^tersbourg, 4, 1838, 65-9. "'Jour, fiir Math., 21, 1840, 372-4. "'M^m. Ac. Sc. de I'lnstitut de France, 17, 1840, 340-1, footnote; Oeuvres, "Jour. fiir Math., 27, 1844, 292-3; 28, 1844, 232. "Jour. de Math., 10, 1845, 33-4.

(1), 3,

81-2.

96

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

hi
.

J. A. Serret^^^ concluded by applying Newton's identities to (x 1) (x p+l)=0 that Sn=0 (mod p) unless n is divisible by p 1. J.

Wolstenholme^" proved that the numerators

of
1
'

1+UU...+
2
'

'

'

p-r

1+1 + 22
. . '

(p-l)2

are divisible

by p^ and p respectively, if p is a prime >3. Proofs have also been given by C. Leudesdorf^^s, A. Rieke,^^^ E. Allardice,^^" G. Osborn,^" L. Birkenmajer,^" P. Niewenglowski,^^ N. Nielsen,^" H. Valentiner,^^
others.^^^
is

and

V. A. Lebesgue^' proved that s^ by p 1 by use of the identities

divisible

by p

if

is

not divisible

(n+1) S k{k+l)
k=l

.ik-\-n-l)=xix+l)
if

.(x+n)
2^''

(n

= l,.

.,

p-1).

P. Frost^^^ proved that,

tors of
a2r, (T2r-i,

is

a prime not dividing

are divisible

1,

the numera-

p(2r l)o-2r+2(T2r-i

by

p, p^, p^, respectively,

where

1J_1_L
2*
'

"

1
'

(p-1)'
0*2, is

The numerator

of the

sum

of the first half of the terms of

divisible

by

p; likewise that of the sum of the odd terms. J. J. Sylvester^^^ stated that the sum S^, m of all products of

distinct

numbers chosen from

{l+t){l-\-2t)
.

1,.

.,

m
is
.

is

the coefficient of

in the expansion of

(1+wO and

divisible
.,

by each prime
. . .

>n+l

contained in

any term

of the set

m n+l,.

m,

m+1.
,

E. Fergola"" stated that, if (a, 6, obtained from the expansion of (a+6Hcoefficient by unity, then
.

ly represents the expression

+0" by replacing each numerical

2,.

(X,

x+1,.

.,

x+rr= i CY)^^'

.,

rr-^x^.

*"Coiirs d'algSbre sup^rieure, ed. 2, 1854, 324. 'Quar. Jour. Math., 5, 1862, 35-39.

"sProc.
oProc.

London Math. Soc,

20, 1889, 207.

Zeit8chrift

Math. Phys., 34, 1889, 190-1. Edinburgh Math. Soc, 8, 1890, 16-19.

"'Messenger Math., 22, 1892-3, 51-2; 23, 1893-4, 58. "^Prace Mat. Fiz., Warsaw, 7, 1896, 12-14 (Polish). M'Nouv. Ann. Math., (4), 5, 1905, 103. Nyt Tidsskrift for Mat., 21, B, 1909-10, 8-10.
^Ibid., p. 36-7. ^^Math. Quest, Educat. Times, 48, 1888, 115;
103, 138, 170.
(2), 22,

1912, 99;

Amer. Math. Monthly,

22, 1915,

^Introd. k la thdorie des nombres, 1862, 79-80, 17. 8Quar. Jour. Math., 7, 1866, 370-2. MGiomale di Mat., 4, 1866, 344. Proof by Sharp, Math. Ques. Educ. Times, 47, 1887, 145-6; 63, 1895, 38. "oibid., 318-9. Cf. Wronski"! of Ch. VIII.

Chap.

Ill]

Symmetric Functions Modulo

.

p.

97
in

The number (1, 2, ., the series n+2, n+3,

.
.

r)'* is
.

divisible

by every prime >r which occurs

.,

n+r.
(ai,
.

G. ToreUi"! proved that

(ai,
(fli,.
. . . .

GnY =

.
.

a_iy+a{ai,

.
.

a^y~\
a, 6,

.,

o,

^y-Cfli,.

.,

fln,

c)'"=(6-c)(ai,.

.,

cy-\

Proof is given of Sylwhich becomes Fergola's for ai = i (i = 0, ., n). vester's^^^ theorem and the generahzation that >Sy,i is divisible by (}+!). Torelli^^^ proved that the sum o-, of all products of n equal or distinct numbers chosen from 1, 2, ., m is divisible by (n+T), and gave recursion
. .
.

formulas for

o-n,

m-

C. Sardi^'^^ deduced Sylvester's theorem from the equations Ai used by Lagrange. ^^ Solving them for Ap = Sp,n, we get

(|),,

-1

G)
pi{-iy^%,,=
(a)

-2

C)

i;--i)

98

History of the Theory of Numbers.

Sylvester"^ stated that,
if

[Chap,

hi
.

pi, p2,

.are the successive

primes

2, 3, 5,

.,

^'^^

^T^^A^

^'-'^''^'

where Fk{n) is a polynomial of degree k with integral exponent e of the prime p is given by

coefficients,

and the

E. Ces^ro^" stated Sylvester's^^ theorem and remarked that <S. n! is a prime. by w n if E. Ces^ro"^ stated that the prime p divides /S^.p-2 1, *Sp_i.p+l, and, Also (p. 401), each prime p>{n+l)/2 except when m = p l, S^.p-idivides *Sp_i.H-l, while a prime p = (n+l)/2 or n/2 divides Sp_i.+2. O. H. Mitchell"^ discussed the residues modulo k (any integer) of the To this end he evaluated the residue /c 1. symmetric functions of 0, 1, the s-totitives of k (numbers<A: which .are where a, of (x a)(x /3) ., /3, The results are extended contain s but no prime factor of k not found in s) is a prime [see Ch. VIII]. moduli where of case the to p p, f{x), F. J. E. Lionnet^^ stated and Moret-Blanc proved that, if p = 2n+l is a prime> 3, the sum of the powers with exponent 2a (between zero and 2n) 2n, are divisible by p. n, and the like sum for n-\-l, n+2, of 1, 2, relation Torelli.^^^ proved the first of M. d'Ocagne^^^ E. Catalan^^^ stated and later proved^^^ that s^ is divisible by the prime p>k-\-l. If p is an odd prime and p 1 does not divide k, Sk is divisible if no one by p; while if p 1 divides k, Sk= l (mod p). Let p = a''b^ divisible in the contrary divides k, Sk is by p; case, not of a 1,. 1, 6 1 is not a divisor of k-\-l, then If p is a prime >2, and p divisible.
is

divisible

mn

^ = l^(p-l)'+2*(p-2)^+
divides k+l, divisible by p; but, are of contrary parity, p divides S.
is
if p 1

.+{p-iyv S= { iy (mod p).

. .

If

k and

M. d'Ocagne^^ proved
(a.
.

for Fergola's^'^"
.

symbol the relation

.

.fg.

.1.

.V.

.zr^Xia.

.frig.

.^)^ ..{v.
.

.z)",

summed
a^^^

for all combinations such that

X+/i+. .-\-p = n.

Denoting by

the letter a taken p times,

we have
i=0

"Nouv. "Nouv. "8Nouv. "Amer. "ONouv.

(2), 6, 1867, 48. Correap. Math., 4, 1878, 401; Nouv. Ann. Math., (3), Coiresp. Math., 4, 1878, 368. Jour. Math., 4, 1881, 25-38. Ann. Math., (3), 2, 1883, 384; 3, 1884, 395-6. "/6id., (3), 2, 1883, 220-6. Cf. Ces^ro, (3), 4, 1885, 67-9. 2BuU. Ac. Sc. Belgique, (3), 7, 1884, 448-9. "'M6m. Ac. R. Sc. Belgique, 46, 1886, No. 1, 16 pp. **Nouv. Ann. Math., (3), 5, 1886, 257-272.

Ann. Math.,

2,

1883, 240.

Chap.
It

Ill]

SYMMETRIC FUNCTIONS MODULO

of

p.

99

shown that (1^^^)" equals the number things p 1 at a time. Various algebraic
is

combinations of n-\-p l relations between binomial

coefficients are derived.

L. Gegenbauer^^^ considered the polynomial

p-2+k

f{x)=

S
i=0

hix'

{l-p<k^p-l)

and proved that

V/(X)/X^-2= -h,.2 (mod

X=l

p),

k<p-l,
p),

'xf{X)/\^-'= -6p_2-fc2p-3 (mod

X=l

k = p-\,

and deduced the theorem on the divisibility of s by p. E. Lucas^^^ proved the theorem on the divisibility of s by p by use of the symbolic expression (s+l)" s" for x" 1. N. Nielsen^^^" proved that if p is an odd prime and if k is odd and \<k<p \, the sum of the products of 1, ., p 1 taken A; at a time is For k=p2 this result is due to Wolstenholme.^^^ divisible by p^. N. M. Ferrers^^^ proved that, if 2n+l is a prime, the sum of the products 2n taken r at a time is divisible by 2n+l if r<2n [Lagrange^^], of 1, 2, while the sum of the products of the squares of 1, n taken r at a time is [Other proofs by Glaisher.^^^] divisible by 2n+l if r<n. J. Perott^^^ gave a new proof that s^ is divisible by p if n<p l. R. Rawson^^^ proved the second theorem of Ferrers. is divisible by p if r is even, by G. Osborn^^ proved for r<p l that l taken r at a p^ if r is odd; while the sum of the products of 1, ., p p^ if r is odd and l<r<p. time is divisible by J. W. L. Glaisher^^^ stated theorems on the sum Sriai,..., a,) of the
. .
.

s^.

r at a time. If r is odd, Sr{l, n) is divisible a prime proved by Lagrange and Ferrers). If r is odd and > 1, is a prime> 3, Sr{l, n) is divisible by {n-{-iy [Nielsen^^^'']. If r is odd and >1, and if w is a prime >2, Sril,. ., n) is divisible by n^. If n+1 is a prime, Sr{l^,. , n^) is divisible by n+1 for r = l,...,n 1, except for r = n/2, when it is congruent to ( 1)1+"/^ j^odulo n+1. If p is a prime ^n, and k is the quotient obtained on dividing n+1 by p, then aSp_i(1,..., n)= A; (mod p); the case n = p 1 is Wilson's

products of

fli,

rti

taken

by

n+1

(special case

n+1 and if n+1

theorem.
"^Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 95 II, 1887, 616-7. "Th6orie des nombres, 1891, 437. 286aNyt Tidsskrift for Mat., 4, B, 1893, 1-10. "'Messenger Math., 23, 1893-4, 56-58. 288BuU. des sc. math., 18, I, 1894, 64. Other proofs. Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 58, 1893, 109;
4,

1903, 42.

24, 1894-5, 68-69. ""Ibid., 25, 1895-6, 68-69. "'Ibid., 28, 1898-9, 184-6. Proofs"*.

"Messenger Math.,

100
S.
J.

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap. Ill

Monteiro'^- noted that 2n+l divides {2n)\Z\n/r. Westlund-^^ reproduced the discussion by Serret^^^ and Tchebychef.'^^ Glaisher^^ proved his^^^ earlier theorems. Also, ii p = 27n+l is prime,

{m-t)pS2t{l,..
and,
if

.,

2m)=S2t+i{l,.
is

.,

2m) (mod f)

i>l, modulo
>S2t(l,.
.

p'^.

According as n
n)=S2t{l,.
.
.

odd or even,
n^ or ^n^).

.,

.,

n-1) (mod
is

For

m odd and

>3,

S2m-z0-i-

.,

2m 1)

divisible

by

m^,

and

^_2(1^..., \m-l\^),
are divisible

^2n.-4(l,...,2m-l)

by m. He gave the values of Sr{\,. , n) and Ar = Sr{l,. ., n 1) in terms of n for r = l,. ., 7; the numerical values of 5^(1,. ., n) for n^22, and a list of known theorems on the divisors of Ar and Sr. For r odd, 3^r^m 2, Sr{l, ., 2w 1) is divisible by m and, if w is a prime >3, by m.^ He proved {ibid., p. 321) that, if l^r^ (p-3)/2, and 5, is a
. .
. .

BernoulU number,
2.S2.+i(l,.
.

.,

p-l)_-{2r+l)S2r{l,..., p-1)
V

^2.(i,...,p-i)_(-ir5:
V
2t

(modp).

Glaisher^^^ gave the residues of a^ [Frost^^^]

modulo p^ and
0-3,

p^

that (72, a prime.

o'i,

o-p-3

are divisible
if

by

p,

and

cs,

o-p_2

and proved by p^, if p is

Glaisher^^

proved that,

is

an odd prime.
^0 or

'"'

o2n

r2n

'

(p-2)

2n

(mod

p),

according as 2n is not or is a multiple of p 1. He obtained (pp. 154-162) the residue of the sum of the inverses of like powers of numbers in arithmetical progression. F. Sibirani^^^" proved for the Sn,m of Sylvester^^^ (designated Sn,m-\-\) that

t
^n,n

'^n l,n

*^n Jfe+l.n

= inl)K
On+A; l,n+* 1

Sn+k2,n+kl

^n.n+kl

"'Jornal Sc. Mat. Phys. e Nat., Lisbon, 5, 1898, 224. Proc. Indiana Ac. Sc, 1900, 103-4, "^Quar. Jour. Math., 31, 1900, 1-35. '/Wd., 329-39; 32, 1901, 271-305. "Messenger Math., 30, 1900-1, 26-31. 'wPeriodico di Mat., 16, 1900-1, 279-284.

Chap.

Ill]

SyMMETKIC FUNCTIONS MODULO

p.

101

K. HenseP^^ proved by the method of Poinsot^^^ that any integral symmetric function of degree v of 1,..., p 1 with integral coefficients is divisible by the prime p if y is not a multiple of p 1. W. F. Meyer^^^ gave the generalization that, if ai, ap_i are incongruent modulo p", and each af~^ 1 is divisible by p", any integral symmetric function of degree voiai,..., ap_i is divisible by p'* if v is not a multiple of p 1. Of the </)(p") residues modulo p", prime to p, there are p'^Cp 1)^ for which a^~^ l is divisible by p"~^~'^, but by no higher power of p, where 1 residues give the above ai,..., a^-i. A; = 1, ., n 1; the remaining p J. W. Nicholson^^^ noted that, if p is a prime, the sum of the nth powers of p numbers in arithmetical progression is divisible by p if n<p 1, and
.
.

=1

(mod

p)

if 71

= p 1.
.
. .

G. Wertheim^"'' proved the same result by use of a primitive root. A. Aubry^^ took x = 1, 2, p 1 in
,

(a:+l)"-rc" = nx^-i+Ax"-2+

-{-Lx+l

and added the

results.
p''

Thus

= ns_i+As_2+. .+Lsi+p.
.

Hence by induction Sn_i is divisible by the prime p if n<p. He attributed this theorem to Gauss and Libri without references. U. Concina^^ proved that s is divisible by the prime p>2 if n is not Let 5 be the g. c. d. of n, p 1, and set ^i5 = p 1. The divisible by p 1. )u distinct residues Ti of nth powers modulo p are the roots of ^"=1 (mod p), x'*=rj has whence Sr,=0 (mod p) for n not divisible by p 1. For each Hence s=5Sri=0. He proved also that, if p+1 is 6 incongruent roots. +(p/2)'* is a prime >3, and n is even and not divisible by p, l''+2''+ divisible by p+1. W. H. L. Janssen van Raay^^ considered, for a prime p>3,
r^-,
.

(p-1)!
^''~
h
. .
.

'

(P-I)I ^ ^'~h{v-h)

and proved that

B^-\-B2-\-

+-B(p_i)/2 is divisible

by

p,

and

are divisible by p^. U. Concina^o^ proved that

number
let

A;

if

is

k be even.

^ = 1+2"+ .+/c" is divisible by the odd not divisible by p 1 for any prime divisor of p of k. Next, For n odd > 1, ^ is divisible by k or only by k/2 according
.
.

Inserted by Hensel in Kronecker's Vorlesungen tiber (3), 1, 1901, 319. Zahlentheorie I, 1901, 104-5, 504. "sArchiv Math. Phys., (3), 2, 1902, 141. Cf. Meissner'" of Ch. IV. "^Amer. Math. Monthly, 9, 1902, 212-3. Stated, 1, 1894, 188. ^ooAnfangsgninde der Zahlentheorie, 1902, 265-6. '"iL'enseignement math., 9, 1907, 296. 2Periodico di Mat., 27, 1912, 79-83. "'Nieuw Archief voor Wiskunde, (2), 10, 1912, 172-7. so^Periodico di Mat., 28, 1913, 164-177, 267-270.

"'Archiv Math. Phys.,

102
as k
is

History of the Theory of Numbers.

or
is

[Chap.

hi

vided n

not divisible by 4. For n even, S is divisible only by k/2 pronot divisible by any prime factor, diminished by unity, of k. N. Nielsen^"^ wrote Cp for the sum of the products r at a time of 1, ...
is

p 1, and
s(p)=2;s^
*-l

(7(p)=S(-l)''-V.
=1

If

is

a prime >2m+1,

o-2n(p-l)=S2n(p-l)=0(modp),
If

Sgn+iCp

" 1) = O(niod

p2).

p = 2n+l
the

is

Nielsen^''^
is

sum

of

a prime >3, and l^r^n 1, Cf'^^ is divisible by p^. proved that 2Di^'^^ is divisible by 2n for 2p+l^n, where D\ 2n 1 taken s at a time; also, the products of 1, 3, 5,
. . .

2^"+'s2fl(n

- 1) = 2^%,{2n - 1)

(mod 4n^),

and analogous congruences between sums of powers of successive even or successive odd integers, also when alternate terms are negative. He proved (pp. 258-260) relations between the C's, including the final formulas by
Glaisher.29^

Nielsen^^

2n

is

proved the results last cited. Let p be an odd prime. If not divisible by p 1, S2r.(p 1) (mod p), S2+i(p 1)=0 (modp^).

But

if

2n

is

divisible

by p 1,
S2+i(p-l)

S2n(p-1)=-1,
the

(modp),

Sp(p

- 1) = (mod p^).

T. E. Mason^"^ proved that, if p is an odd prime and i an odd integer 1, p^. sum Ai of the products i at a time of 1, 1 is divisible If by p p is a prime >3, Sk is divisible by p^ when k is odd and not of the form m(p 1) 1, by p when k is even and not of the form 7n{p l), and not by p if A: is of the latter form. If A; = 7n(p 1) 1, s^ is divisible by p^ or p according as k is or is not divisible by p. Let p be composite and r its least prime factor; then r 1 is the least integer t for which At is not divisible by p and conversely. Hence p is a prime if and only if p 1 is the least t for which At is not divisible by p. The last two theorems hold also if we replace A's by s's. T. M. Putnam^"^ proved Glaisher's^^^ theorem that s_ is divisible by if n is not a multiple of p 1 and p
. . .

>

(p-l)/2

2 jp-2=f_A(inodp).
y-i

9 9P

p
modulo
p,

W.
o'K.

Meissner^^ arranged the residues

a prime, of the successive

Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Skrifter, (7), 10, 1913, 353. "Annali di Mat., (3), 22, 1914, 81-94.
"Ann.
sc. I'^cole

norm, sup.,

(3), 31,

1914, 165, 196-7.

"*T6hoku Math. Jour., 5, 1914, 136-141. "Amer. Math. Monthly, 21, 1914, 220-2. "Mitt. Math. Gesell. Hamburg, 5, 1915, 159-182.

CHAPTER
N. H. Abel^ asked
(1)
if

IV.
P.

RESIDUE OF (C/^->-l)/P MODULO

there are primes

p and

integers a for which

a^-'=l (modp'),

l<a<p.

C. G. J. Jacobi^ noted that, for p^37, (1) holds only when p = ll, a = 3 or 9; p = 29, a = 14; p = 37, a = 18. Cf. Thibault^^ of Ch. VI. G. Eisenstein^ noted that, for p a prime, the function

has the properties

(2)

quv=qu-\-qv,

qu+pv^Qu-- (mod

p),

2g2=l-Ki-|+
. ,

^^^\ Md
P
1
o

p),

where s = (p+l)/2, ., p 1. All solutions of (1) are included in a= u+puqu, 0<u<p. E. Desmarest^ noted that (1) holds for p = 4S7, a = 10, and stated that p = 3 and p = 487 are the only primes < 1000 for which 10 is a solution. J. J. Sylvester^ stated that, if p, r are distinct primes, p>2, then g^ is congruent modulo p to a sum of fractions with the successive denominators 2, 1 and (as corrected) with numerators the repeated cycle of the p 1, Thus, for positive integers ^r congruent modulo r to 1/p, 2/p,. ., r/p.
.

= 5,
p1
p1

p2

p6

p 4:
p4:
4A:

j,^^+.-l-+-i-+^+-^+-l-+...
p2 p S
p5 p
According as p = 4A;+l or

(p=10fc+7).

2.22.2. p-7 pS pS
p4:
2
2

1,

^2 is

congruent to
2

p ll
2

p-2 p-3 p-Q p-7 p-10

[the signs

"

were given

erroneously].
7-\

For any

p,

?2=

p1

5+... p2 po

(modp).

iJour. fiir Math., 3, 1828, 212; Oeuvres, 1, 1881, 619. mid., 301-2; Werke, 6, 238-9; Canon Arithmeticus, Berlin, 1839, Introd., xxxiv. 'BerUn Berichte, 1850, 41. *Th6orie des nombres, 1852, 295. 'Comptes Rendus Paris, 52, 1861, 161, 212, 307, 817; Phil. Mag., 21, 1861, 136; Coll. Math.

Papers, II, 229-235, 241, 262-3.

105

106

History of the Theory of Numbers.

j

[Chap, iv

Jean Plana^ developed

(Af 1)

"

and obtained

M''-M-\{M-iy-{M-l)\=pf{M),

Take

M = m,

7n

l,.

.,

m the first equation and add.

+
. .
.

Thus
+Sp-i,

=/(!)

4-/(w)

=Si+^^S2-f
1,

where

s,

= r+2'H-

+ (m

1)'.

For j>

we may

replace

p by j and get

m -w=is,_i+ (0s,_2+ Qjsi-aH-

+isi,

a result obtained by Plana by a long discussion [Euler"]. He concluded erroneously that each Si is divisible by m (for m = 3, S2 = 5). F. Proth^ stated that, if p is a prime, 2'' 2 is not divisible by p^ [error,
see Meissner^^].

M. A.
rrf

Stern^ proved that,

,
,

if

p
1

is

an odd prime,
,

m_ =Si-S2+iS3-.
,

,1 _ .-YSp-i=o-p-i+io-p_2+. ^0-1 +
i
, .

for

Si

as

by Plana and

0-^

below

(2) of Eisenstein^

= l'+2*+ +w\ Proof is given of the formula and Sylvester's formulae for q2 (corrected), as well

as several related formulae. L. Gegenbauer^ used Stern's congruences to prove that the coefficient of the highest power of a^ in a polynomial f{x) of degree p 2 is congruent to {m^m)/p modulo p if /(a:) satisfies one of the systems of equations
J{\)

= {-lf^'V-\{m-\),

/(X)=X--VxW

(X

= l,.

.,

p-1).

E. Lucas^ proved that ^2 is a square only for p = 2, 3, 7, and stated the result by Desmarest.^ F. Panizza^^ enumerated the combinations p at a time of ap distinct things separated into p sets of a each, by counting for each r the combinations of the things belonging to r of the p sets

(T)=i.(^>a) CO (")'
Mem. Acad. Turin, (2), ^Comptes Rendus Paris,
20, 1863, 120.

83, 1876, 1288.

Jour, fur Math., 100, 1887, 182-8.

Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 95, 1887, II, 616-7. ">Th6orie des nombres, 1891, 423. "Periodico di Mat., 10, 1895, 14-16, 54-58.

Chap. IV]

RESIDUE OF {U^^ l)/^ MoDULO

y.

107

where ^l^-...^-^r = p, ij>0.

prime, the left member induction on r,
is

=a

The term given by r = p is a^. For p a (mod p) and we have Fermat's theorem. By

Taking

= p, we have

D. Mirimanoff^^ wrote ao for the least positive integer making aop+1 by the prime r<p, and denoted the quotient by r%i, where 6i is prime to r. Similarly, let a^ be the least positive integer such that a,p+6i = We ultimately find an n for which 6n = l- Then 64.j = 6i. By (2), r%ij^i.
divisible

?b<~r-^i?'-+?6.>"
Oi

.^

-0 Oj

7r=gr2ei(modp).
set 6w

Let

belong to the exponent

1,
. .

co

modulo p and

= p 1. Then

Sev=co,

while

< r and

61, 6_i are the distinct residues of the eth powers of the integers prime to r. Thus
,
.

g^=eS

-^

(mod

p).

The formula obtained by taking r a primitive following, which holds also for any prime r
:

root of p

is

included in the

$,= 2
ai
/3i

-*

(mod

p),
r).

= p 5, p'p=l (mod

being the least positive integer for which aip+iSi=0 (mod r), 0<p'<r. Then ai=p'b \ (mod r),

Set

]A;} being the least positive residue modulo r of k. Whence Sylvester's^ statement. J. S. Aladow^^ proved that (1) has at most (p=f1)/4 roots if p = 4?n=tl. A. Cunningham^^" listed 27 cases in which r^~^=l or r'=l (mod p'), r<p^~^, where Z is a divisor of p 1. For the 11 cases of the first kind, = 487. p 5, 7, 17, 19, 29, 37, 43, 71, W. Fr. Meyer^^ proved by induction that, if p is a prime, x^~^ l is 1)^ posidivisible by p* {l^k<n), but not by p^'^^, for exactly p"~^~^

tive integers a:<p"

and prime
Set

to p,

and

is

divisible

by p"

(p for the remaining

p 1 such integers.

^=a+MiP+. +MnP" (l^Q<P,0^iU><p),

Xp=(a^'-a"'

Vp

"Jour, fiir Math., 115, 1895, 295-300. "St. Petersburg Math. Soc. (Rusaian), 1899, 40-44. "<Messenger Math., 29, 1899-1900, 158. See Cuniungham"^, Ch. VI. "Archiv Math. Phys., (3), 2, 1901, 141-6.

108
If

History of the Theory of Numbers.

is

[Chap,

iv

(mod p) for h<k, then by p*", but not by p^"*"^. A. Palmstrom and A. Pollak^^ proved that, if p is a prime and n, m are. the exponents to which a belongs modulo p, p~, respectively, then a"" ! is divisible by p^, so that m is a multiple of n and a divisor of np, whence m = n OT pn. Thus according as a^~^ is or is not =1 (mod p^), m = n or
k

the least index for which fXk^Xk, M/=^/.

is

A'~^ l

divisible

m = np.
Worms de Romilly^^" noted that, if co is a primitive root of p^, the incongnient roots of x^^=l (mod p^) are co^^{j = l,. ., p 1). J. W. L. Glaisher^^ proved that if r is a positive integer <p, p sl prime,
.

r''-^

= l+^iP+K^i'-^2)p'+|(^i'-3^i^2+2^3)p'+.
sum
''

.,

where

Qn is the
1

of the nth

powers of
2
''

_2_
[2(t]'"

r-1

r-1
If
is

1
''

[{r-l)a]' r+cr' r+[2(T]'"

r+[(r-lV]'
/i^

2r+(r'*

'

a being the least positive residue modulo r of p. solution of ani=i (mod r), viz., p/i<H-i=0, then
Ml

the least positive

12
,

M2

,
I

Mr-l

Ml
r

M2

Mr-1

Ml

r-1
Then

+ 1 r+2

'

'

'

'

'

2r-l

2r+l

'

Set

/Ur

= Oj

Mi+jr

=Mi-

g^=i\^)\
op_2

s'^'^O(modp).

Sylvester's corrected results are proved.

From
.

(1

+ 1)^, + -) p 2/
1

=l-^+ip
For
r'

7^2(l+K 1 \
of

(mod
r').

p).

= r+A:p,

let

m/ be the positive root

p/x/+^=0 (mod

Then

It is

shown

that, for

some integer

t,

hi-gi+- = tp,

h2-g2= -2---2+^t-y9i-:^ (mod

k^

2k

k^

p),

Glaisher,^^ using the

same notations, gave

(modp=).

^'-'-l+p(^+f +...+^l)
"L'intermddiaire des math., 8, 1901, 122, 205-6 ^Ibid., 214-5. 'Quar. Jour. Math., 32, 1901, 1-27, 240-251. "Messenger Math., 30, 1900-1, 78.
(7,

1900, 357).

Chap. IV]

RESIDUE OF (U^

l)/p MODULO

p.

109

Glaisher^^ considered Qu in connection with

BernouUian numbers and

gave

^-^^-i(}+l+
Mirimanoff.-^^

+1) (modp = 3ft+l).

A. Pleskot^^ duplicated the work of Plana. P. Bachmann^ gave an exposition of the work by Sylvester,^ Stern,*

M.

Lerch^^ set, for

any odd

integer

p and

for

u prime

to p,

P
Then,* as a generahzation of
qnv =qu+qv,

(2),

Qu+pv =qu-\

(mod

p)

"-I^Hwhere
v
[P/4]1

2g.-2i 2I

(mod

p),

ranges over the positive integers <p and prime to p; X over those >p/2; fi over those <p/2. Henceforth, let p be an odd prime and set N=\{p-l)\+l\/p. Then N^q,+ .+q,.^,
. .

[p/3]i

[p/5]i

32^-1 si,
=l^

3^3=

-2 si,
v=l^

5^5^-2 2^-2
a=l

[2p/5U

Si
oi
ixv

5=1

modulo p. If \p(n) is the number of sets of positive solutions and hence the number of divisors between n/p and p of n,

<p

=n

Employing Legendre's symbol and BernoulHan numbers, we have

^= sY^)g =0 or \p/
v=l

(-1)"-^2j5 (mod p),

according as p = 4n+3 or
p-i

4n+l.

In the respective cases,

\{^^Vq.^Cl{-p)oTO{modp),
where CZ( A)
is

the

number

of

classes

of

positive

primitive

forms
p,

ax^+bxy+cy^

of negative discriminant

6^ 4ac= A.
^

Also,

modulo

y^iv'^LpJ'

^aaLpJ'
aabf-pj

ao

Lp J

where

a,

a are quadratic residues of p, and

6, /3

non-residues.

33, 1900-1, 49-50. "Zeitschrift fiir das Realschulwesen, Wien, 27, 1902, 471-2. "Niedere Zahlentheorie, I, 1902, 159-169. *The greatest integer "Math. Annalen, 60, 1905, 471-490.

isProc.

London Math. Soc,

^x

is

denoted by

[x].

10

History of the Theory of Numbers.

to

[Chap,

iv

H. F. Baker" extended Sylvester's theorem

A'
-l

any modulus N:

TTli

where the m, denote the integers <A^ and prime to A'", N'N=1 (mod r), and \k\ is the least positive residue modulo r of k. Lerch^ extended Mirimanofif's^^ formula to the case of a composite modulus m. Set

m
Let a belong to the exponent <f){m)/e. Then q{a, m)=e'Za/^ (mod m), /? ranges over the residues of the incongruent powers of a, and wa+j3=0 (mod a), 0^a<a. As an extension of Sylvester's theorem,

where

q(a,

where

ranges over the

w)=2-= 2-^ (mod m), V V integers < m and prime to m,

a),
rrij

'

while

7nr,-\-v=0,

wr/ ?'=0 (mod

.rtik,

0^r,<a,
(mod m),

0^r,'<a.

For

m = mi.

where the
q{a,

are relatively prime,

m)

= 2 njn/(l){nj)q{a, nij)
(mod
mj).

a<p<307, a^^ 1 is di\'isible by p^ only = ll. for He examined all the primes between 9, p 307 and 751, but only for a and p a when a<y/p, finding only p = 113, a = 68. Removing the restriction a< Vp^ be found only the solutions p = ll,a = 3; p = 331, a = 18, 71; p = 353,a = 14; = = = = a a 487, 10, 673, 22, 175; p p
Hertzer-'* verified that, for

where H.

m = mjnj, n/n/=l
a = 3,

a = 68, p = 113;

together with the square of each a. A. Friedmann and J. Tamarkine^^ gave formulas connecting q^ with Bernoullian numbers and [u/p]. A. Wieferich^ proved that if x^+y^-\-z^ = Q is satisfied by integers 1 (mod p^). Shorter X, y, z prime to p, where p is an odd prime, then 2""^ proofs were given by D. IMirimanoff-^ and G. Frobenius.'* D. A. Grave- ^ gave the residue of q^ for each prime p< 1000 and thought he could prove that 2^ 2 is never divisible by p^ (error, Meissner^). A. Cunningham^" verified that 2^ 2 is not divisible by p^ for any prime p< 1000, and^^ that 3^ - 3 is not divisible by p^ for a prime p = 2''3''+ 1< 100. W. H. L. Janssen van Raay^^ noted that 2^ 2 is not divisible by p^ in

general.
Proc. London Math. Soc, (2), 4, 1906, 131-5. "Comptes Rendus Paris, 142, 1906, 35-38. "Archiv Math. Phys., (3), 13, 1908, 107. Jour. fur Math., 135, 1909, 146-156. Jour. fiir Math., 136, 1909, 293-302. "L'enseignement math., 11, 1909, 455-9. "Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Berlin, 1909, 1222-4; reprinted in Jour, fiir Math., 137, 1910, 314. **An elementary text on the theory of numbers (in Russian), I^ev, 1909, p. 315; Kiev Izv. Univ., 1909, Nos. 2-10. "Report British Assoc, for 1910, 530. L'interm^diaire des math., 18, 1911, 47; 19, 1912, 159.
Proc. London Math. Soc, (2), 8, 1910, xiii. "L'interm^diaire des math., 18, 1911, 47. Cf., 20, 1913, 206. "Nieuw Archief voor Wiskunde, (2), 10, 1912, 172-7.

Chap. IV]
'

RESIDUE OF {U^^ l)/p MODULO

p.

Ill

50 only for p= 43, L. Bastien^^" verified that (1) holds for 4p='= if p= that, 1 is a prime, stated cases. He Jacobi's^ for

p<

a=

19,

and

-1^2=1 + 1/3+1/5+... +1/(2/1-1) (mod

p).
(2'

W.

Meissner^^ gave a table showing the least positive residue of

l)/p

modulo p for each prime p< 2000, where t is the exponent to which 2 belongs modulo p. In particular, 2^ 2 is divisible by the square of the prime p = 1093, contrary to Proth^ and Grave,^^ but for no other p<2000. In the chapter on Fermat's last theorem will be given not only the condition q20 (mod p) of Wieferich^^ but also q^^O (mod p), etc., with citations to D. Mirimanoff, Comptes Rendus Paris, 150, 1910, 204-6, and Jour, fiir Math., 139, 1911, 309-324; H. S. Vandiver, ibid., 144, 1914, 314-8;
G. Frobenius, Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Beriin, 1910, 200-8; 1914, 653-81. These papers give further properties of q^. P. Bachmann^^ employed the identity

(a-\-h-\-cy-{a+b-cy+ia-h-cy-{a-h+cy

= 2(^)cl(a+6r-^-(a-6r-n+2(|)c^l(a+6r-^-(a-6r-^f + ...
for

a=6=

1, c

=2

or

to get expressions for ^2 or

q^,

whence

for

an odd prime

p.

Comparing

this

with the value of

(3^

3)/p obtained
p).

by expanding (2+1)^, we p
Again,

see that

?!ll2_2P-i_^i.2P-2_|_i.2P-3+
,
.

+-^-2
p-l

(mod

92^2summed

(^) Vssfirn.(s-0 {-ly+'+'s (mod

s^=f^+l (mod
"

p),

for all sets of solutions of

p).

Finally,

g2^s'|(r''-r-'')2(r2'"'-l)-i|,
h=l[
J

where

r is

a primitive pth root of unity.

*H. Brocard^^ commented on a^^=l (mod p""). *H. G. A. Verkaart^^ treated the divisibility of a^ a by p. E. Fauquembergue^^ checked that

2^=2 (mod

p2) for

p = 1093.

N. G. W. H. Beeger^^ tabulated all roots of a;^~^= 1 (mod p^) for each prime p<200. If w is a primitive root of p^, the absolutely least residue
It is stated that G. Tarry had verified in 1911 that 7, 1912, 4-6. not divisible by a prime p < 1013. "Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Berlin, 1913, 663-7. "Jour, fiir Math., 142, 1913, 41-50. '^Revista de la Sociedad Mat. Espanola, 3, 1913-4, 113-4. '"Wiskundig Tijdschrift, vol. 2, 1906, 238-240. "L'interm6diaire des math., 1914, 33. 38Messenger Math., 43, 1913-4, 72-84.

32aSphinx-Oedipe,

2P-2

is

112

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

iv

p2 of CO" is a root, that (^xg) of xi^ is a second root, that ( ^Xg) a third root, etc., until the root =tx, is reached, where s = (p-l)/2. The remaining roots are p^-x,(i = l,. ., s). He proved that
of X1X2
is
.

xi modulo

ixi...xy={-l)-^ (modp2).
Xi. .x,= l if p = 4n+l. W. Meissner^^ WTote /i^ for the residue <p'" of /i^""' modulo p"*. When h varies from 1 to p-1, we get p-1 roots h^ of xP-^=1 (mod p"*). The product of the roots given by h = l,.. ., (p-l)/2, is =(-1)' or (-l)V (mod p'"), according as p = 4m-1 or 4n+l, where z is the number of pairs of integers <p/2 whose product is -1 (mod p), and c is the smaller of the two roots of x^=-l (mod p). No number <p which belongs to one of the exponents 2, 3, 4, 6, modulo p, can be a root of x^^=l (mod p^). A root of the latter is given for each prime p< 300, and a root modulo p^ for each p<200; also the exponent to which each root belongs. N. Nielsen^^ noted that, if we select 2r distinct integers a &, (s = 1, ,r) from 1, ., p-1, such that a,+b, = p, then

Hence

"^ = i-mi-pA), A^ ^ =
Proof
Qa

k^lg^-g^^'j

(modp).

is given of various results by Lerch,-^ also of simple relations between and BernouUian numbers, and of the final formula by Plana,^ here attrib-

uted to Euler.^^ H. S. Vandiver^- p roved that there are not fewer than [Vp] and not more than p (l \/2p 5)/2 incongruent least positive residues of

+
I

1,

2^\..., (p-l)^\ modulo f. N. Nielsen^^ noted that, if a is not

di\'isible

by the odd prime

(modp),

p,

9a=-^+

(p-3)/2

2
j

S^ 2j^-ir'i5.(a^-'^-^-l)

gi+?2+...+gp-i=(-l)"-'5+--l
V

(modp2),

n=ip-l)/2.

W. Meissner^ gave various expressions for ^2 and ^3. A. G^rardin^^ found all primes p<2000, including those of the form 2"!, for which 52 is sjTnmetrical when written to the base 2. H. S. Vandiver^^ proved that 520 (mod p^) if and only if

He

gave various expressions for

(n*

l)/m.

"Sitzungsber. Berlin IMath. Gesell., 13, 1914, 96-107. "Ann. sc. I'^cole norm, sup., (3), 31, 1914, 171-9. "Euler, Institutiones Calculi Diff., 1755, 406. Proof, Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 48, 1888, 48. BuU. AmQT. Math. Soc, 22, 1915, 61-7. K)versigt Danske Vidensk. SeLsk. ForhandUnger, 1915, 518-9, 177-180; cf. Lerch's N. ^Mitt. Math. Gesell. Hamburg, 5, 1915, 172-6, 180. Xouv. Ann. Math., (4), 17, 1917, 102-8.

"Annals

of

Math.,

18, 1917, 112.

CHAPTER
Number
<f){n)

V.
Prime to
n.

EULER'S (^-FUNCTION, GENERALIZATIONS. FAREY SERIES.

of Integers

<n and

L. Euler/ in connection with his generalization of Fermat's theorem, investigated the number <j){n) of positive integers not exceeding n which are relatively prime to n, without then using a functional notation for 0(n). He began with the theorem that, if the n terms a, a-\-d,. ., a+(n l)d
.

in arithmetical progression are divided

by

n, the

remainders are

0, 1,.

.,

n1

some order, provided d is prime to n; in fact, no two of the terms have the same remainder. If p is a prime, (^(p"") =p'"~^(p 1), since p, 2p,. ., p^~^-p are the only ones of the p"* positive integers ^ p^ not prime to p"*. To prove that
in
.

(1)
let 1, a,
. .

<t>{AB) =4>{A)<f>{B)
.,

{A,

relatively prime),

CO

be the integers
to

<A

and prime
a
. .

to A.

Then the
CO

integers

< AB

and prime

are
1
.

A+1
2A + 1

A+a
2A+a
{B-l)A-\-a

... ...

A+co 2A+C0
(B-l)A+co.

(5-l)A + l
The terms

in any column form an arithmetical progression whose difference prime to B, and hence include <^(J5) integers prime to B. The number Hence there are ({>{A)<f){B) positive integers <AB, of columns is (f>{A). prime to both A and B, and hence prime to AB. If p, s are distinct primes, the two theorems give

is

(2)

Euler^ later
First, let

0(p\ .s)=p^-np-l). .s'-\s-l). used ttN to denote 4>{N) and gave a different proof
.
.

of (2).

N=

p'^q,

where

<A^

there are p""!

the integers p, q are distinct primes. multiples of q, and p'^'^q l multiples of p, these sets

Among

N1

having in

Hence <^(iV)=iV-l-(p"-l)-(p'*-^g-l)+p"-i-l=p"-i(p-l)(g-l).
1

common

the p"~^

multiples of pq.

A
(3)

simpler proof

is

then given for the modified form of

(2)

iV(p-l)to-l)...(.-l),
pq...s

where

p, q,

r,

.
.

s are

the distinct primes dividing N.

There are

multiples

<N of p and hence N' = N{p \)/p integers <A^ and prime to p.
8,

N/p

Of these, N' /q are divisible by q; excluding them, we have N" = N'{q l)/q numbers < N and prime to both p and q. The rth part of these are said
^Novi Comm. Ac. Petrop., Acta Ac. Petrop., 4 II (or
1760-1, 74;
8),

1780 (1755), 18;

Comm. Arith., 1, 274, Opera postuma, I, 492-3. Comm. Arith., 2, 127-133. He took 0(1)=O.
113

114
[cf.

History of the Theory of Numbers.

Poinsot^^] to be divisible
etc.

[Chap,

by

r; after

excluding them

we

get N"{r l)/r

numbers;

Euler^ noted in a posthumous paper that, if p, q, r are distinct primes, there are r multiples ^pqr of pq, and qr multiples of p, and a single multiple
of pqr,

whence

<t){pqr)=pqr-qr-pr-pq-^r+p-\-q-l = {p-l){q-l){r-l).
is any number not divisible by the prime p, and if fx In general, if and prime to M, there are Mfj. denotes the number of integers and hence p''{Mii) integers ^Mp" and and not prime to integers and therefore not prime to Mp". Of the Mp^~^ multiples not prime to ^Mp^ of p, exclude the p"~^(ilf /i) which are not prime to M; we obtain p^'V multiples of p which are prime to M. Hence

^M

^M

<^(p"M)=p"M-p''(M-m)-p""V = P"~Hp-1)mco are any odd primes not dividing A. M. Legendre^ noted that, if ^, nA-\-B which A, the number of terms of the progression A+B, 2A+5, co is approximately n(l 1/0) are divisible by no one of the primes 0,
.

co. and exactly that number if n is divisible by 0, C. F. Gauss^ introduced the symbol (i>{N). He expressed Euler's^ proof Let a be any one of the 4>{A) integers <A and of (1) in a different form. prime to A, while j8 is any one of the 4>{B) integers <B and prime to B. There is one and but one positive integer x<AB such that x=a (mod A), x=^ (mod B). Since this x is prime to A and to B, it is prime to AB. Making the agreement that <^(1) = 1, Gauss proved

(1

1/co),

(4)

20(d)

=N

{d ranging over the divisors of

N).

For each d, multiply the integers ^d and prime to d by N/d; we obtain S0(d) integers ^N, proved to be distinct and to include 1, 2, ., iV. = pM, where p is a A. M. Legendre^ proved (3) as follows: First, let prime which may or may not divide M; then of the numbers = pqM, where p and q are are not divisible by p. Second, let 1,. ., distinct primes. Then 1,. ., include numbers divisible by both p and q; Mp numbers divisible by q and not by p; Mq numbers divisible by p and not by q. Hence there remain A^(l l/p)(l 1/q) numbers divisible by neither p nor q. Third, a like argument is said to apply
. .

MpM

to

N = pqrM,

etc.
. .
.

Legendre (p. 412) proved that ii A,C are relatively prune and if 0,X,ju, CO are odd primes not dividing A, the number of terms kA C{k = l,...,n), which are divisible by no one of 0, to, is
. . .

*Tractatu3 de numerorum, Comm. Arith., 2, 515-8. *Es3ai siir la thdorie des nombres, 1798, p. 14.
Th^orie des nombres, ed.

Opera postuma,

I,

1862, 16-17.

'Disquisitionea Arithraeticse, 1801, Arts. 38, 39. 2, 1808, 7-8; German trans, of ed. 3

by Maser, 8-10.

Chap. V]

EulER's (^-FUNCTION.
.

115

where the summations extend over the combinations of 6,. ., co taken ., at a time, while Aq is a positive integer <A for which ^Aq+C is 1, 2, We thus derive the divisible by A, and [x] is the greatest integer ^x. approximation stated by Legendre.^ Taking A = l, C = (p. 420), we see that the number of integers ^n, which are divisible by no one of the disco is tinct primes 0, X,
. .

A. von Ettingshausen^ reproduced without reference Euler's^ proof of Let A'' = p'g" and gave an obscurely expressed proof of (4) where Consider first only the divisors d = p^q', where are distinct primes. p, q,. /i>0, v>0, so that d involves the primes p and q, but no others. By (3),
(3)
.
.
.

^(d)=d(i-^) (i-l),
J^
S(^(pY)
In Similarly, which involve the same prime divisors of N,
S<^(d)
P

|^py=(p+p'+. .+r)(g+.
.

.+2"),

S0(p'') =p" 1.

= (p"-i)(/-i). this way we treat together

factors.

Hence when d ranges over

(p-l)(5''_l)(r-_l)

the divisors of all the

= l+S(p-l) + S(p-l)(g^-l)+ S
P.Q
P. 3. r

+ ...

=n]i+(p"-i)J=np"=iv,
p

where the summation indices range over the combinations of all the prime factors of taken 1, 2, .at a time. [Cf, Sylvester .^^] A. L. Crelle^ considered the number Zj of integers, chosen from rii, ,na, which are divisible by exactly j of the distinct primes Pi, ., Pm', and the number Sy of the integers, chosen from rii, n^, which are divisible by at least j of the primes Pi. Then

Z1

+ Z2+.

.+Zm = Si-S2 + Ssrii,

.

.=tS^.

Let

of the

be the number of the integers primes Pi. Then

a^'Ezi+v,
p

. .

n^ which are divisible

by no one

= a-Si+S2
.., iV,

.=PSrr,.

In particular, take nj, ..., ria to be 1, 2,. take Pi,...,Pm to be p, g, r, Then

.

where

N = p''q^r^ N
,

.,

and

N N
P
q

N N
pq
. .

pr

'

pqr

cf>{N)=N-s,-{-S2-

=n(i--^ 0"-)
is

He proved
^Zeitschrif t fur

(1) for

5 = 0",
Math,

where a

a prime not dividing

(p. 40).

By

Euler's^ table there are B({)(A) integers

Physik
u.
(eds.,

<AB

and prime to A.
5,

In Euler's
1829, 287-292.

Baumgartner and Ettmg8hauaen),Wien,

*Abh. Akad. Wiss. Berlin (Math.), 1832, 37-50.

116

History of the Theory of Numbers.

(Chap,

l), a{kA-\-a),. notation, a{kA ., a{kA-{-03) give all the numbers between kaA and {k-\-\)aA which are divisible by a and are prime to A. Taking 1, we see that there are exactly a"~V(^) multiples of a A: = 0, 1,. ., a~^
.

which are

<AB and prime to A.

0(a"^)

Hence

=aXA) -o^-VU) =(t>{a'')(f>{A).

F. Minding^ proved Legendre's formula (5). The number of integers ^n, not divisible by the prime 0, is n [n/d]. To make the general step by induction, let Pi, Pk be distinct primes, and denote by (5; pi, p^) the number of integers ^ 5 which are divisible by no one of the primes pi, Then, if p is a new prime, Pk'
. . . . .

(B; pi,

. .

Pk, p)

The
if

truth of (4) for the (p. 41) from the fact that

= {B;pu..., Pk) - ([B/p] Pi, special case N = p 1, where p is

;
.

Pk)-

((){d)

is

any

divisor of

p 1.

a prime, follows numbers belong to the exponent d modulo p

N. Druckenmiiller^*^ evaluated (f>{b), first for the case in which 6 is a product cd. .kl oi distinct primes. Set h=^l and denote by \f/{h) the number of integers <b having a factor in common with 6. There are l\p{^) k, since there numbers < b which are divisible by one of the primes c, are \p{P) in each of the sets
. . . .

l,2,...,/3;

^+1,...,2^;

...;

(i-l)/3+l,.
I.

.,

Z/3.

Again,

I,

21,..., pi are the integers

jS,

are prime to

<b with the factor while the others have one of the factors
lxl/{^).

Of
.

these, 0(j3)

c,

.
.

k and occur

among
Hence

the above

Hence

xl/{b)=l\l/i^)-\-<i>iP).

But

i/'O3)+0(/3)=/3.

</,(6)

= a-l)(A(^) = (c-l)...(Z-l).
c,

Next,

let 6

be a product of powers oi

d,.

.,

I,

and

set b

= L^, ^ = cd.

.1.

By

considering

sets as before,

we

get

E. Catalan^^ proved
2(/,(py.
.

(4)

by noting that
. .
.

.)=n]i+(/)(p)+

+<f>(p'')\

=np=Ar,

where there are as many factors in each product as there are distinct prime factors of N. A. Cauchy^^ gave without reference Gauss'^ proof of (1). E. Catalan^^ evaluated <t){N) by Euler's^ second method. C. F. Arndt^"* gave an obscure proof of (4), apparently intended for Catalan's. ^^ It was reproduced by Desmarest, Th^orie des nombres, 1852,
p. 230.
Anfangsgriinde der Hoheren Arith., 1832, 13-15. oTheorie der Kettenreihen .Trier, 1837, 21. "Jour, de Mathdmatiques, 4, 1839, 7-8.
.

iCompte8 Rendus Paris, 12, 1841, 819-821; Exercices d'analyse et de phys. math., Paris, 2, 1841, 9; Oeuvres, (2), 12. "Nouv. Ann. Math., 1, 1842, 466-7. "Archiv Math. Phys., 2, 1842, 6-7.

Chap. V]

EuLER's (^-FUNCTION.

117

J.

A. Grunert^^ examined in a very elementary

way

the sets

jk+1,
(p l)<j){k) easily
if

jk-{-2,...,

jk+k-l,
if

{j+l)k

(j = 0, l,...,p-l)

and proved that

deduced

the prime p divides k, while 4){pk) the prime p does not divide k. From these results, (2)
4){'pk)='p4){k)
[cf.

=
is

Crelle^^

on

(f){Z)].

L. Poinsot^ gave Catalan's^^ proof of (4) and proved the statements Thus to show that, of the N' = N{1- 1/p) (3) and prime to p, exactly N'/q are divisible by q, note that the integers

made by Euler^ in his proof of

<N

set 1,.

.,

N
.

contains

N/q

multiples of q

and the

set p, 2p,

contains

{N/p)/q multiples
If
. .

N = PQR

P, Q, R,. can be expressed in the form

. .

of q, while the difference is N'/q. are relatively prime in pairs,

any number prime to

where p sums are equal. Thus there are 0(P)0(Q)

is

prime to P, q to Q,

pQR...+qPR...+rPQ... + ..., etc. If also p<P, q<Q, etc., no two

. . .

of these

such sums [certain of which

may exceed N]. To prove (4),

of the

take (pp. 70-71) a prime p of the form kN+l and any one Then there is a least integer d, sl divisor 1 (mod p). The latter has (f)(d) such roots. Also p is a of N, such that p'^= 1 (mod p). primitive root of the last congruence and of no other such congruence whose degree is a divisor of N. A. L. Crelle^^ considered the product E = eie2. .e of integers relatively prime in pairs, and set Ej = E/ej. When x ranges over the values 1, ., Ci, of EiXi-\+'a; takes each of the the least positive residue modulo n, .,E once and but once. In case Xi is prime to ei for i = 1, values 1, Let dn, di2, ... be any the residue of SE'^Xi is prime to E and conversely. chosen divisors >1 of e^ which are relatively prime in pairs. Let \}/{ei) denote the number of integers ^e^ which are divisible by no one of the Let yl/{E) be the number of integers which are divisible .. ^ti, di2,. by no one of the dn, di2, c^2ij > including now all the d's. Then \1/{E) = In case dn, di2, include all the prime divisors > 1 of e,-, i/'(en). ^(ei) Of the two proofs (pp. 69-73), one is based on the ypie^ becomes ^(e^). .^ j&rst result quoted, while the other is like that by Gauss As before, let ^{y) be the number of integers '^y which are divisible by no one of certain chosen relatively prime divisors di,...,dm of y. By considering the xy numbers ny-\-r (0^n<x, I'^r^y), it is proved (p. 74) that, when X and y are relatively prime,

N roots p of a;^=

^E

ypixy) =x\p{y),

\p2ixy)

= {x-l)xl/{y),

where \p2{^y) is the number of integers ^xy which are divisible neither by X nor by any one of the d's. These formulas lead (pp. 79-83) to the value of0(Z). Set

Z = p/'...p/M,
i^Archiv.

= Pi...p^,

n = Z/z,

Math. Phys., 3, 1843, 196-203. "Jour, de Math^matiques, 10, 1845, 37-43. "Encyklopadie der Zahlentheorie, Jour, fiir Math., 29, 1845, 58-95.

118
.

History of the Theory of Numbers.

p,

[Chap,

where Pi,. ., p^ are distinct primes. For a prime Take y = Pi, p = P2', then have (f){py) = {p- l)<t>iy)
.

not dividing

y,

we

<^(PiP2)

= (Pi-l)(P2-l)= (Pl-l)(P2-l)(P3-l),

Next, take y = PiP2, P = P3} and use also the last result; thus
<A(PlP2P3)

and

similarly for

<t){z).

the numbers vz-\-^

{v

When f ranges over the integers < z and prime to z, = 0,l,. .,n l) give without repetition all the integers
.

<Z

and prime

to Z.

Hence

(f>{Z)=n<i){z),

which leads to

(2).

[Cf. Guil-

min,2^ Steggall.'^^]

The proofs of (4) by Gauss^ and Catalan^ ^ are reproduced without refer= a''h^c' ., where a, b, ences (pp. 87-90). A third proof is given. Set are distinct primes. c, Consider any divisor e = b^"^' of such that e

is

not divisible by

a.

Then
<t>ia'')=a''-\a-l)(t>{e).

get a0(e). When k ranges over its values and 1, over the values 1,. 0, ., j3, and 71 over the values 0, 1,. /3i ., 7, etc., ea* ranges over all the divisors d of iV. Hence 20 (d) =a''S0(e). Similarly, if Ci range over the divisors not divisible by a or b,

Sum

for

/b

= 0,

a;

we
.

S</)()=6^(^(ei),.

.,

S<^(d)=a6^

=N.

E. Prouhet^^ proposed the name indicator and symbol i{N) for 0(iV). gave Gauss' proof of (1) and Catalan's proof of (4). If 5 is the product of the distinct prime factors common to a and b,

He

<j>{ab) =(i>{a)(}>ib)8/(f){8).

As a
i

generalization, let

5^
,

of the

numbers

Oi,

.
.

a;

be the product of the distinct primes then

2

^ ^ 2

common

to

2 n-l

</)(ai.

.a) =<j>{ai)

.<f){an)

integers

Friderico Arndt^^ proved (1) by showing that, if x ranges over the and prime to A, while y ranges over the integers and prime

<A

<B

Ay-{-Bx gives only incongruent residues modulo AB, each prime to AB, and they include every integer <AB and prime to AB. [Crelle's^^ first theorem for n = 2.] V. A. Lebesgue^ used Euler's^ argument to show that there are
to B, then

Nip-l){q-l)...{k-l)
p-q.
.

.k

integers
of
A''

< iV and prime top,q,...,k, the latter being certain prime divisors

[Legendre,^ Minding^].

"Nouv. Ann. Math., 4, 1845, 75-80. "Jour, fur Math., 31, 1846, 246-8. "Nouv. Ann. Math., 8, 1849, 347.

Chap. V]

EuLER's 0-FuNCTION.
(4) for iV

119
. .

if

G. L. Dirichlet^^ added equations s^n, 4>(s) occurs in the new left

= n,

.,

2,

1,

noting that,

member

as often as there are mul-

tiples

^n

oi

s.

Hence
i\-']<f>{s)=Un'+n). s=lLsJ

The

left

member

is

proved equal to

XxJ/in/s],

where

It is then

shown that

\p{n)

Zn^/ir^

is

ing that of n\ where

2>5>7>1,7

of an order 6i magnitude not exceedbeing such that

8=2 S^

P. L. Tchebychef^^ evaluated 0(n) by showing that, if p is a prime not dividing A, the ratio of the number of integers ^ which are prime to A to the number which are prime to both A and p is p:p l.

pAN

A. Guilmin^^ gave Crelle's^^ argument leading to 0(Z). F. Landry ^^ proved (3). First, reject from 1, ., iV the N/p multiples of p; there remain A^(l 1/p) numbers prime to p. Next, to find how many of the multiples q, 2q, of q are prime to p, note that the coefficients 1, 2, ., N/q contain N/q-{l l/p) integers prime to p by the first result, applied to the multiple N/q of p in place of N. Daniel Augusto da Silva^^ considered any set S of numbers and denoted by S{a) the subset possessing the property a, by S{ab) the subset with the properties a and b simultaneously, by {a)S the subset of numbers in S not having property a; etc. Then
.

{a)S = S-S{a)=S\l-{a)\,
symbolically.

Hence
(ha)S = {b)\(a)S\=S\l-{a)\\l-{h)\,
{.
.

.cba)S^S\l-{a)\\l-{b)\ \l-{c)\
*S

..

symbohc formula was given by F. Horta.^^" be the set 1, 2, n, and let A, ^, be the distinct prime factors of n. Let properties a, 6, ... be divisibility by A,B,. .. Then there are n/A terms in >S(a), n/{AB) terms in S{ab), ., and <f){n) terms in .cba)S. Hence our symbolic formula gives (
of the latter

A proof
With

Silva, let

*()=(l-i)(l-|).
"Abhand. Ak. Wiss. Berlin (Math.), 1849, 78-81; Werke,
2,

60-64.

^^Theorie der Congruenzen, 1889, 7; in Russian, 1849. Nouv. Ann. Math., 10, 1851, 23. ^^Troisieme mlmoire siir la th^orie des nombres, 1854, 23-24. '^Proprietades geraes et resoluQao directa das Congruencias binomias, Lisbon, 1854. Report on same by C. Alasia, Rivista di Fisica, Mat. e Sc. Nat., Pavia, 4, 1903, i3-17; reprinted in Annaes Scientificos Acad. Polyt. do Porto, Coimbra, 4, 1909, 166-192.

""Annaes de Sciencias e Lettras, Lisbon,

1,

1857, 705.

120

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

E. Betti^ evaluated 0(w), where 7n is a product of powers of the distinct Consider the set Ci of the products of the a's taken i at primes ai, a2> w, while C2 is a time and their multiples ^m. Thus Co is 1,

0x02, 20x02,

.,

0102;

cii(h,

2ai03,
,
.

.,

diCis',ttitta

aia2

Let X be an integer

<w

divisible

by

ai,

a.

Then x occurs

times in the sets Co, C2, C4,

and

2"

times in Ci, C3,

..

Summing

l-(l) + (2)-(3)+
for each of the m<t>{m) integers

=0
common
with m,

^m

having factors in

we

get

m-0(m)-s(j)+s(2)-...=O.
But ^i-i)
is

the niunber of integers having in

.

common
^i^j

with
^^

m
. .

one of the

factors ai, 02,

.,

and hence equals

Next,

*^
.

number
,

of

integers having in

common with m one of the factors 0102,

}
.

OiOa,

and hence

equals

2 m/ (0102)
{

Thus
4>{m)

=mL,

mm
1-2

....

R. Dedekind^^ gave a general theorem on the inversion of functions (to explained in the chapter on that subject), which for the special case of be </)(n) becomes a proof like Betti's. Cf. Chrystal's Algebra, II, 1889, 511; Theory of Numbers, Mathews' 1892, 5; Borel and Drach,^^ p. 27. J. B. Sturm^^ evaluated 4>{N) by a method which will be illustrated for = \b. From 1,. ., 15 delete the five multiples of 3. Among the case the remaining ten numbers there are as many multiples of 5 as there are multiples of 5 among the first ten numbers. Hence <^(15) = 102 = 8. The theorem involved is the following. From the three sets

1, 2,

3,* 4, 5;

6,* 7, 8, 9,* 10;

11, 12,* 13, 14, 15*

delete (by
11, 13, 14

marking with an asterisk) the multiples of 3. The numbers which remain in the final set are congruent modulo 5 to the numbers 6, 3, 9 deleted from the earUer sets. J. Liouville" proved by use of (4) that, for |x|<l,

<t>{m)x"'

m^ll-X"^
"Bertrand's Alg^bre,

_ X ~{l-xf
Ital. transl.

(t>{m)x"'

_ g <f>{m)x'^ _ x{l-\-x^) l-X^^'m^ll+X"" ~{1-Xy

5.

'

with notes by Betti, Firenze, 1856, note

Proof reproduced
^

pp. 74-77. "Jour, fvir Math., 54, 1857, 21. Dirichlet-Dedekind, Zahlentheohe, 138. "Archiv Math. Phys., 29, 1857, 448-452.

by Fontebasso'*,

"Jour, de math6matiques,

(2), 2,

1857,

433^40.

Chap. V]

EuLER's (^-FUNCTION.

121

where

m in S' ranges only over the positive odd integers.

The

final fraction

equals x-\-Sx^-{-5x^+ .... From the coefficient of x^ in the expansion of the third sum, we conclude that, if n is even,

where d ranges over

of
5,

and

82

all the divisors of n. Let over the even values of 5; then

5i

range over the odd values

0-0given.

the value n/2 following from Finally, by use of (4),

(4).
it is

Another, purely arithmetical, proof

is

proved that,

if

s>2,

n=l

/fr

n=l/t

where

of A. Cayley3 discussed the solution for Multiply are distinct primes. a, 6,

. . .

<^(iV)

= iV^

Set

N = a^b^ ...,
. .

+ (a-l) \a\+a{a-l) \a^\ + ... +a''-\a-l) {a"} +

;

by

the analogous series in 5, etc. the bracketed terms are to be multiplied together by enclosing their product in a bracket. The general term of the product is evidently

mentioned each of the bracketed numbers which of <f){N)=N'. N' will be a solution We need use only the primes a for which a 1 divides N', and continue each

Hence

in the product first

are multiplied
series

by the

coefficient

only so far as it gives a divisor of N' for the coefficient of a"~^(a 1). V. A. Lebesgue^^ proved 4){Z)=n4>{z) as had Crelle^^ and then 4>{z) =n(pi 1) by the usual method of excluding multiples of pi, p in turn. By the last method he proved (pp. 125-8) Legendre's (5), and the more general formula preceding (5). J. J. Sylvester^^ proved (4) by the method of Ettingshausen,' using (2) instead of (3) By means of (4) he gave a simple proof of the first formula
. .
.

of Dirichlet;^^ call the left

member

u^', r,

since [n/r]

[(n l)/r] = l

or 0,

according as n

is

or

is

not divisible by

v^^J^

w(n+l)

The constant

c is zero since Ui

= l.

He

stated the generalization

2{*(i')(l-+2-+... + [?]'")}^
He remarked
that the theorem in
its

r+2'-+...+n'".
is

simplest form

"London Ed. and Dublin

Phil. Mag., (4), 14, 1857, 539-540. "Exercicea d'analyse niim^rique, 1859, 43-45. "Quar. Jour. Math., 3, 1860, 186-190; CoU. Math. Papers, 2, 225-8.

122

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

the example given being r = 2, n = 4, whence the divisors of 1-2, 2-2, 1-4 and the above terms are

n are

1-1, 2-1, 4-1,

Ml,

Ml,

M-2,

2-M,

2M,

4-21,

with the sum 4". [With this obscure result contrast that by Cantor/^] G. L. Dirichlet^^ completed by induction Euler's^ method of proving (3), obtaining at the same time the generalization that, if p, g, s are divisors, relatively prime in pairs, of N, the number of integers ^ which are divis is sible by no one of p,
. .

H-;)04)
^N

0--.)

A proof (13) of (4) follows from the fact that, if d is a divisor of N, there having with are exactly </)(d) integers the g. c. d. N/d. P. A. Fontebasso^^ repeated the last remark and gave Gauss' proof of (1). E. Laguerre^^ employed any real number k and integer and wrote

(m,

m/k)

for the

number

of integers

^m/k
= [m/k],

which are prime to m.

By

continuous variation of k he proved that

i:{d,d/k)

where d ranges over the divisors of m. For k = l, this reduces to (4). F. Mertens^^ obtained an asymptotic value for 0(1)+ +(i>iG) for large. He employed the function ju(n) [see Ch. XIX] and proved that
.

I 0(m) = | S /.(n){r^lVr^l
TO=i

n=i

iLnJ

Lnjj

U^GHA
tt

|A|<G(ilog,G+iC+f) + l,

C is Euler's constant 0.57721 .... This upper limit for exact than that by Dirichlet.^^ T. Pepin^'' stated that, if n = a"6^. (a, 6, .distinct primes),
where
. . . .

is

more

n=0(n)+2a-V(^) +2a-V-^(/,(^)

-\-a-'b'-'.

..

Moret-Blanc^^ proved the latter by noting that the first sum is the number of integers < n which are divisible by a single one of the primes a, 6, ... the second sum is the number of integers < n divisible by two of the primes, is the number of integers <n divisible by all those ., while a''~^6^~\ primes. H. J. S. Smith^^ considered the m-rowed determinant A, having as the element in the ith. row and jth column the g. c. d. {i, j) of i, j. Let li = m,
.

"Zahlentheorie, 11, 1863; ed.

*Saggio di

2,

1871; ed.

3,

1879; ed.

4,

1894.

una introd. all'arit. trascendente, Treviso, 1867, 23-26. BuU. Soc. Math. France, 1, 1872-3, 77.
Math., 77, 1874, 289-91. 'Nouv. Ann. Math., (2), 14, 1875, 276. "/bid., p. 374. L. Gegenbauer, Monatsh. Math. Phys.,
Jour. fiir

4,

1893, 184, gave a generahzation to

2, 161.

primary complex numbers. Proc. London Math. Soc, 7, 1875-6, 208-212; CoU. Papers,

Chap. V]

EulER's </)-FuNCTION.

123

which are given by the expansion be those divisors of m = p of the product 0(m) = (p--p"-i). .(r-r-i)=?i-Z2+?3-.
I2,

I3,...

^'^

.-^v

It is

proved that
cl>{m, k)

= {k,

k)-{k, k)+

-{I,

k)

<^(m)

by Lucas/^ p. 407] is zero if k<m, but equals Hence if to the mth column of A^ we add the columns with indices I3, I5,... and subtract the columns with indices I2, Z4, we obtain an equal determinant in which the elements of the mth column are zero with the exception of the element <^(m). Hence A^=A^_i0(m), so that
[called Smith's function
if

= m.

(6)

A^=<^(l)0(2)...0(m).
If

we

replace the element 5

i^(l)
. .

= {i, j) by any

function /(5) of

5,

we obtain a

determinant equal to

.F{m), where

nm)=/W-2/g)+S/g)-.,..
Particular cases are noted.
tion Jkitn).

For

/()

S''',

F{m) becomes Jordan's^"" funckth.

. . .

Next, if /(5) is the sum of the then F{m)='m!'. Finally, if /(6) = 1^+2^+
ly that

powers
it

of the divisors of
is

5,

+5^,

stated erroneous-

F{m)

is

the

sum

(i>k{'m)

of the /bth

powers

of the integers

^m and
first

prime to m.

[Smith overlooked the factors o!', oJ^h^, ... in Thacker's^^ expression for <l>k{n), which is otherwise of the desired form F{n). determinant is not equal to 4>k{\) .^^kim), as the simple case k = l,
. .

The

w = 2,

shows.]

In the main theorem we may replace 1,. ., m by any set of distinct jU; such that every divisor of each ju, is a number of the jui, set; the determinant whose element in the ith. row and jth column is/(5), where 5 = (jUi, /xy), equals F()Ui) Examples of sets of ^t's are the .F{fx^. numbers in their natural order with the multiples of given primes rejected; the numbers composed of given primes; and the numbers without square
.

numbers

factors.

R. Dedekind^ proved that, if n be decomposed in every product ad, and if e is the g. o,. &. oi a, d, then
S|.#,(6)

way

into a

= nn(l+^),

where a ranges over all divisors of n, and p over the prime divisors of n. P. Mansion^^ stated that Smith's relation (6) yields a true relation if we replace the elements 1,2,. .of the determinant A^ by any symbols Xi,X2,. ., and replace 0(m) by Xi^Xi^-\-Xi .... [But the latter is only another form of Smith's F{m) when we write x^ for Smith's /(5), so that the generali.

zation

is

the same as Smith's.]

2,

"Jour,

Math., 83, 1877, 288. Cf. H. Weber, Elliptische Functionen, 1891, 244-5; ed. 1908 (Algebra III), 234-5. ^Messenger Math., 7, 1877-8, 81-2.
ftir

124

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

P. Mansion^^ proved (6), showing that </>(m, k) equals <f){m) or 0, accord[Cf. Bachmann, Niedere Zahlentheorie, ing as m is or is not a divisor of k. He repeated his*^ ''generalization." He stated that if a I, 1902, 97-8.] and b are relatively prime, the products of the 0(a) numbers <a and prime

<b and prime to b give the numbers <ab and prime =4, 6 = 3; cf. Mansion^]. His proof of (4) should have been credited to Catalan." E. Catalan^^ gave a condensation and shght modification of Mansion's*' paper. C. Le Paige {ibid., pp. 176-8) proved ]\Iansion's^ theorem that every product equals a determinant formed from the factors. P. IMansion"" proved that the determinant |cy| of order n equals rriX2- x^ if Cij=Xxp, where p ranges over the divisors of the g. c. d. of i, j. To obtain
to a

by the numbers

to ab [false for a

a "generahzation" of Smith's theorem, set Zi = Xi, Z2 = Xi-{-X2,. where d ranges over all the divisors of i. Solving, we get

.,

Zi=J>Xi,

where the Vs are defined above.^^

Thus each Cy
21

is

z.

For example,

if

n = 4,

Chap. V]

EulEr's 0-FunCTION.
cf>{N)p-(t>iN')prcf>{N")p..
. .

125
.

=<f>(NN'Nr

.)p'P'P".

..

E. Lucas^^ stated and Radicke proved that

a=l
if

fc=2

0=1

k=2

^(a, n)

the number of integers > a, prime to a and H. G. Cantor^^ proved by use of ^-functions that
is

^ n.

Svo^-Vr".

.vU24>M4>{vi)

.0(^-i) ^n",

summed
Vq.
.

for all distinct sets of positive integral solutions Vq,..., v^^i of

.Vp=n, and noted that this result can be derived from the special case (4). 0. H. MitchelP defined the a-totient Taik) of k^a'b''. (where a,h,. .. are distinct primes) to be the number of integers <k which are divisible by a, but by no one of the remaining prime factors 6, c, ... of k. Similarly, the a6-totient Tabik) of k is the number of integers <k which are divisible by a and h, but not by c, etc. If /c = a'6V,
.
. .

tM =a'-V(&V),
<f>ik)

Ta,{k)=a'-'h--'<t>{c^),

TaUk)=a'-'b^-'c'-\

+2t,(A;) +2ra,(/c)
3 3 s,

+Tadk) = k.
k,

If

a contains the same primes as

o-

but with the same exponents as in

so

that

= a'

if s

= a,

it is

stated (p. 302) that

w=i*aC. Crone" evaluated

(^(n)

of distinct primes Pi,...,Pq. in common with n is then

by an argument valid only when n is a product The number of integers <n having a factor

A=2(ii-l)-s(^-l) + ...+(-l).2(^^
The sum
of the second

1).

terms of each

sum

is

-(0+a)Hence the number

of integers

-(-^)'G^)=-i-(-i)"-

<n
V\V2

and prime
.

to

is

n-\-A=n-l^^^
Pi

-(-1)S

+(-!)

Pl-Pg-l

provided n = pi. .pg. [To modify the proof to we need only add to A the term
.

make

it

vahd

for

any

n,

and hence replace

(-1)*'

by (-l)%/(pi.

.p^) in

n-l-A.]

*8Nouv. Corresp. Math., 6, 1880, 267-9. Also Lucas, '^ p. 403. "Gottingen Nachrichten, 1880, 161; Math. Ann., 16, 1880, 583-8. "Amer. Jour. Math., 3, 1880, 294. "Tidsskrift for Mathematik, (4), 4, 1880, 158-9.

126

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap.

a*i,

if

Franz Walla^- considered the product P of the first n primes > 1. Let Then, X, be the integers <P/2 and prime to P, so that v=4>{P)/2. n>2, half of the x's are =1 (mod 4) and the others are =3 (mod 4).
. . .

Also, the absolute values of

\P 2Xj

(j

= 1,

v)

are the

a:'s

in

some

order.

Half of the

a:'s

are

<P/4.

J. Perott^^

proved that

which

the context showing that the summations extend over [Lucas"]. He proved that

all

the primes p< for

Kpi^N

lim
iV = )

^jN) _ 3

7r2

and gave a table showing the approximation of SN^/tt^ to $(iV) for iV^ 100. The last formula, proved earlier by Dirichlet^^ and Mertens,^^ was proved by G. H. Halphen^^ by the use of integrals and f-functions. Sylvester^*" defined the frequency 5 of a divisor d of one or more given latter which are divisible by integers a, h, I to he the number of the
.

d.

By

use of

(4)

he proved the generalization

X8(f>{d)=a+h-\-...-\-l.
d

J. J. Sylvester^^

stated that the

number
'"

of [irreducible proper] fractions

is

whose numerator and denominator are ^j

that

T{j)
n^-\-i

= <f){l)+

+<t>{j),

and

PoT stU^s k=i

3

f-'/^]

S(/,(t)=^,
^

L/CJ

^=1 i=i

whence T{j)/f approximates

If u{x)

S/tt^ as j increases indefinitely.

denotes the
.
.

sum
and*

of all the integers

is

<x

and prime to

x,

and

if

U(j)=u(l)+
above

.-{-u(j),

then U{j)

the

sum

of the

numerators in the

set of fractions,

When j increases indefinitely, U{j)/f

approximates

I/tt^.

For each integer

first

n^ 1000
is

the values of (^(n), T{n), Srr/ir'^ are tabulated, Sylvester^^ stated the preceding results and noted that the equivalent to

formula

!I3^^^)
"Comptes Rendua
Paris, 96, 1883, 634-7.

l(/+i).

"Archiv Math. Phys., 66, 1881, 353-7. "Bull, des Sc. Math, et Astr., (2), 5, I, 1881, 37-40.

"Amer. Jour. Math., 5, 1882, 124; Coll. Math. Papers, 3, 611. Cf. Sylvester." "Phil. Mag., 15, 1883, 251-7; 16, 1883, 230-3; Coll. Math. Papers, 4, 101-9. "Comptes Rendus Paris, 96, 1883, 409-13, 463-5; Coll. Math. Papers, 4, 84-90. Proofs by F. Rogel and H. W. Curjel, Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 66, 1897, 62-4; 70, 1899, 56. *With denominator 3, but corrected to 6 by Sylvester," which accords with Ces&,ro." The editor of Sylvester's Papers stated in both places that the second member should be jij + l){2j+l)/12, evidently wrong for; =2.

Chap. V]

EulEE's (^-FUNCTION.
if

127

E. Ces^ro^^ proved that,

is

any function,
F(n)^S/(d),

n = ll

X^i^Xx^Fin), X
71=1

where d ranges over the divisors

Liouville's^^ first

of n.

For / = 0, we have F(x)=x and obtain

of divisors^^),
(p. 64) of another Cesaro derived the of n and j, then (p. 77,

formula.

By

the same specialization the

g. c. d.

formula (given in Chapter

final

on sums

formula of Liouville.^^

If (n, j) is

p. 80)

Mn, j) =S#Q),
If (p. 94)

X-^ =
a,

h:d<t>{d),

X4>{n, j)

=S(^(d)0(-).

is

one of the integers

/3,

^n

and prime

to n,

S^(a)F(a) =SG(a)/(a),

/^(a:)^S/(d),
x.

G(p)^S^(pa),
a

where d ranges over the divisors of

a

For

g{x)

= l,

this gives

S/(a)0(n, n/a)=SF(a),

where

(p. 96) </)(n, x) is

the

number

of integers

^x

and prime to

n.

Cesaro

(pp. 144-151, 302-3) discussed and modified Perott's^^ proof of his first formula, criticizing his replacement of [n/k] by n/k for n large. He gave

the proofs
Perott's.

(pp. 153-6) a simple proof that the mean^^ of <^(n) is Qn/w^ and reproduced by Dirichlet^^ and Mertens,^^ the last essentially the same as

For
'

Kw) = l + l/2"^+l/3"+.
2i
a'

.,

s4r(^>l), ''
a"*

2-i-(m>l), ''
'

2-^
0(a)

a'"</)(a)

equal asymptotically (pp. 167-9)

f(m)/r(m+l),

(6 1og7i)/7r^

r(m+l),

log n.

As a

corollary (p. 251) to Mansion's^^ generalization of Smith's theorem we have the result that the determinant of order n^, each element being 1 or according as the g. c. d. of its two indices is or is not a perfect square, equals 1)"+^+is the value of n\ expressed in terms of its prime where pV(
,

factors.

Ces^ro^* considered any function F{x, y) of the g. c. d. of x, y, and the determinant A of order n having the element F{Ui, u/) in the ith. row and ith column, where Ui,...,Un are integers in ascending order such that each divisor of every Ui is a u. Employing the function ix{n) [see Ch. XIX], he noted that

i nO^)F(uud=f{u,)
"M6m.
Soc. R. Sc. de LiSge, (2), 10, 1883, No. 6, 74. "Atti Reale Accad. Lincei, (4), 1, 1884-5, 709-711.

or 0,

128
according as u^

History of the Theory of Numbers.

is

[Chap,

or

is

not divisible by w, while

F{S)

fix)

=Kx)F{l) +M (2) F{2) +M

(f)

Hence if we multiply the elements of the ith colmnn of A by fx{ujui) and add the products to the last column for 2 = 1, ., n 1, the new elements of the last colunm are zero except the final element, which is/(w). Thus
.

A,=/(ii)A_i=/(ui)/(w2)

.fMa.s

[These results are due to Smith,^^ not merely the case Ui = i Cesaro^^ noted that |wy|=/(l) ./(n) if
.

stated.]

,= s/wft0ft.Q,
where the function h has the property that the determinant with the general element h{i/j) is unity, and similarly for hi. Cesaro gave the last result for the case in which h{x)=hi{x) = l or according as x is or is not an integer. P. Mansion (p. 250) stated that he** had employed a similar proof. Ces^ro^ duphcated his paper^^ and transformed its final result into
/(l)/(2)
.

.fin)

F[i,j]

F\nl)

where [i, j] = ij/{i, j) is the 1. c. m. of i, j, and F{x) is a function such that F{xy)=F{x)F{y). In particular, if F{x) = \/x, then J{x)=4){x)Tr{x)/x^, where 7r(n) is the product of the negatives of the distinct prime factors of n.

Hence
|Ki]|n=0(l)...0(n)7r(l)...7r(n).
Ces^ro^^ investigated the r-rowed minors of the n-rowed determinant whose general element is F{b)=F{i, j), where 5 is the g. c. d. of i, j. It is shown that the {n v)-Towed determinant whose general element is F{i-\-v,
j-\-v) is

equal to the sum of certain products of /(I), a time, the case v = Q being Smith's theorem. Here
/(x)

.,

f{n) taken

n v&i

=^J^F{j),

Fix) =S/(d)

(d divisor of x).

ment Uij equals the number of divisors common to i+1 and the number of integers ^ n deprived of square factors > 1
"Atti. Reale Accad. Lincei, (4), "Mathesis, 5, 1885, 248-9.
1,

Ces^ro^^ stated that the (n l)-rowed determinant, whose general ele1, equals j

1884-5, 711-5.

"Giornale di Mat., 23, 1885, 182-197. "Annales de I'^cole normale sup., (3), "Nouv. Ann. Math., (3), 4, 1885, 56.

2,

1885, 425-435.

Chap. V]

EulEE's (^-FUNCTION.

129

divisors of n,

Ces^ro" employed F(n)=S/(d), G(n)='Zg{d), where d ranges over the and proved that
G(l) G{\)

G{2)

... ...

G{n)

F(l,l)

F(l,2)

F(l,n)
Fin, n)

-_j(i)..j(^)p'(^),

G{n)

F{n,l)

F{n,2)

In particular, if F{n) is the number of divisors of n and if G{n) is the number prime divisors of n, the determinant, apart from signs, equals the number of primes ^ n. E. Cesaro^^ wrote (a, b) for the g. c. d. of a, h. If F{n) =S/(d), where d ranges over the divisors of n, then
of

XF\(n,i)\=i:f(d)N/d.
In particular, nator n.
if

/,(n) is the

number

of irreducible fractions

^e

of

denomi-

IXn)=i:[j]n{d),

S7,(d)

= [ne].

due to Laguerre,^^ follows by inversion (Ch. XIX), and from the fact that I^d) is the number of the first [ne] integers which with n have the g. c. d. n/d. The number of irreducible fractions ^ e of denominator ^n is $e(^) =-f (!)+ +-^.(^). We have

The

last formula,

directly

00

^M = SmO') S
j

\n/j]

O,
[ie],

Imi $,(n)/n2 = -2
n=oo

=l

1=1

(>0),
of

due to Sylvester^^ for = 1. Let (^^g^(n) be the sum of the j'th powers the numerators of the irreducible fractions < e of denominator n. Set

$ in) = S
Then
i=l

</)(?

ii) ,

sXn)

= S ^^
-i

1=1

LzJ

i.i

which generalizes the two formulas

$^;^ (w)

of Sylvester .^^

Also,

=
TT

V-\-l V-\-2

asymptotically.

Ces^ro^^" factored determinants of the tj^e in his paper,^^ the function F that Fixy)/ \Fix)Fiy)\ is a function of the g. c. d. oi x, y. L. Gegenbauer^'' gave a complicated theorem involving several general functions, special cases of which give Sylvester's^^ two summation formulas.

now being such

"Nouv. Ann. Math., (3), 5, 1886, 44-47. "Annali di Mat., (2), 14, 1886-7, 143-6. ""Giornale di Mat., 25, 1887, 18-19. 5fcSitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 94, 1886,

II,

757-762.

130

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

the

P. S. Poretzky^^ gave a formula for the function \l/{m) whose values are = 2-3-5. .p, where For the case 4>{7?i) integers <?fi and prime to m.

is

a prime,

lpi-2

Pi

Application is made to the finding of a prime exceeding a given number, and to a generalization of the sieve of Eras-

where

is

an

integer.

tosthenes.

E. Ces^ro^^ gave a very simple proof of the

known T
2'

fact that

n-00

n^

which he expressed in words by saying that 0(n) is asymptotic to 6n/7r^ On the distinction between (not meaning that the limit of 4>{n)/n is G/tt"). asymptotic mean and median value, see Encyclop^die des sc. math., I,
17 (vol. 3), p. 347. Ces^ro^^ noted that
if

F{i, j)

is

a function of the
q='Lf{i)yi^

g. c. d. of

i,

j,

then

Q=SF(i,
n.

j) XiXj

{i,

j = l,..., n)

becomes

by the

substitution

yk = Xk-{-X2k-\-Xsk-\-

-, provided F{n) =2/(d), d ranging over the divisors of Since the determinant of the substitution is unity, the discriminants Hence we have the theorem of Smith.^^ A genof Q and q are equal. eralization is obtained by use of 2F(e e^XiXj, where the numbers ei, C2,
. .

include the divisors of each . E. Catalan^^ proved that, if d ranges over the divisors of iV = a"6^

. .

E. Busche^ derived at once from Dirichlet's^^ formula the result

S0(x))p(^)+p(^)
j=l

\x/

\x /

+ ...(=Snn',
.

where p(a)

=a [a].

The

case

n = n' =n" =

leads to

i:4>{x)

= {v-\)n^,
v.

where x takes all values add </)(!) = 1, we get (4) values for which

for for

which p{n/x)>p{vn/x).

N=
r

If we take n = l and Next, S0(a;) =rr'5", where x takes all

yJzi^,Q<yyi
r-\-r
6Math. phys. soc. Kasan,

(y=i,...,.;,'=i,...,.').

\xy
6,

1888, 52-142 (in Russian).

"Comptcs Rendus
8Atti

Paris, 106, 1888, 1651; 107, 1888, 81, 426; Annali di Mat., (2), 16, 1888-9, 178 (discussion with Jensen on terminology).
Ill,

"M6m.

Rcale Accad. Lincei, Rendiconti, 2, 1888, II, 56-61. Soc. Sc. Li^ge, (2), 15, 1888, No. 1, pp. 21-22; Melanges Math., "Math. Annalen, 31, 1888, 70-74.

No. 222, dated 1882.

Chap. V]

EulEr's 0-FuNCTION.
;

131
'
,

For d = n,r' = l,r = v l, this becomes the former result f or r = r = 1 5 = n, becomes 20 (x) =n^, where x takes the values for which p(n/rc)^ 1/2. H. W. Lloyd Tanner^^ studied the group G of the totitives of n (the integers <n and prime to n), finding all its subgroups and the simple groups whose direct product is G. E. Lucas^^ proved that, in an arithmetical progression of n terms whose common difference is prime to n, there are (ji{d) terms having with n the g. c. d.
it

when d ranges over the divisors of n, Xxpid) =n for every integer n, 401) \p{n)=(^{n), as proved by using n = l, a, a^,. ., and n = ah, are distinct primes. where a,h,. He gave (pp. 500-1) a proof of a^b, 1 to N, communicated to him Perott's^^ first formula by induction from by J. Hammond. The name " indicateur "of n is given (preface, xv) to
n/d.
If,

then
.

(p.
.

<f){n)

[Prouhet^sj.
(cf Lucas,'^^
.

501-3) considered the C{n) circular permutations of X alike. Thus, if a = 2, /3 = 4, the (3 alike, C(6) = 3 distinct circular permutations are aahbhb, ababbb, abbabb. In general,
objects of which a are alike,
.

C. Moreau

^^^^=n^^^^^(a/d)!...(X/d)r
In the X. where d ranges over the divisors of the g. c. d. of a, jS, example, d = 1 or 2, and the terms of the sum are 15 and 3. P. A. MacMahon^^ noted that C(n) = 1 if n = a, so that we have formula His expression for the number of circular permutations of p things n (4). at a time is quoted in Chapter III on Fermat's theorem. A. Berger^^" evaluated S^il k'^%{k). For a = 2 the result is 3nV7rH \n log n, where X is finite for all values of n. E. Jablonski'^^ considered rectilinear permutations of indices a, ., X, .+X = = m'Z). Then with the g. c. d. D. Set a = a'D,- .,\ = \'D, a+ \'n is the number of complete rectilinear permutations of indices a'n,
. .

P{n)=-

^'^'''^'

{a'n)\...{\'n)\

The number

of complete circular permutations

is

where d ranges over the divisors of D. If Q{D/d) is the number of rectilinear permutations of indices a, X which can be decomposed into d identical
. .
.

portions,
'iProc.

^Q(D/d)=P{D).

Also

London Math. Soc, 20, 1888-9, 63-83. "Theorie des nombres, 1891, 396-7. The first theorem was proved also by U. Concina, II Boll, di Matematica, 1913, 9. "Proc. London Math. Soc, 23, 1891-2, 305-313. 'Nova Acta Regiae Soc. Sc. UpsaUensis, (3), 14, 1891, No. 2, 113. 'Comptes Rendus Paris, 114, 1892, 904-7; Jour, de Math., (4), 8, 1892, 331-349. He proved Moreau's'* formula for C{n).

132

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

2Qd'=2pg)/,(d),
where
Jt{d) is Jordan's-"" function.
S. Schatunowsky"* proved that 30 is the largest number such that all He employed Tchebysmaller numbers relatively prime to it are primes. at least one prime exists there XVIII that, if a> of Ch. theorem 1, chef's^" 113 Maillet,^^ Bonse/" Landau,^^. Wolfskehl,^^ 2a. Cf. and between a Remak.^^2 E. W. Da\ds''^ used points with integral coordinates ^0 to visualize and prove (1) and (4). K. Zsigmondy^^ wrote r, for the greatest integer ^ r/s and proved that, if a takes those positive integral values ^r which are di\asible by no one n^ which are relatively prime in pairs, of the given positive integers rii,
.
. .

rn

2/(a)
n, n',.

= S f{k) -S S f{kn)
k=l
n k=l

+22 f{knn') -...,

n, n' k

rnn'

=l

at a ranging over the combinations of rii,. ., n^ taken 1, 2, = nj of integers the number Taking /(A:) 1, we obtain for (f>{r; rii, time. n^, the expression (5) obtained ^r, which are divisible by no one of ni, by Legendre for the case in which the n's are all primes. By induction
.
.

from p to p+1, we get

+ 2<^(r^;ni,. ..,n,)-...,
p

r=4>{r] ni,

n,)+ 2 </)(r<;
t=i

rii,

n,_i, n,+i,

nj

+
r

2<^(r/; riiST^n, n')

= 20(r,;ni,..

.,

n,),

where c ranges over all combinations of powers ^r of the n's. The last becomes (4) when ni,. ., n^ are the different primes di\ading r. These formulas for r were deduced by him in 1896 as special cases of his inversion formula (see Ch. XIX).
.

</)(n) by the second method of Crelle.^^ Bachmann^^ gave an exposition of the work of Dirichlet,^^ Mertens," Halphen^ and Sylvester^^ on the mean of <p{n), and (p. 319) a proof of (5). L. Goldschmidt^" gave an evaluation of <j){n) by successive steps which may be combined as follows. Let p be a prime not dividing k. Each of

J.

E. Steggair^ evaluated

P.

"Spaczinakis Bote (phys. math.), 14, 1893, No. 159,

(Russian). "Amer. Jour. Math., 15, 1893, 84. "Jour, fur Math., Ill, 1893, 344-6. "Proc. Edinburgh Math. Soc, 12, 1893-4, 23-24. "Die Anab-tische Zahlentheorie, 1894, 422^30, 481-4. Zeitschrift Math. Phys., 39, 1894, 203-4.

p. 65; 15,

1893,

No. 180, pp. 276-8

Chap. V]

EulER's 0-FuNCTION.
integers

133

and prime to k occurs just once among the residues from Ik to {l-{-l)k; taking 1 = 0, 1,. ., p l, we obtain this residue p times. Hence there are p({>{k) numbers ^pk and prime to k. These include <j){k) multiples of p, whence 4){pk) = {p l)(p{k). For, if r is one of the above residues, then r, r+k,. ., r-{-{p l)k form a complete set of residues modulo p and hence include a single multiple of p. Hence </)(a6c...) = (a-l)(6-l)(c-l)...,
the
<j)(k)

^k

modulo k

of the integers

are distinct primes. Next, for n = a^h^ if a, b, c, we use the sets of 1. numbers from lab. .to (l-]-l)ab. ., for Z = 0, 1,. ., a-~^b^~^ Borel and Drach^^ noted that the period of the least residues of 0, a, 2a,... modulo N, contains N/8 terms, if d is the g. c. d. of a, iV; conversely, if d is any divisor of N, there exist integers such that the period has d terms. Taking a = 0, 1,. ., iV 1, we get (4). H. Weber ^^ defined 0(n) to be the number of primitive nth roots of unity. If a is a primitive ath root of unity and /3 a primitive 6th root, and if a, b are relatively prime, a/3 is a primitive a6th root of unity and all of the latter are found in this way. Hence 0(a6) =</)(a)0(6). This is also proved for relatively prime divisors a, 6 of n 1, where n is a prime, by use of integers a and jS belonging to the exponents a and b respectively, modulo n, whence a^ belongs to the exponent ab. K. Th. Vahlen^^ proved that, if la.^in) is the number of irreducible fractions between the limits a and /3, a>j8^0, with the denominator n,
. .

S/.,(d)

= [(a-^)n],

ij~~^h,,{k)=i[{a-m],

where d ranges over the divisors of

Laguerre.^^

n. For /3 = 0, the first was given by Since /i,o(^)=<^(^), these formulas include (4) of Gauss and
his^^ first

that

by

Dirichlet.2i

J. J.

Sylvester^ corrected

formula to read

k^[k\
and proved
it.

= 2Ui]H[i]t ^^U), By

r[n]=0(l)+.

.+c^([n]),

the usual formula for reversion,

A. P. Minin^^ solved ^(f){m)=R for when R has certain values. equation determines the number of regular star polygons of sides. Fr. RogeP gave the formula of Dirichlet.^^

The

*'Introd. thdorie des

nombres, 1895, 23.

Lehrbuch der Algebra, I, 1895, 412, 429; ed. 2, 1898, 456, 470. "Zeitschrift Math. Phys., 40, 1895, 126-7. "Messenger Math., 27, 1897-8, 1-5; Coll. Math. Papers, 4, 738-742. "Report of Phys. Sec. Roy. Soc. of Friends of Nat. Sc, Anthropology,
cow, 9, 1897, 30-33. Cf. Educat. Times, 66, 1897, 62.

etc. (in Russian),

Mos-

Hammond."^

134

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

RogeP^ considered the number of integers v<n such that v and n are not both di\'isible by the rth power of a prime. Also the number when each prime factor common to v and n occurs in them exactly to the rth power. I. T. Kaplan published at Odessa in 1897 a pamphlet in Russian on the distribution of the numbers relatively prime to a given number. M. Bauer^^ proved that, for x prime to in, kx-\-l represents
\p{m)
4>{d^d2)

<j)
integers relatively prime to
g. c. d. {k,

and incongruent modulo m, where

(/,

di is the

m)

of k, m,

and

c?2=

m),

{di, do)

= 1,

w^hile

^W=0Wn{i-^}
= pi^ p/* which are is the number of incongruent integers prime to represented by kx+l when k, I, x are prime to 7n. Of those integers, ., Pr \p{m)/\l/{pi. .pr) are di\'isible only by the special prime factors Pi,
.

of

m.
J.

de Vries^^" proved the first formula of Dirichlet's.^^ C. Moreau^^ evaluated 4){n) by the method of Grunert.^^ E. Landau^ proved that

=i<^(n)

27r^

*=

pp2_p+iy

where e is of the order of magnitude of x~^ log x, C is Euler's constant, and f is Riemann's ^-function. P. WolfskehP^ proved by Tchebychef's theorem that the 0(n) integers <n and prime to n are all primes only when n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 18, 24, 30,
[Schatunowsky.'] E. Landau^^ gave a proof, without the use of Tchebychef's theorem, by finding a lower limit to the number of integers k ha\dng no square factor

>1, where t^k>Dt/S. E. Maillet,^^ by use of Tchebychef's theorem, proved the same result and the generaUzation Given any integer r, there exist only a finite number of integers N such that the <t>{N) integers <A^ and relatively prime to N contain at most r equal or distinct prime factors. Alois Pichler^'* noted that (}>(x)=n has no solution if n is odd and >1; while (i)(x) =2" has the solutions x = 2''bc. (a = 0, 1, ., n + 1) if
:
.
.

Bohm. GeseU., Prag, 1897; 1900, No. 30. "Math. Natur. Berichte aua Ungam, 15, 1897, 41-6. ""K. Akad. Wetenschappen te Amsterdam. Verslagen, 5, "Nouv. Ann. Math., (3), 17, 1898, 293-5.
^Sitzungsber.
'

1897, 222.

G6ttingen Nachrichten, 1900, 184. "L'interm^diaire des math., 7, 1900, 253-4; Math. Ann., 54, 1901, 503-4. "Archiv Math. Phys., (3), 1, 1901, 138-142. L'interm6diaire des math., 7, 1900, 254. "Ueber die Auflosimg der 01. <p{x) =n. ., Jahres-Bericht Maximilians-Gymn. in Wien, 1900-1, 3-17.
.

Chap. V]

EulEK's 0-FuNCTION.
6 = 2^^+1,
c
.
.

135

= 22''+l,...

and 2^+2"^+. =n or n a+1 according as a = or a prime >3, <f){x) = 2q'' is impossible if p = 2q^-\-l is not prime; while if p is prime it has the two solutions p, 2p. If g = 3 and p is prime, it has the additional solutions 3"+\ 2-3''"^^ Next, 4>{x)=2''q is impossible if no one of p^ = 2''~''q-\-l{v = 0, 1,. ., n 1) is prime and q is not a prime of the form 2*+l, s = 2^^n; but if q is such a prime or if at least one p^ is prime, the equation has solutions of the respective forms bq^, where (/)(6) =2""*; ap where 0(o) =2". Finally, (f>{x)=2qr has no solution if p = 2gr+l is not prime and r9^2q-\-l. If p is a prime, but r9^2q-{-l, the two solutions are p, 2p. If p is not prime, but r = 2g+l, the two solutions If p is prime and r = 2g-|-l, all four solutions occur. are r^, 2r^. There is a table of the values n<200 for which (f){x)=n has solutions. L. Kronecker^ considered two fractions with the denominator m as equivalent if their numerators are congruent modulo m. The number of non-equivalent reduced fractions with the denominator m is therefore 4){m). If m = m'm", where m' m" are relatively prime, each reduced fraction r/m can be expressed in a single way as a sum of two reduced partial fractions r' /m', r' /m". Conversely, if the latter are reduced fractions, their sum r/m is reduced. Hence 0(m) =</)(m')</)(m"). The latter is also derived (pp. 245-6, added by Hensel) from (4), which is proved (pp. 243-4) by considering the g. c. d. of n with any integer ^n, and also (pp. 266-7) by use of infinite series and products. Proof is given (pp. 300-1) of (5). The Gaussian median value (p. 334) of (f>{n)/n is Q/w^ with an error whose order of magnitude is l/\/n, provided we take as the auxiliary number of values of 4>{n)/n a value of the order of magnitude ^yn log^ n. E. B. Elliott^^ considered monomials n = p'^q^. in the independent variables p,q,.... In the expansion of n(l l/p)"'(l l/g)"* the aggregate of those monomial terms whose exponents are all ^0 is denoted by Fm{n). Define iJi{p'q\ .) to be zero if any one of r, s, exceeds 1, but to be ( 1)' if no one of them exceeds 1, and t of them equal 1. Then
are distinct primes

a>0.

When

g-

is

(7)

F^_i(n) =Si^,,(d),

F^^,{n)

=Sm Q) F^((i),

where d ranges over the monomials pVwith O^a^a, 0^/3^?),.... Henceforth, let p, q,... be distinct primes. Then Fi{n)=(j){n), while F_i(n) is the sum o-(n) of the divisors of n. In (7), d now ranges over all the divisors of n, and ai(/c) is Merten's function [Inversion]. For m = 0, (72) gives the usual expression for </)(n), while (7i) defines o-(n). For m = l, (7i) becomes (4). If T''^\n) ^T(n) is the number of divisors d of n, write

r(2)(n)=ST(d),.
'^Vorlesungen iiber Zahlentheorie,
Proc.
I,

.,

T(^>(n)=ST^^-i>(d).

1901, 125-6.

London Math. Soc,

34, 1901, 3-15.

136

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

Then

Generalizing

n(l p)*",
but
let it

/x(s), let )u-*^(s) be zero if the expansion of the product extended over all primes p, does not contain a term equal to s, equal the coefficient of s if s occurs in the expansion. Then

i?,(n)=SdM'"Q)

The
column
F^(2)
.
.

is

7i-rowed determinant in which the element in the rth row and sth F_i(5), where 5 is the g. c. d. of r, s, is proved equal to F^(l)
.Fm{n), a generaUzation of Smith's^^ theorem.
Finally,

isf.,,Q)f_.(d)=siF,(d),
the right member being T{n), 20(c?)/c?, lla{d)/d for r = 0, 1, 1. G. Landsberg^^" gave a simple proof of Moreau's"^ formula for the number of circular permutations. L. Carlini^^ proved Dirichlet's^^ formula by noting that
(8)

n(x''-l)=0
1

has unity as an n-f old root, while a root 7^

x"* 1.

of

x''

1
=\

is

Hence the

4){h)

primitive roots of x^

a root of [n/h] factors furnish <l>{h)[n/h] roots

of (8).

M.
and

Lerch^^ found the

a, 6,
.

number
.
.

N of positive integers
Let F{x)

'^m which have no

prime
in pairs
is

one of the divisors

ha\'ing

k,

I,

the latter being relatively

as their product.

=1

or 0, according as x

frac-

tional or integral.

Let

L = ab.

.k.

Then

[Dirichlet^^]

^^m(Z-l)^
L

,!/--(-)
-<f>{x) log. log,

(-i)
00 of

E. Landau^^ proved that the inferior limit for a:=

X
this

is

e~^,

inferior limit

where C is Euler's constant. Hence <^(j) is comprised between and the maximum x 1. R. Occhipinti^ proved that, if aj is an nth root of unity, and if c?,i,
i,

dat are the divisors of

n|s<^(di,)+a,S<^(d2i)+.
j-lU-l
i-l

.+a/-4V(0| = i(-l)"-'n(n+l)n"-2.
i-l
J

"Archiv Math. Phys., (3), 3, 1902, 152-4. "Prag Sitzungsber., 1903, II. "Periodico di Mat., 19, 1904, 93.

"Periodico di Mat., 17, 1902, 329.

"Archiv Math. Phys., (3), Handbuch,"' I, 217-9.

5,

1903, 86-91.

Chap. V]

Euler's 0-Function.

137

G. A. Miller^"^ proved (4) by noting that in a cyclic group G of order there is a single cyclic subgroup of order d, a divisor of N, and it contains 0((i) operators of order d, while the order of any operator of G is a divisor
of N. Thus (4) states merely that the order of G equals the sum of the numbers of the operators of the various possible orders. Next, (1) follows from an enumeration of the operators of highest period AB in a cyclic group of order AB, which is the direct product of its cyclic subgroups of orders A and B. Finally, if p is a prime, all the subgroups of a cyclic group of order p" are contained in its subgroup of order p"~\ whence <^(p") = p" p"~^ G. A. Miller^^ proved the last three theorems and the fact that 0(0 is even if Z>2 by means of the properties of the abelian group whose elements are the integers <m which have with m a g. c. d. equal to k. K. P. Nordlund^"^ proved 4){mn ...) = (m l)(n 1)..., where m, n,. are distinct primes, by writing down the multiples <mnp of m, the multiples of mn, etc., whence the number of integers Kmnp and not prime to it is mnp l {m l){n l){p l),
.

E. Busche^*^ treated geometrically systems (td) of four integers such that ad hc>0, evaluated the number $(aS) of systems incongruent modulo

and generalized (4) to 2$(*S). showed that 0(m) is determined by (4) [Lucas''^]. H. Bonse^^ proved Maillet's^^ theorem for r = l, 2, 3 without using Tcheby chef's theorem. His lemma was generalized by T. Suzuki. ^^"
to S, L. Orlando^^

S and prime

Sommer^^^ gave without reference Crelle's^ final evaluation of (/)(n). R. D. CarmichaeP*'^ proved that if n is such that (l){x)=n is solvable there are at least two solutions x. He found solutions of </)(x) = 2" [in accord with Pichler^^] and proved that there are just n+2 solutions (a single one being odd) when n^31 and just 33 solutions when 32^ n^ 255. All the solutions of <^(x) = 4n 2> 2 are of the form p", 2p", where p is a prime of the form 4s 1 for example, if n = 5, the solutions are 19, 27 and their doubles. CarmichaeP gave a table showing every value of m for which 0(m) has any given value ^ 1000. A. Ranum^^^" would solve 4>{x) = n by resolving n in every possible way into factors no, ., n^, capable of being taken as the values of 0(2*"), 4>{pi'), Then 2'^pi"'. .p^^'r is ., 0(pA)) where 2, pi, ., p, are distinct primes.
J.
;
.
. .

a value of

x.

of the equation for

last

CarmichaeP^" gave a method of solving (j>(x)=a, based on the testing each factor x of a definite function of a. M. Fekete^^^ considered the determinant pkn obtained by deleting the

row and

last

column

of Sylvester's eliminant for

a;'''

1 = and

a;**

1=

"lAmer. Math. Monthly, 12, 1905, 41-43. "'Amer. Jour. Math., 27, 1905, 315.

"'Nyt Tidsskrift
iMJour.
fiir

for Mat., 16A, 1905, 15-29. Math., 131, 1906, 113-135. "Periodico di Mat., 22, 1907, 134-6. iwArchiv Math. Phya., (3), 12, 1907, 292-5.

"SBull. Amer. Math. Soc, 13, 1907, 241-3. "Amer. Jour. Math., 30, 1908, 394-400. lo'^^Trans. Amer. Math. Soc, 9, 1908, 193-4. "BuU. Amer. Math. Soc, 15, 1909, 223. "iMath. 6s Phys. Lapok (Math. Phys. Soc),

Budapest,
transl.,

18,

1909,

349-370.

German

i^^Tohoku Math.

Jour., 3, 1913, 83-6.

5.

Math. Naturwiss. Berichte aus

26, 1913 (1908), 196.

"'Vorlesungen liber Zahlentheorie, 1907,

Ungam,

138
{k<n).

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

Thus

|p;tn|

=1

or
n

according as k and n are relatively prime or not.

n
\pkn\,
(t>i(n)

Hence
(t>{n)

=2
A=l

=2
k=l

fc|pt|,

where

<i>i{n) is the sum of the integers ^n and prime to n. R. Remak^^- proved Maillet's^^ theorem without using Tehebychef's. E. Landau^^^ proved (5), Wolfskehl's^^ theorem and Maillet's^^ generali-

zation.

C. Orlandi^" proved that, if x ranges over all the positive integers for is odd, then 20(x) = (?w/2)'^ for 7fi even (Cesaro, p. 144 of this History), while 20 (x) = k^ for m = 2k l. A. Axer^^ considered the system (P) of all integers relatively prime to the product P of a finite number of given primes and obtained formulas and asymptotic theorems concerning the number of integers ^x of (P) which are prime to x. Application is made to the probability that two numbers ^ n of (P) are relatively prime and to the asymptotic values of the
wliich [m/x]

number
in (P)

(i)

of positive irreducible fractions

with numerator and denominator

and

^n

and

{ii) of

regular continued fractions representing positive

and denominator S n. G. A. ]Miller^^^ defined the order of a modulo m to be the least positive If p" is the highest power of a prime integer h such that ab=0 (mod m). p dividing vi, the numbers ^7n whose orders are powers of p are km/p" Hence l^kim/p-'i {ki = \,. ., p-'i) form a complete set of (k = l, 2,. ., p"). If the orders of two integers are relatively residues modulo 7?i=Ilpi'i. prime, the order of their sum is congruent modulo 77i to the product of But the number of integers ^m whose orders equal m is their orders. Hence (/)(np) =n0(p). Since all numbers ^m whose orders (t>{7n). divide d, a di\'isor of 7n, are multiples of 7n/d, there are exactly d numbers ^m whose orders di\ide d, and (f){d) of them are of order d. Hence
fractions

(P) with numerator

7n

= 'E4>{d).
S.

Composto^^^ employed distinct primes

integers P\,...,p^ prime to Tnn

Pi,

and
.

^ mn,
.

7n, n, r, and the and proved that

{i

v=<t>{77in)

Pi+7nn, pi+2mn,

p,+(r- l)wn

= l,.

.,v)

all and only the numbers rpi,. ., rp, and the numbers not exceeding and prime to 7nnr. Hence 4>{vmr)=4>{m7i)-{r \). A like theorem is proved for two primes and stated for any number of primes. [The proof is essentially Euler's^ proof of (1) for the case in which J5 is a prime not dividing a product A of distinct primes.] Next, if d is a prime factor of 7i, the integers not exceeding and prime to dn are the numbers ^ n and prime to n, together with the integers obtained by adding to each of them n, 2n,

include

"2.\rchiv Math. Phys., (3), 15, 1909, 186-193. i^Handbuch. .VerteUung der Primzahlen, I, 1909, 67-9, 229-234.
.

"Periodico di Mat., 24, 1909, 17&-8. "'Monatshefte Math. Phys., 22, 1911, 3-25. ".\mer. Math. Monthly, 18, 1911, 204-9.
"'II Boll, di

Matematica Gior. Sc.-Didat.,

11, 1912, 12-33.

Chap. V]

EulEr's 0-FunCTION.
.

139

whence 4>{dn) = d^{n) Finally, let Pi, ..., Py be the v = (f){n) Then pi-\-kn (^ = l, .,v; k = 0, 1, .) give integers <n and prime to n. all integers prime to n; let Ph{n) denote the hth one of them arranged in
(d
. . . .

l)n;

order of magnitude.

Then

If

P,Xn)=kn-l (k^l), = h kv-\-r, r<v, the sum of

P,,+M=kn+pr {l^r^v-l,
the
first

k^O).

h numbers prime to n

is

where pi, p^ are the first r integers <n and prime to n. K. HenseP^^ evaluated <^(n) by the first remark of Crelle.^'^ J. G. van der Corput and J. C. Kuyver^^^ proved that the number = \aJl{l \/p) if a has a prime /(a/4) of integers ^ a/4 and prime to a is factor 4m+l, where p ranges over the distinct prime factors of a; but is 2^~^ if a is a product of powers of k prime factors all of the form 4m 1.
. . .

evaluated. noted that 0(p" 1) is divisible by n if p is a prime. Several writers^^^ discussed the solution of 4>{x)=4){y), where x, y are powers of primes. SeveraP^^ proved that (f){xy)>4>{x)4>{y) if x, y have a
is

Also /(a/6)

U.

Scarpis^^'^

common
J.

factor.

Hammond^^^ proved that there are ^^(n) 1 regular star n-gons. H. Hancock^"^ denoted by ^{i, k) the number of triples {i, k, 1), {i, k,
,

2),

.
.

{i,

k, i)

whose

g. c. d. is

unity.

Let

= iid,

= kid, where

ii,

ki are

relatively prime.

Then

^{i, k)=ii(i>{d), $(/c, i)=ki(j}(d).

A. Fleck^^^ considered the function, of

<p,{m)

m^Hp",

= n|<^(p) - (J)c/>(p"-^) +...+(- i)(^y (p^-")}.

= m, <^_2(w)
is

Thus (f)o{'m)

=4){'m), <^_i(m)

the

sum

of the divisors of

m.

Also

S
d:m
if

4>k{d)=<i>k-i{m),

(f>kimn)=(l)k{ni)(t)k{n),

m, n are relatively prime.

For f (s) =2m~*,

(f)k-i{m)

4>k{m)

0.(p)=p-CI^), 0.(p^)=p^-(^l>+Ct')' '

</).(p'+'+o=p''(p-l)'^'.
"sZahlentheorie, 1913, 97.

"^Wiskundige Opgaven,
i^'oPeriodico di

11, 1912-14, 483-8. Mat., 29, 1913, 138. i2iAmer. Math. Monthly, 20, 1913, 227-8 (incomplete); 309-10. li'^Math. Quest. Educat. Times, 24, 1913, 72, 106. ^^'Ibid., 25, 1914, 69-70. i^^Comptes Rendus Paris, 158, 1914, 469-470. "^Sitzungsber. Berlin Math. Gesell., 13, 1914, 161-9.

140

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

E. Cahen^^^ gave F. Arndt's^^ proof without reference. of 0(iV)=2' for r = 4, 6, 8, A. Cunningham^" tabulated all solutions 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, each solution being a product of a power of 2 by distinct primes 22"+ 1. J. Hanmiond^-^ noted that, if 'Zf{k/n)=F{7i) or <l>(n), according as the summation extends over all positive integers k from 1 to n or only over such of them as are prime to n, then Z$(d)=F(n). This becomes (4) when /is constant. R. Ratat^29 ^oted that 0(n) = 0(n l) for n= 1, 3, 15, 104. For n<125,

2n7^2, 4, 16, 104, he verified that (/)(2n=t l)>0(2n). R. Goormaghtigh^^o ^^^^^ ^j^j^^ 0(^^) = <^(^i_|_l) also for n= 164, 194, 255 and 495. He gave very special results on the solution of (f){x) = 2a. are cited under Lipschitz,'''' ^^ Cesaro,^^ HamFormulas involving mond,^" and Knopp^^^ of Ch. X, Hammond^ of Ch. XI, and RogeP of Ch. XVIII. Cunningham^^ of Ch. VII gave the factors of (t>{f). DedeMinin^^ of Ch. kind^^ of Ch. VIII generalized ^ to a double modulus. solved 0(iV)=r(A^).
cf)

Sum

0fc(n)

of the

A:th

Powers of the Integers

(piin) is divisible

^n

and Prime to

n.

A. Cauchy^^^ noted that

by n

if

n>2,

since the integers

<n and prime to n may be paired so that the sum of the two of any pair is n.
A. L. Crelle^^ (p. 80, p. 84) noted that (^i(n) = |n<^(n). The proof follows from the remark by Cauchy. A. Thacker^^*^ defined (f)k{n) and noted that it reduces for k = to Euler's are distinct .+2^n = a6V. ., where a, 6, Set St(2) = l'"-|-2^+ <i>{n). primes. By deleting the multiples of a, then the remaining multiples of b, etc., he proved that
. .

Mn)=sM -2a^s.(^) +2 aVs,(^) -

S ^a*feVs,(^)

one, where the summation indices range over the combinations of a, 5, c, two, ... at a time. In the second paper, he proved Bernoulli's^^"" formula
.

where Bi, Bz,... are the Bernoullian numbers.

Then, by substitution,

^^(^)=^n(l-i)+(J)5,n^-^n(l-a)-i(3)53n*-^n(l-a^)
i^TWorie des nombres, I, 1914, 393. i"Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 27, 1915, 103-6.
128/bid., 29,

1916, 53. i"L'interm(5diaire des math., 24, 1917, 101-2. "/6ui., 25, 1918, 42-4.

"'M6m.

Ac. Sc. de I'Institut de France, 17, 1840, 565; Oeuvres, (1), 3, 272. "ojour. fur Math., 40, 1850, 89-92; Cambridge and Dublin Math. Jour., 5, 1850, 243. duced, with errors as to signs, by Zerr, Amer. Math. Monthly, 5, 1898, 93-5. Prouhet, Xouv. Ann. Math., 10, 1851, 324-330. """Jacques Bernoulli, Are conjectandi, 1713, 95-7.

ReproCf. E.

Chap. V]

GENERALIZATIONS OF EuLER's 0-FuNCTION.

141

denotes {l-a^){l-h'). .. Binet^" wrote Vif > Vn for the integers <iV and prime to N^p^q". Then, if B^, B^, B^,... are the BernouUian numbers 1/6. 1/30, 1/42, andP,= (l-p^)(l-g'')...,
.

wheren(l-aO
J.

..
.

.,

for X sufficiently small to insure convergence.

Expanding each member into

negative powers of x and comparing coefficients,

we

get

n =277/ = P_,N,

2Sr7i

= P_,N\

SXrjf

= P_,N^+SB,P,N,
.

^n,^ = P_,N^+QB,P,N^..
the

first being equivalent to the usual formula for 0(iV). can be represented symbolically by

The

general law

givr'=^\{N+Bpy-h{N-Bpy\,
where, after expanding the binomials,

we

are to replace

and any other term {BPY^~'^ by B2h-\P2h-\odd, Hit]'' is divisible by N.

Silva^^

It is easily

N"/{BP) by P^iN" shown that, if k is

used his symbolic formula, taking

to be the

sum

of

1,

.,

n,

whence S{a) is the sum n(l+n/A) of the multiples ^n of A. Thus This proof of Crelle's result is thus like that by Brennecke.^" ^i(^) = 2^(^) W. Brennecke^^^ proved Crelle's result by means of

H-...+n-la(l+2+...+^)+6(l+...+^) + ...t

+ ]4+...+;J +
Set
)Li

..!

+ ....

= 0(n)

a = ahc ....

He

proved that

<i>^{n)=^}xn'-^\aixn^-^n{\-a^){\-h^)
the signs being factors a, 6, of
.
.

.,

+
n

or
is

according as the number of the distinct prime

even or odd.

"Comptes Rendus

Paris, 32, 1851, 918-921.

"^Programm Realschule, Posen,

1855, 5-6.

142

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

G. Oltramare^^ obtained for the sum,

sum

of squares,

sum

of cubes,

and

sum

of biquadrates, of the integers

<7na and

relatively

prime to a the

respective values
^m~a<}>{a),

JmV0(a) + (-l) a0(a,),

o

ll

imV</>()

+ (-l)"^a2<A(ai),
Ttl

111

z-O'O

the number and Oi the product of the distinct prime factors .. The number of integers <n of a, while ^(aO = (ju^ l)(j/^ 1) ju, I', 4>{a)n/a. a is which are prime to J. Liou\'ille^^ stated that Gauss' proof of S0(d) =iV may be extended to the generalization

where a
. . .

is

2QWc?) = l*+2*+...+iV*,
where d ranges over the di\'isors of N. He remarked that Binet's^" results are readily proved in various ways. Also,

e);3w={z>wf.
factors of

N. V. Bougaief^^^ stated n>\, and ^i(n) is

that,

if

^(n)

is

the

number

of distinct

prime

their product,

quoted below with Gegenbauer's^" generalization. August BUnd^^^ reproduced without reference the formulas and proofs by Thacker,^^ and gave
also a result

0,(m)=w'</)o(7n)-^^^w'-Vi(/7O

+ ('2)^''-'<A2W-

+(-l)'<^.(^0.

{x+QY-Q\
IT

E. Lucas^^^ indicated a proof that 7?<^_i(x) is given symbolically by Thus, if where, if n = a6^ ., 0, = 5,(l-a'-')(l-5'-0 is the product of the negatives of the primes a, b,
.
.

2</)i(x)

=x4>{x),

3<t>2{x) =(j>{x)

(x~

+ hA

403Ct) =.T(/)(.T)(x2+7r).

'"Mdmoires de I'lnstitut Nat. Gr^nevois, 4, 1856, 1-10. ""Comptea Rendus Paris, 44, 1857, 753-4; Jour, de Math., (2), 2, 1857, 393-6. i"Nouv. Ann. Math., (2), 13, 1874, 381-3; Bull. Sc. Math. Astr., 10, I, 1876, 18. '**Ueber die Potenzsummen der iinter einer Zahl ? Uegenden und zu ihr relativ primen Zahlen, Diss., Bonn, 1876, 37 pp. i^^Nouv. Ann. Math., (2), 16, 1877, 159; Throne des nombres, 1891, 394.

Chap. V]

GENERALIZATIONS OF EuLER's 0-FuNCTION.

143

Several ^^^^ found expressions for 0=<^(iV)

</>ox'+n</)ia;"-i+i7i(n- 1) (/)2a;"-2+
. .
.

and proved that

+<^=
(n odd)

has the root 4>\/4>q, while the remaining roots can be paired so that the sum of the two of any pair is 20i/(/)o. If n=3 the roots are in arithmetical progression.

H. Postula^^^ proved
multiples, used

Crelle's result

by the long method

{ibid.,

of deleting

by Brennecke.^^^
if

Catalan
is

pp. 208-9) gave Crelle's

short proof.

Mennesson^^^ stated that,

any odd number,

(modg),
(/)(n)

<^ = *0(^'+')

and (Ex.366) that the sum of the products ^n and prime to n is a multiple of n.
E. Cesaro^^ proved the generalization:
at a time of the integers a, ^,. For by replacing a by is odd.
.

1
to
. .

at a time of the integers

of the products
divisible

The sum

rprn

.^N and prime

iV a,
/3

N
.

is

by

iV

if

m m

by

A^" j8,

and expanding.

'^^-&^Ht-\y-Mt'-2y
where 0=0(iV).
Also
(l>m{N) is divisible

2-...

by

iV

if

m is odd.
A''

F. de Rocquigny^^^ proved Crelle's result.

centric circles of radii
1, 2,

3,

employed conand marked the numbers {m l)N-}-l,

Later, he"^

(m l)N-\-2,
parts.

.,

mN at points dividing the circle of radius m into

equal

The lines joining the center to the 0(iV) points on the unit circle, marked by the numbers <N and prime to N, meet the various circles in points marked by all the numbers prime to N. He stated that the sum
numbers prime to appearing on the circle of radius m is |(2m l)0(iV^), and [the equivalent result] that the sum of the numbers prime to from to mN is ^'m^(i>{N^). He later recurred to the subject
of the 4>{N)

{HUd., 54, 1881, 160). A. Minine^^ noted that, if 1 and k is the remainder obtained by dividing P by N, the sum s{N, P) of the integers and prime to may be computed by use of

P>N>

<P

s{N,

mN+k)=s{N, k)+^4>{N')+mN4>{N)

<i>{N)k is the number of integers ^k prime to N. *A. Minine^^^ considered the number and sum of all the integers which are prime to [Legendre's (5) and Minine^*^^].

where (Minine^O

<P

i"Matli. Quest. Educ. Times, 28, 1878, 45-7, 103-5. i"Nouv. Corresp. Math., 4, 1878, 204-7. Likewise, R. A. Harris, Math. Mag.,

2,

1904, 272.

^^lUd., p. 302. i676id., 5, 1879, 56-59. "iLes Mondes, Revue Hebdom. des Sciences, 51, 1880, 335-6. i62/6id., 52, 1880, 516-9. i"/6id., 53, 1880, 526-9.

"^Nouveaux theoremes de

la th^orie des

nombres, Moscow, 1881.

144

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

which divide the sum of all A. Minine^^ investigated the numbers and prime to N. the integers < E. Cesaro^^^ proposed his theorems^^ as exercises. Proofs, by associa a, etc., were given by Moret-Blanc (3, 1884, 483-4). ting a with Ces^ro" (p. 82) proved the formula of Liouville.^" Writing (pp. 158-9)

<f)

for </),(A0

A^

and expanding 0=2(iV a)"*, where and prime to A'^, we get

a,

/3,

are the integers

is di\'isible by if m is odd, but not if is even. This is e\'ident since aJ^ -{{N a)"" is di\isible by a+A'' a if is 257) odd. The above (p. formula gives A'" = (1 A)"*, symboUcally, where

whence <^^

"
is

4>

AT-"

the arithmetic mean of the mth powers of a/N, ^/N, .... The mean value of <j)m{N) is 6AA"'"+V'''"^- He reproduced (pp. 161-2) an earHer formula,^^ which shows that B"' = {l-B)'", symbolically, if B^ is the arithmetic mean of the products of a/N, ^/N, taken m at a time. We have (p. 165) the approximation
. . .

2 <f)m(j) = 7
y=i

6 x"*"^^ ~2> rrr} (7M+l)(m-|-2) tT

*

r^

whence

(p.
is

261) the

Proof

mean of (t>^{N) is 6A''"+7(m+l)7r2. given (pp. 255-6) of Thacker's^^ formula

*-'" '"'*'::;"'*'"" -iiiij.cr)'--""'"'

where

UN)=^d'-'f^(d)=Il{l-u^-'),
d ranging over the divisors of A^, and u over the prime divisors of N. Here It is proved (pp. 258-9) that is Merten's function (Ch. XIX).

nix)

2d^-Vp(^ = 1,

2^V.(^

=2dV,-.(rf),

the first characterizing the function \pp{N), and reducing to (4) for p If a ranges over the integers for which [2n/a] is odd, then (p. 293)

= 0.

exactly

if

7?7

= 0,

1, 2, 3,

sum

of the inverses of 1,.

approximately if m>3, where ., n over that of n + l,

. . .

A^, is
.

the excess of the

2n.

In particular,

20(a)

=nl

'"Math. Soc. Moscow (in Russian), 10, 1882-3, 87-101. Nouv. Ann. Math., (3), 2, 1883, 288.

Chap. V]

GENERALIZATIONS OF EuLER's </)-FuNCTION.

that,
\mld\

145
the integers

P.

Nazimov^" (Nasimof) noted

when x ranges over

^m and prime to n, the sum of the values taken by any function /(x) equals
7:ix{d)Xf{dx),
d

1=1

where d ranges over all divisors of n. The case f{x) = 1 yields Legendre's formula (5) The case/(a;) = xyields a result equivalent to that of Minine.^^^"'* A generalization was given by Zsigmondy'^'^ and Gegenbauer.^'^^ E. Cesaro^^^ noted that, if A^ is the arithmetic mean of the mth powers and prime to N, and B^ that of their products m at a of the integers ^ time, we have the symbolic relations
.

Cesaro^^^ proved Thacker's^^'^ formula expressed as

the last being symboHc, where ranging over the divisors of n.

f^ is

a function such that l^^,,{d)='n}~^, d

By

inversion

n(n)=2M<i'-'=;^n (!--'),
where u ranges over the distinct prime factors
L. Gegenbauer^'^ proved that,
if

of n.

j/=

yln

x-l

n=lL3;
/c

,-1

For the case

= 0,

p = 2,

this

becomes Bougaief 's^^^ formula

v

ig2{x)=i\^^<i>{x),

= [Vn].

C. Leudesdorf^'^^ considered for fx odd the sum i/'^(iV) of the inverses of the juth powers of the integers < and prime to N. Then

^|^,{N)=^kN'-hfiN^P,+,iN),

= p^q, where q is not divisible by the where k is an integer. Thus, if prime p>3, /'^(A^) is divisible by p^' unless ju is prime to p, and )U+1 is divisible by p 1; for example, \{/^{p) is divisible by p^. If p = 3, ^l/^iN) is divisible by p^' if fx is an odd multiple of 3. If p = 2, it is divisible by
2^'~^

except

when

= l.
<l)m{N)

Cesaro"^ inverted his" symbolic form of Thacker's formula for in terms of xf/'s and obtained
nB,rPp{n)
i"Matem. Sbomik (Math. Soc. Moscow),
"'Mathesis,
5,

= {<f>-nBy.
603-10 (Russian).

11, 1883-4,

1885, 81.

"'Giomale di Mat., 23, 1885, 172-4. ""Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 95, II, 1887, 219-224. i"Proc. London Math. Soc, 20, 1889, 199-212. "Teriodico di Mat., 7, 1892, 3-6. See p. 144 of this history.

146

History of the Theory of Numbers.

if

[Chap,

Hence

a ranges over the integers

according as p

is

^ n and prime to n, Z(a nBy = or a multiple of mpp odd or even. By this recursion formula,
of
x,),

L. Gegenbauer"^ gave a formula including those Zsigmondy." For any functions xid), Xiid) f i^i,
,

Nazimov^^^ and

/^\
f{KXi,.
.

/^\1
^

[m/d]

.,

/cx,)2x(5)xiM =^x(d)xA^)

fidKX^,.

.,

dKX,),

all divisors of n which have some definite property P, while 5 ranges over those common divisors of n, Xi,..., x, which have property P. Various special choices are made for x> Xi> / and P. For instance, property P may be that d is an exact pth power, whence, if p = 1, d is any divisor of n. The special results obtained relate mainly to new number-theoretic functions without great interest and suggested apparently

where d ranges over

by the

topic in hand. T. del Beccaro^'^ noted that When n is a power of 2,

(t>k{n) is

divisible

by n

if

A;

is

odd

[Binet^^^].

l^+2*+...4-(n-l)* = Oor0(n) (modn),

according as k
J.
is

odd or even.
is

His proof of
if a,

W.

L. Glaisher^^^ proved that,

divisible

h,.

that their product

also a divisor, the

sum

due to Euler. are any divisors of x such of the nth. powers of the integers
(1) is
.
.

<X

and not

by a

or

6,

is

where

s is

the

number

of the divisors a,

6, ...

and

li

a,h,.

of

are all the prime factors of x, this result becomes Thacker's.^^" N. Nielsen^^^ proved by induction on y that the sum of the nth powers = pi^. .ply is and prime to the positive integers
. .

<mM

"'""'^'^W+(-i)-'f'^-^'"'

n+l

=in+l

C^+iV (m)"--' n zs
\

,=i

(P---1).

The

That result shows {ihid., p. 179) 1 gives Thacker's^^ result. case and m^ respectively, for l^n that 02n(w) and <^2n+i(^) are divisible by ^ (pi 3)/2, where pi is the least prime factor of m, and also gives the residues of the quotients modulo m. Corresponding theorems therefore hold and prime to m, taken t at a. for the sum of the products of the integers < time.

m=

i"Sitzungsberichte Ak. Wiss.

Wien

(Math.), 102, 1893, Ila, 1265-94.

"Atti R. Accad. Lined, Mem.

CI. Fis. Mat., 1, 1894, 344-371.

cf.

iMessenger Math., 28, 1898-9, 39-41. "Oversigt Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Forhandlinger, 1915, 509-12;

178-9.

Chap. V]

GENERALIZATIONS OF EuLER's 0-FuNCTION.

Schemmel's Generalization of Euler's ^-Function.

147

V. SchemmeP^ considered the $(m) sets of n consecutive numbers each = a'^}f ,, where a, h,. are distinct If primes, and m, m' are relatively prime, he stated that

<m and relatively prime to m.

Sn"-''V-^'.
.<l>(5)=w,

m
.

$(m) =a"~^(a n)6^~-^(5 n)

.

.,

<^n{mm') =<l>(m)$n(m'),
.

= aV.

.,

a'^a,
.

/S'^/S,

.,

If ^ is a fixed integer the third formula being a generalization of Gauss' (4) prime to m, $(w) is the number of sets of n integers and prime to m such that each term of a set exceeds by k the preceding term modulo m. =t 1 Consider the productPof the Xth terms of the *J>(m) sets. If n = 1, (mod m) by Wilson's theorem. If n> 1,

<m

P=

P"-i=)(-l)^-ir-i(X-l)!(n-X)!j*>) (modm).
For the case A: = X = 1, n = 2, we see that the product of those integers < m and prime to m, which if increased by unity give integers prime to m, is = 1 (mod m) E. Lucas^^^ gave a generalization of Schemmel's function, without menLet ei,..., e^ be any integers. Let ^(n) denote the tion of the latter. number of those integers h, chosen from 0, 1, ., n 1, such that
.

h ei, h e2,.
are prime to n.

.,

h Ck

For k<n,
.

ei
.,

secutive integers h, h-j-1,.

= 0, 62= I,. .., ei, {k 1), we have k conh+k l each prime to n, and the number of
. .

such sets is */c(n). Lucas noted that ^(p)'^(g) =^{pq) if p and q are relatively prime. Let n = a-h^ are distinct primes. Let X ., where a, h,. be the number of distinct residues oi ei, e^ modulo a; fx the number of
. .

their distinct residues

modulo h; etc. Then ^(n)=a-i(a-X)&^-\6-M).

..

L. Goldschmidt^^ proved the theorems stated

stated the further generalization: Select

by Schemmel, and himself any a A positive integers <a,

any

hB

positive integers

<b,

etc.; there are exactly

a''-\a-A)-\h-B)...
integers

which are congruent modulo a to one of the a A numbers selected and congruent modulo b to one of the h B numbers selected, etc. P. Bachmann^^^ proved the theorems due to Schemmel and Lucas.
Jordan's Generalization of Euler's ^-Function.

<m

C. Jordan,^*^*^ in connection with his study of linear congruence groups, proved that the number of different sets of k (equal or distinct) positive integers ^n, whose g. c. d. is prime to n, is*

^^

/>.w='(i-^.)-..(i-^j

"ojour. fur Math., 70, 1869, 191-2. "'Th^orie des nombres, 1891, p. 402. ""Zeitschrift Math. Phys., 39, 1894, 205-212. i^^Niedere Zahlentheorie, 1, 1902, 91-94, 174-5. ^iioTraitg des substitutions, Paris, 1870, 95-97. *He used the symbol [n, k]. Several of the writers mentioned later used the symbol (f>k(n), which, however, conflicts with that by Thacker.^^"

148
if
.

History of the Theory of Numbers.

.

[Chap,

In fact, there are n*" sets ., Pg are the distinct prime factors of n. Pi, of k integers ^n, while {n/piY of these sets have the common divisor pi,
etc.,

whence

"'"--- -(^y +
Jordan noted the corollary:
(11)
if

....

n and

n' are relatively prime,

J,{nn')=J,{n)J,{n').
k,

A. Blind^^^ defined the function (10) also for negative values of (11), and the following generalization of (4):
(12)
2Ji.(d) =n''' (d ranging over the di\'isors of
7i).

proved

of the

E. Story^^ employed the s>Tnbol r'^in) for Jk{n) and called it one of kth totients. The second kind is the number </)*(n) of sets of k integers ^?? and not all di\isible by any factor of n, such that we do not distinguish between two sets differing only by a permutation of He stated that their numbers.

W.

two kinds

<t>\n)

=|-,ir*(n)+f,V-nn)+t2V-2(n)+
. .

+<tiT(n)[

are the coefficients of the successive descending powers where 1, fi*, W,. X in the expansion of (x+l)(x+2). .{x-\-k \). Story-- defined "the kih. totient of n to the condition k to be the number of sets of k numbers ^ n which satisfy condition k. The number of sets of k numbers ^n, all containing some common di\'isor of n satisfying the condition k, but not all containing any one di\'isor of n satisfying the condition X is (if different permutations of k numbers count as different sets)
of
.

'^\H''^-y~b,')y~b,'>)
where
5i,
.

5,
. .

5',

are the least divisors of

satisfj-ing condition

/c,

while

Here a set of are the least di\'isors of n satisfying condition x5/, least divisors is a set of divisors no one of which is a multiple of any other."
E. Ces^ro"
(p.

345) stated that,

if $;.(a:) is

the

number of sets

of k integers

^x

whose

g. c. d. is

prime to

x,

then

where J*
J.

is

to be replaced

W.

L. Glaisher-^^ proved (12)

by J/n), and d ranges over the di\'isors of n. by means of a symbolic expression

If ^t(n) is

for

the infinite series 2/t(n)/(a:'').

Merten's function,

JM -2p,V,(^) +2pi V/.(^^) where the summations

"* Johns

=M(n),
p, of n.

relate to the distinct

prime factors

Using

Hopkins University Circulars, 1, 1881, 132. Cf. Amer. Jour. Math.. 3, 1880, 382-7. <London, Ed. Dublin Phil. Mag., (5), 18, 1884, 531, 537-8.
^^Ihid., p. 151.

Chap. V]

Generalizations of Euler's (^-Function.

n,

149
of order n,

these formulas for n = l, 2,. each equal to { lY~'^Jkin):

1^

we obtain two determinants

1111 10

2^

3^

4^

10

150
where

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

i ranges over the integers ^n which are prime to n, while pi, P2> l, then \l/{n, d)=n/d denote the distinct prime factors of n. If f{t)

and

(13)

becomes

^in)=n-i:^+X-^-...=n(l-^)(l-^)....
Pi

P1P2
....

Pi/ V

P2/

Next, take

f(t)

= ao+ait-\-a2f+
S/(0

Using hyperboUc functions,

= Jcoth(./2)=l+^-4+...,
by nJXn)J_r{n), where

provided

Z be

replaced

/i(n) =/'(n)

-a
=(j){n),

Mn) =f{n) -2a2,

.,

/_i(n)

= ff{n)dn.

Hence, since Ji(n)

2/(0

=^/-i(^) +^^-i(n)/i(n) -^V_3(n)/3(n) +

may

In particular, for f{t)=t'', we get ^^-(n). In Prouhet's^^ first formula, be replaced by the g. c. d. A,,, b of a and h. The generalization

J,{ah)=Ma)J,{h)j^^
is

proved.

From

(12)

we

get

by addition*
. . .

(14)

y=iLjJ

i\-]j,{j) = l'+2' +

+n*.

l, 2,..., n, we obtain equations whose solution gives Jk(n) expressed as a determinant of order n in which the elements of the last coluimi are 1, 1+2*, 1+2^+3*, ., while for s<n the sth column consists of s 1 zeros followed by s units, then s twos, etc. For s>0, the element l)th row and rth column in Glaisher's^"^ first determinant is in the (s according as r/s is integral or fractional. 1 or J. Valyi^^ used J2{n) ^({>{n) in his enumeration of the n-fold perspective polygons of n sides inscribed in a cubic curve. H. Weber^os proved (10) for k = 2. L.Carlini209 gave without references (10), (11), (12), with</)(^) for J(A;).
. .

Taking n =

E. Cesaro^io noted that (12) implies (10). by inversion (Ch. XIX), /(n) =Xii{d)F(n/d).
Jijn) _^IJLid)

For,

if

2/(d) =F(n),

we have

The

case

f=Ji

gives

The

latter is a case of G{n) ='2g{d)

and hence, with

(12)

and

W)QQ^2,Wf(^).
20, 1890-1, p. 161, for k = l, is really due to Dirichlet." the case p = 1 of Gegenbauer's, p. 217. "^Math. Nat. Berichte aus Ungarn, 9, 1890, 148; 10, 1891, 171. "'EUiptische Functioncn, 1891, 225; ed. 2, 1908 (Algebra III), 215. "Periodico di Mat., 6, 1891, 119-122.

This work, Mess. Math.,

(14)
is

Formula

"o/fcid., 7,

1892, 1-6.

Chap. V]

GENERALIZATIONS OF EuLER's </)-FuNCTION.

151

Ji+M=i:d'JMJi(^,
which
is

next to the last formula of Gegenbauer's.^"^

Similarly,

which
the

is

the case

=1

of Gegenbauer's'^^ fifth formula in

of the divisors of n.

Ch. X,

(Tk{n)

being

sum

of the A;th

powers

E. Weyr^^^ interpreted J2in) in connection with involutions on loci of genus 1. From the same standpoint, L. Gegenbauer^^^ proved (12) for k = 2 and noted that the value (10) of J-zin) then follows by the usual method of number-theoretic derivatives. L. Gegenbauer^^^" wrote cf)kim, n) for the number of sets of k positive p/'' and proved a formula integers ^ m whose g. c. d. is prime to n = pi'
.

including

[mf=Um, n)+i
where
. . .

{\

XT

4>k

-^

-^^

X,,) is the determinant derived from that with unity through(Xi, out the main diagonal and zeros elsewhere by replacing the 7th row by = n, k l, is due to Pepin.^^ the X^th row for 7 = 1,. ., c. The case There is an analogous formula involving the sum of the /cth powers of the
,
.

positive integers

^m

and prime to

n.

E. Jablonski^^ used Jk{n) in connection with permutations. G. Arnoux^^^ proved (10) in connection with modular space. *J. J. Tschistiakow^^"* (or Cistiakov) treated the function /^(n). R. D. von Sterneck^^^ proved that
J,{n) =SJ,(Xi)J,_,(X2) =S0(X,)
.
.

the X's ranging over

this,
g. c.

To generalize n whose 1. integers let Jk{n; mi, ... rrik) be the number of sets of z'l, ik, whose = k. Then d. is prime to n, while ij^n/mj for j 1,
all sets of
,

integers S.

4{\), c. m. is n.

Jk{n; Wi,

.,

m^)=SJ,(Xi; m\,.
=2:Ji(Xi; mi).
all sets of

.,
.

'm'r)Jk-r0^2] ^'r+i,-

rn'k)

J'i(X^;

m^),
1.

the X's ranging over

<f)^"'\n)

integers

^n whose
. . .

c.

m.

is

n, while m'l,

. .

m'k form any fixed permutation

of mi,

by the author,
Also,

is

the

number

J"i(n; m), designated m^t, of integers ^n/m which are prime

,

and

to n.

"iSitzungsberichte Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 101, Ila, 1892, 1729-1741. 2i2Monatshefte Math. Phys., 4, 1893, 330. 2i2aDenkschr. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 60, 1893, 25-47. 2i'Arithm6tique graphique; espaces arith. hypermagiques, 1894, 93. 2"Math. Soc. Moscow, 17, 1894, 530-7 (in Russian). "'Monatshefte Math. Phys., 5, 1894, 255-266.

152

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

SJ.(d;m...,m.) =
where d ranges over the divisors of
In the latter case, take

[ii]W...[iL],
A;

n, the case

=1

being due to Laguerre.'*

n = 1,
LfcJ

n and add.
Ini

Thus

I
k=i

-^^LmJ

m/

the last equality, in which (n, h) is the g. c. d. of n, h, following from expressions for (n, h) given by Hacks^^ of Ch. In the present paper the above double equation was proved geometrically. For m = l, we get Dirichlet's^^ formula. The g. c. d. of three numbers is expressed in terms of them and [x]. The initial formulas were proved geometrically, but were recognized to be special cases of a more general theorem. Let

XL

2Md)=FM
where d ranges over
all

(1

= 1, ...,k),
the function
of Xj,
. .
.

divisors of n.
.

Then
(1.

^(n) =S/i(Xi)

.A(X,)

c.

m.

X*

is

n)

has the property

S^(d)=Fi(n)...n(n).

XIX) the number-theoretic derivative ^{n) of Fi{n) equals the sum of the products of the .Fk{n) derivatives / of the factors Fi, the arguments ranging over all sets of k
Hence
in the terminology of Bougaief (Ch.
.

numbers having n as

their g.

c.

d.
if [n,
.

L. Gegenbauer^^^" proved easily that,

t]

is

the

g. c. d. of n,

F{[n,x^,...,x,])

= 'E F{d)jJ fj,

where d ranges over all divisors of n, and F is any function. K. Zsigmondy^^^ considered any abelian (commutative) group
the independent generators
^i,.
.

with

.,

Qs of periods ni,

.,

n^,

respectively.

gj"' of G is of period 5 if and only if 5 is the least positive element g'l''' value of X for which xhi,. ., xhs are multiples of rii, ., n^, respectively. The number of elements of period 5 of G is thus the number of sets of positive integers hi,. ., hg {hi^rii,. ., /ij^nj such that 5 is the least value of X for which xhi,. The numn^, respectively. xhs are divisible by ni, ber of sets is shown to be

Any

rPid;ni,...,n,)=lldjIl{l-l/q.'*),

where 5_, is the g. c. d. of 5 and Uj] q\,...,qr are the distinct prime factors of 5; while U is the number of those integers nx, ., n^ which contain q^ at least as often as 5 contains it. If 5 and 5' are relatively prime,
.
.

ypib] ni,.

.,

n,)\pi8';

rii,.

.,

n,)=i/'(55'; nj.

.,

nj.

"li^Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 103, Ila, 1894, 115. "'Monatshefte Math. Phys., 7, 1896, 227-233. For his we write

\p,

as did Carmichael."

Chap. V]

GENERALIZATIONS OF EuLER's 0-FuNCTION.

all divisors of

153

If

d ranges over

the product ni
.

n^,
.n,.

Si//(5;ni,
d

.,

n,)=nin2.

In case

5 divides

each
.

ni{i

= \,
= 1,
.

.,

s), 4/

becomes Jordan's
Counting the
(i

Js(5).
ai,
.

As a
where
aj

generalization (pp. 237-9) consider sets of positive integers

. .

= l,

2,

7_,

for j

2,
. .

s.

sets not of the

form

n^ai,

nf a2,

n^f a,

= l,.

..,r),

we

get the

number

n 7,-2
where
(ni, n2,
. .

\-%\ +s n f
1.

J'
.

~\

,,,

.) is

the

c.
. .

m.

of

rii,

n2,

..

In particular, take

n^P=
where
ni,
. . .

n^.
.

are relatively

=n^f = ni prime in

(i

= l,...,r),
and
let iV

pairs,

be a positive mul-

tiple of ni,

n^ such that

Then the above

J/(iV; mi,.

expression equals
.

.,

m,)

= n T-l-S
y=iLmyJ
i

II

j=\unjniA

H f-^^l [1 + 2 j=\unjnini>j
i,i'
.

.,

which determines the number

tti,.
.

of sets
(ay

.,

a,

= l,

2,.

.,

l_A/tyJ
. . .

;i=l,.
,

.,

s)

whose

g. c. d. is divisible

by no one

of ni, ^2,

n^.

By

inversion,

S//g;^...,m.) = n[|],
where d ranges over the divisors of
rii,
. . .

N
.

which are products of powers of

. . ,

Ur.

When ni,...,ns are the distinct prime factors of N,J/{N; rrii,

.

m,) becomes the function Js{N; mi, case of the latter function, we have

.,

Wj) of von Sterneck.^^^

.//(X,;

As

in the

J/{N;

Wi,.

.,

m,)=SJi'(Xi; mi).

mj,

the X's ranging over all sets whose 1. c. m. is N. L. Carhni^^^ proved that if a ranges over the integers for which [2n/a] = 2/c+l, then

XJM = sg^ -

2s^'J,

s^^

^1'+... +m*.

For k = l, this becomes 2(^(a) =n^ [E. Cesaro, p. 144 of this History]. D. N. Lehmer^^^ called Jmin) the m-fold totient of n or multiple totient of n of multiplicity m. He proved that, if A: = pi"'. .pr^
.

Jm{k'')=k^'''-''Jm{k),

Jm(ky)=JM n \pr^-pr"^-'Xy, 1=1

is

Pi)

\ ,

where \(y, pj

=0

or

according as Pi

or

is

not a divisor of

y.

In the

'"Periodico di Mat., 12, 1897, 137-9. "Amer. Jour. Math., 22, 1900, 293-335.

154

History of the Theory of Numbers.

y'
if

[Chap,

second formula the product equals the similar function of Consider the function congruent modulo pip^ PrU/k]

y and

y' are

1=1

where m,

n,

k are positive integers and x

. . .

S{x, k) denotes l*+2''-f

H-[x]*, it is

is a positive number. proved that

Then

if

which

for

m=n=1

becomes

Sylvester's^^ formula.

By

inversion,

where

ai(i) is

Merten's function.

For k as above and

k'

= k/pr''^,
n, p,k')
|

^, .(X, n, A;)=p,-(v-i)|(p^-i)ci,^(^^, n,

A:')+$^(^,
n, A;'),

= p,'"(r-i)(p^_l)Sp^-^-i),^^/'^,

where I is the least value of j for which [x/p^"'""^-'] = 0. Hence $^(x, n, k) can be expressed in terms of functions $,(?/, n, 1). True relations are derived from the last four equations by replacing n by 1 n and ^m{Xy 1 n,
A:)

by
\xlk\

n^{x,n,k)=i:j^{ik)'(ik)-'''".
1=1

Proof

is

given of the asymptotic formula

n7i+l

^'"(^' ^' ^)=:;;;:;rxT l

wn +

p 7r^+^' D^+i
of x,
*

hl^^x-n, Pi

log x,

where

is finite

and independent

??2,

while

Dm+i = 2
j

1
q:Y>

P^.

fc

=n
i=lPi

+i
7TJ

a^_w
\Pi

P,.

= 1.

i-j

For

m = n = = l,
fc

this result

becomes that

of Mertens^* (and Dirichlet'^).

The asymptotic expressions found n = l, n = 2, n>2.

for ^^i^, n, k) are different for the cases

set of

m integers

(not necessarily positive) having no

common

divisor

Let one coordinate, as x^, have a fixed integral value 5^0, while Xi,. ., x^-i take integral values such that [xi/x^],. ., [X;_i/X;] have prescribed values; we obtain a compartment in space of m dimensions which contains /m-i(^m) totient points. For example, if m = 3, X3 = 6, and the two prescribed values are zero, there are 24 totient points (xi, X2, 6) for which 0^Xi<6, 0^X2<6, while Xi and X2 have no common divisor dividing 6. For Xi = l or 5, Xo has 6 values; for
is

>1

said to define a totient point.

.

Xi

or 4, X2=l, 3 or 5; for Xi = 3, X2 = l, 2, 5; for Xi = 0, X2 = 0, 1, 5. Given a closed curve r=f{d), decomposable into a finite number of segments for each of which f{d) is a single- valued, continuous function. Let

=2

Chap. V]

FarEY

SeRIES.

155

K
is

the number of be the area of the region bounded by this curve, and points {x, y) within it or on its boundary such that a; is a multiple of k and

prime to

y.

Then

lim = -2Pi.fc,
TT

^ A k=aa

increases by uniform stretching of the figure from the origin. where In particular, consider the number A^ of irreducible fractions x/y^\ of the triangular rewhose denominators are ^n. Since x^y, the area = {n^/2) (6/7r^) approximately (Sylvester^^) Again, gion is n^/2. Hence the number of irreducible fractions whose numerators he between I and l-\-m, and denominators between V and I'+m', is Qmm'/ir^, approximately. There is a similar theorem in which the points are such that y is divisible by k', while three new constants obey conditions of relative primality to

each other or to x, y, k, k'. Extensions are stated for m-dimensional space. E. Cahen^^^ called /^(n) the indicateur of /cth order of n. G. A. Miller^^ evaluated Jk{in) by noting that it is the number of operators of period m in the abeUan group with k independent generators of period m. G. A. Miller^^^ proved (10) and (11) by using the same abelian group. E. Busche^^^ indicated a proof of (10) and (12) by an extension to space oi k+1 dimensions of Kronecker's^^^ plane, in which every point whose rectangular coordinates x, y are integers is associated with the g. c. d. of x, y. A. P. Minin^^^ proved (14) and some results due to Gegenbauer.^"^ R. D. CarmichaeP^^ gave a simple proof of Zsigmondy's^^ formula for ^. G. Metrod^^^ stated that the number of incongruent sets of solutions of xy' x'y = a (mod m) is 'EdmJ2{m/d), where d ranges over the common divisors of m and a. When a takes its m values, the total number of sets
of solutions
is

vJ'Ay^

rt'A

It

asked if like relations hold for Jk, k>2. Cordone^^ and Sanderson^^^ (of Ch. VIII) used Jordan's function in giving a generalization of Fermat's theorem to a double modulus.
is

Farey

Series.

Flitcon^^ gave the number of irreducible fractions <1 with denominator <100, stating in effect the value of Euler's (/)(n) n is a product of four or fewer primes.
"9Th6orie des nombres, 1900, p. 36;
I, 1914, 396-400. Amer. Math. Monthly, 11, 1904, 129-130. 2"Amer. Jour. Math., 27, 1905, 321-2. 222Math. Annalen, 60, 1905, 292.

each

when

^^'Vorlesungen iiber Zahlentheorie, 1901,

I,

p. 242.

224Matem. Sbomik (Moscow Math. Soc), 27, 1910, 340-5. "^''Quart. Jour. Math., 44, 1913, 94-104. 2L'interm6diaire des math., 20, 1913, 148. Proof, Sphinx-Oedipe, 9, 1914, 4. ^'Ladies' Diary, 1751. Reply to Question 281, 1747-8. T. Leybourn's Math. Quest, proposed in Ladies' Diary, 1, 1817, 397-400.

156

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

C. Haros-"*^ proved the results rediscovered by Farey-^ and Caiichy.^^Farey-^" stated that if all the proper vulgar fractions in their lowest terms, having both numerator and denominator not exceeding a given number n, be arranged in order of magnitude, each fraction equals a fraction whose numerator and denominator equal respectively the sum of the numerators and sum of the denominators of the two fractions adjacent to it Thus, for n = 5, the series is in the series.
J.

Z' T'

1112
-JT'

T'

IT'

13 T'
5

7' T' T'

and

1_1 + 1
4

2_1 + 1.
3+2*

5+3'
this

property on page 5 of the introduction to his "tabular series of decmial quotients" of 1818, published in 1816 for private circulation (see Goodwyn,^^' ^- Ch. VI), and is apparently to be credited with the theorem. It was ascribed to Goodwyn by C. W. Merrifield.2"

Henry Goodwyn mentioned

A. L. Cauchy^^^ proved that,

tive fractions of a
(so

if

a/b, a'/b', a"/b" are

any three consecu-

Farey series, b and b' are relatively prime and a'bab' = 1 that a'/b'-a/b = l/bb'). Similarly, a"b'-a'b" = l, so that a+a": b+b"
b',

= a':

by Farey. StouveneP^^ proved that, in a Farey series of order n,

as stated

if

two fractions

a/b and c/b are complementary (i. e., have the sum unity), the same is true of the fraction preceding a/b and that following c/b. The two fractions adjacent to 1/2 are complementary and their common denominator is the greatest odd integer ^n. Hence 1/2 is the middle term of the series and two fractions equidistant from 1/2 are complementary. To find the third of three consecutive fractions a/b, a'/b', x/y, we have a+x = a'z, b+y = b'z (Farey), and we easily see that z is the greatest integer ^ {n-\-b)/b', M. A. Stern-^^ studied the sets m, n, and m, m-\-n, n, and m, 2m-\-n, m-\-n, m-\-2n, n, etc., obtained by interpolating the sum of consecutive terms. G. Eisenstein^^" briefly considered such sets. *A. Brocot^^'' considered the sets obtained by mediation [Farey] from
U/1, 1/0:
T' T'

oil.
ITJ

T' Y' 1' T'

01121.
TJ">

and Hrabak^^^ gave tables with the limits 57 and 50. G. H. Halphen^^^ considered a series of irreducible fractions, arranged in order of magnitude, chosen according to a law such that if any fraction / is excluded then also every fraction is excluded if its two terms are at least
Herzer^^^
2<9Jour.

de

I'dcole polyt., cah. 11,

t. 4,

1802, 364-8.

"oPhilos.

Mag. and Journal, London,

47, 1816, 385-6; [48, 1816, 204]; Bull. Sc. Soc. Philomatique

de Paris, (3), 3, 1816, 112. "'Math. Quest. Educat. Times, 9, 1868, 92-5. "*Bufl. Sc. Soc. Philomatique de Paris, (3), 3, 1816, 133-5.
1,

Reproduced

in Exercices

de Math.,

1826, 114-6; Oeuvres, (2), 6, 1887, 146-8. "Jour. de mathdmatiques, 5, 1840, 265-275. Jour. fur Math., 55, 1858, 193-220. "laBericht Ak. Wiss. Berlin, 1850, "'Calcul des rouages par approximation, Paris, 1862. Lucas.'" 2^Tabellen, Basle, 1864. ""Tabellen-Werk, Leipzig, 1876. "'Bull. Soc. Math. France, 5, 1876-7, 170-5.

41^2.

Chap. V]

FaREY

SeRIES.

157

equal to the corresponding terms of /. Such a series has the properties noted by Farey and Cauchy for Farey series. E. Lucas^^^ considered series 1, 1 and 1, 2, 1, etc., formed as by Stern. For the nth series it is stated that the number of terms is 2"~-^ l, their sum is 3""^ l, the greatest two terms (of rank 2""^+l==2"~^) are

(i+V5r+^-(i-\/5r+^

2"+V5
we obtain the value of certain other terms. some of the above facts on the history of Farey Glaisher^" treated the history more fully and proved (p. 328) that series. the properties noted by Farey and Cauchy hold also for the series of irreChanging n
J.

to p,

W.

L. Glaisher^^ gave

and denominators ^ n. ducible fractions of numerators ^ Edward Sang^^" proved that any fraction between A/ a and C/y is'of the form {'pA-[-qC)/{'pa-{-qy), where p and q are integers, and is irreducible
prime. A. Minine^^ considered the number S{a, such that h-\-aa^N. Let 0(6)p denote the are prime to h. Then, for a > 0,
if

p, q are relatively

N) of irreducible fractions a/h number of integers ^p which

>S(a,iV)= S0(6)p,

P=L

J'

since for each denominator h there are (/)(6)p integers prime to h for h+aa-^N and hence that number of fractions.
fractions.

which

A. F. Pullich^^^ proved Farey's theorem by induction, using continued

G. Airy^^^ gave the 3043 irreducible fractions with numerator and denominator

^ 100.

showed how to deduce the number of fractions in a Farey series by means of a functional equation. Sylvester,^^' ^^ Cesaro,^^ Vahlen,^^ Axer,^^^ and Lehmer^^^ investigated the number of fractions in a Farey series. Sylvester^^^" discussed the fractions x/y for which x<n^ y<n, x-\-y^n.
J. J. Sylvester^^^

M.

d'Ocagne^^'^ prolonged Farey's series

.
.

+(j>{n). From where p=<^(l)+ by adding unity, then the next p by adding unity, etc. Consider a series S{a, N) of irreducible fractions Ui/hi in order of magnitude such that bi+atti^N, where a is any fixed integer called the characteristic. All the series S(_a, N) with a given base N may be derived from Farey's series
.

the

first

by adding 1/1 in the pth place, p terms we obtain the next p

^oProc. Cambr. Math. France, 6, 1877-8, 118-9. MiLondon Ed. Dub. Phil. Mag., (5), 7, 1879, 321-336. '"Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 28, 1879, 287. Math. Soc. Moscow, 1880. "'Jour, de math. el6m. et spec, 1880, 278.
Bull. Soc.

Phil.

Soc,

3,

1878, 194.

'"Trans. Inst. Civil Engineers; cf. Phil. Mag., 1881, 175. '"Mathesis, 1, 1881, 161-3. '"Johns Hopkins Univ. Circulars, 2, 1883, 44-5, 143; Coll. Math. Papers, 3, 672-6, 687-8. 266aAmer. Jour. Math., 5, 1882, 303-7, 327-330; Coll. Math. Papers, IV, 55-9, 78-81. '"Annales Soc. Sc. Bruxelles, 10, 1885-6, II, 90. Extract in Bull. Soc. Math. France, 14, 1885-6, 93-7.

158
5(0,

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

N) by use
a.(a,

of

N) =a,(0, N),

&.(a, iV)

=6,(0,

N) -aa,(0, N).

a,6._i a,_i6i = l, so that the area of OA.A,_i is 1/2 if the point Ai has the coordinates o,, 6,. All points representing terms of the same rank in all the series of the same base he at equally spaced intervals on a parallel to the x-axis, and the distance between adjacent points is the number of units between this parallel and the a:-axis. A. Hurwitz-^^ apphed Farey series to the approximation of numbers

Thus

and to the reduction of binary quadratic forms. Hermes-^^ designated as numbers of Farey the numbers ri = l, 72 = 2, with the recursion formula X3 = 7^ = 3, To = 4, tq = t7 = 5, t8 = 4,

by

rational fractions
J.

= r_2^+r2^+i-n+i,

2''<n^2'+\

and connected with the representation of numbers to base 2. The ratios of the r's give the Farey fractions. K. Th. Vahlen-^^'' noted that the formation of the convergents to a fraction w by Farey's series coincides with the development of w into a continued fraction whose numerators are 1, and made an application to the
composition of linear fractional substitutions. H. Made-' apphed Hurwitz's method to numbers a+hi. E. Busche"^ apphed geometrically the series of irreducible fractions of denominators ^a and numerators ^b, and noted that the properties of Farey series {a = h) hold [Glaisher-^]. W. Sierpinski^^^ used consecutive fractions of Farey series of order m to show that, if x is irrational.
===

U=i^

2j

Expositions of the theory of Farey series were given by E. Lucas,'" E. Cahen,-'^ Bachmann.^'^ An anonymous writer,^'^ starting with the irreducible fractions <1, arranged in order of magnitude, with the denominators ^ 10, inserted the fractions with denominator 11 by listing the pairs of fractions 0/1, 1/10; 1/6, 1/5; 1/4, 2/7;. ., the sum of whose denominators is 11, and noting
.

that between the two of each pair lies a fraction with denominator 11 and numerator equal the sum of their numerators.
*8Math. Annalen, 44, 1894, 417-436; 39, 1891, 279; 45, 1894, 85; Math. Papers of the Chicago Congress, 1896, 125. Cf. F. Klein, Ausgewahlte Kapitel der Zahlentheorie, I, 1896, 19^210. Cf. G. Humbert, Jour, de Math., (7), 2, 1916, 116-7. *9Math. Annalen, 45, 1894, 371. Cf. L. von Schrutka, 71, 1912, 574, 583. ^s'ajour. fiir Math., 115, 1895, 221-233. ^'^Ueber Fareysche Doppelreihen, Diss. Giessen, Darmstadt, 1903.

"'Math. Annalen, 60, 1905, 288. *"BuU. Inter. Acad. Sc. Cracovie, 1909, II, 725-7. "Th6orie des nombres, 1891, 467-475, 508-9. *'^fil4ments de la theorie des nombres, 1900, 331-5. "'Niedere Zahlentheorie, 1, 1902, 121-150; 2, 1910, 55-96. i^'OZeitschrift Math. Naturw. Unterricht, 45, 1914, 559-562.

CHAPTER

VI.

PERIODIC DECIMAL FRACTIONS; PERIODIC FRACTIONS: FACTORS OF I0"1.

Ibn-el-Banna^ (Albanna) in the thirteenth century factored 10" 1 for small values of n. The Arab Sibt el-Maridini^" in the fifteenth century noted that in the sexagesimal division of 47 50' by 1 25' the quotient has a period of eight terms. G. W. Leibniz^ in 1677 noted that \/n gives rise to a purely periodic fraction to any base h, later adding the correction that n and h must be The length of the period of the decimal fraction for 1/n, relatively prime. where n is prime to 10, is a divisor of n 1 [erroneous for n = 21 cf Wallis^] has a prime factor other than 2 and 5, the John Wallis^ noted that, if equals an unending decimal fraction with a repetend reduced fraction If is not divisible by 2 or 5, the period has two of at most A^ 1 digits. digits if divides 99, but not 9; three digits if A^ divides 999, but not 99. The period of 1/21 has six digits and 6 is not a divisor of 21 1. The length of the period for the reciprocal of a product equals the 1. c. m. of the lengths of the periods of the reciprocals of the factors [cf. Bernoulli^]. Similar results hold for base 60 in place of 10. J. H. Lambert^ noted that all periodic decimal fractions arise from rational fractions; if the period p has n digits and is preceded by a decimal with digits, we have
;
.

M/N

lO'"

'

lO'^lO"

lO'^lO^"

lO'^ClO^-l)

John Robertson^ noted that a pure periodic decimal with a period P of P/9 ... 9, where there are k digits 9. J. H. Lambert^ concluded from Fermat's theorem that, if a is a prime other than 2 and 5, the number of terms in the period of \/a is a divisor If is odd and \/g has a period oi g 1 terms, then ^ is a prime. of a 1. If \/g has a period of m terms, but ^ 1 is not divisible by m, g is composite. Let 1/a have a period of 2m terms; if a is prime, A; = lO'^+l is divisible by a; if a is composite, k and a have a common factor; if k is divisible by a and if m is prime, each factor other than 2^5^ of a is of period 2m. Let a be a composite number not divisible by 2, 3 or 5. If 1/a has a period of m terms, where w is a prime, each factor of a produces a period
k digits equals
S'

E. Lucas, Arithm^tique amusante, 1895, 63-9; Brocard.'o^ iCarra de Vaux, Bibliotheca Matb., (2), 13, 1899, 33-4. ^Manuscript in Bibliothek Hannover, vol. Ill, 24; XII, 2, Blatt 4; also. III, 25, Blatt 1, seq., Cf. D. Mahnke, BibUotheca Math., (3), 13, 1912-3, 45-48. 10, Jan., 1687. ^Treatise of Algebra both historical & practical, London, 1685, ch. 89, 326-8 (in manuscript, 1676). *Acta Helvetica, 3, 1758, 128-132. Phil. Trans., London, 58, 1768, 207-213. "Nova Acta Eruditorum, Lipsiae, 1769, 107-128. 159
'Cf.

\
160
of

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, vi

If \/a has a period of mn terms, where and n are primes, terms. while no factor has such a period, one factor of a divides 10'" 1 and another If \/a has a period of mnp terms, where vi, n, p are primes, di\'ides 10" 1. but no factor has such a period, any factor of a divides 10"*- 1,. ., or 10"" !. These theorems aid in factoring a. L. Euler^ gave numerical examples of the conversion of ordinary fractions into decimal fractions and the converse problem. Euler^'' noted that if 2p+l is a prime 40?21, 3, 9, 13, it divides lO^-ljif 2p l isaprime40;?7, 11, 17, 19, it divides 10^+1. Jean BernouUi^ gave a r^sum6 of the work by Wallis,^ Robertson,* Lambert^ and Euler,^ and gave a table showing the full period for 1/D for
.

each odd prime D<200, and a like table when Z) is a product of two equal When the two primes are distinct, the table conor distinct primes < 25.
firms Wallis' assertion that the length of the period for

1/D

is

the

1.

c.

m.
for

of the lengths of the periods for the reciprocals of the factors.

But

is a prime > 3, the length of the period equals times that 1 digits, the the period for 1/D, where is a prime, has period for ?n/D has the same digits permuted cyclically to begin with m. He gave (p. 310) a device communicated to him by Lambert: to find the period for 1/D, where Z) = 181, we find the remainder 7 after obtaining the part p composed of the first 15 digits of the period; multiply l/D = p-\-7/D by 7 thus the next 15 digits of the period are given by 7p since 7^ = /)+ 162, the third set of 15 digits is found by adding unity to 7~p, etc.; since 7 belongs to the exponent 12 modulo D, the period for 1/D contains 15-12

l/D^, where

for 1/D.

If

digits.

Jean Bernoulli^ made use of various theorems due to Euler which give the possible linear forms of the divisors of 10*1, and obtained factors of (10*-l)/9 when A-^30, except for k = ll, 17, 19, 23, 29, with doubt as to the primality of the largest factor when A' = 13, 15 or ^19. He stated
(p.

325) erroneously^^ that (10^^

+ l)/ll-23

has no factor <3000.

Also,

10''+1

= 7-1M3-211-9091-520S1.

part of the periods for the reciprocals of various primes ^601. and stated l=4nl. If both criteria for the divisibility of 10^1 by a prime 2p 2 and 5 or neither occur among the divisors of n, n=F2, n=F6, then 10'' is divisible by 2p-\-l. But if only one of 2 and 5 occurs, then 10^+1 is
L. Euler^^ wTote to Bernoulli concerning the latter's^ paper

He gave

divisible

of ordinary fractions into decimals without dealing with theoretical principles.

'Algebra, I, Ch. 12, 1770; French trans!., 1774. '"Opusc. anal., 1, 1773, 242; Comm. Arith. Coll., 2, p. 10, p. 25. 'Nouv. m6m. acad. roy. Berlin, ann^e 1771 (1773), 273-317. *Ibid., 318-337. "P. Seelhoff, Zeitschrift Math. Phys., 31, 1886, 63. Reprinted, Sphinx-Oedipc, 5, 1910, 77-8. "Nouv. m(Sm. acad. roy. Berlin, annde 1772 (1774), Histoire, pp. 35-36; Comm. Arith., 1, 584. ^^he rationale of circulating numbers, London, 1777, 1794.

by 2p+l [cf. Genocchi^^]. Henry Clarke^^ discussed the conversion

Chap. VI]

PERIODIC DECIMAL FRACTIONS.

161

Anton FelkeP^ showed how to convert directly a periodic fraction written to one base into one to another base. He gave all primes < 1000 which can divide a period with a prime number of digits <30, as 29m +1

= 59,233,....
Oberreit^* extended Bernoulli's^ table of factors of 10*=*=!.

C. F. Gauss^^ gave a table showing the period of the decimal fraction for Vp", p"<467, V a prime, and the period for 1/p", 467^ p"^ 997. W. F. Wucherer^ gave five places of the decimal fraction for n/d, d<1000, n<dford<50, n^ 10 for (^^ 50. Schroter published at Helmstadt in 1799 a table for converting ordinary
fractions into decimal fractions.

C. F. Gauss^'^ proved that, if a is not divisible by the prime p (^7^2, 5), the length of the period for a/p" is the exponent e to which 10 belongs modulo p^. If we set 0(p") =ef and choose a primitive root r of p^ such that the index of 10 is /, we can easily deduce from the periods for k/p^, is any integer not where k = \, r, ., r^~\ the period for m/p", where For, if i be the index of to the base r, and if i = af-\-^, divisible by p. where 0^/3</, we obtain the period for m/p" from that for rVp" by carrying the first a digits to the end. He computed^^ the necessary periods for each p"<1000, but published here the table only to 100. By using partial fractions, we may employ the table to obtain the period for a/b, where b is a product of powers of primes within the limits of the table. H. Goodwyn^^ noted that, if a<17, the period for a/17 is derived from the period for 1/17 by a cyclic permutation of the digits. Thus we may print in a double line the periods for 1/17, 16/17 by showing the period for 1/17 and, above each digit d of the latter, showing the value of a such that the period for a/ 17 begins with the digit d, while the rest of the period is to be read cyclically from that for 1/17. Goodwyn^^ noted that when 1/p is converted into a decimal fraction, p being prime, the sum of corresponding quotients in the two half periods is 9, and that for remainders is p, if p^7. J. C. Burckhardt^" gave the length of the period for 1/p for each prime p^2543 and for 22 higher primes. It follows that 10 is a primitive root of 148 of the 365 primes p, 5<p<2500.
.
.

"Abhand. Bohmiachen Gesell. Wias., Prag, 1, 1785, 135-174. "J. H. Lambert's Deutscher Gelehrter Briefwechsel, pub. by

J. Bernoulli, Leipzig, vol. 5, 1787, 480-1. The part (464-479) relating to periodic decimals is mainly from Bernoulli's' paper.

"Posthumous manuscript, dated Oct., 1795; Werke, 2, 1863, 412-434. ^'Beytrage zum allgemeinem Gebrauch der Decimal Brliche. ., Carlsruhe, 1796. "Disq. Arith., 1801, Arts. 312-8. A part was reproduced by Wertheim, Elemente der Zahlen. .

theorie, 1887, 153-6.

Nat. Phil. Chem. Arts (ed., Nicholson), London, 4, 1801, 402-3. new series, 1, 1802, 314-6. Cf. R. Law, Ladies' Diary, 1824, 44-45, Quest. 1418. '"Tables des diviseurs pour tous les nombres du premier milMon, Paris, 1817, p. 114. For errata see Shanks," Kessler," Cimningham,^^! and G^rardin."^
I'Jour.

"76id.,

162

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, vi

H. Goodw-jTi-^ gave for each integer d^ 100 a table of the periods for n/d, for the various integers n<d and prime to d. Also, a table giving the first eight digits of the decimal equivalent to everj^ irreducible vulgar fraction < 1/2, whose numerator and denominator are both ^ 100, arranged
magnitude, up to 1/2. GoodwATi"' -^ was without doubt the author of two tables, which refer The first gives to the preceding ''short specimen" by the same author. the first eight digits of the decimal equivalent to every irreducible \'ulgar fraction, whose numerator and denominator are both ^ 1000, from 1/1000 In the second volume, the to 99/991 arranged in order of magnitude. "table of circles" occupies 107 pages and contains all the periods (circles) of ever}' denominator prime to 10 up to 1024; there is added a two-page table showing the quotient of each number ^ 1024 by its largest factor 25''.
in order of

The entry

For example, the entry in the "tabular series" under -^^ is .08689024. in the two-page table under 656 is 41. Of the various entries under 41 in the "table of circles," the one containing the digits 9024 gives

the complete period 90243. Hence /^V = -086890243. Glaisher"^ gave a detailed account of Goodwyn's tables and checks on them. They are described in the British Assoc. Report, 1873, pp. 31-34, along -wdth tables showing seven figures of the reciprocals of numbers < 100000. and the remainders F. T. Poselger'^ considered the quotients 0, a, h,. obtained by di\'iding 1, ^, A~, ... by the prime p; thus 1, a, j8,
.

A
P
is

=a-i

.,.B A' = aA+b-\

P
P
. .

,....

Adding, we see that the sum lH-a-}-/3-|- ... of the remainders of the period .. a multiple TTzp of p; also, w(A 1) =a+6-fSet

M = k+...+hA'-'--\-aA*-\
where

belongs to the exponent

modulo

p.

Then
. .

= -+MS, P P
"The
first

S = l+A'+

+A^"-'\

centenarj' of a series of concise and useful tables of all the complete decimal quotients which can arise from dividing a unit, or any whole number less than each divisor, by all integers from 1 to 1024. To which is now added a tabular series of complete decimal

quotients for all the proper vulgar fractions of which, when in their lowest terms, neither the numerator nor the denominator is greater than 100; with the equivalent vulgar

"A "A

By Henry Goodwyn, London, 1818, pp. xiv lS; vii+30. The first part was printed in 1816 for private circulation and cited by J. Farey in Philos. Mag. and Journal, London, 47, 1816, 385. tabular series of decimal quotients for all the proper vulgar fractions of which, when in their lowest terms, neither the numerator nor the denominator is greater than 1000, London,
fractions prefixed.

153. 1823, pp. v table of the circles arising from the division of a unit, or any other whole number, by all the integers from 1 to 1024; being all the pure decimal quotients that can arise from this source, London, 1823, pp. v 118. "Abhand. Ak. Wiss. BerUn (Math.), 1827, 21-36.

Chap. VI]
If

PERIODIC DECIMAL FRACTIONS.

divisible

163
that

is

by

p,

we may take n = 1 and conclude

is not divisible by p, S must be, so that n from 1/p^ by an integer. If In general, for the denomis divisible by p and the length of the period is pt. is divisible by p^~^, but in the contrary case inator p^, we have n = l if n is a multiple of p'"'^. If the period for a prime p has an even number of digits, the sum of corresponding quotients in the two half periods is p. An anonymous writer^^ noted that, if we add the digits of the period of a circulating decimal, then add the digits of the new sum, etc., we finally

A^p^

differs

From a number subtract that obtained by reversing its digits; add 9. the digits of the difference; repeat for the sum, etc.; we get 9. Bredow^^ gave the periods for a/p, where p is a prime or power of a prime between 100 and 200. He gave certain factors of 10" 1 for w = 6-10,
get

12-16, 18, 21, 22, 28, 33, 35, 41, 44, 46, 58, 60, 96. are the least powers of a which, E. Midy" noted that, if a"", a"', diminished by unity, give remainders divisible by q^, qi''', respectively distinct primes), and if being the quotients are not divisible by qi,... {q,
.
. . .

., respectively, and if t is the 1. c. m. of n, ni, ., then a belongs to and a' 1 is divisible by q only h times. the exponent t modulo p = q^qi^' Let the period of the pure decimal fraction for a/h have 2n digits. If h is prime to 10" 1, the sum of corresponding digits in the half periods is always 9, and the sum of corresponding remainders is h. Next, let 6 and 10" 1 have d>l as their g. c. d. and set h' = h/d. Let a be the nth remainder in finding the decimal fraction. Then a+a = 6'A:, ai+a+i = 6'/ci, etc. The sums q-\-qn, 5i+g+i, ... of corresponding digits in the half periods equal {\{)k-k^)/d, il0k,-k2)/d,.. ., {10k,_r-k)/d.

q, qi,.

Similar results hold when the period of mn digits digits each. For example, in the period
for 1/403, the

is

divided into

n parts

of

002481389578163771712158808933
by
is

(10^^ 1 being divisible the sum of the digits of rank i, i-\-3, i+6, ., i+27 always 45, while the corresponding sums of the remainders are 2015. N. Druckenmiiller^^" noted that any fraction can be expressed as a/x-\-

two halves are not complementary

2, 3,

31); for

= l,

ai/x^-l- ....

Westerberg^^ gave in 1838 factors of 10" 1 for nS 15. G. R. Perkins^^ considered the remainder r^ when N'^ is divided by P, and the quotient q in Nrj._i = Pqx-\-rj.. If Tk'^Pl, there are 2k terms in
J.

the period of remainders,

and
qk+x+qx = N-l.
to the base N.]

rk+x+r^ = P,
[These results relate to

1/P written

^^Polytechnisches Journal (ed., J. G. Dingier), Stuttgart, 34, 1829, 68; extract from Mechanics' Magazine, N. 313, p. 411. ^*Von den Perioden der Decimalbriiche, Progr., Oels, 1834. '^'De quelques propriet^s des nombres et des fractions d^cimales p^riodiques, Nantes, 1836,21 pp. ""T.heorie der Kettenreihen ., Trier, 1837. 28See Chapter on Perfect Numbers."* 2Amer. Jour. Sc. Arts, 40, 1841, 112-7.
.
.

164

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, vi

E. Catalan^" converted periodic decimals into ordinary fractions without using infinite progressions. When 1/13 is converted into a decimal, the period of remainders is 1, 10, 9, 12, 3, 4; repeat the period; starting in the series of 12 terms with any term (as 10), take the fourth term (4) after it, the fourth term (12) after that, etc.; then the sum 26 of the three is a l=mn, the sum of n is a prime and multiple of 13. In general, if [cf. Thibault'^]. terms taken w by m in the period for N/D is a multiple of If the sum of two terms of the period of remainders for N/D is D, the same is true of the terms following them. Hence the sum of corresponding terms of the two half periods is D. This happens if the number of terms of the period is <f){D). Thibault^^ denoted the numbers of digits in the periods for l/d and If d' is divisible by d, m' is divisible by m. If d and d' 1/d' by m and m'. common prime factor other than 2 or the number of digits in no have 5, the 1. m. m, m'. Hence it suffices to know period for \/dd' is c. of the the length of the period for 1/p", where p is a prime. If 1/p has a period of which has a digits and if 1/p" is the last one of the series 1/p, 1/p^, digits, then the period for 1/p" for a >n has mp"'^ digits. For period of m y~^ 1/3'^ = = r^2 for has period of digits. For a p 3, we have w 2; hence any prime p for which 7^p^ 101, we have n = 1, so that 1/p" has a period Note that \/p and 1/p^ have periods of the same length of mp-~^ digits. 1 (mod p^). Proof is given of Catalan's^" first to base h if and only if h^~^ theorem, which holds only when 10"' ^1 (mod D), i. e., when is not a multiple of the number of digits in the period. For example, the sum of the /cth and (6+A;)th remainders for 1/13 is not a multiple of 13. E. Prouhet^^ proved Thibault's" theorem on the period for l/p". He^^" noted that multiples of 142857 have the same digits permuted. P. Lafitte^^ proved Midy's^^ theorem that, if p is a prime not dividing and if the period for m/p has an even number of digits, the sum of the two halves of the period is 9 ... 9. of digits in the period for 1/Z), J. Sornin^^ investigated the number is prime to 10. where The period is a; = (10"* - l)/D. First, let = lOA: 1

Then x = \Qy \, where

y=
Finally,
is.

10*"-^+ A;

= ,^ lOz+k,
,

= lO'-^-A:^

we reach v= \l { k)'^\/D, and x is an integer if and only if v Hence if we form the powers of the number k of tens in D, add 1 to
1

the odd powers, but subtract giving a result divisible by

from the even powers

is

of k, the first

exponent

the

number

of digits

in the period.

Nouv. Ann. Math., 1, 1842, 464-5, 467-9. *nhid., 2, 1843, 80-89.

"/bid., 5, 1846, 661.

1844, 376; 1851, 147-152. Cf. Araer. Math. Monthly, 19, 1912, 130-2. w/Wd., 8, 1849, 50-57.
3,

^IhU.,

'Vbid., 397-9.

Chap. VI]

PeEIODIC DECIMAL FRACTIONS.

165

Next, if D = 10k 1, we have a like rule to be applied only to the ^"^ 1. If D = 10k=^3, 1/(3Z)) has a denominator lOZ^l, and the length of its period, found as above, is shown to be not less than that for 1/D. Th. Bertram^^ gave certain numbers p for which l/p has a given length k of period for k^ 100. Cf. Shanks.^^ J. R. Young^^ took a part of a periodic decimal, as .1428571 428 for 1/7, and marked off from the end a certain number (three) of digits. We can find a multipHer (as 6) such that the product, with the proper carrying (here 2) from the part marked off, has all the digits of the abridged number in the same cyclic order, except certain of the leading digits. In the special case the product is .8571428. W. Loof" gave the primes p for which the period for l/p has a given number n of digits, n^ 60, with no entry for n = 17, 19, 37-40, 47, 49, 57, 59, and with doubt as to the primality of large numbers entered for various other n's. E. Desmarest^^ gave the primes 10000 for which 10 belongs to the exponent {P l)/t for successive values of t. The table thus gives the length of the period for 1/P. He stated (pp. 294-5) that if P is a prime < 1000, and if p is the length of the period for A/P, then except for P = 3 and P = 487 the length of the period for A/P^ is pP. A. Genocchi^^ proved Euler's^^ rule by use of the quadratic reciprocity law. Thus 5 is a quadratic residue or non-residue of according as = 5m=^l or 5m3; for 4n+l = 5m='=l, n or n 2 is divisible by 5; for 4n l = 5m='=l, n or n-\-2 is divisible by 5. Also, 2 is a residue of 4nl for n even, a non-residue for n odd. Hence 10 is a residue of A^ = 4n='= 1 for

P<

n even if n orn =f2

inclusion of n=F6

is

divisible

by

5,

and for n odd

if

neither

is.

Thus Euler's

a similar proof, 10 is quadratic nonresidue of A/' = 4nl if both 2 and 5 occur among the divisors of n2, n6, or if neither occurs; a residue if a single one of them occurs. A. P. Reyer^^" noted that the period for a/3^ has 3^~^ digits and gave the length of the period for a/p for each prime p< 150. *F. van Henekeler^^^ treated decimal fractions. C. G. Reuschle^" gave for each prime p< 15000 the exponent e to which 10 belongs modulo p. Thus e is the length of the period for l/p. He gave all the prime factors of lO'^-l for n^l6, n = lS, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 36, 42; those of 10"+1 for n^l8, n = 21; also cases up to n = 243 of the factors of the quotient obtained by excluding analytic factors.
is

superfluous.

By

"Einige Satze aus der Zahlenlehxe, Progr. Coin, Berlin, 1849, 14-15. London, Ed. Dublin Phil. Mag., 36, 1850, 15-20. ^Archiv Math. Phys., 16, 1851, 54-57. French transl. in Nouv. Ann. Math., 14, 1855, 115-7. Quoted by Brocard, Mathesis, 4, 1884, 38. '^Th^orie des nombres, Paris, 1852, 308. For errata, see Shanks*^ and G^rardin.^'^ "Bull. Acad. Roy. Sc. Belgique, 20, II, 1853, 397-400. "<^Archiv Math. Phys., 25, 1855, 190-6. '^''Ueber die primitiven Wurzeln der Zahlen und ihre Anwendung auf Dezimalbriicbe, Leyden, 1855 (Dutch). "Math. Abhandlung.. .Tabellen, Progr. Stuttgart, 1856. Full title in Ch. I."* Errata, Bork,i''5 Hertzer,ii3 Cunningham. i"

166

History of the Theory of Numbers.

noted that n/p = 0.di
. . .

[Chap,

vi

W. Stammer^^

a^ implies

-(10'-l)=ai...a,. V
J. B. Sturm^^ used this result to explain the conversion of decimal into ordinary fractions without the use of series. M. Collins'^^ stated that, if we multiply any decimal fraction having digits in its period by one with n digits, we obtain a product with Own digits in its period if vi is prime to n, but with 71(10 1) digits if n is

divisible
J.

by m.

E. Oliver^^ proved the last theorem. If x'/x gives a periodic fraction 1 (mod x) and conversely. to the base a with a period of ^ figures, then a^ z'/z with period lengths The product of the periodic fractions for x'/x, period length has the ^, f

=
.

M{x,...,z)
.

M(^,...,f),

He examined the cases in z. where M{x, ., z) is the 1. c. m. of x, which the first factor in the formula is expressible in terms of ^, f Fr. Heime'*^ and M. Pokorny^^ gave expositions without novelty. Suffield*^ gave the more important rules for periodic decimals and indi.
. .

cated the close connection with the method of synthetic division. W. H. H. Hudson*^ called d a proper prime if the period for n/d has d 1 If the period for r/p has n = ip l)/\ digits, there are X periods digits. The sum of the digits in the period for a proper prime p is 9{p 1)/2. for p. If 1/p has a period of 2n digits, the sum of corresponding digits in the two half periods is 9, and this holds also if p is composite but has no factor 9 If lOp+l is a proper prime, each digit 0, 1, dividing 10" 1 [Midy"]. occurs p times in its period. If a, h are distinct primes with periods of a, /3 digits, the number of digits in the period for ab is the 1. c. m. of a, /8 Let p have a period of n digits and l/p = A-/(10" 1). Let [Bernoulli^].
. .
.

be the

least integer for

which

\ljp^-'^\2)p^-''^is

^\x-l)
digits.

an

integer; then 1/p^ has a period of

mn

"Archiv Math. Phys., 27, 1856, 124. /6id., 33, 1859, 94-95.

Math. Monthly
**Ibid.,

(ed.,

Runkle), Cambridge, Mass.,

1,

1859, 295.

345-9.

relative Prim- und correspondirende Zahlen, primitive und sekundare Wurzeln und periodische Decimalbriiche, Progr., BerUn, 1860, 18 pp. "Ueber einige Eigenschaften periodischer Dezimalbriiche, Prag, 1864. ^Synthetic division in arithmetic, with some introductory remarks on the period of circulating decimals, 1863, pp. iv-|-19. Glaisher" atrributed this *80xford, Cambridge and Dublin Messenger of Math., 2, 1864, 1-6. useful anonymous paper to Hudson.

'Ueber

Chap. VI]

PERIODIC DECIMAL FRACTIONS.

.

167

V. A. Lebesgue^^ gave for iV^347 the periods for 1/iV, r/N,. .[cf. Gauss^l. are distinct primes and 1/m, 1/n, Sanio^ stated that, if m, n,. have periods of length q, q',. ., then l/(wV. .) has the period length ^a-i^b-i qq' He gave the length of the period for l/p for each prime p^700, and the factors of 10" 1, n^ 18. F. J. E. Lionnet^^ stated that, if the period for a/h has n digits, that for any irreducible fraction whose denominator is a multiple of h has a multiple have If the periods for the irreducible fractions a/6, a'/h', of n digits. c. m. is the 1. digits, every irreducible fraction whose denominator n, n', period If the n,n',. .. has a period whose length is the 1. c. m. of of b, h',. for 1/p has n digits and if p" is the highest power of the prime p which divides 10" 1, any irreducible fraction with the denominator p"'^^ has a period of np^ digits. C. A. Laisant and E. Beaujeux^^ proved that if g is a prime and the period for 1/q to the base B is P = ab. .h, with q 1 digits, then
. .

P-{a+h+...+h) = {B-l)a,
and stated that a
like result holds for

B'-'-l ^{^+^-y) =

a composite number q if we replace proof of the generaUzed Fermat theorem 5^=1 q1 by/=</)(g). Their that topic. (mod q) is quoted under C. Sardi^^ noted that if 10 is a primitive root of a prime p = lOn+1, the period for 1/p contains each digit 0,..., 9 exactly n times [Hudson^^]. For p = 10n-f-3, this is true of the digits other than 3 and 6, which occur n+1 times. Analogous results are given for lOn+7, lOn+9. Ferdinand Meyer^^ proved an immediate generalization from 10 to

any base k prime to 6, 6', ... of the statements by Lionnet.^^ Lehmann^" gave a clear exposition of the theory. when C. A. Laisant and E. Beaujeux^^ considered the residues Vq, ri, Let ri_iB = QiZ)i+r,. When written are divided by AA, AB, AB^,. Then to the base B, let Di = ap. .02^1, and set Di = ap. Mi.
. . . . . .

airi+

+0prp = Z)i(ri-Q2A-

-QpDp).

The

For G.
*'M6m.

further results are either evident or not novel. Barillari^" on the length of the period, see Ch. VII.

soc. sc. phys. et nat. de Bordeaux, 3, 1864, 245. ^"Ueber die periodischen Decimalbrtiche, Progr., Memel, 1866. "Algebre 61em., ed. 3, 1868. Nouv. Ann. Math., (2), 7, 1868, 239. Proofs by Morel and Pellet, (2), 10, 1871, 39-42, 92-95. MNouv. Ann. Math., (2), 7, 1868, 289-304. "Giornale di Mat., 7, 1869, 24-27. "Archiv Math. Phys., 49, 1869, 168-178. ""Ueber Dezimalbriiche, welche aus gewohnUchen Briichen abgeleitet sind, Progr., Leipzig, 1869. 66N0UV. Ann. Math., (2), 9, 1870, 221-9, 271-281, 302-7, 354-360.

168

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

vi

*Th. Schroder^^ and J. Hartmann^^ treated periodic decimals. W. Shanks^^ gave Lambert's method (Bernoulli,^ end) for shortening
the work of finding the length of the period for 1/A^. G. Salmon^^ remarked that the number 71 of digits in the period is known 2'' and 10'' 2' if we find two remainders which are powers of 2, since 10" 10"^"''^= if find three which also we remainders are products of imply 1; powers of 2 and 3. Muir''^ noted that it is here impUed that aq bp equals n, whereas it is merely a multiple of n. J. W. L. Glaisher^" proved that, for any base r,

ir-iy

.012...r-3r-l,

a generalization of 1/81 = .012345679. W. Shanks^^ gave the length of the period for 1/p, when p is a prime < 30000, and a list of 69 errors or misprints in the table by Desmarest,^^ and 11 in that by Burckhardt.^ Shanks^- gave primes p for which the length n of the period for 1/p is a given number ^ 100, naturally incomplete. Shanks^^ gave additional entries p for n = 26, ?7 =99; noted corrections to his former table and stated that he had extended the table to 40000. Shanks^^ mentioned an extension An extension to 120000 in manuin manuscript from 40000 to 60000. script was made by Shanks, 1875-1880. The manuscript, described by Cunningham, ^-^ who gave a list of errata, is in the Archives of the Royal
Society of London. Shanks^ stated that if a is the length of the period for 1/p, where p is a prime >5, that for 1/p'* is ap""'^ [^vithout the restriction by Thibault,^^
Muir^^].
if the last digit (at the right) of A is 1 or 9, the last digit of the period for 1/A is 9 or 1 while, if A is a prime not ending in 1 or 9, its last digit is the same as the last in the period. Moret-Blanc^^ noted that the last property holds for any A not divisible by 2 or 5. For, if a is the integer defined by the period for 1/A, that for

G. de Coninck^ stated that,

{A l)a, whence a+ (A 1)0 = 10" 1, if n is the length of the periods. He noted corrections to the remaining nine laws stated by Coninck and implied that when corrected they become trivial or else known facts.
is

{A l)/A

"Progr. Ansbach, 1872, "Progr. Rinteln, 1872.

"Messenger Math.,

2, 1873, 41-43. "/bid., pp. 49-51, 80. ^^Ibid., p. 188. iProc. Roy. Soc. London, 22, 1873-4, 200-10, 384-8. "/bwi., pp. 381^. Cf. Bertram", Loof."

Corrections by

Workman.*"

*Hbid., 23, 1874-5, 260-1. ^Ibid., 24, 1875-6, 392.

"Messenger Math., 3, 1874, 52-55. "Nouv. Ann. Math., (2), 13, 1874, 569-71;
*Ubid., (2), 14, 1875, 229-231.

errata, 14, 1875, 191-2.

Chap. VI]

PERIODIC DECIMAL FRACTIONS.

169

Karl Broda^^ considered a periodic decimal fraction F having an even r of digits in the period and a number m of p digits preceding the Let x be the first half of the period, y the second half. Then period.

number

10"*

10"*+'"

10"'+^'"

io"'+3^^-

"10"'

'

10'"(102'"-1)

_ 9(jp40'"+a;+p)+q
9-10"'(10^+l)

ifx+2/ = o(10'' l)/9 = a...a(tor terms). The first paper treated the case p = m = 0, and gave the generalization to base a in place of 10:

,^
The
case a = a
l

_ a^^a"-^a'''^-, ,

'

" (a-l)(a'-+l)

a+(a-l)x

_ a'-l -r " ^+2/-^ ^_j,

shows that a purely periodic fraction to the base a equals

the

sum of the half periods has all its digits (to base a) Returning to the base 10, and taking A'= 9(10'"H-1), Z = 9x+a, where each digit of x is ^a, we see that Z/N equals a decimal fraction in which x is the first half of the period of r digits, while the second half is such that the sum of corresponding digits in it and x is a. If R is the remainder after r digits of the period have been obtained, R-\-Z = a (10''+ 1). C. G. Reuschle^^ gave tables which serve to find numbers belonging to a given exponent < 100 with respect to a given prime modulus < 1000. P. Mansion''" gave a detailed proof that, if n is prime to 2, 3, 5, and if the period for 1/n has n 1 digits, the sum of corresponding digits in the
(a:+l)/(a'"+l)
if

equal to

a 1.

half periods

is 9.
if

T. Muir^^ proved that,

is

a prime, either of
iV^P"

N' = 1 (mod f)
follows from the other.
first

=1

(mod

p''+")

If Xi is the least positive integer x for which the p' is the highest power of p dividing N""' !, then Xip" is the least positive integer y for which N^ l (mod p'+"). Hence the known

holds and
If

if

for \/pi has

N=JIpi'^, where Pi,P2,-- are distinct primes, and if the period m^ digits, and if Pi' is the highest power of Pi dividing 10"^ 1, the number of digits in the period for \/N is the 1. c. m. of the niip^^i'^*. He asked if 6 = 1 when p>3, as affirmed by Shanks.^^ Mansion's proof {ibid., 5, 1876, 33) by use of periodic decimals of the generalized Fermat theorem is quoted under that topic. D. M. Sensenig'^ noted that a prime p?^2, 5, divides iV if it divides the sum of the digits of taken in sets of as many figures each as there are digits in the period for l/p.

theorem:

Archiv Math. Phys., 56, 1874, 85-98; 57, 1875, 297-301. "Tafeln complexer Primzahlen, Berlin, 1875. Errata by Cunningham, Mess. Math., 46,
1916, 60-1. '"Nouv. Corresp. Math., 1, 1874-5, 8-12. "Messenger Math., 4, 1875, 1-5. "The Analyst, Des Moines, Iowa, 3, 1876, 25.

170
*A.
J.

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, vi

Brogtrop^' treated periodic decimals. G. Bellavitis^* noted that the use of base 2 renders much more compact and convenient Gauss' ^^ table and hence constructed such a table. W. Shanks'^ found that the period for 1/p, where p = 487, is divisible by p, so that the period for 1/p^ has p l digits. for 1/19 as follows: J. W. L. Glaisher^^ formed the period 05263. List 5; divide it by 2 and list the quotient 2; since the remainder is 1, divide 12 by 2 and list the quotient 6; divide it by 2 and list the quotient, To get the period for 1/199, start with 50. To get the period, apart etc. from the prefixed zero, for 1/49, start with 20 and divide always by 5; for
.

M.

if we regard as the same periods those in which the digits and their cyclic order are the same, even if commencing at different places, a number q prime to 10 will have/ periods each of a digits, where This was used to check Goodwyn's table. ^^ If g = 39, there are af=4){q). four periods each of six digits, li q 1 belongs to the period for 1/q, the two halves of every period are complementary; if not, the periods form For each prime pairs and the periods in each pair are complementary. 1000, except 3 and 487, the period for l/N" has nA^*"^ digits if that for 1/iV has n digits. Glaisher'^^ collected various known results on periodic decimals and gave an account of the tables relating thereto. If q is prime to 10 and if the period for 1/q has (/)(g) digits, the products of the period by the 4>{q) integers <q and prime to q have the same digits in the same cyclic order; for example, if g = 49. He gave (pp. 204-6) for each g<1024 and prime to 10 the number a of digits in the period for 1/q, the number n of periods of irreducible fractions p/q, not regarding as distinct two periods having the same digits in the same cychc order, and, finally Euler's (f>(,q). The values of a and n were obtained by mere counting from the entries in GoodFor the prime p = 487, wyn's^^ "table of circles"; in every case, an = <j){q). he gave the full periods for 1/p and 1/p", each of 486 digits, thus verifying Desmarest's^^ statement of the exceptional character of this p [cf. Shanks'^]. Glaisher^^ again stated the chief rules for the lengths of periods. 6 The problem was proposed^" to find a number whose products by 2,

1/499, start wath 200. Glaisher^^ noted that,

N<

have the same

one
digit,

but in a new order. Birger Hausted^^ solved this problem.

digits,

Start with
let b

any number a

of

multiply

it

by any number p and

3,

be the

digit in the units

"Nieuw Archief voor VViskunde, Amsterdam,

7Atti

Accad. Lincei, of Ch. VII.

Mem.

Sc. Fis. Mat., (3),

1877, 58-9. 1, 1877, 778-800.

Transunti, 206.

See 62a

"Proc. Roy. Soc. London, 25, 1877, 551-3. ^^Messenger Math., 7, 1878, 190-1. Cf. Desmarest." "Report British Assoc, 1878, 471-3. "Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc, 3, 1878, 185-206. "Solutions of the Cambridge Senate-House Problems and Riders for 1878, pp. 8-9. ""Tidsskrift for Math., Kjobenhavn, 2, 1878, 28. "/bid., pp. 180-3. Jornal de Sc. Math, e Ast., 2, 1878, 154-6.

Chap. VI]

PeEIODIC DECIMAL FRACTIONS.

171

place of the product ap, /S the digit in the tens place. Write the digit b to the left of digit a to form the last two digits of the required number P. The number c in the units place in 6p+j8 is written to the left of digit h in P. To cp add the digit in the tens place of bp and place the unit digit of the sum to the left of c in P. The process stops with the kth. digit t if the = t. cba and its products by k integers or next digit would give a. Then

For a = 2, p = 3, fractions has the same k digits in the same cyclic order. = k multipliers period the of and P is the that 2/27, and see 28 A; get we = author's, simpler than the example [To have an 28. l,. m ., m/2, are = = = multipliers are period the the of P then 142857, 1/7; 5; a take 7, p
.

1,

. .

6.]

For proof, we have

.

P = 10''-H-\-

.-\-10h+10b+a,

pP = 10''-'a+10''-H+

.+10c-\-h,

pP = 10^-a+^,
so that

10^ = 10^'

the period with k digits for a/{lOp l). E. LucasS2 gave the prime factors of lO'^^l, 10'^1, lO^^^l, 10^^+1, 10^^+1, communicated to him by W. Loof, with the remark that (10^^ 1)/9 3035479. Lucas gave the factors of 10^^+1. has no prime factor J. W. L. Glaisher^^ proved his^^ earlier statements, repeated his" earher remarks, and noted that, if g is a prime such that the period for 1/q has q 1 1 have the same digits, the products of the period for 1/q by 1, 2, ., g known for q = 7, holds well This property, digits in the same cyclic order. = = 7\ for also for g 17, 19, 23, 29, 47, 59, 61, 97 and q for which the period for 0. Schlomilch^^ stated that, to find every (fc+s)th digits is 9 for and that sum of the sth the 1/N has 2k digits such = (10*^+l)/r; then the first k digits must take an integer iV= A;, we s 1,

is

<

of the period are the k digits of

T 1.

C. A. Laisant^^ extended his investigations with Beaujeux^^'^^ and gave a summary of known properties of periodic fractions; also his^^ process to find the period of simple periodic fractions without making divisions. V. Bouniakowsky^^ noted that the property of the period of 1/N, observed by Schlomilch^^ for iV = 7, 11, 13, 77, 91, 143, holds also for the periods of /c/iV, for A; = iV 1 and (iV 1)/2, with the same values of AT. Consider the decimal fraction Q.yiy2with ym ym-i+ym-2 (mod 9), replacing any The fraction is purely periodic residue zero by 9, and taking yi > 0, 1/2 0-

>

and

is

either 0.9 or 0.33696639 or has the

digits

or else has a period of 24 digits

same 24

same digits permuted cyclically, and begins with 1, 1 or 2, 2 or 4, 4, or has the permuted cyclically or by the interchange of the two halves

s^Nouv. Corresp. Math., 5, 1879, 138-9. 8'Nature, 19, 1879, 208-9. s^Zeitschrift Math. Phys., 25, 1880, 416. 8*M6m. Soc. Sc. Phys. et Nat. de Bordeaux, (2), 3, 1880, 213-34. 86Le8 Mondes, 19, 1869, 331. "BuU. Acad. Sc. St. P^tersboiirg, 27, 1881, 362-9.

172
of the period.

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

vi

The property

of Schlomilch holds for these

and the

generali-

zation to any base, as well as for those with the law

xjm = '^ym-\-\-ym-2'

But
9),

if

ym = ^ym-i-2y^.2 (mod
the fact that 2^

9),

?/.

= (2"'-'-l)(!/2-2/i)+2/i
197346, 329568,

(mod

Those with

six

1 (mod 9) shows that the period has at most reduce by cychc permutation to nine periods

six digits.

167943, 265389,

235986, 218457,

278154, 764913,

751248.

In the A-th of these the sum of corresponding digits in the two half periods is always =A- (mod 9). Karl Broda^^ examined for small values of r and certain primes p the solutions a: of x''= 1 (mod p) to obtain a base x for which the periodic fraction for 1/p has a period of r digits, and similariy the condition x^=\ (mod p) for an even number of digits in the period (Broda^^).
F. Kessler^^ factored

10"-1 forn =

ll, 20, 22, 30.

Johnson^ formed the period for 1/19 by placing 1 at the extreme right, next its double, etc., marking wdth a star a digit when there is 1 to carry:

* * *
*

W. W.

05263157894736842
To deduce
starred

1.

;^

and

the value of 1/19 written to the base for the others, reversing the order:
.6

2,

use

1 for

each digit

0001101011110010
we

i.

If

we apply

the

first

process with the multipUer m,

get the period for the

reciprocal of

10?7i

1.
.

E. Lucas^^ gave the prime factors of 10" 1 for n odd, n^l7, 7i = 21, 1 for n^ 18 and n = 21. certain factors forn = 19, 41 those of 10" He stated that the majority of the results were given by Loof and pubUshed by Reuschle. In 1886, Le Lasseur gave

and

10^7-1 =3--2071723-5363222[3]57,
said

by Loof

to

of the digit 3,

have no divisor < 400,000 other than ^-^ see Cunningham.

3,9.

On

the omission

F. Kessler^- listed nine errors in Burckhardt's-" table and described his own manuscript of a table to p = 12553, i. e., for the first 1500 primes.

Broeck^^ stated that 10^" -1 is divisible by 3"+^ A. Lugli^^ proved that, if p is a prime 5^2, 5, the length of the period If the number of digits in the period of a/p is of 1/p is a divisor of p 1. an even number 2t, the ^th remainder on dividing a by p is p 1, and conversely. Hence, if r^ is the hth remainder, rh+rh+i = p {h = l,. ., t), and the sum of all the r's is tp. If the period of 1/p has s digits, s<p 1, then

Van den

".\rchiv Math. Phys., 68, 1882, 85-99. Zeitschrift Math. Naturw. Unterricht, 15, 1884, 29. "Messenger of Math., 14, 1884-5, 14-18. "Jour, de math. 6Um., (2), 10, 1886, 160. Cf rinterm^diaire des math., 10, 1903, 183. Quoted by Brocard, Mathesis, 6, 1886, 153; 7, 1887, 73 (correction, 1889, 110). "Archiv Math. Phys., (2), 3, 1886, 99-102. "Mathesis, 6, 1886, 70. Proofs, 23.5-6, and Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 54, 1891, 117. "Periodico di Mat., 2, 1887, 161-174.
.

Chap. VI]

PERIODIC DECIMAL FRACTIONS.

173

p l=sh and we have h

sets of s fractions whose periods differ only by the cycHc permutation of the digits. If p is a product of distinct primes pi, P2 and if the lengths of the periods of 1/p, 1/pi, l/p2, are s, Si, S2, then If p = Pi"P2^- > and s, Si, s' are the lengths of s is the 1. c. m. of Si, S2,.... the periods of 1/p, 1/pi, l/pi", then s' is one of the numbers Si, Sip,. ., Thus p SiPi~^ and hence divides (pi l)pi"~^; and s is a divisor of <f){p).

divides lO^^^^-l.

C. A. Laisant^^ used a lattice of points, whose abscissas are a+r,a-\-2r,..., a-\-pf and ordinates are their residues <p modulo p, to represent graphically

and to expand fractions into a difference of two ascending powers of fixed fractions. *A. Rieke^ noted that a periodic decimal with a period of 2m digits equals l)/(10"*+l), where A is the first half of the period. He discussed the (i4. period length for any base. W. E. HeaP^ noted that, if B contains all the prime factors of N, the number of digits in the fraction to the base B for is the greatest integer in (n+n' l)/n', where nn' is the greatest difference found by subtracting from the exponent of the same prime the exponent of each prime factor of If B contains no prime factor of N, the fraction for factor of B. is purely periodic, with a period of ^(A'') digits. If B contains some, but not all, of the prime factors of N, the number of digits preceding the period is the same as in the first theorem. The proofs are obscure. There is given the period for 1/p when p<100 and has 10 as a primitive root [the same Likewise for base 12, with p<50. p's as by Glaisher^^]. R. W. Genese^^ noted that, if we multiply the period for 1/81 [Glaisher^"] by m, where m<81 and prime to it, we get a period containing the digits 0, 1, ., 9 except 9nm, where 9n is the multiple of 9 just exceeding m. Jos. Mayer^^ investigated the moduli with respect to which 10 belongs to a given exponent, and gave the factors of 10" 1, n< 12. He discussed the determination of the exponent to which 10 belongs for a given modulus by use of the theory of indices and by the methods of quadratic, cubic, biquadratic,... residues. He used also the fact that there are (a a') 08-/3') divisors of Pi''p2^Vz which divide no one of the fixed factors
periodic decimal fractions
series of

M/N

M/N

pi, P2,-- are distinct gave the length of the period for 1/p, for each prime p^2543 and 22 higher primes [Burckhardt^^]. L. Contejean^ proved that, in the conversion of an irreducible fraction a/h into a decimal fraction, if the remainders o^ and a^ are congruent modulo b, so that lO'a^lO^'a, then 10"'~''-1 is divisible by the quotient

ViVVi

Pi>2W>

where a<a,b<^,..., and

primes.

He

h'

of b

by the highest

factor 2*5' of

b.

Thus the length

of the period is

"Assoc, fran?. avanc. sc, 16, 1887, II, 228-235. 'Versuch iiber die periodischen Bniche, Progr., Riga, 1887. ^Annals of Math., 3, 1887, 97-103. ^Report Britiah Assoc, 1888, 580-1. "Ueber die Grosse der Periode eines unendlichen Dezimalbruches, oder die Congruence lO^Sl (mod P). Progr. K. Studienanstalt Burghausen, Munchen, 1888, 52 pp. ""Bull. Boc. philomathique de Paris, (8), 4, 1891-2, 64-70.

174

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

vi

mr,

while r digits precede the period. The condition that the length of period be the maximum 0(6') is that 10 be a primitive root of h', whence the 5' = p", since 6'?^ 4 or 2^", p being an odd prime. P. Bachmann^^ used a primitive root g of the prime p and set

to the base
J.

g.

We get

the multiples Q, 2Q,

(p

1)Q by
is

cyclic

permuta-

tion of the digits of Q.

For p = 7, ^ =

Kraus^"^ generaUzed the last periodic fraction to base g, prime to n, r^ the remainders. Then and ri,
. .

10, Q = 142857. When ri/n result.

let ai,
.

converted into a be the quotients Ck

<7*-l

n
whence

rx

= ax^^"^+ax+i/"^+

-fx-i

(X

= l,.

k),

^x(aiS'*"^+

+(ik)
it

In particular,

let

n be such that

4-ax-i). =n(x9'*"^+ has a primitive root g, and take

ri

= 1.

Then
ft

and

if rx is

prime to

n, the

product
a^.

ry,Q

has the same digits as

Q permuted

cyclically

and beginning with

H. Brocard^"^ gave a tentative method of factoring 10" 1. Mayer^^ gave conditions under which the period of z/P to base a, where z and a are relatively prime to P, shall be complete, i. e., corresponding digits of the two halves of the period have the sum a 1. Heinrich Bork^^ gave an exposition, without use of the theory of numThere is here first published bers, of kno^n results on decimal fractions. showing for each prime Friedrich Kessler, 36-41) computed a table, by (pp. p< 100000 the value of q={p l)/e, where e is the length of the period for 1/p. The cases in which ^ = 1 or 2 were omitted for brevity. He
J.

stated that there are many errors in the table to 15000 by Reuschle.'*" Cunningham^^^ listed errata in Kessler's table. L. E. Dickson^"^ proved, without the use of the concept of periodic digits written to the base N, which is fractions, that every integer of digits in distinct integers have the same such that its products by are the same cyclic order, is of the form A{N^ 1)/P, where A and

relatively prime.
"iZeitschrift

A number of

this

form

is

an integer only when

P P is prime

Math. Phys., 36, 1891, 381-3; Die Elemente der Zahlentheorie, 1892, 95-97. Alike discussion occurs in l'interm(5diaire des math., 5, 1898, 57-8; 10, 1903, 91-3. Math. Phys.,
37, 1892, 190-1.
2,

"'Zeitschrift

"'El Progreso Matematico, 1892, 25-27, 89-93, 114-9. Cf. rinterm^diaire des math., 323-4. '"Zeitschrift Math. Phys., 39, 1894, 376-382. losperiodische Dezimalbriiche, Progr. 67, Prinz Heinrichs-Gymn., Berlin, 1895, 41 pp. looQuart. Jour. Math., 27, 1895, 366-77.

1895,

Chap. VI]

PERIODIC DECIMAL FRACTIONS.

175

a multiple of the exponent d to which belongs modulo P. = is limited to the repetitions case d, to exclude The Then the multipUers which cause a cyclic permutaof the period of digits. For A^^ modulo P. tion of the digits are the least residues of N, N^, A = 1, we have a solution for any and any P prime to N. There are listed the 19 possible solutions with A>1, N^QS, and having the first digit >0. The only one with A^= 10 is 142857. General properties are noted. A like form is obtained (pp. 375-7) for an integer of digits written to distinct integers have the same the base A^, such that its quotients by The divisors are the least residues of digits in the same cyclic order. = n, P = 7, A=4:, we get modulo P. For example, if N^, N^-\. ., 4(11^ 1)/7, or 631 to base 11, whose quotients by 2 and 4 are 316 and 163, Another example is 512 to base 9. to base 11. E. Lucas^ gave all the prime factors of 10" 1 forn^ 18. F. W. Lawrence^"^ proved that the large factors of 10^^ 1 and 10^^ 1 are primes. C. E. Bickmore^'^^ gave the factors of 10" -1, n^ 100. Here (1023-l)/9 is marked prime on the authority of Loof whereas the latter regarded its composition as unknown [Cunningham^^^]. There is a misprint for 43037 in 10^^-1.
to

N, and

D is

further discussion

B. Bettini^"^ considered the number n of digits in the period of the decifor a/b, i. e., the exponent to which 10 belongs modulo h. If 10 is a quadratic non-residue of a prime b, n is even, but not conversely There is a table of values of n for each prime 6^277. (p. 48). V. Murer^^" considered the n = mq remainders obtained when a/b is converted into a decimal fraction with a period of length n, separated them into sets of m, starting with a given remainder, and proved that the sum of the sets is a multiple of 9 ... 9 (to digits) Further theorems are found when q = l, 2 or 3. J. Sachs ^^^^ tabulated all proper fractions with denominators <250 and their decimal equivalents. B. Reynolds^ ^^ repeated the rules given by Glaisher'^^' '^^ for the length of periods. He extended the rules by Sardi^^ and gave the number of times a given digit occurs in the various periods belonging to a denominator N, both for base 10 and other bases. Reynolds^^^ gave numerical results on periodic fractions for various bases the lengths of whose period is 3 or 6, and on the length of the period for 1/A^ for every base <N1, when A^ is a prime. A. Cunningham^ ^^ applied to the question of the length of the period of a periodic fraction to any base the theory of binomial congruences [see

mal fraction

i"Proc. London Math. Soc, 28, 1896-7, 465. "'Nouv. Ann. Math., (3), 15, 1896, 222-7. "Teriodico di Mat., 12, 1897, 43-50. uoaprogr. 632, Baden-Baden, Leipzig, 1898. ""Messenger Math., 27, 1897-8, 177-87.
"/feid., 28,

Ci.

Bickmore"

of Ch.

XVI.

"o/bid., 142-150.

"'/bid., 29,

1898-9, 33-36, 88-91. 1899-1900, 145-179. Errata.i"

176

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap.vi

201 of Ch. VII]. He gave extensive tables, and references to papers on higher residues and to tables relating to period lengths. O. Fujimaki^^* noted that if 10'" 1 is exactly divisible by n, and the quotient is Qi. .a^ of jn digits, the numbers obtained from the latter by a^. cycHc permutations of the digits are all multiples of Ci J. Cullen, D. Biddle, and A. Cunningham^ ^^ proved that the large factor of 14 digits of (10-^+l)/(10Hl) is a prime. L. Kronecker^^^ treated periodic fractions to any base. W. P. Workman^^^ corrected three errors in Shanks'^^ table. D. Biddle^^^ concluded erroneously that (10^^ 1)/9 is a prime. H. Hertzer"' extended Kessler's^"'^ table from 100000 to 112400, noted Reuschle's'*'^ error on the conditions that 10 be a biquadratic residue of a prime p and gave the conditions that 10 be a residue of an 8th power modulo p. For errata in the table, see Cunningham. ^^ P. Bachmann^' proved the chief results on periodic fractions and cyclic numbers to any base g. A. Tagiuri^^^ proved theorems [F. Meyer ,^ Perkins^^] on purely periodic fractions to any base and on mixed fractions. E. B. Escott^^^ noted a misprint in Bickmore's^^^ table and two omissions in Lucas'^^ table, but described inaccurately the latter table, as noted by
.

Cunningham. ^^^ A. Cunningham^^^ described various tables (cited above) which give the exponent to which 10 belongs, and listed many errata. J. R. Akerlund^^ gave the prime factors of 11 ... 1 (to n digits) for n^ 16, n = 18. K. P. Nordlund^^^ applied to periodic fractions the theorem that, if Ur""^ Til, ., rir are distinct odd primes, no one dividing a, then N = ni"''. He gave the period of \/p for p a di\'ides a^ l, where A: = 0(iV)/2'""\ prime < 100 and of certain a/p. T. H. Miller, ^-^ generalizing the fact that the successive pairs of digits in the period for 1/7 are 14, 28, ... investigated numbers n to the base r for which 4n 8n 1 _2n ~ 2"~1 4 6 ~r r" n r r
A.
.

"Jour. of the Physics School in Tokio, 7, 1897, 16-21;

Abh. Gesch. Math. Wiss.,

28, 1910, 22.

i"Math. Quest. Educat. Times, 72, 1900, 99-101. "'Vorlesungen iiber Zahlentheorie, I, 1901, 428-437. "'Messenger Math., 31, 1901-2, 115.
"7&id., p. 34; corrected, ibid., 33, 1903^, 126 (p. 95). "Archiv Math. Phys., (3), 2, 1902, 249-252. ""Niedere Zahlentheorie, I, 1902, 351-363. "iPeriodico di Mat., 18, 1903, 43-58. Xouv. Ann. Math., (4), 3, 1903, 136; Messenger Math., 33, 1903-4, 49. '"Messenger Math., 33, 1903-4, 95-96.
^^Ibid., 14.5-155.

'"Nj-t Tidsskrift for Mat., Kjobenhavn, 16 A, 1905, 97-103.

'"Goteborgs Kungl. Vetenskaps-Handlingar, (4), VII-VIII, 1905. "'Proc. Edinburgh Math. Soc, 26, 1907-8, 95-6.

Chap. VI]

PERIODIC DECIMAL FRACTIONS.

r^

177

whence
etc.

2n^ = 2.

Besides the case r = 10, n = 7, he found r = 58, n = 41

A. Cunningham^^* noted two errors in his paper"^ and added

252^2

= ^j^o^ 9972>)^

390112^

=1

(mod

17)

and cases modulo p^, where p = 103, 487, attributed to Th. Gosset. A. Cunningham^^^ gave tables of the periods of \/N to the bases
for

2, 3,

N^ 100.

H. Hertzer^^" noted three errors in Bickmore's^* table. A. Gerardin^^^ gave factors of 10" 1, n<100, and a table of the exponents to which 10 belongs modulo p, a prime < 10000, with a list of errors in the tables by Burckhardt and Desmarest. A. Filippov^^^ gave two methods of determining the generating factor for the periodic fraction for 1/6 (cf. Lucas, Th^orie des nombres, p. 178). G. C. Cicioni^^^ treated the subject. E. R. Bennett^^^ proved the standard theorems by means of group
theory.

W. H. Jackson^^^ noted that, if a is prime to 10 and h< 10, a& = 10m 1, the period for \/a may be written
6]l

if

h is

chosen so that

as

+ 10m+(10m)2+.

.+(10m)'-it

-A;-10',

where

s is

integer.

Thus

the exponent to which 10 belongs modulo a, and /c is a positive = 4, s = 6, and the period is for a = 39, 6 = 1, we have

1+40+.

+ (40)^-A:-10^

^=

.025641.

G. Mignosi^^^ discussed the logic underlying the identification of an unending decimal with its generator y/q. A. Cunningham^^^ treated periodic decimals with multiples having the same digits permuted cyclically.
F. Schuh^^^ considered the length g^ of the period for 1/p" for the base g, is a prime. He proved that qa is of the form qip% where 0^ c^ a 2 when p = 2, a>2, while O^c^a 1 in all other cases. For a>2,

where p

?a-l

= giP""\

qa-c+1

= qiVj

Qa-c

= ?2 = ?,

where q = qi txcept when p = 2, gr = 4m 1, and then g = 2. Equality of periods for moduli p" and p'' can occur for an odd prime p only when this
period is gi, and for p = 2 only when it is 1 or 2. It is shown how to find the numbers g which give equal periods for p" and p, and the odd numbers g which give the period 2 for 2".
"8Math. Gazette, 4, 1907-8, 209-210. Sphinx-Oedipe, 8, 1913, 131. "9Math. Gazette, 4, 1907-8, 259-267; 6, 1911-12, 63-7, 108-116. "OArchiv Math. Phys., (3), 13, 1908, 107. "^Sphinx-Oedipe, Nancy, 1908-9, 101-112. "'Spaczinskis Bote, 1908, pp. 252-263, 321-2 (Russian). "'La divisibiht^ dei numeri e la teoria delle decimaU periodiche, Perugia, 1908, 150 pp. "Amer. Math. Monthly, 16, 1909, 79-82.
"'Annals of Math.,
"'II Boll.
(2), 11,

1909-10, 166-8.
9,

Matematica Gior. Sc.-Didat.,

1910, 128-138.

"^Math. Quest. Educat. Times, (2), 18, 1910, 25-26. "'Nieuw Archief Wiskunde, (2), 9, 1911, 408-439. Cf. Schuh,"'"*, Ch. VII.

178

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, vi

T. Ghezzi^^^ considered a proper irreducible fraction m/p with p prime Let h belong to the exponent n modulo p. In to the base b of numeration.
7nb
fi,.
.

= pqi-\-ri,
.

., r are distinct 6""^, 6""^,. and add;

.

= pq2+r2,. 0<ri<p, 0<r2<p,. ., i and r = w. Multiply the respective equations by

rih
.

.,

we

see that

hr-i

shows that m/p equals a fraction ^xith. the denominator = aia2a3, p^piCL^a^a^^ the a's being primes and pi relawhile 6' is the least power of b having the di\isor ai^a^a^, to b, prime tively to which b belongs modulo pi. exponent the n is and proof showing that the length of the period for long gave a Stasi^* F. 1/a. If the period A for 1/p has m digits and that for not exceed b/a does = of the period for \/n is m if A is divisible the length prime to 10, n p5 is if the least A(10'"^*"^^+ prune to and +1) divisible if A is mi by q; is q q' = prime, = relatively A', with aq', A=A'a, is mj if and m i; q by q has (10"'^*'-^^+ q' prime k=j. For a has divisible by ... +1) while the least A'

similar proof

b'{b'*

l) when

p5^2,

5, let

1
p''

Ah
10"*

-1'

and let A^ be the first of the periods of successive powers of 1/p not divisible by p; then the period for l/p''+^' has wp^' digits. If p, is a prime 9^2, 5, and Ti is the length of the period for l/p and if l/pj^< is the highest power
of 1/pi with a period of Ti digits, the length of the period for l/p,"* T-' = r{pi''i~^i and that for l/II Pi"< is a multiple of the 1. c. m. of the r/.
If
is

r; = 1 are the successive remainders on prime to 10 and if ri, reducing \/n to a decimal, then r^=r2i (mod n). Hence if 1/n has a period But if it has a period of of 2i digits, r^ = \ (mod n) and conversely.

is

2i+l

digits, r-+i

= 10

and conversely.

*K. W. Lichtenecker^^^ gave the length of the period for 1/p, when p is a prime ^307, and the factors of 10^ 1, r?^ 10. L. Pasternak^^^ noted that, after multiplying the terms of a fraction by 1. To convert Rq/N 9, 3 or 7, we may assume the denominator iV' = 10m Set 7?^. = lOz^+e^t, .). into a decimal, we have 10Rk-i = Nyk+Rk (^ = 1, 2, ek^ 9. Since Vk'^ 9, e^ = Vk and Rk-i = mCk+Zk. Hence the successive digits
.

of the period are the unit digits of the successive remainders.

E. Maillet^^^ defined a unique development Oo+ai/n+ 02/11^+ ... of an arbitrary number, where the Oi are integers satisfjdng certain conditions. He studied the conditions that the development be limited or periodic.
"I1 Boll.

Matematica Gior. Sc.-Didat.,

9,

1910, 263-9.

""/bid., 11, 1912, 226-246.

i"Zeit3chr. fur das Realschulwesen, 37, 1912, 338-349.

i^L'enseignement math., 14, 1912, 285-9. "L'interm6diaire des math., 20, 1913, 202-6.

Chap. VI]

PERIODIC DECIMAL FRACTIONS.

179

Welsch^** discussed briefly the length of the period of a decimal fraction. B. Howarth^^^ noted that D^ is not a factor of (10^"-1)/(10'*-1) if is a prime and n is not a multiple of the length of the period for 1/D. Again/^^ (^IQmnp^_i)/9 is not divisible by (lO'"^-!) (10"^-1)/81. A. Cunningham^^^ factored 10^^ 1. Known factors of lO"^ 1 are given.

Cunningham^^^ gave factors of 10"*^'* !. A. Leman^^^ gave an elementary exposition and inserted proofs of Fermat's theorem and related facts, with the aim to afford a concrete introduction to the more elementary facts of the theory of numbers. S. Weixer^^'' would compute the period P for 1/p by multiplication, beginning at the right. Let c be the final digit of P, whence pc = 10z l. Then c is the first digit of the period P^ for z/p. The units digit Ci of cz = 10zi-\-Ci is the tens digit of P and the units digit of P^. In CiZ-\-Zi = 1022+^2, C2 is the hundreds digit of P and the tens digit of P\ etc. A. Leman^^^ discussed the preceding paper. Problems^^^ on decimal fractions may be cited here. O. Hoppe^^^ proved that (10^^ 1)/9 is a prime. M. Jenkins^^^ noted that if iV= a^6^. where a,h,. .are distinct primes 9^2, 5, the period for 1/N is complementary (sum of corresponding digits of
. .

the half periods is 9) if and only contain the same power of 2.

if

the lengths of the periods for 1/a, 1/b,.

Kraitchik^^^ of Ch. VII and Levanen^^ of Ch. XII gave tables of exponents to which 10 belongs. Bickmore and Cullen^^^ of Ch. XIV factored 10^^+1.

Further Papers Involving No Theory of Numbers.

J. L.

Lagrange, Legons 61em. k I'^cole normale en 1795, Oeuvres

.

7,

200.

James Adams, Annals Phil., Mag. Chem. (Thompson), (2), 2, 1821, 16-18. C. R. Telosius and S. Morck, Disquisitio. Acad. Carolina, Lundae, 1838 (in Meditationum Math. PubHce Defendant C. J. D. Hill, 1831,
. .

Pt. II).

A. Arndt, Archiv Math. Phys., 1, 1841, 101-4. Dienger, ibid., 11, 1848, 232; Jour, fur Math., 39, 1850, 67. Wm. Wiley, Math. Magazine, 1, 1882, 7-8. A. V. Filippov, Kagans Bote, 1910, 214-221 (pedagogic).
J.
J.

i*^L'intermediaire des math., 21, 1914, 10.

"sMath. Quest. Educat. Times, 28, 1915, 101-4.

"76id., 27, 1915, 33-4.

^"Ibid., 29, 1916, 76, 88-9.

"'Vom

i"Math. Quest, and Solutions, 3, 1917, 59. Periodischen Dezimalbruch zur Zahlentheorie, Leipzig, 1916, 59 pp. ""Zeitschrift Math. Naturw. Unterricht, 47, 1916, 228-230.

i"/6id., 230-1.

i"Zeitschrift

i^Proc.

Math. Naturw. Unterricht, 12, 1881, 431; London Math. Soc, Records of Meeting, Dec.

20, 188; 23, 584.

6,

1917,

and Feb.

14, 1918, for

a revised

proof.

i"Math. Quest. Educ. Times,

Minor results, 32, 1880, 69; 34, 1881, 97-8: 37, 7, 1867, 31-2. 1882, 44; 41, 1884, 113-4; 58, 1893, 108-9; 60, 1894, 128; 63, 1895, 34; 72, 1900, 75-6; 74, 1901, 35; (2), 2, 1902, 65-6, 84-5; 4, 1903, 29, 65-7, 95; 7, 1905, 97, 106, 109-10; 8, 1905, 57; 9, 1906, 73. Math. Quest, and Solutions, 3, 1917, 72 (table); 4, 1917, 22.

I
4

CHAPTER
J.

VII.

PRIMITIVE ROOTS. BINOMIAL CONGRUENCES.

Primitive Roots, Exponents, Indices.

H. Lambert^ stated without proof that there

p, so that g^

exists

g of for

any given prime

is

divisible

0<e<p 1.

by p

for e

a primitive root = p 1, but not

L. Euler^ gave a proof which is defective. He introduced the term primitive root and proved (art. 28) that at most n integers a;<p make x" 1 divisible by p, the proof applying equally well to any polynomial
of degree

x"

has

ticular, x^~^ l has p 1 solutions (referring to arts. 22, 23, where he repeated his earlier proof of Fermat's theorem). Very likely Euler had in mind the algebraic identity a;^"^ l = (x" 1)Q, from which he was in a position to conclude that Q has at most n p+1 solutions, and hence x" exactly n. By an incomplete induction (arts. 32-34), he inferred that there are exactly </)(n) integers x<p for which x" 1 is divisible by p, but x^ \ not divisible by p for 0<Z<n, n being a divisor of p 1 (as the context indicates). In particular, there exist <f>{p l) primitive roots of p (art. 46). He listed all the primitive roots of each prime ^ 37. J. L. Lagrange^ proved that, if p is an odd prime and

n with integral coefficients. He stated (art. 29) that, for n<p, all n solutions "real" if and only if n is a divisor of p 1; in par-

a:P-i-l=Z^+pF,
where X,
there are
tiple of p,
^,

F are polynomials in x with integral coefficients, and if x"" and

a;

x"

are the highest powers of

in

integral values,

X and ^ with coefficients not divisible by p, numerically <p/2, of x which make X a mul.

the left

member

most

For, by Fermat's theorem, ^ a multiple of p. =*= a multiple of p for a; = 1, 2, (p 1)/2, while at of these values make a multiple of p and at most fx make ^ a
is
.

and fi values making

multiple of p. L. Euler^ stated that he knew no rule for finding a primitive root and gave a table of all the primitive roots of each prime ^41. Euler^ investigated the least exponent x (when it exists) for which

fa'+g

of a. Then j'gx-a-ff_^

Find X such that g^\N is a multiple, say aV, by N. Set r=FX'iV = a^s, ^^1. Then is divisible by N; etc. If the problem is possible, we finally get / as the residue of /a"^""" "^, whence x = a+. +f For example, to find the least x for which 2"" 1 is divisible by iV = 23, we have
is

divisible

by N.

fa'-^-r

is

divisible

1+23 = 2^3,
whence
''Novi
a^

3-23=

-2^5,

-5-23= -2^7,

-7-^23 = 2^,

= 3+2+2+4 = ll.
Leipzig, 1769, p. 127.

^Nova Acta Eruditomm,

Comm. ^Nouv. M6m.

Acad. Petrop., 18, 1773, 85; Comm. Arith., 1, 516-537. Ac. Roy. Berlin, ann^e 1775 (1777), p. 339; Oeuvres 3, 777. <0pu8c. Anal., 1, 1783 (1772),. 121; Comm. Arith., 1, 506. ^Opusc. Anal., 1, 1783 (1773), 242; Comm. .\i-ith., 2, p. 1; Opera postuma,

I,

172-4.

181

182
A.

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, vii

M.
is

and n
(1)

Legendre^ started with Lagrange's' result that, a divisor of p 1,

a:"

if

is

a prime

= l(modp)
. . . .

are dishas n incongruent integral roots. Let n = v^v'^ ., where v, v',. A root a of (1) belongs* to the exponent n if no one of tinct primes. For, if a* = l, 0<d<n, let is congruent to unity modulo p. a"/', a"^', a be the g. c. d. of 6, n, so that a = nydz for integers y, z; then
.

contrary to hypothesis. Next, of the n roots of (mod p), and n{l l/v) do not. Likewise, n{l 2.n/'' 1 i^ jg gaj(j ^Q follow that there are qIq

(1),

l/v')

n/v satisfy x''^'' l do not satisfy

*()= (i-i)(i-i)
numbers belonging
to the exponent

n modulo

p.

If

^^^1,
/3

^-^-^Kmodp),

belongs to the exponent v"". If j8' belongs to the exponent v'^, etc., the product /3]S' ... is stated to belong to the exponent n. C. F. Gauss^ gave two proofs of the existence of primitive roots of a prime p. If d is a divisor of p 1, and a'' is the lowest power of a congruent to unity modulo p, a is said to belong to the exponent d modulo p. Let ypid) of the integers 1, 2, p 1 belong to the exponent d, a given divisor Gauss showed that i/' (c?) = or (d) 2 1/' (c^) = p 1 = 2 <^ (d) whence of p 1 i^(d) (t>{d). In his second proof, Gauss set p 1 =a"6'^. ., where a, 5, are distinct primes, proved the existence of numbers A, B,. belonging to the respective exponents a", h^,. ., and showed that belongs to the exponent p 1 and hence is a primitive root of p. Let a be a primitive root of p, h any integer not divisible by p, and e the integer, uniquely determined modulo p 1, for w^hich o* 6 (mod p). Gauss (arts. 57-59) called e the index of h for the modulus p relative to the base a, and wrote e = ind h. Thus
.
.
.

AB

a'^^^'^b

(mod

p),

ind 66'=ind

6+ind

h'

(mod p-1).

Gauss

(arts. 69-72) discussed the relations between indices for different bases and the choice of the most convenient base. In articles 73-74, he gave a convenient tentative method for finding a primitive root of p. Form the period of 2 (the distinct least positive residues of the successive powers of 2); if 2 belongs to an exponent ^<p 1, select a number 6<p not in the period of 2, and form the period of 6; etc. If a belongs to the exponent t modulo p, the product of the terms in the 1)'+^ (mod p), while the sum of the terms is =0 unless period of a is (

a=l

(arts. 75, 79).

1798, 413-4;
ed. 3, 1830,

M6m. Ac. R. Sc, Paris, 1785, 471-3. Thdorie des nombres, Nos. 341-2; German transl. by Maser, 2, pp. 17-18. *This term was introduced later by Gauss.''
^Disquisitiones Arith., 1801, arts. 52-55.

Chap. VII]

PRIMITIVE RoOTS, EXPONENTS, INDICES.

183
is

the

The product of all the primitive roots of a prime sum of the primitive roots of p is =0 if p 1 is
is

p^3

=1 (mod
by a

divisible

p) square,

but

=( 1)"
p
is

If

if p 1 is the product of n distinct primes (arts. 80, 81). an odd prime and e is the g. c. d. of ^(p")=p''~^(p 1) and

t,

then
(arts.

x'

=l

(mod

p")

has exactly
i.

exist primitive roots of p",

e.,

incongruent roots. It follows that there numbers belonging to the exponent 0(p")

85-89).

For n>2, every odd number belongs modulo 2" to an exponent which
divides 2""^, so that primitive roots of 2" are lacking; however, a modified method of employing indices to the base 5 may be used (arts. 90, 91).
If

w = A"5^..,
. .

^=4>{B^),

.,

and

if ii is

prime to m. Now p is an odd prime. Thus there

.
.

where A, B,... are distinct primes, and a=0(A"), ^'' = 1 (mod m) for z the 1. c. m. of a, jS, ., then =4>{m) except when m = 2", p" or 2p", where fiKa-^.
.

exist primitive roots of

m only when m = 2,

4,

p"or2p"

(art. 92).

Table I, at the end of Disq. Arith., gives on one page the indices of each prime <p for each prime and power of prime modulus < 100. Gauss gave no direct table to determine the number corresponding to a given index, but indicated (end of art. 316) how his Table III for the conversion of ordinary into decimal fractions leads to the number having a given index (cf.
Gauss,i^'i^Ch. VI). S. F. Lacroix^ reproduced Gauss' second proof of the existence of primitive roots of a prune, without a reference. L. Poinsot^ argued that the primitive roots of a prime p may be obtained from the algebraic expressions for the imaginary (p l)th roots of unity by increasing the numbers under the radical signs by such multiples of p that the radicals become integral. The (/)(p 1) primitive roots of p may be obtained by excluding from 1, p 1 the residues of the powers whose exponents are the distinct prime factors of p 1; while symmetrical, this
.

method
unity

is

unpractical for large p.

Fregier^ proved that the 2"th

power of any odd number has the remainder

when divided by

2""*"^,

if

n>0.

point of his preceding paper. The equaThe roots are tion for the primitive 18th roots of unity is x^x^-\-l=0.
Poinsot^^ developed the
first

= a^^Kl + ^^'=^

(a'

= l).
Thus the
six primitive

But

\/^= 4,
x=

-^=4:, ^-11 = 2 (mod

4,
2,

19).

roots of 19 are
sions for the
a;"

9, 5, 6,

3.

In general, the algebraic expres-

nth roots

of unity represent the different integral roots of

=l

to

(mod p), where p is a prime kn-\-\, after suitable integers are added the numbers under the radical signs. Since unity is the only (integral)

sCompldment des ^l^mens d'alg^bre, Paris, ed. 3, 1804, 303-7; ed. 4, 1817, 317-321. M6m. Sc. Math, et Phys. de I'Institut de France, 14, 1813-5, 381-392. "Annales de Math, (ed., Gergonne), 9, 1818-9, 285-8.

"M6m.

Ac. Sc. de I'Institut de France,

4,

1819-20, 99-183.

184

History of the Theory op Numbers.

[Chap, vii

root of x^=l (mod p), if p is a prime >2, he concluded (p. 165) that p is a factor of the numbers under the radical signs in the formula for a primitive pth root of unity. Cf. Smith^^^ of Ch. VIII. Poinsot^^" again treated the same subject. J. Ivory^^ stated that a primitive root of a prime p satisfies x^^~^^^^^ 1,

but no one of the congruences x'=l (mod p), <=(p l)/(2a), where a ranges over the odd prime factors of p 1 while a number not a primitive 1 Hence if each a' 1 and root satisfies at least one of the a;' ^(p-i)/2^ 1, then a is a primitive root. V. A. Lebesgue^^ stated that prior to 1829 he had given in the Bulletin du Nord, Moscow, the congruence of Cauchy^^ for the integers belonging to the exponent n modulo p. A. Cauchy^^ proved the existence of primitive roots of a prime p, essentially as in Gauss' second proof. If p 1 is divisible by n = a"6V where a, b, c,. are distinct primes, he proved that the integers belonging to the exponent n modulo p coincide with the roots of
;

X=

Y
The

(a^"-l)(a:"^^-l)(a;"/--l)...

_^

^=(x"/"-l)(a:''/^-l)...(a:"/-^-l)...=^

^^^^

P^'

= are the primitive nth roots of unity. For roots of the equation the above divisor n of p 1, the sum of the Zth powers of the primitive roots of a;" 1 (mod p) is divisible by p if Z is divisible by no one of the

numbers
n, n/a, n/h,
.

n/ab,

n/ahc, ....
if

But
<t>{n),

if

several of these are divisors of

1

I,

and

we

replace n, a,

b,.

by

1a,

6,

in the largest of these divisors in fractional form,

we

get a fraction congruent to the

sum

of the

Ith.

powers.
lib.
I

(mod
roots
of

p) has
is

distinct integral roots, the

sum

of the

congruent modulo p to

m or 0,

according as

is

In case x'" = l powers of all the or is not a multiple

m.
,

M. A. Stern^^ proved that the product of all the numbers belonging to an exponent d is = 1 (mod p) while their sum is divisible by p if d is divisible by a square, but is = ( 1)" if d is a product of n distinct primes (generalizations of Gauss, D. A., arts. 80, 81). If p = 2n+l and a belongs to the exponent n, the product of two numbers, which do not occur in the period of a, occurs in the period of a. To find a primitive root of p when p 1 = 2ab where a,b,. are distinct odd primes, raise any number as 2 to the powers if no one of the residues modulo p is 1, the negative (p l)/a, (p 1)/6, of the product of these residues is a primitive root of p; in case one of the residues is 1, use 3 or 5 in place of 2. If p = 2g+l and q are odd primes, 2 or 2 is a primitive root of p according as p = 8n + 3 or 8n + 7 If p = 4^^ -f-1
. . .
.

de I'dcole polytechnique, cah. 18, t. 11, 1820, 345-410. "Supplement to Encyclopaedia Britannica, 4, 1824, 698. "Jour, de Math., 2, 1837, 258. "Exercices de Math., 1829, 231; Oeuvrea, (2), 9, 266, 278-90.
"''Jour,

"Jour,

fiir

Math.,

6,

1830, 147-153.

Chap. VII]

PRIMITIVE RoOTS, EXPONENTS, INDICES.

If

185

and
g

= 3n+l

q are primes, 2 and 2 are primitive roots of p. are primes, 3 and 3 are primitive roots of p.

p = 4g+l and

F. Minding^^ gave without reference Gauss' second proof of the existence of primitive roots of a prime. F. J. Richelot^^ proved that, if p = 2"'+l is a prime, every quadratic non-residue (in particular, 3) is a primitive root of p. A. L. Crelle^^ gave a table showing all prime numbers ^ 101 having a given primitive root; also a table of the residues of the powers of the 101. His device^^ natural numbers when divided by the primes 3, ., for finding the residues modulo p of the powers of a will be clear from the example p = 7, a = 3. Write under the natural numbers <7 the residues of the successive multiples of 3 formed by successive additions of 3 we get
. .

12
3 6

4 5
.

14.
.
.

of 3, 3^, 3^, modulo 7 are found as follows: residues 3, 2, 6, comes the number 2 below 3 in the above table; after 2 comes the number 6 below 2 in the table; etc. Crelle^ proved that, if p is a prime and X is prime to p 1 and <p 1, the residues modulo p of z^ range with z over the integers 1, 2,. ., p 1. His proof that there exist (^(n) numbers belonging to the exponent n modulo p, if n divides p 1, is like that by Legendre.^ G. L. Dirichlet^^ employed 0(A:) systems of indices for a modulus are distinct primes, and X^3. Given any /j = 2^p'p"'. ., where p, p', of P'> v" \ integer n prime to k, and primitive roots c, c', we can

Then the

after 3

>

determine indices

a,

/3,

7, 7',

such that
p'),

n=(-l)''5^ (mod

2^^),

n = c^ (mod

n = c"'' (mod

p"'),-

Michel Ostrogradsky^^ gave for each prime

roots of p and companion tables of the indices (See Jacobins and Tchebychef .3^)

p<200

all

the primitive

and corresponding numbers.

C. G. J. Jacobi^^ gave for each prime and power of a prime < 1000 two companion tables showing the numbers with given indices and the index of each given number. In the introduction, he reproduced the table by

Burckhardt, 1817, of the length of the period of the decimal fraction for Of the 365 primes 1/p, for each prime p^2543, and 22 higher primes. we therefore 148 having 10 as a primitive root, and 73 of the <2500, have form 4w+3 having 10 as a primitive root. Use is made also of the primes for which 10 or 10 is the square or cube of a primitive root.
"Anfangsgrlinde der hoheren Arith., 1832, 36-37. "Jour, ftir Math., 9, 1832, p. 5. ^Hhid., 27-53.
"Also,
ihid., 28,

1844, 166.

"Abh. Ak. Wiss. BerUn, 1832, Math., p. 57, p. 65. ^HhU., 1837, Math., 45; Werke, 1, 1889, 333. "Lectures on alg. and transc. analysis, I-II, St. P^tersbourg, 1837; M6m. Ac. bourg, s6r. 6, sc. math, et phys., 1, 1838, 359-85. 2'Canon Arithmeticus, Berlin, 1839, xl+248 pp. Errata, Cunningham.""-""

Sc. St. P6tera-

186

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap. VII

To find a primitive root g of p, select any convenient integer a and form [as by Crelle^]. Let n be the exponent to the residues of a, or, a^,. which a belongs. Set nn' = p \. If n<p 1, select an integer h not in a". The residue of 6" is in this period of a. If is the the period a, least power of 6 whose residue is in the period of a, then / divides n', say w'=i/' (P- xxiii). Since a=g'^', h^=a\ we have
.

y^gf^''^g"''^''"'\
for
5^''

= g^'^'+'^^
A:

(mod

p),

some value

prime to

= a".
;

/I of k. But must be chosen so that i+nk is For, if i-\-nk = du, where d is a divisor of /, we would have /. The nf residues of a'b' (r = 0,. n-1; s = 0,. ., /-I) are dis0, 1,
. .
.

.,

some order and are known. If nf'<p l, we employ an integer not in the set a^b' and proceed similarly. Ultimately we obtain a primitive root and at the same time the index of everj" number. This method was used for the primes between 200 and 1000. For primes < 200, the tables by Ostrogradsky^^ w^ere reprinted with the same errors (noted at the end of the Canon). Jacobi proved that, if n is an odd prime, any primitive root of n^ is a primitive root of any higher power of n (p. xxxv). For the modulus 2", 4^iu^9, the final tables give the index / of any positive odd number to base 3, where
tinct

their indices to base g are/', 2f',

nff

in

(_l)(Ar-l)W-3)/8^

= 37

(jjjQ^ 2").

Robert ]\Iurphy-^ stated the empirical theorem that every prime a as a primitive root if p>a/2, p is a prime <a, and if a is a primitive root of p. For example, a prime 10nr-{-7 has 10 as a primitive

anr+p has
root.

H. G. Erlerus'^ considered two odd primes p and p' and a number m such that (mod p), m = a' (mod p'). Let a belong to the exponent e modulo p, and a' to the exponent e' modulo p\ If 8 is the g. c. d. of e and e', then m belongs to the exponent ee'/8 modulo pp'. He discussed at length the number of integers belonging to the exponent n for a composite modulus. 1 (mod n) A. Cauchy^^ called the least positive integer i for which m' the indicator relative (or corresponding) to the base m and modulus n, which are assumed relatively prime. If the base m is constant, and ii, 12 are the indicators corresponding to moduli nj, 112, and if n = nin2 is prime to 772, then the 1. c. m. of I'l and {2 is the indicator corresponding to modulus n. If the modulus n is constant, and ii, io are the indicators corresponding to bases Wi, ^2, and if I'l, 1*2 are relatively prime, then 1*112 is the indicator corresponding to the base 7^17^2. Let I'l, io be the indicators corresponding to the bases mi, 7722 and same modulus n. The g. c. d. 0; of I'l, 2*2 can be expressed (often in several ways) For, if co = a/3. as a product uv such that ii/u, io/v are relatively prime.

m=a

"Phil. Mag., (3), 19, 1841, 369. "Elementa Doctrinse Numerorum, Diss., Halis, 1841, 18-43.

Comptes Rendus Paris,

12, 1841,

824-845; Oeuvres,

(1), 6,

124-146.

Chap. VII]

PRIMITIVE RoOTS, EXPONENTS, INDICES.

j8,
.

187

are powers of distinct primes, use a as a factor in forming u prime to ii/a, but as a factor of y in case a is prime to zVa, and as a factor of either u or v indifferently in case a is prime to both ii/a and Since ii/u and i2/v are relatively prime indicators corresponding to 12/0. bases mi" and m2^ it follows from the preceding theorem that the indicator

where

a,

in case a is

corresponding to base mi"-W2'' and modulus n

ii

is

^2

= iii2 =
0

1.

c.

m.
. .

of

ii, i2.

and a single modulus n, we can Hence, given several bases mi, m2, to which the indicator is the 1. c. m. of the indicators relative find a new base .... If the latter bases include all the integers <n to m2, corresponding mi, indicators give all indicators which can corresponding prime to n, the and correspond to modulus n, so that all of them divide a certain maximum Then for every integer relatively prime to n,m^ l (mod n) indicator I. If n = 2^ k>2, If n = v', where v is an odd prime, or if n = 2 or 4, l=^{n). indicator corresponding Ij is the maximum to a power Uj If I=(f}{n)/2. The equation of a prime, and if n = llnj, then I is the 1. c. m. of /i, /2, mx ny = l has the solution x 7n^~^ (mod n). Cauchy^^ republished the preceding paper, but with an extension from the limit n = 100 to the limit n = 1000 for his table of the maximum indicator I. C. F. Arndt^^ gave (without reference) Gauss' second proof of the existence of a primitive root of an odd prime p, and proved the existence of the <^(p") primitive roots of p'* or 2p'', and that there are no primitive roots for moduli other than these and 4. If i is a divisor of 2""^, n>2, exactly t numbers belong to the exponent t modulo 2'' (p. 18). If, for a modulus p", 2p", a belongs to the exponent t, then a-a^ .a' is congruent to ( 1)'+^ (pp. 26-27), while the product of the numbers belonging to the exponent t is congruent to +1 if ^?^ 2 (pp. 37-38). He proved also Stern's^^ theorem on the sum of these numbers. He gave the same two theorems also in a ^^ later paper. L. Poinsot^" used the method of Legendre^ to prove the existence of 4>{n) integers belonging to the exponent n, sl divisor of p 1, where p is a prime. He gave (pp. 71-75) essentially Gauss' first proof, and gave his own^ method of finding primitive roots of a prime. The existence of primitive roots of p", 2p", 4, but of no further moduli, is established by use of the number of roots of binomial congruences (pp. 87-101). C. F. Arndt^^ noted that if a belongs to an even exponent t modulo 2", then a, a^, ..., a'~^ give the t incongruent numbers belonging to the exponent t, and are congruent to A; 2"" =f 1 (A; = 1 3, 5, ) The product of the numbers belonging to the exponent t modulo 2", n>2, is +1.

"Exercices d' Analyse et de Phys. Math., "Archiv Math. Phys., 2, 1842, 9, 15-16. "Jour, flir Math., 31, 1846, 326-8.
3Jour.

2,

1841, 1-40; Oeuvres, (2), 12.

de Math^matiques, (1), 10, 1845, 65-70, 72. "Archiv Math. Phys., 6, 1845, 395, 399.

188

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap. VII

E. Prouhet^" gave, without reference, Crelle's^' method of forming the The object of the paper is to give a uniform method of proof of theorems, given in various places in Legendre's text, relating to the residues of the first n powers of an integer belonging to the exponent n modulo P, especially when P is a prime or a power of a prime, and the existence of primitive roots. He gave (p. 658) the usual proof that == 2 is a primitive root of a prime 2^+ 1 if 5 is a prime 4/c 1 (with a misprint). C. F. Arndt^^ proved that if ^ is a primitive root of the odd prime p and if p^ (SKn) is the highest power of p dividing G = g^~^ 1, then g belongs to the exponent p'*~''(p 1) modulo p". Conversely, if the last is true of a primitive root g of p, then G is divisible by p^ and not by p^"'"^ The first result with X = 1 shows that any primitive root of p^ is a primitive root of p", n>2. Let g he a, primitive root of p; if G is not divisible by p^, g is a. primitive root of p^; but if G is divisible by p^, and h is not divisible by p, then g+hp is a primitive root of p^. Any odd primitive root of p** is a primitive root of 2p". If gr is a primitive root of p'* or 2p'*, and t is a divisor of p"~^(p 1), then if a ranges over the integers <t and prime to t, the <f>{t) integers belonging to the exponent t modulo p" or 2p" are g% where e = p"~^(p l)a/<. The numbers belonging to the exponent 2"""* modulo 2" are found more simply than by Gauss'^ and Jacobi^^ (p. 37). P. L. Tchebychef^^ proved that if a, /3, are the distinct prime factors of p 1, where p is a prime, then a is a primitive root of p if and only if no one of the congruences x'' a, xP a,. (mod p) has an integral root. This furnishes a method (usually impracticable) of finding all primitive roots of p. A second method uses a number a belonging to the exponent n, and a number h not congruent to a power of a, and deduces a number belonging to an exponent >n. In the second supplement, he proved that 3 is a primitive root of any prime 2^"+ 1 that =*= 2 is a primitive root of any prime 2a +1 such that a is a prime 4A: 1 3 is a primitive root of 4iV2"'4-l
residues of the powers of a number.
. .

is a primitive root of any prime 4iVH-l such that A^ is an odd prune. The last result was later proposed'^ as a question for solution (with reference to this text) There is given the table of primitive roots and indices for primes < 200, due to Ostrogradsky^^. Schapira (p. 314) noted that in the list of errata in Jacobi's^^ Canon (p. 222) there is omitted the error 8 for 6 in ind 14 for p = 25. V. A. Lebesgue^*^ remarked that Cauchy's^^ congruence shows the existence of 0(n) integers belonging to the exponent n modulo p, a prime.
if

w>0

and

iV

is

a prime >9^

/(4-2'");

X=0

Nouv. Ann. Math., 5, 1846, 175-87, 659-62, 675-83. 3Jour. fiir Math., 31, 1846, 259-68. "Theory of Congruences (m Russian), 1849. German translation by Schapira, Berlin, 1889, Italian translation by Mile. Massarini, Rome, 1895, with an extension of the p. 192.
tables of indices to 353.

Nouv. Ann. Math.,

*Nouv. Ann. Math.,

15, 1856, 353.

and., 16, 1857, 159.

8,

Solved by use of Euler's criterion by P. H. Rochette, Also proved by Desmarest,*^ p. 278. 1849, 352; 11, 1852, 420.

Chap. VII]

PRIMITIVE RoOTS, EXPONENTS, INDICES.

189

(mod P) and =*= a is a primitive root of P. If P = 8Q + and Q are primes, then P=5 (mod 12) and 3 is a quadratic non-residue and
a^ 7^ 1 ,

(mod P) and set w = 2/2 1; then seek an odd solution of ^^^+3 and R belongs to the exponent 6; thus we know the solutions of x^ l\ and not such a solution; if a^=l, then let a be any integer prime to =ta belongs to the exponent q, and ai2 is a primitive root of P; but, if

E. Desmarest" devoted the last 86 pages of his book to primitive roots; the 70 pages claimed to be new might well have been reduced to five by To find the omission of trivial matters and the use of standard notations. = 6g+l, where q is an odd prime, (pp. 267-8) a primitive root of the prime

R^=l

then a^^=

=f 1

hence a primitive root of P. Let P be a prime of the form 5q^2. Then u^= 5 (mod P) is not solvable. Thus, if a is a primitive root of P, 5 = a% where e is odd. Thus if e is prime It is recommended that 5 be the first to P 1, 5 is a primitive root of P. primitive root. And yet he announced number used in seeking by trial a primitive root. If P is a prime the theorem (p. 283) that 5 is in general a including an prime is odd 1, then 5g2 also of the form 2"Q+1, where Q
(pp. 284-6) 5 is

a primitive root of

provided

is

not a factor of 5^ 1.
. .
.

He gave

5. 1 for n = 1, the factors of the latter and of 10^" Results, corresponding to those just quoted for 5, are stated for p = 7, 7, What is really given is a Hst of the linear forms of the primes P 10, 17. If, in addition, P = 2''Q 1, where for which p is a quadratic non-residue. Q is an odd prime, then p is a primitive root, provided p^^^^l (mbd P). The last condition is ignored in his statement of his results and again in his collection (pp. 297-8) of "principles which give primitive roots" entered in his table (pp. 298-300) giving a primitive root of each prime < 10000. V. A. Lebesgue^^ proved that, if a and p = 2'a+l are primes, any quad,
'

ratic non-residue

x of p

is

a primitive root of p

if

a;2*-'+1^0(modp).
P. Kulik^^ gave for each prime p between 103 and 353 the indices and His manuscript extended to 1000. There is all the primitive roots of p. an initial table giving the least primitive root of the primes from 103 to 1009. of a prime piix belongs G. 01tramare^ called x a root of order or index (mod p) be the conLet modulo l)/m Xm{x) to the exponent {p p.
J.

m =

gruence whose roots are exclusively the roots of order moi p. By changing n are the divisors > 1 of w. X to x^^"", we obtain Xmn=<l>{^) ^0. li rii, n2,
. .

Am Y

'^Th^orie des nombres. Traits de I'analyse ind6terminee du second degr6 k deux inconnues suivi de I'application de cette analyse k la recherche des racines primitives avec une table de ces racines pour tous les nombres premiers compris entre 1 et 10000, Paris, 1852, 308 pp. For errata, see Cunningham, Mess. Math., 33, 1903, 145.

58Nouv. Ann. Math., 11, 1852, 422-4. '9 Jour, fur Math., 45, 1853, 55-81. "7Wd., 303-9.

190

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, vii

V. A. Lebesgue^^ noted that, given a primitive root g (g<p) of the Let g' be the positive p, we can find at once the primitive roots of p". = {g' Then residue <p~ when g^ is divided by p^ and set h g)/p.

prime

g+px+p'^y
and prime
to

{y

= 0,.

.,

p""^-!; x = 0,.

.,

p-1; x^h)
i is less

give p"~^(p 1) primitive roots.

Replacing g by g\ where
}

than

primitive roots of p". In particular, a primitive root of p~ is a primitive root of p" (Jacobi^). But, if h = 0, g Since is not a primitive root of p".
]0(p")

p 1, we obtain

ginda+e^p_^ (mod

p")

= ip"-np-l),

we can reduce by
D. A. da
if

half the size of Jacobi's

Canon.
x'^

l (mod p) has (f)(d) primitive d divides p 1, and perfected the method of Poinsot^'^" for finding the primitive roots of a prime. F. Landry^^" was led to the same conclusion as Ivory.^^ In particular, l, or if p = 2n+l (n an odd prime) and a7^p l, any quadratic if p = 2* non-residue a of p is a primitive root. For each prime p< 10000, at least one prime ^ 19 is a quadratic non-residue of p. Cauchy's^* congruence for the primitive roots is derived and proved. G. Oltramare*^ proved that 32^'' is a primitive root of the prime

Silva^^

gave two proofs that

roots,

p = 2a/3 + l,

if

a^3,

/3f^3,

S'^^l, 22^^1 (mod p); that,

qx-]-ry

if

p = 3-2"'-M=g2+3r2,
{

= l,

is a primitive root of p; and analogous theorems. If a and 2a-^l are primes, 2 or a is a primitive root of 2a -fl, according as a If a is a prime 9^3 and if p = 2a4-l is a is of the form 4n-[-l or 4n+3. prime and 1, then 3 is a primitive root of p unless 3^'"~^-|-l=0 (mod p).

l+qy 3rx)5i^/2

m>

[Cf. Smith.''^]

P. Buttel^ attributed to Scheffler (Die unbestimmte Analytik, 1854, 142) the method of Crelle^^ for finding the residues of powers. C. G. Reuschle's^^ table C gives the Haupt-exponent {i. e., exponent to which the number belongs) (a) of 10, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7 with respect to all primes p< 1000, and the least primitive root of p; (b) of 10 and 2 for 1000< p< 5000 and a convenient primitive root; (c) of 10 for 5000<p< 15000 (no primitive

root given).
2^^n-f-l,

Numerous

errata have been listed

if

by Cunningham.""

Allegret^^ stated that

X>0;

odd, n is not a primitive root of a prime proof can be made as in Lebesgue.^^

is

Paris, 39, 1854, 1069-71; same in Jour, de Math., 19, 1854, 334-6. Report **Proprietades geraes et resolu^ao directa das Congruencias binomias, Lisbon, 1854. by C. Alasia, Rivista di Fisica, Mat. e Sc. Nat., Pavia, 4, 1903, 25, 27-28; and Annaes Scientificos Acad. Polyt. do Porto, Coimbra, 4, 1909, 166-192. **'Troi8i&me m6moire sur la thdorie des nombres, Paris, 1854, 24 pp. "Jour, fiir Math., 49, 1855, 161-86. "Archiv Math. Phys., 26, 1856, 247. "Math. Abhandlung. .Tabellen, Prog. Stuttgart, 1856; full title in the chapter on perfect

"Comptes Rendus

numbers. i''^ "Nouv. Ann. Math.,

16, 1857,

309-310.

Chap. VII]

PRIMITIVE RoOTS, EXPONENTS, INDICES.

191

H. J. S. Smith^^ stated that some of Oltramare's^^ general results are erroneous at least in expression, and gave a simple proof that 0^"^= 1 (mod p**) has exactly d roots if d divides 0(p"). V. A. Lebesgue^^ proved that, if p is an odd prime and a, b belong to of a, (3, as exponents a, (3, there exist numbers belonging to the 1. c. m. exceeds exponent. Hence if neither a nor /3 is a multiple of the other, a and /3. If d<p l is the greatest of the exponents to which 1, ., p belong, the latter do not all belong to exponents dividing d, since otherwise they would give more than d roots of x'^=l (mod p). Hence there exist primitive roots of p. If a is odd, l+2a belongs to the exponent 2~" modulo 2"" (p. 87). If h belongs to the exponent k modulo p, a prime, then h+Pz belongs modulo p" to an exponent which divides A;p"~^ (p. 101). If / is a primitive root of p, and f^~^ l=pz, then / is a primitive root of p

w
.

if z is not divisible by p (p. 102). G. L. Dirichlet^^ proved the last theorem and explained his^^ system of indices for a composite modulus. V. A. Lebesgue^ published tables, constructed by J. Hoiiel,^^ of indices and corresponding numbers for each prime and power of prime modulus < 200, which differ from Jacobi's^^ only in the choice of the least primitive There is an auxiliary table of the indices of x\ for prime moduli root.
if

and only

<200.
V. A. Lebesgue^^ stated that, if g'<p is a primitive root of the prime p if g'=g^~^ (mod p), then g' is a primitive root of p; at least one of g and g' is a primitive root of p" for n arbitrary. V. Bouniakowsky^^ proved in a new way the theorems of Tchebychef^* that 2 is a primitive root of p = 8n+3 if p and 4n+l are primes, and of p = 4nH-l if p and n are primes. He gave a method to find the exponent to which 2 or 10 belongs modulo p. for every A. Cayley^^ gave a specimen table showing the indices a, j3,. number a"6^. .(modiV), where ilf<iV and prime to iV, for iV = l,. ., 50. There is no apparent way of forming another single table for all A^'s analogous to Jacobi's tables (one for each N) of numbers corresponding to given

and

M=

indices.

F. W. A. Heime^^ gave the least primitive root of each prime < 1000. His other results are not new. A secondary root of a prime p is one belonging to an exponent < p 1 modulo p.
1, 50, 158 (Report on theory of numbers). **Introd. th^orie des nombres, 1862, 94-96. "Zahlentheorie, 128-131, 1863; ed. 2, 1871; ed. 3, 1879; ed. 4, 1894. soM^m. soc. sc. phys. et nat. de Bordeaux, 3, cah. 2, 1864-5, 231-274. "Formiiles et tables numer., Paris, 1866. For moduli ^ 347. ^Comptes Rendus Paris, 64, 1867, 1268-9. "Bull. Ac. Sc. St. Petersbourg, 11, 1867, 97-123. "Quart. Jour. Math., 9, 1868, 95-96. "Untersuchungen, besonders in Bezug auf relative Primzahlen, primitive u. secundare Wurzeln, quadratische Reste u. Nichtreste; nebst Berechnung der kleinsten primitiven Wurzeln vorf alien Primzahlen zwischen 1 und 1000. BerUn, 1868; ed. 2, 1869.

"British Assoc. Report, 1859, 228; 1860, 120, 73; Coll. Math. Papers,

192
C.
J.

History of the Theory of Numbers.

D.
Hill^^

[Chap, vii

noted that his tables of indices for the

of

moduU
the last

2"

and

5"

(n^5) give the residues

numbers modulo

10",

i.

e.,

digits.

Using also tables for the moduli 9091 and 9901, as well as a table of logarithms, we are able to determine the last 22 digits. B. M. Goldberg^^ gave the least primitive root of each prime < 10160. V. Bouniakowsky^^ proved that 3 is a primitive root of p if p = 24n+5 and (p 1)/4 are primes; 3 is a primitive root of p if p = 12n+ll and (p 1)/2 are primes; if p is a primitive root of the prime p = 4n+l, one
is a primitive root of p"' and of 2p"'; 5 is a primitive (or both) of p, root of p = 20?i+3 or 20n4-7 if p and {p 1)/2 are primes, and of p = 40n 13

pp

a primitive root of a prime 24n-|-ll and 6 of 24n-|-23 if (p 1)/2 is a prime; 10 is a primitive root of p = 40n+7, 19, 23, and -10 of p = 40n+3, 27, 39, if (p-l)/2 is a prime; 10 is a primitive root of a prime 80n-(-73, n>0, or 80n+57, n>l, if If p = 8an-h2a 1 or 8an+a 2 and (p 1)/4 are (p 1)/8 is a prime. primes, and if a^-f-1 is not divisible by p, a is a primitive root of p. V. A. Lebesgue^^ proved certain theorems due to Jacobi^^ and the following theorem which gives a method different from Jacobi's for forming a table of indices for a prime modulus p: If a belongs to the exponent n, and if 6 is not in the period of a, and if / is the least positive exponent for which h^=a\ then x^=a has the root a'6", where ft-\-iu l=nv; the root belongs to the exponent nf if and only if u is prime to /. Consider the congruence x*" = a (mod p) where a belongs to the exponent n = (p l)/n', and m is a divisor of n'. Every root r has a period of mn terms if no one of the residues of r, r^,. ., r*""^ is in the period of a. If all the prime divisors of m divide n, the m roots have a period of mn terms; not dividing n, there are only but if m has prime divisors g, r,
or 4071-1-37
if

p and

(p 1)/4

are primes; 6

is

-(^X^)roots having a period of

this is already the case

mn terms. The existence of primitive roots follows;

if

m = n'.

Mention is made of companion tables in manuscript giving indices of numbers, and numbers corresponding to indices, constructed by J. Ch. Dupain in full for p<200, but from 200 to 1500 with reduction to one-half in view of ind p a=ind a=t(p 1)/2 modulo p 1. L. Kronecker^^ proved the existence of two series of positive integers {j=l,. ., p) such that the least positive residues modulo A:>2 of m, Qj, V2*' ^p*" give all the (f){k) positive integers <A: and prime to k, if ^1 ii=0, 1,. ., mi 1; i2 = 0, 1,. ., m2 1; etc. [cf. Mertens^^]. G. Barillari^"" proved that, if a is prime to h and belongs to the exponent
.

"Jour, fur Math., 70, 1869, 282-8; Acta Univ. Lundensis, Lund, "Rest- und Quotient-Rechnung, Hamburg, 1869, 97-138. "BuU. Ac. Sc. St. P6tersbourg, 14, 1869, 375-81. Compte8 Rendua Paris, 70, 1870, 1243-1251.

1,

1864 (Math.), No.

6,

18 pp.

"Monatsber. Ak. BerUn, 1870, 881. Cf. Traub, Archiv Math. Phys., KJiomale di Mat., 9, 1871, 125-135.

37, 1861, 278-94.

Chap. VII]

PrBIITIVE RoOTS, EXPONENTS, INDICES.

h,

193

the highest power of h which divides a"* 1, and if Further, if 6 is a prime, a e = m6"~\ 6". For a new prime 6', let m', n', h' Then the exponent to which a belongs modulo B = })%'"' ... is the 1. c. m. L of m6''-\ m'b'"'-''', .... For a = 10, we see that L is the length of the period for the irreducible fraction N/B. L. Sancery^^ proved that if p is a prime and a<p belongs to the exponent 6 modulo p, there exists an infinitude of numbers a-\-px = A such that A^1 p'''^^, where k is any assigned positive integer. is divisible by p^, but not by If A belongs to the exponent 6 modulo p>2, A will belong to the exponent 6 modulo p" if the highest power of p which divides .A^ 1 is ^p"; but if it be p"'^, A belongs to the exponent dp^ modulo p" [Barillari^"]. Hence A is a primitive root of p" if a primitive root of p and if A^~^ 1 is not divisible by p^, and there are ^j^CpOj primitive roots of p" or 2p\ [Generalization
n^/i, then 6" divides a* 1 where belongs to the exponent e modulo have the corresponding properties.

modulo

and

if

h^ is

of Arndt.^^j

C. A. Laisant^ noted that if a belongs to the exponent 3 modulo p, a 1 belongs to the exponent 6, and conversely. If a belongs to prime, then a the exponent 6, a+1 will not belong to the exponent 3 unless p = 7, a = 3. Hence if p is a prime 6m +1, there are two numbers a, h belonging to the exponent 3, and two numbers a 1, 6+1 belonging to the exponent 6; also,

a+6 = p 1.
p^qP

If (p.

399)

=p

p+5

is

an odd prime and p

is

even, then

pV

9>

(mod p+g).

G. Bella vitis^^'' gave, for each power p'^383 of a prime p, the periodic and showed how to deduce the indices of numbers for the modulus p\ Let ? = p'~^(p 1) and let 2 belong to the exponent q/r modulo p\ A root b of 6'"= 2 (mod p') is the base of the
fraction for 1/p' to the base 2

system of indices. G. Frattini^^ proved by the theory of roots of unity that, if p is a prime, 2 to ind 2, the number of interchanges necessary to pass from 1, 2, ., p
. .

ind

3,

. .

ind (p

1)

and

to
3,
. .

ind

1 ind

2,

ind 2 ind

.,

ind (p 2) ind (p

1)

are both even or both odd.

Fritz Hofmann^^ used rotations of regular polygons to prove theorems on the sum of the primitive roots of a prime (Gauss^). A. R. Forsyth^^ found the sum of the cth powers of the primitive roots of a prime p. The sum is divisible by p if p 1 contains the square of a prime not dividing c or if it contains a prime dividing c but with an exponent exceeding by at least 2 its exponent in c. If neither of these conditions is satisfied, the result is not so simple.
"BuU. Soc. Math, de France, 4, 1875-6, 23-29. fi^M^m. Soc. So. Phys. et Nat. de Bordeaux, (2), 1, 1876, 400-2. "^lAtti Accad. Lincei, Mem. Sc. Fis. Mat., (3), 1, 1876-7, 778-800.
"Giornale di Mat., 18, 1880, 369-76. "Math. Annalen, 20, 1882, 471-86. ^'Messenger of Math., 13, 1883-4, 180-5.

194
J. Perott^^

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, vii

gave a simple proof that x^ = l (mod p") has p'' roots. Thus Assumthere exists an integer b belonging to the exponent p""^ modulo p"*. of primitive root employ a power of it and existence a of we obtain ing the p, p". belonging to the modulo Hence ab is a a exponent 1 a number p
primitive root of p". Schwartz^" stated, and Hacken proved, the final theorem of Cauchy.^* L. Gegenbauer^^ stated 19 theorems of which a specimen is the followmg: If p = 8a(8/3+l) 24/3+5 and (p-l)/4 are primes and if 64a2+48a 10 is relatively prime to p, then 8a+3 is a primitive root of p.

G. Wertheim^^ gave the least primitive root of each prime < 1000 and companion tables of indices and numbers for primes < 100. He reproduced (pp. 125-130) arts. 80-81 of Gauss^ and stated the generalization by
Stern.i^

would obtain all primitive roots of a prime p by excluding all residues of powers with exponents dividing p 1 [Poinsot^]. IM. F. Daniels"^ gave a proof like Legendre's^ that there are <f>{n) numbers belonging to the exponent n modulo p, a prime, if n divides p 1. *K. Szily^- discussed the "comparative number" of primitive roots. E. Lucas"^ gave the name reduced indicator of n to Cauchy's^^ maximum indicator of n, and noted that it is a divisor <4){n) of 0(n) except when n = 2, 4, p* or 2p^', where p is an odd prime, and then equals (f>{n). The exponent to which a belongs modulo m is called the "gaussien" of a modulo m (preface, xv, and p. 440). H. Scheffler"'* gave, without reference, the theorem due to' Richelot^'^ and

H.

Keferstein'''

the final one by Prouhet.^- To test if a proposed number a is a primitive root of a prime p, note whether p is of one of the linear forms of primes for which a is a quadratic non-residue, and, if so, raise a to the powders whose
2, No. 318, an odd prime and a belongs to the exponent e = {p l)/q modulo p, it belongs to the exponent p-'^e modulo p" when (a* l)/p is not di\dsible by p, but to a smaller exponent if it is divisible by p [Sancery^]. P. Bachmann^^ proved the existence of a primitive root of a prime p by use of the group of the residues 1, p 1 under multiplication.

exponents divide (p 1)/2. L. Contejean^^ noted that the argument in Serret's Algebre,

leads to the following result [for the case a

= 10]:

If

is

**Bull.

des Sc. Math., 9, I, 1885, 21-24. For k = n l the theorem posthumous fragment by Gauss, Werke, 2, 266.

is

contained imphcitly in a

6, 1886, 280; 7, 1887, 124-5. 8Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 95, II, 1887, 843-5. "Elemente der Zahlentheorie, 1887, 116, 375-381. '"Mitt. Math. Gesell. Hamburg, 1, 1889, 256. ^'Lineaire Congruenties, Diss., Amsterdam, 1890, 92-99.

"Mathesis,

"Math, ^s termes ^rtesito (Memou^ Hungarian Ac. Sc), 9, 1891, 264; 10, 1892, Tudom. Ak. Ertesitoje (Report of Hungarian Ac. Sc), 2, 1891, 478.
"Th^orie des nombres, 1891, 429.
'*Beitrage zur Zahlentheorie, 1891, 135-143. "Bull. Soc. Philomathique de Paris, (8), 4, 1891-2, 66-70.

19.

Magyar

"Die Elemente der Zahlentheorie, 1892,

89.

Chap. VII]

PeIMITIVE RoOTS, EXPONENTS, INDICES.

195

G. B. Mathews'^^ reproduced art. 81 of Gauss''' and gave a second proof for n = p 1. by use of Cauchy's^^ congruence K. Zsigmondy^^ treated the problem to find all integers K, relatively prime to given integers a and 6, such that a''=b'' (mod K) holds for the given integral value <T = y, but for no smaller value. For 6 = 1, it is a with respect to which a belongs to the exponent y. question of the moduli Then Set y=Ilqi*, where the q's are distinct primes and qi the greatest. for which a''=b'' (mod K) holds for (T = 7, but for no smaller all the primes a, coincide with the prime factors of

X=0

y
. .

A=
in

(a^-6^)n(a'-6').

n(a^/-6^/)...
.

of qi,q2,--- one, two, (J=^ylqi\ but for no smaller (T, we do not include among the K's the prime q^, which then occurs in A If the prime p is a and if p^ is the highest power to the first power only. of p dividing A, then p* is the highest power of p giving a K. The comIf a and 6 are not both numerically equal posite i^'s are now easily found. to unity, it is shown that there is at least one prime except in the following
.

which the products extend over the combinations

if

at a time, provided that,

a''=h''

(mod

qi) for

cases:

7 = 6,

a-6 = l; 7 = 2, 0+6 = ^2" (/x^l); 7 = 3, a = 2, 6==f1; = ='=2, a 6 = l. The case h = \ shows that, apart from the corre7=
1,

sponding exceptions, there exists a prime with respect to which the given integer aj^^^X belongs to the given exponent 7. As a corollary, every arithmetical progression of the type mT+I ()" = 1? 2, .) contains an infinitude of primes. Zsigmondy^^ considered the function A^(a) obtained from the above A by setting 6 = 1. If a is a primitive root of the prime p = l+7, the main theorem of the last paper shows that p divides A^(a). Conversely, I+7 is a prime if it divides A. Thus, if all the primes of a set of integers possess the same primitive root a, any integer p of the set is a prime if and only if Ap_i(a) is divisible by p. Hence theorems due to Tchebychef^^ imply criteria for primes. For example, a prime 2^"+l has the primitive root 3 implies that 2^"+l is a prime if and only if it divides 3^ + 1, where k = 2^'' Since 2 is a primitive root of any prime 2q-\rX such that g- is a prime 4/c 1, we infer that, if g is a prime 4/c 1, then 2g+l is a prime if and only if it divides (2^1)/(21). Since 2 is a primitive root of a prime 4A''+1 such that is an odd prime, we infer that, if is an odd prime, 4A^+1 is a prime if and only if it divides (2^^-|-l)/5. G. F. Bennett^ proved (pp. 196-7) the first theorem of Cauchy,^^ and If a and a' belong to exponents (pp. 199-201) the results of Sancery.^^ t and t' which contain no prime factor raised to the same power in each, then the exponent to which aa' belongs is the 1. c. m. of t and t' (p. 194).
. .

"Theory of Numbers, 1892, 23-25. "Monatshefte Math. Phys., 3, 1892, 265-284.

'Hhid., 4, 1893, 79-80.
8Phil.

Trans. R. Sec. London, 184 A, 1893, 189-245.

196

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, vii

power of 2 dividing a^ 1, where a is odd, the exponent 2^~' if X>s, but, if X^s, is 1 if a=l, 2 if to which a belongs modulo 2^ is 2^^); the result of Lebesgue'*^ (p. 87) now follows (pp. o^=l, a^l (mod In case a is not prime to the modulus, there is an evident theorem 202-6) on the earliest power of a congruent to a higher power (p. 209). If e is a
If 2*'^^ is the highest
.

given divisor of 0(w), there

to

modulo m [cf. {0^r<t,0^r'<t',. .) numbers a'a"' no two of the ' are called independent generators are congruent modulo m, then a, a', of the 4>{m) integers <m and prime to m (p. 195); a particular set of generators is given and the most general set is investigated (pp. 220-241)
exponent
e
. .

determined the number of integers belonging belong to the exponents Erlerus^^]. If a, a',.
is
.

t,

t',...

and

if

problem on abelian groups]. found a number belonging to an exponent which is the 1. c. m. If, for a prime modulus p, of the exponents to which given numbers belong. a belongs to an exponent t>l, and b to an exponent which divides t, then b is congruent to a power of a (proof by use of Newton's relations between a' and their elementary symmetric functhe sums of like powers of a,
[a special

J. Perott^^

tions).

Hence there
.

exists a primitive root of p.

all
if

the quadratic non-residues of a prime modulus or 4n l with n an odd "without any trial," prime [Tchebychef^^]. To find primitive roots of 1 integers into sets of fours a, b, a, b, where separate the a6=l (mod m): Begin with one such set, say 1, 1, 1, 1. Either a or a is even; divide the even one by 2 and multiply the corresponding =t 6 by 2 we get another set of four. Repeat the process. If the resulting 1 integers <m, 2 and 2 are primitive roots series of sets contains all = 4/i+l, and one of them is a primitive root if = 4/i 1. If the sets if 1 integers <m, further theorems are just obtained do not include all

Frolo ^- noted that are primitive roots of

M.

m = 2^''4-l, m = 2n+l

<m

proved. G. Wertheim^^ gave the least primitive root of each prime p <3000. L. Gegenbauer^^" gave two expressions for the sum Sk of those terms of a complete set of residues modulo p which belong to the exponent k, and evaluated l>Sk/t fit) with t ranging over the divisors of k. G. Wertheim^^ proved that any prime 2'*" l has the primitive root 7. If p = 2"g-|-l is a prime and ^ is a prime >2, any quadratic non-residue As corollaries, of p is a primitive root of p if m"" 1 is not divisible by p. we get primes q of certain linear forms for which 2, 5, 7 are primitive roots of a prime 2^-1-1 or 4g-f-l; also, 3 is a primitive root of all primes 8g-|-l or 16g+l except 41; and cases when 5 or 7 is a primitive root of primes 8^+1, lQq+1. There is given a table showing the least primitive root of each prime between 3000 and 3500.

"BuU. des

Sc.

Math.,

(2), 17, I,

1893, 66-83.
for

""BuU. Soc.

Math, de France, 21, 1893, 113-128; 22, 1894, 241-5. "Acta Mathematica, 17, 1893, 315-20; correction, 22, 1899, 200 (10

p = 1021).

8"Denkschr. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 60, 1893, 48-60. "Zeitschrift Math. Naturw. Unterricht, 25, 1894, 81-97.

Chap. VII]

PRIMITIVE RoOTS, EXPONENTS, INDICES.

. .

197

1, and J. Perott^^ employed the sum Sk of the ^th powers of 1, 2, ., p If m is the gave a new proof that Si=0, ., Sp_2=0, Sp_i= 1 (mod p). 1 belong, evidently Sm=p 1, 1. c. m. of the exponents to which 1,2,. ., p whence m>p 2. If A belongs to the exponent m, then A, A^, ., A"" are incongruent, whence mSp 1- Thus A is a primitive root. N. Amici^^ proved that, if j'>2, a number belongs to the exponent 2""^ modulo 2" if and only if it is of the form 8/i3, and called such numbers quasi primitive roots of 2\ For a base Sh=^S, numbers of the two forms 8A:+1 or 8^=*=3, and no others, have indices. The product of two numbers having indices has an index which is congruent modulo 2""^ to the sum of the indices of the factors. The product of two numbers 6i and 62? neither with an index, has an index congruent modulo 2""^ to the sum of the indices The product of a number with an index by one without of 61 and 62an index has no index. K. Zsigmondy^^ proved by use of abelian groups that, if 8 = qi^\ .Qr'"', m = pi'^K .ps^s, where Qi,. ., Qr are distinct primes, and Pi,..., Ps are distinct primes, the number of incongruent integers belonging to the exponent
.

modulo

m is
5i...5,n(l-l/g/0,
1=1

and tj=(f>{pp), while li is the number of the which contain the factor ql'K E. de Jonquieres^^ proved that the product of an even number of primitive roots of a prime p is never a primitive root, while the product of an odd number of them is either a primitive root or belongs to an exponent not
where
d,

is

the

g. c. d. of 5

integers ti,...,ts

dividing {p l)/2. to like exponents.

Similar results hold for products of numbers belonging Certain of the n integers r, for which f is a given number belonging to the exponent e = {p \)/n, belong to the exponent ne, while the others (if any are left) belong to an exponent ke, where k divides n. He conjectured that 2 is not a primitive root of a prime p=l, 7, 17 or 23 (mod 24); 3 not of p=l, 11, 13 or 23 (mod 24); 5 not of p=\, 11, 19, or 29 (mod 30). These results and analogous ones for 7 and 11 were shown by him and T. Pepin^^ to follow from the quadratic reciprocity law and Gauss' theorems on the divisors oi x^^A. G. Wertheim^. added to his^* corollaries cases when 6, 10, 11, 13 are primitive roots of primes 2^+1, 4^+1; also, 10 is a primitive root of all primes 8g+l?^137 for which g- is a prime 10A;+7 or lOyc+9, and of primes IGg+l for which g is a prime 10/c+l or lO/c+7. Wertheim^^ gave the least primitive root of each prime between 3000 and 5000 and of certain higher primes. He noted errata in his^^ table to 3000.
85BuU. des Sc. Math6matiques, 18, I, 1894, 64-66. 8Rendiconti Circolo Mat. di Palermo, 8, 1894, 187-201. "Monatshefte Math. Phys., 7, 1896, 271-2.

88Compte8 Rendus Paris, 122, 1896, p. 1451, p. 1513; 124, 1897, 8Comptes Rendus Paris, 123, 1896, pp. 374, 405, 683, 737. '"Acta Math., 20, 1896, 143-152.
"/bid., 153-7; corrections, 22, 1899, 200.

p. 334, p. 428.

198

History of the Theory of Numbers.

I'l,.
.

[Chap,

vn
if

F. Mertens^- called

.,

ip

the system of indices of n modulo k

n=gi\
differ

.qj"

(mod

A:)

for the g's of Kronecker.^

Such systems
p, q,...

of indices

from

Dirichlet's.

C. Moreau^^ set A^ = primes. Take = 1 if iV"

= 4, but e = 2 if iV is not divisible by 4 or if Let \p{N) denote the 1. c. m. of v/e, p l,q l,. divisible by 4 and A'' > 4. For A [equivalent to Cauehy's-^ maximum indicator for modulus N]. has primitive If A^ = p'', 2p^ or 4 (so that prime to N, A*^^^= 1 (mod N) ^j^^^.^ -^ ^ ^^^^^ ^^ values of A^< 1000 and roots), yp{N) =4>{N) [Lucas^^j^ certain higher values for which \p{N) has a given value < 100. A. Cunningham^"* noted that we may often abbre\iate Gauss' method of finding a primitive root of a prime p by testing whether or not the trial root a is a primitive root before computing the residues of all powers of a. The tests are the simple rules to decide whether or not a is a quadratic or cubic residue of p. If a is both a quadratic non-residue and a cubic nonresidue of p = 3co+l, and if a^^l for every/ dividing p 1 except /=p l, then a is a primitive root. A. Cunningham^^ gave tables showing the residues of the successive powers of 2 when divided by each prime or power of prime < 1000, also companion tables showing the indices x of 2"" whose residues modulo p'' are .. The tables are more convenient than Jacobi's Canon-^ (errata 1, 2, 3, given here) for the problem to find the residue of a given number with respect to a given power of a prime, but less convenient for finding all roots There are given (p. 172) for each power of a given order of a given prime. p^< 1000 of a prime p the factors of 0(p^"), the exponent ^ to which 2 belongs modulo p'', and the quotient 0/^. E. Cahen^^ proved that if p is a prime >(32"'^'-l)/2'"+^ and if 5 = 2^+'^p-\-l (7>0) is a prime, then 3 is a primitive root of q, whereas
is
.

pV

. .

= p''~^q^~^

. .

where

are distinct

Tchebychef^^ had the less advantageous condition p>3^^V2'"+^. Other There are companion tables related theorems by Tchebychef are proved. of indices for primes < 200. G. A. Miller^^ appUed the theory of groups to prove the existence of primitive roots of p", to show that the primitive roots of p^ are primitive roots of p", and to determine primitive roots of the prime p. L. Kronecker^^ discussed the existence of primitive roots, defined systems of indices and appHed them to the decomposition of fractions into He developed (pp. 375-388) the theor>^ of exponents to partial fractions. which numbers belong modulo p, a prime, by use of the primitive factor
"Sitzungsber. Ak. Wien (Math.), 106, II a, 1897, Nouv. Ann. Math., (3), 17, 1898, 303. "Math. Quest. Educat. Times, 73, 1900, 45, 47.
'A Binary
residues,

259.

Canon, showing residues of powers of 2 for divisors under 1000, and indices to London, 1900, 172 pp. Manuscript was described by author. Report British Assoc, i895, 613. Errata, Cunningham.'" "filaments de la th^orie des nombres, 1900, 335-9, 375-390. 'BuU. Amer. Math. Soc, 7, 1901, 350.
'Vorlesungen liber Zahlentheorie,
I,

1901, 416-428.

Chap. VII]

PRIMITIVE RoOTS, EXPONENTS, INDICES.

(dividing the last but not

199

Fd{x) of

a;'* 1

d of

p1

belong exactly 4>{d)

x' 1 iorKd). To every divisor numbers which are the roots of i^d(^)=0

(modp).
an exposition of known results on primitive roots, In applying (p. 322) Poinsot's^ method of finding the primitive roots of a prime p to the case p = 13, it suffices to exclude the residues of the cubes of the numbers which remain after excluding the residues of squares; for, if a; is a residue of a square, (x^)=l and x^ is the residue of a square. R. W. D. Christie^"" noted that, if 7 is a primitive root of a prime
P. G. Foglini^^ gave
indices, linear congruences, etc.

p = 4A; l,the remaining primitive roots are congruent to p 7 (n = 1, 2, A. Cunningham^^ noted that 3, 5, 6, 7, 10 and 12 are primitive roots any prime /^, = 22"+l>5. Also 7^/^^+1 = (mod F^+, >5).
.

.
.

of

E. I. Grigoriev^"^ noted that a primitive root of a prime p can not equal a product of an even number of primitive roots [evident]. G. Wertheim^^ treated the problem to find the numbers belonging to the exponent equal to the 1. c. m. of m, n, given the numbers belonging to and n, and proved the first theorem of Stern. ^^ He disthe exponents cussed (pp. 251-3) the relation between indices to two bases and proved (pp. 258, 402-3) that the sum of the indices of a number for the various = p" or 2p" equals ^4){m)4> ]0(w) \ If belongs to the primitive roots of exponent 45 modulo p, the same is true of p a (p. 266). He gave a table showing the least primitive root of each prime < 6200 and for certain larger primes; also tables of indices for primes < 100. P. Bachmann^^ gave a generalization (corrected on p. 402) of Stern's^^ first theorem. G. Arnoux^^ constructed tables of residues of powers and tables of indices for low composite moduli. A. Bindoni^^ noted that a table showing the exponent to which a belongs modulo p, a prime, can be extended to a table modulo by means of the following theorems. Let a, 61,..., & be relatively prime by twos. A number belonging to the exponent ti modulo bi belongs modulo 6162 -K to the 1. c. m. of ^1, If ti is the least exponent for which ^^ as exponent. a'''+l=0 (mod bi) and if the ti are all odd, the least t for which a'+l is divisible by 6], ... 6 is the 1. c. m. of ^i, If p is an odd prime not i. dividing a and if a belongs to the exponent t modulo p, and a' = pg+l, and if p" is the highest power of p dividing q, then a belongs to the exponent lpn~i-u jjiojuio p". Hence if a is a primitive root of p, it is one of p" if

s'Memorie Pont. Ac. Nuovi Lincei, 18, 1901, 261-348. ^""Math. Quest. Educat. Times, 1, 1902, 90.
"i/6id., pp. 108, 116.

"^Kazani Izv. fiz. mat. obsc, BuU. Phys. Math. Soc. Kasan, "'Anfangsgrunde der Zahlenlehre, 1902, 236-7, 259-262.
ii^Niedere Zahlentheorie, 1, 1902, 333-6. "'Assoc. fran. av. sc, 32, 1903, II, 65-114.
"I1 Boll, di

(2), 12,

1902, No.

1,

7-10.

Matematica Giorn.

Sc. Didat., Bologna, 4, 1905, 88-92.

200
and only
if

History of the Theory of Numbers.

a""^

[Chap, vii

is

not divisible by

p^.

If

is

even, the least x for which

a"+l =

on congruences (especially binomial), ]\I. primitive roots, exponents, indices (in Peano's symboUsm). K. P. Nordlund^^ proved by use of Fermat's theorem that, if rij, ., n,. n^*"' divides are distinct odd primes, no one dividing a, then A^" = ni"*' a'-l, where A;=0(iV)/2^-^ R. D. Carmichael^^ proved that the maximum indicator of any odd number is even; that of a number, whose least prime factor is of the form 4ZH-1, is a multiple of 4; that of p(2p 1) is a multiple of 4 if p and 2p are odd primes. A. Cunningham^^ gave a table of the values of v, where {p l)/v is the exponent to which 2 belongs modulo p"< 10000, the omitted values of p being those for which i' = 1 or 2 and hence are immediately distinguished by the quadratic character of 2 (extension of his Binary Canon^^). A list
.
.

p") is l^p""'"". Cipolla^^gave a historical report

(mod

given of errata in the table by Reuschle.^^ An announcement is made of the manuscript of tables of the exponents to which 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12 belong modulo p"< 10000, and the least positive and negative primitive roots of each prime < 10000 [now in type and extended in manuscript to
is

p"< 22000].
A. Cunningham^ ^^ defined the sub-Haupt-exponent ^i of a base q to = q-y]Q (where 770 is prime to q, and ao^O) to be the exponent to modulus which q belongs modulo r^o- Similarly, let ^2 be the exponent to which q belongs modulo 771, where ^i = 5'''i?i; etc. Then the ^'s are the successive sub-Haupt-exponents, and the train ends with ^,.+1 = 1, corresponding to His table I gives these ^k for bases g = 2, 3, 5 and for various moduli 77;. = 1 including the primes < 100. Paul Epstein^ ^^ desired a function ^{m), called the Haupt-exponent for 1 (mod m) for every integer a prime to and modulus m, such that a'''^'"^ such that this will not hold for an exponent <\p{m). Thus \f/{m) is merely Cauchy's^^ maximum indicator. Although reference is made to Lucas, ^^ who gave the correct value of 4^(ni), Epstein's formula requires modification = 4 or 8 since it then gives \p = l, whereas \p = 2. The number when

.d if m is divisible by 4 and if x(w, m) of roots of x''= 1 (mod m) is 2dodi is ci in is odd, but the remaining cases, where, for m = 2'*pi*i di .pn'"'*, H
. .

di is

the

g. c. d. of

jj,

and
of

ao>l.

The number

4>{pi-^), and do the g. c. d. of fx and integers belonging to the exponent

2""^,
/x

when

modulo

m is
\x{m, p)-x(m, p-^)[ \x{m, q^)-x{m, (f-^)\.
.

= pV--

..

"^Revue de Math. (Peano), Turin,

8,

1905, 89-117.

"8G6teborgs Kungl. Vetenskaps-Handlingar, (4), 7-8, 1905, 12-14. "Amer. Math. Monthly, 13, 1906, 110. "OQuar. Jour. Math., 37, 1906, 122-145. Manuscript announced in Mess. Math., 33, 1903-4, 145-155 (with list of errata in earUer tables); British Assoc. Report, 1904, 443; I'inter"iProc.

m^diaire des math., 16, 1909, 240; 17, 1910, 71. London Math. Soc, 5, 1907, 237-274. "^Archiv Math. Phys., (3), 12, 1907, 134-150.

CI.

Cunningham."^

Chap. VII]

PRIMITIVE RoOTS, EXPONENTS, INDICES.

201

is simplified in the case tx = \l/{m) and the numbers belonging Haupt-exponent are called primitive roots of m. The primitive roots of m divide into families of 0(i/'(m)) each, such that any two of one family are powers of each other modulo m, while no two of different families are powers of each other. Each family is subdivided. In general, not every integer prime to m occurs among the residues modulo m of the powers of the various primitive roots of m. A. Cunningham"^ considered the exponent ^ to which an odd number q belongs modulo 2"*; and gave the values of ^ when m^ 3, and when q = 2^12='= 1 When g' = 2''=Fl and m>x-\-l, the residue of q^^^^ can (fi odd), m>3. usually be expressed in one of the forms 1=f2", 1=f2"=f2^. G. Fontene"^ determined the numbers which belong to a given exponent p"'~''8 modulo p"", where 5 is a given divisor of p l, and h^l, without employing a primitive root of p"". li p>2, the conditions are that shall belong to the exponent 8 modulo p and that the highest power of dividing N^ 1 shall he p^, l^h^m. p

This formula

to this

*M. Demeczky"^ discussed primitive roots. E. Landau"^ proved the existence of primitive roots of powers of odd primes, discussed systems of indices for any modulus n, and treated the
characters of n. G. A. Miller"^ noted that the determination of primitive roots of g corresponds to the problem of finding operators of highest order in the By use of the group of isomorphisms of G it is cyclic group G of order g. shown that the primitive roots of g which belong to an exponent 2q, where q is an odd prime, are given by a", when a ranges over those integers between 1 and g/2 which are prime to g. As a corollary, the primitive roots of a prime 2g+l, where q is an odd prime, are a^, l<a<g+l. A. N. Korkine"^ gave a table showing for each prime p<4000 a primitive root g and certain characters which serve to solve any solvable congruence x^=a (mod p), where g is a prime dividing p l. Let q" be the highest power of q dividing p 1. The characters of degree q are the solutions of
M

= l,

u''

= u,

u"'

= u',...,

(w^"-")'
g^p~'^^^^

w(''-2)

(mod

p)

and hence are the residues of the powers of for k = l,. ., a. There are noted some errors in the Canon of Jacobi^^ and the table of Burckhardt. Korkine stated that if p is a prime and a belongs to the exponent e = {p 1)/5, exactly (f){p l)/<l>{e) of the roots of a;* = a (mod p) are primitive roots of p. K. A. Posse"^ remarked that Korkine constructed his table without knowing of the table by Wertheim,^^and extended Korkine's tables to 10000.
.

"^Messenger of Math., 37, 1907-8, 162-4. "*Nouv. Ann. Math., (4), 8, 1908, 193-216. "^Math 6s Phys. Lapok, Budapest, 17, 1908, 79-86. iiHandbuch .Verteilung der Primzahlen, I, 1909, 391-414, 478-486. ii'Amer. Jour. Math., 31, 1909, 42-4. iisMatem. Shorn. Moskva (Math. Soc. Moscow), 27, 1909, 28-115, 120-137 D. A. Grave, 29, 1913, 7-11. The table was reprinted by Posse."* iio/bid., 116-120, 175-9, 238-257. Reprinted by Posse."
.
.

(in Russian).

Cf.

202

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, vii

R. D. CarmichaeP^ called a number a primitive X-root modulo n if it belongs to the exponent X(?i), defined in Ch. Ill, Lucas. ""^ The existence The product of those powers of g which of primitive X-roots g is proved. 1 (mod n) if X(n) >2. A method is given to solve are prhnitive X-roots is X(x) =a, and the solutions tabulated for a ^24. C. Posse^-^ noted that in Wertheim's^'^^ table, the primitive root 14 of 2161 should be replaced by 23, while 10 is not a primitive root of 3851. E. Maillet^^^ described the manuscript table by Chabanel, deposited in the library of the University of Paris, giving the indices for primes under 10000 and data to determine the number having a given index. F. Schuh^^^ showed how to form the congruence for the primitive roots of a prime and gave two further proofs of the existence of primitive roots. He treated binomial congruences, quadratic residues and made applicaFor any modulus n, he found the tions to periodic fractions to any base. 1 (mod n) holds for every x prime to n, and derived least m for which x"' the solutions ?i of 4>{n) =m, i. e., n's having primitive roots. 1 (mod p") with the least comF. Schuh^^^ discussed the solution of a;' If X belongs to the exponent q modulo n, the powers of x give putation. a cycle of 0(g) numbers each with the "period" q. The numbers prime to n and having the period q may form several such cycles more than one if n has no primitive root and q is the maximum period. If n = 2" (a>2), then g = 2* (s^a 2) and the number of cycles is 1, 3 or 2 according as s = 0, s = 1 In the last case, the cj^cles are formed by 2''~^(2fc+l) =f1. or s>l. When q is even, x is said to be of the first or second kind according as If the numbers of a cycle are of the second kind, x'''^= 1 (mod n) or not. we get a new cycle of the second kind by changing the signs of the numbers While for moduli n having primitive roots there exist no of the first cycle. numbers of the second kind, when n has no primitive roots and g is a possible even period, there exist at least two cycles of the second kind and of period Finally, there is given a table showing the number of cycles of each q. kind for moduli ^ 150. M. Kraitchik^^^ gave a table showing for each prime p< 10000 a primitive root of p and the least solutions of 2""=!, 10"= 1 (mod p). *J. Schumacher^^*^ discussed indices. L. von Schrutka^^^ noted that, if g, r, are the distinct primes dividing p l, where p is a prime, all non-primitive roots of p satisfy

(a;V-l)(xV_i)
""Bull. Amer. Math. Soc, 16, 1909-10, 232-7. i^iActa Math., 33, 1910, 405-6.

.=0 (mod
Theory
of

p).

Also,

Numbers, pp. 71-4.

i=L'interm6diaire des math., 17, 1910, 19-20.

i23Supplement de Vriend derWiskunde, Culemborg, 22, 1910, 34-114, 166-199, 252-9; 25, 1913, 33-59, 143-159, 228-259. "*Ibid., 23, 1911, 39-70, 130-159, 230-247. '"Sphinx-Oedipe, May, 1911, Num^ro Special, pp. 1-10; errata listed p. 122 by Cunningham and Woodall. Extension to 25000, 1912, 25-9, 39-42, 52-5; errata, 93-4, by Cunningham. "'Blatter Gymnasiaj-Schulwesen, Miinchen, 47, 1911, 217-9, "^Monatshefte Math. Phys., 22, 1911, 177-186.

Chap. VII]

PRIMITIVE RoOTS, EXPONENTS, INDICES.

203

To

this congruence he appHed Hurwitz's^^ method (Ch. VIII) of finding the number of roots and concluded that there are p l(f>(p l) roots. Hence there exist 0(p 1) primitive roots of p. A. Cunningham and H. J. WoodalP^^ continued to p< 100000 the table of 2 modulo p. of Cunningham"" of the maximum residue indices C. Posse^^^ reproduced Korkine's"^ and his own"^ tables and explained
j^

their use in the solution of binomial congruences.

C. Krediet^^o treated x*'=l (mod n) of Lucas/^" Ch. Ill, and called x a primitive root if it belongs to the exponent cp. The powers of such a root are placed at equal intervals on a circle for various n's. G. A. Miller^^^ proved by use of group theory that, if is arbitrary, the sum of those integers < and prime to which belong to an exponent divisible by 4 is (mod m) and the sum of those belonging to the expo 1 (mod m), and proved the corresponding theorem by Stern^^ nent 2 is for a prime modulus. A. Cunningham^^^ tabulated the number of primes p<10^ for which y belongs to the same exponent modulo p, for y = 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12; and the number of primes p in each 10000 to 10^ for which y (2/ = 2 or 10) belongs to the same exponent modulo p. Also, for the same ranges on p and y, the number of primes p for which y''^ 1 (mod p) is solvable, where A; is a given divisor of p 1 A. Cunningham^^^ stated that he had finished the manuscript of a table of Haupt-exponents to bases 3, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12 for all prime powers < 15000; also canons giving at sight the residues of z" modulo p'''< 10000 for z = 2,

r^l00;2 = 3,
J.

5, 7, 10, 11,

r^30.

Barinaga^^^ considered a number a belonging to the exponent g modulo p, a prime. If a is not divisible by g, the sum of the ath powers of the numbers forming the period of a modulo p is divisible by p. The

sum

n at a time is congruent to zero modulo p ii n<g, n = g, according as g is even or odd. A. Cunningham^^^ listed errata in his Binary Canon^^ and Jacobi's Canon. ^^ G. A. Miller^^^ employed the group formed by the integers <m and prime to m, combined by multiplication modulo m, to show that, if a number is = 1 (mod 2"^), but not modulo 2^+\ where l<7</3, it belongs to the exponent 2^~^ modulo 2^. Also, if p is an odd prime, and A^= 1 (mod p), N belongs to the exponent p^~^ modulo p^ if and only if A^" 1 is divisible by p^, but not by p^+\ where /3>7^ 1.
of their products
=^"1 ii

but to

8Quar. Jour. Math., 42, 1911, 241-250; 44, 1913, 41-48, 237-242; 45, 1914, 114-125. i^Acta Math., 35, 1912, 193-231, 233-252. ""Wiskundig Tijdskrift, Haarlem, 8, 1912, 177-188; 9, 1912, 14-38; 10, 1913, 40-46, 87-97. (Dutch.) "lAmer. Math. Monthly, 19, 1912, 41-6. "2Proc. London Math. Soc, (2), 13, 1914, 258-272. "'Messenger Math., 45, 1915, 69. Cf. Cunningham."" "<Annaes Sc. Acad. Polyt. do Porto, 10, 1915, 74-6. "^Messenger Math., 46, 1916, 57-9, 67-8. "s/Wd., 101-3.

204

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, vil

A. Cunningham^^^ gave five primes p for which there is a maximum of exponents to which the various numbers belong modulo p. On exponents and indices, see Lebesgue^"'*^ and Bouniakowsky^^^; also Reuschle^^ of Ch. YI, Bouniakowsky"^ of Ch. XIV, and Calvitti^^ of Ch. XX.

number

Binomial Congruences.

Bhdscara Achd,rya^*^ (1150 A. D.) found y such that y^ SO is di\'isible Changing 30 by multiples of 7, we reach a 7 by solving ?/" = 7c+30. Hence set perfect square 16 with the root 4.

by

7c+30 = (7n+4)2,
Taking n =

= 7n'+8n-2,

y = 7n-\-4.

Such a problem is impossible if, after abrading 1, we get y = ll. the absolute term (30 above) by the divisor (7 above) and the addition of multiples of the divisor, we do not reach a square. Similarly for the case of a cube, with corresponding conditions for imposFor y^ = 5e+Q, abrade 6 by the divisor 5 to get sibihty (206, p. 265).
the cube 1; adding 43-5,

we

get 216

= 6^.

Hence

set y

= 5n-\-Q.
.

An anonymous Japanese manuscript^^

. .

of the first part of the eighteenth

.

mp nq=l, 2pa=A (mod

But
if

century gave a solution of x^ ky = a by trial. The residues Oi, ., ak-\ of = 1)" 1", k if a^^a, then r. It noted modulo are formed; x was (^ ., that ak-r = 0'r or kQr according as k is even or odd, and that the residue of r" is r times that of r"~^ Matsunaga,^^*^" in the first half of the eighteenth century, solved a}-\-hx= y^ by expressing 6 as a product mn and finding p, q and A so that
n).

Then

Am= 2a,
in the

write A-\-n in place of

x={Am 2a)A/n [and y=a 7nb]. A and proceed as before. Or write

To
solve

2a+h

form bQ+R, whence

x=2a+b-{Q+l)R.

69+

llx=y'^, consider the successive squares until we reach 5^=3 (mod 11). Write 2-5+11 in the form 1-11 10. Then for a=5, 6= 11, Q= 1, i2= 10, the preceding expression for x becomes 1, whence 5^+11-1 = 6^. Then 1. Then 23-(2+l)-l = 20 gives 6"+ write 2-6+11 in the form 2-11

20-11=

(256-69)/ll= 17. L. Euler^^^ proved that, if n divides p l, where p is a prime, and if a = c''-\-kp, then (by powering and using Fermat's theorem), a^^~^^^" l is divisible by p. Conversely, if a'" 1 is divisible by the prime p = w7i+l, we can find an integer y such that a ?/" is divisible by p. For,
16^,

and

a;=

o'"-2/'"''

= (a-2/")Q(^),
of Q(l), Q(2),.
3,
.

and the

differences of order

mnn

.,

Q{mn) are the same

Brahmegupta

>"Math. Quest, and Solutions (Ed. Times),

'"Vlja-ganita, 204-5; Algebra, with arith.

1917, 61-2; corrections, p. 65.

of

and mensuration, from the Sanscrit and Bhdscara, transl. by H. T. Colebrooke, London, 1817, pp. 263-4. ""Abhand. Geschichte Math. Wiss., 30, 1912, 237.
^'^Ibid., 234-5.

i"Novi

270-1, 273.

Acad. Petrop., 7, 1758-9 (1755), p. 49, eeq., 64, 72, 77; Comm. Arith., 1, In Novi Comm., 1, 1747-8, p. 20; Comm. Arith., 1, p. 60, he proved the first statement and stated the converse

Comm.

Chap. VII]

BiNOMIAL CONGRUENCES.

205

as those of the term t/'""-" for ?/ = !,..., mn, and hence equal mn of y. so that Q(y) is not divisible by p for some values 1, The main conclusion here Euler^^^ recurred to the subject.
.
.

{mn n)\,
and from

the criterion that, if p = mn-]-l is a prime, x''=a (mod p) has exactly n roots or no root, according as a"^=l (mod p) or not. In roots of a""^!, and each root a is a residue of particular, there are just an nth power. Euler^^^" stated that, if aq-\-h=p'^, all the values of x making ax-\-b b, square are given by a;= ay'^^2py-\-q. J. L. Lagrange^^^ gave the criterion of Euler, and noted that if p is a prime 4n+3, B'-^'^^^^ l is divisible by p, so that x=B'''^^ is a root of x^=B (mod p). Given a root ^ of the latter, where now p is any odd prime not dividing B, we can find a root of x^=B (mod p^) by setting x = ^-\-\p,
his

former paper

is

2|X+co=MP. The latter can be and p are relatively prime. We can proceed similarly and solve x^=B (mod p"). Next, consider ^^=B (mod 2"), for n>2 and B odd (since the case B even reduces to the former). Then ^ = 2z-\-l, ^^ B = Z-\-\B, where Z = 4:z{z-\-l) is a multiple of 8. Thus 1B must be a multiple of 8. Let w>3 and 1-B = 2'^,r>3. If r^n, it suflaces to take 2 = 2""^, where f is If r<n, Z must be divisible by 2'', whence 2 = 2'""^^ or 2*""^^ 1. arbitrary. Hence w=^{2'-^i:=i=l)-\-p must be divisible by 2"-''. If n-r^r-2, it The latter is a necessary condition suffices to take f =^iS divisible by 2""''. Thus ^ = 2'-^p=F^, w = 2'-\f=t=p). Hence f p must be if n-r>r-2. divisible by 2""^'^+^. We have two sub-cases according as the exponent of
{\^-{-n)p'^ if

i^-B = poi.

Then x^-B =
jjl

satisfied

by

integers X,

since 2^

is

or

>r 1;

etc.

Finally, the solution of

x^=B{mod m)
/ and g are

reduces to the case of the powers of

primes dividing m.

by /, and \p^B by

prime and ^^ Bis divisible then x^B\b divisible by g, fg ii x= jif^ ^ = vg^\l/. But the final equality can be satisfied by integers /z, v since / is prime to g. A. M. Legendre^^^ proved that if p is a prime and co is the g. c. d. of n
For,
if

relatively

and p \ = oip', there

(1)

is

no integral root

of

a:"=j5(modp)

unless
of (1)
(2)

B^'= 1 (mod p) and they satisfy

I

if

the last condition

is

satisfied, there

are

co

roots

x'^^B^ (mod p),

is

where
(3)

the least positive integer for which

ln

q{p \)=o}.
and hence
(2),

For, from (1) and x''-^=l, we get x^''=B\ x^^^-^^^l, of (3). Set n = oin'. Then, by (2) and (1),

by use

^n'l^^n^2,

5P''=a;P'"=<rP-l=l

(mod

p)
1,

"2Novi Comm..Petrop., 8, 1760-1, 74; Opusc. Anal. 1, 1772, 121; Comm. Arith., "^aOpera postuma, I, 1862, 213-4 (about 1771). "^Mem. Acad. R. Sc. Berlin, 23, ann6e 1767, 1769; Oeuvres, 2, 497-504. "^M6m. Ac. R. Sc. Paris, 1785, 468, 476-481. (Cf. Legendre.i^^)

274, 487.

206
Since In'qp'

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, vii

= 1,

the

first

gives 5^"'=

1.

Hence

Conversely,

if

B^'=l,
a^p-i_l=a^p'-_j5p'/

(mod

p)

has the factor x" B\ so that (Lagrange^) congruence (2) has co roots. If 4n divides p 1, the roots of x^"= 1 (mod p) are the odd powers of an integer belonging to the exponent 4n modulo p. Let n divide p l, and 7n divide {p l)/n. Let co be the g. c. d. of m n and set n = cov. Determine positive integers I and q such that lv qm = l. If 5'"= == 1 (mod p), (1) is satisfied by the roots of x'^^B'y (mod p), where y ranges over the roots of ?/"= (=t 1)^ (mod p). For, the last two congruences
,

give
x''

= x'"'=B''^y''=B'"^+\=i=iy=B (mod

p).

of the roots of ?/''=l, we reduce the solution of (1) to binomial congruences of lower degrees. In particular, let n = 2, m = (p 1)/2, and let 2 be prune to ?, so that p = 4:a l,l = a,q = l. Then x^ B (mod p) =*= 5" without trial requires that 5"* so that we have the solutions .t 1 (Lagrange^^^). Next, if n = 2 and 5^'^+^= 1, the theorem gives x B'''^^y, L But we may generalize the last result. Consider x" c^ where ?/(mod p). Since p must have the form 4a+l, we have p=f^-\-g^. Determine u and z so that c = gupz. Then x fu (mod p). Let a belong to the exponent nw modulo p, where w divides (p l)/n. Then the roots of B"' l (mod p) are B a"*' (m = 1,- , w) 1), and, for a fixed B, the roots of (1) are x = 0'"""+" (m = 0, 1, n - 1). For, a" belongs to the exponent w, whence B a'"'. Legendre^^^ gave the same theorems in his text. He added that, knowing a root 6 of (1), it is easy to find a root of x" B (mod p"), with the possible exception of the case in which n is divisible by p. Let6"B = Mp

Hence by means

= + =

and

set

a:=^+i4p.

Then

a;"

is

divisible

by

p^

if

M+'nB''-^A=pM',
which can be satisfied by integers A, Af' if n is not divisible by p. To solve where a, 6, are distinct primes, deter(1) when p is composite, p = a6^ mine all the roots X of X" = B (mod a), all the roots ^ of ijl" = B (mod b^),
.

Then
of (1).

if

x=\ (mod

a), x=iJi

(mod
p
is

6^),.

.,

x will range over

all

the roots

Legendre^^^ noted that

solutions of a:^+a

if

a prime

8n+5 we

can give explicitly the

(9

(mod p) when it is solvable, viz., when a'*"''"^ = 1. For, = a"+^ either -"+' + 1=0 and x = a"+' is a solution, or a-"+^-l=0 and satisfies d^ a^O (mod p), so that it remains only to solve x^-\-d' = 0, which was done at the end of his^^* memoir. For p = 8?i+l, let n = a^, where a is a power of 2 and /3 is odd; if 0"= 1, x^-\-a = can be solved as in the
i"Th(5orie des nombres, 1798, 411-8; ed. 2, 1808, 349-357; ed. 3, 1830, Nos. 339-351; transl. by Maser, 1893, 2, pp. 15-22.
^"Ibid.,

German

231-8; ed.

2,

1808, pp. 211-219; Maser,

I,

pp. 246-7.

Chap. VII]

BiNOMIAL CONGEUENCES.

207

case p = 8n+5; but in general no such direct solution is known, and it is best to represent some multiple of p by the form y'^+az^. If we have found 6 such that ^^+a is divisible by the prime p, not dividing
a,

we

readily solve

x^+a =

(mod

p").

For, from

r^-\-as^ is divisible

by

p^.

Now
is

s is

= sx+p''y, whence x^+a

30.]

divisible

not divisible by p. Thus we may take by p". [Cf. Tchebychef, Theorie der

Congruenzen,

any composite modulus is easily reduced to the preceding (end of Lagrange's^^^ paper). Legendre proved that, if is odd and prime to a, the number of solutions of a:^+a (mod N) is 2'"^ where i is the number of distinct prime factors of N; the same is true for modulus 2N. Henceforth let be odd or the double of an odd number and let d be the a. If d has no square factor, the congruence has 2'"^ roots, and g. c. d. of where i is the number of distinct odd prime factors of not dividing a. But if d=o)\(/^, where co has no square factor, the congruence has 2'~V roots where i is the number of distinct odd prime factors of N/d. C. F. Gauss^" treated congruence (1) by the use of indices. However, we can give a direct solution (arts. 66-68) when a root is known to be congruent to a power of B. For, by (1) and x B^, B^B^"". If therefore a relation of the last iy^e is known, a root of (1) is B''. The condition for the relation is l A:n (mod t), where t is the exponent to which B belongs modulo p. It is shown that t must divide = (p l)/n. We may discard from any factor of n; if the resulting number is m/q, the unique solution k of 1 1:11 (mod m/q) is the desired k. [Cf. Poinsot^^^] Gauss (arts. 101-5) gave the usual method of reducing the solution of x^= A (mod m) for any composite modulus to the case of a prime modulus and gave the number of roots modulo p'* in the various possible subcases. His well-known and practical ''method of exclusion" (arts. 319-322) employs successive small powers of primes as moduU. Another method (arts. 327-8) is based on the theory of binary quadratic forms [cf. Smith^^].
case of

The

m =

The congruence

ax^-\-'bx-\-c=0

(mod m)

is

reduced

(art. 152) to

y^=}?

Aac (mod 4am). For each root y, it remains to solve 2ax-{-b=y (mod 4aw). Gauss^^^ showed in a somewhat incomplete posthumous paper that, if
are distinct primes, the ., where a,h,. be made to depend upon the solution of a congruences of degree a, jS congruences of degree h, etc. Use is made of the periods formed of the primitive roots of the congruence, as in Gauss' theory
t

is

a prime and

f~'^{t

l)=a''.
t")

solution of a:"=

(mod

may

of roots of unity.

Legendre^^^ solved

x^+a=0 (mod
German

2'")

when

is

of the

form

1 =F8a

by

i"Disquis. Arith., 1801, Arts. 60-65. "sWerke, 2, 1863, 199-211. Maser's

transl. of

Gauss' Disq. Arith.,

etc.,

1889, 589-601

(comments, p. 683). "'Theorie des nombres, ed.

2,

1808, pp. 358-60 (Nos. 350-2).

Maser,

2,

1893, 25-7.

208

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap. VII

use of the expansion of (1+2)^'^:

2V=t 2VVl8a = l|2^a- 2-4 2-4-6

7

M-3

=tiV23"a"+

N=
The
whose

M-3-5

(2n

3)

2-4-6-8. ..2n

coefficient of a" is

an integer

divisible

coefficients are not divisible by every term of 6~-^a is divisible by 2'". proposed congruence is x=2'^~^x'^d. P. S. Laplace^*^" attempted to prove that, if p is a prime and p l=ae, For, if there exists an integer x<e such that x' l is not divisible by p. x = e and all earlier values of x make a:* 1 divisible by p,

2'""^

by 2"^^ Retain only the terms and call their sum 6. Hence Thus the general solution of the

/=(e^-l)-e^,{e-lY-l\
would be
divisible

+ {^^y,{e-2Y-l\-...
is

by

p.

The sum

of the second terms of the binomials

+ ... = -(1-1)^ = 0,
of the first terms of the binomials is e by the theory of differnot divisible by p since e<p. [But the former equality implies that the last term of / is ( 1)''(0 1), whereas the theorem is trivial if x Again, nothing in the proof given prevents is allowed to take the value 0. a from being unity; then the statement that there is a positive integer x<p l such that x^~^ 1 is not divisible hyp contradicts Fermat's theorem.]

while the

sum
is

ences,

and

deduced roots of a;"= 1 (mod p) from roots of unity. (p. 152) proved that if n is odd and p is a prime, rc"= 1 (mod p) is solvable and the number of roots is the g. c. d. of n and p l; while, if n is even, it is solvable if and only if the factor 2 occurs in p 1 to a higher power than in n. G. Libri^^^ gave a long formula, involving sums of trigonometric funcL. Poinsot^^

M.

A. Stern^^

tions, for the

number

of roots of

x^+c=0 (mod
.

p).
.

to derive LegenV. A. Lebesgue^^ applied a theorem on/(a:i, ., Xk) dre's^^^ condition B^'=l for the existence of roots of (1), and the number of roots. Cf. Lebesgue^^ of Ch. VIII. Erlerus^^ (pp. 9-13) proved that, if pi, p^ are distinct odd primes,
. . .

x~=l (mod2''p/'...p/)
has 2", 2", 2"+^ or 2"+^ roots according as
j/

= 0,

1,

2 or >2.

in Ch. Ill of of 1882.

x^=a, see the reports, on Fermat's theorem, of the papers by Brennecke^^ and Crelle^* 1839, Crelle,^^ Poinsot" (erroneous) and Prouhet^^ of 1845, and Schering^''* For the
last result

and the

like

number

of roots of

C. F. Arndt^^^ proved that the

"Communication to Lacroix, Traitd Calcul

number

of roots of

x'=

(mod

p") for

Diff. Int., ed. 2, vol. in, 1818,

723.

'"Jour, fur Math., 9, 1832, 175-7. See Libri," Ch. VIII. "*Archiv Math. Phys., 2, 1842, 10-14, 21-22.

Chap. VII]

BiNOMIAL CONGRUENCES.
;

209

p an odd prime is the g. c. d. of t and (/)(p") the same holds for modulus 2p". He found the number of roots of x'^=r (mod m), m arbitrary. By using S</>(0 =5, if i ranges over the divisors of 5, he proved (pp. 25-26) the known
result that the

number of roots of x"= 1 (mod p)

by
p; the

is

the

g. c. d. 5 of
(

n andp 1.
the
is

The product
the roots
is

of the roots of the latter is congruent to

1)*"^^;

sum

of

divisible

sum

of the squares of the roots

divisible

bypif 6>2.
a. P. F. Arndt^^^ used indices to find the number of roots of x^ A. L. Crelle^^^gave an exposition of known results on binomial congruences.

L. Poinsot^^^ considered the direct solution of x"=A (mod p), where p a prime and n is a divisor of p l=nm (to which the contrary case Let the necessary condition ^""=1 be satisfied. Hence we may reduces). replace A by A^+"''^ and obtain the root rc=A^ if l-\-mk = ne is solvable for and n are relatively prime [cf. Gauss^^^]. integers k, e, which is the case if The fact that we obtain a single root x=A^ is explained by the remark that it is a root common to a:"=A and x"'=l, which have a single common root be not relatively prime. Then when n is prime to m. Next, let n and exponent modulo p. But if A A' A belongs to the if there is no root prime exponent m' and if m' is to n, there exists as smaller belongs to a = The number of roots of a;"=l A", where l-\-m'k ne'. before a root 87-101). is found (mod N) (pp. C. F. Arndt^^^ proved that x'=l (mod 2"), n>2, has the single root 1 if t is odd; while for t even the number of roots is double the g. c. d. of i and 2n-2^ The sum of the A:th powers of the roots of x'= 1 (mod p) is divisible by the prime p if A: is not a multiple of t. By means of Newton's identities it is shown that the sum, sum of products by twos, threes, etc., of the roots 1 or of x*= 1 (mod p) is divisible by the prime p, while their product is 1 according as the number of roots is odd or even. If the sum, sum of integers is divisible by the prime p, products by twos, threes, etc., of 1)'", the integers are the roots of x'"=l while their product is
is

=+

=(

m
.

(mod

p).
.

distinct A. Cauchy^" stated that if I = p\'' are ., where p, q,... primes, and if n is an odd prime, x"= 1 (mod 7) has rf distinct roots, including primitive roots, i. e., numbers belonging to the exponent n. [But x^= 1 (mod 5) has a single root.] to be primes =1 (mod n). Then Cauchy^^^ later restricted p, q,. a:"=l (mod p^) has a primitive root ri, and rc^^l (mod q") has a primitive root 7-2, so that x''^ 1 (mod /) has a primitive root, viz., an integer =ri (mod p*") and =r2 (mod q"), etc.; but no primitive root ii are not all =1 p, q,.
. .
.

(mod

n).

i3Von

den Kubischen Resten, Torgau, 1842, 12 pp.

fiir

*Jour.

Math., 28, 1844, 111-154. Math^matiques, (1), 10, 1845, 77-87. ""Archiv Math. Phys., 6, 1845, 380, 396-9. "'Comptes Rendus Paris, 24, 1847, 996; Oeuvres, (1), 10, 299. "sComptes Rendus Paris, 25, 1847, 37; Oeuvres, (1), 10, 331.
Jour. de

210

History of the Theory of Numbers.

that,
if

[Chap, vii

Hoen4 Wronski^^^ stated without proof

a;'"=a

(mod M),

a = {-iy+'\hK+{-lY+''rA[M/K,o)Y-^+Mi, x = h (-lY+'A[M/K, iry-'+Mj,

and that

M must be a factor of aK"" - \hK-{-iy+^\'".

o)Y, for

Here the "alephs"

A[M/K,

r = 0,

1,.

.,

are the numerators

obtained in the development of K, Wronski wrote the square of l''^^ = k\. Concerning these formulas, see Hanegraeff,"^ Bukaty,!^^ Dickstein.^^^ Cf. Wronski^^^ of Ch. VIII. E. Desmarest" noted that, if x'^+D=0 (mod p) is solvable, x^+Dy^ = mp can be satisfied by a value of m<3+y>/16 and a value of 2/^3. His proof is not satisfactory. D. A. da Silva''^ (Alasia, p. 31) noted that x^^l (mod m), where = Pi*'P2^* has the roots 'Zxiqi7n/p{^ where Xi is a root of x^'= 1 (mod Pi"^), Di being the g. c. d. of D and <t){pr), while the g's are integers such that Xqim/p['=\ (mod m). Da Silva^^^" proved that a solvable congruence a:"=r (mod m) can be = p'',p a prime > 2. reduced to the case r prime to m and then to the case Then, if 5 is the g. c. d. of n and (f){p'')=8di, there is a root if and only if r*'=l (mod p") and hence if and only if r'^=l (mod p"'"^^), where p"' is the g. c. d. of n and p"~"\ while d is the quotient of p 1 by its g. c. d. with n. H. J. S. Smith^'^" indicated a simplification in Gauss'^" second method

M/K

reduced fractions In place of fraction. continued as a

of the

of solving

x^^A,
of

for for

some value
which also

(mod P) is solvable, mP = x^-\-Dy'^ is solvable Employing all values of m under that limit ?72< 2V-D/3.
If r^-\-

D=

(i)=S>
and finding with Gauss all prime representations of the resulting products by the form x^-\-Dy^, we get r=x'/y', x"/y",. .(mod P), where x', y';
.

x", y"

denote the sets of solutions of mP = x^-\-Dy^. Eg. Hanegraeff^^^ reduced x"'=r to d"'r=l (mod p) by use of 6x=l. When p/d is developed into a continued fraction, let /x and P^_i be the number of quotients and number of convergents preceding the last. Let v, P^_i be the corresponding numbers for p/O"". Then
\.
.
.

r=(-ir^P,_i (mod p). For p a prime, we get all roots by taking 6 = 1,. (p 1)/2. with d{x h)^l in place of 6x= 1, we get
x^i-iy-'P,_
. .

By

starting

"'R6forme des Math^matiques, being Vol. i of R6forme du savoir humain, 1847. Wronski's mathematical discoveries have been discussed by S. Dickstein, Bibliotheca Math., (2), 6, 1892, 48-52, 85-90; 7, 1893, 9-14 [on analysis, (2), 8, 1894, 49, 85; (2), 10, 1896, 5]. Cf. I'intermdBull. Int. Ac. Sc. Cracovie, 1896; Rozprawy, Krakow, 4, 1913, 73, 396.
diaire des math., 22, 1915, 68; 23, 1916, 113, 164-7, 181-3, 199, 231-4; 25, 1918, 55-7.
"'<KU. Alasia,

Annaes Sc. Acad. Polyt. do Porto, 9, 1914, 65-95. There are misprints; for example, five at the top of p. 76. ""British Assoc. Report, 1860, 120-, 68; CoU. M. Papers, 1, 148-9. "*Note BUT r^quation de congruence x^=r (mod p), Paris, 1860.

many

confusing

Chap. VII]

BiNOMIAL CONGRUENCES.

211
p).

x-h={-iy-'P,-u

r^{-iy-\dh+irP^.^ (mod

l, the last taking ^=(1^/')^ and replacing 1 by (-1)^+^ in 0(a;-/i) Wronski^^^ by proof without results become the fundamental formula given in his Reforme des Mathematiques. G. L. Dirichlet^^^ discussed the solution of x^^D for any modulus. G. F. Meyer"^ gave an elementary discussion of the solution of x^=b (mod k), for k a prime, power of prime, or any integer. V. A. Lebesgue^^^ employed a prime p, a divisor n of p l=nn', and a number a belonging to the exponent n' modulo p. Then the roots of a (mod p) are a"6^, where h is not in the period of a, and 6 is a quadratic a;" non-residue of p if a is a quadratic residue, and 6" is the least power of h congruent to a term of the period of a. If we set 6" a" (mod p), then must na-\-v^ l (mod n'). The roots x are primitive roots of p. In the construction of a table of indices, his method is to seek a primitive root giving to 2 the minimum index (rather than to 10, used by Jacobi);

By

thus

we use the theorem

for

a= 2.

why the conditions imposed on h in his preceding paper are necessary. He added that when we have found that a (mod p) leads to a primitive root x = g oi p,\i is easy to solve x'"=r x" divides p 1, by expressing r as a power of g by the equiva(mod p) when lent of an abridged table of indices. Lebesgue^^*^ noted that the usual method of solution by indices leads to the theorem: If a belongs to the exponent e modulo p, and if n divides p 1, and we set n = e'm, where e' has only prime factors which divide e,
Lebesgue^'^^

gave reasons

while
If

is

prime to

e,

then, for every divisor

of

m, x'^^a (mod p) has

e'(j){M)

roots belonging to the exponent

e

M.
p, there are e0(n) p),

a belongs to the exponent

modulo

in the period of a, for

which 6"= a' (mod

divisor of
a'6",

n and i does not divide e. where nt iu l = ev, t<e, u<n. This generahzation of his^^'' earlier theorem is used to find the period of a primitive root of p from the period of 2. of the pth term of R. Gorgas"^ stated that, if p is the residue modulo

numbers h, not minimum. A common Then the n roots of x"= a (mod p) are
with n
sl

](M-l)/2[^. .,2^ 1^, then p(p-l)=pm+ikf a, according as ilf = 4m=t:l. Take the lower signs and solve for p we get
.

2p = l6,
Set 4p = Mc+p'.

62
initial

= M(4a-l)+4p.

Hence the

by

= M(4a-fc l)+p' of like form. Let p' end. The process may be repeated until we = MA-\-p^m solvable by inspection.
6^
"^Zahlentheorie, 1863, 32-7; ed. 2, 1871; ed. "Archiv Math. Phys., 43, 1865, 413-36. "^Comptes Rendus Paris, 61, 1865, 1041-4. "'Ihid., 62, 1866, 20-23. "/6id., 63, 1866, 1100-3.
3,

equation x^ = My+p has been replaced be the p'th place from the reach an equation P(P 1)

1879; ed.

4,

1894.

"^Ueber Losung dioph. Gl.

2. Gr., Progr.,

Magdeburg, 1867.

212

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, vii

Ladrasch^^^ obtained known results on x^=a for any modulus. V. Bouniakowsky^"^ gave a method of sohdng q-S'^ ^r (mod P), where P is odd. His first illustration is 3'===1 (mod 25). Write the integers ^(25 1)/2 in a line. Under the first four wTite in order the integers (mod 3) under the next four write in reverse order those under 1 2. the last four write in order those

=
7

1* 2* 3*

4*
12
1

5 10

6* 7* 8*

9* 10 2 5

11* 12*

8
3;

11

mark with an marked with an asterisk is the least solution x of 3""= 1 (mod 25). The sign is determined by the number of integers in the second set marked by an asterisk. The method applies to any P = 6n+1. But for P = 6n+5, we
asterisk
in the first line;

Mark with an

below

it lies

asterisk 3 in the first line; etc.

The number 10

of the integers

use for the second set of numbers in the second line those =2 (mod 3) in = 23, we see If reverse order, and for the third set those =1 in order. that each of the 11 numbers in the first line are marked with an asterisk,

whence 3^^=-l (mod 23). A like marking occurs for P = 5, 11, 17, 29. For P = 35, 12 numbers are marked, whence 12 is the least x for which 3''=1 (mod 35). Starting with the unmarked number 5, we get the cycle 5, 15, 10, whence 3^= 1 (mod 7); similarly, the cycle 7, 14 gives 3"= 1 (mod 5). For g'-3'^=='=4 (mod 25), we begin with 4 in the second row. Since it hes below 7, we mark 7 with an asterisk in the second row; etc. We use an affix n on the number which is the nth marked by an asterisk.

12

^li

Chap. VII]

BiNOMIAL CONGRUENCES.

213

= p'' or 2^', where p Sancery" (pp. 17-23) employed the modulus Let a belong to the exponent n modulo M. Let A be the is an odd prime. and p,Set A=AiA2 where Ai = pi*'p2*' g. c. d. of m and 4>{M)/n. is a prime dividing both A and n, and p/< is the power of Pi dividing A. Let b be any divisor of Ag. Then a:"'=a (mod M) has 0(nAi5)/0(n) roots belonging to the exponent nAjS the power aAi5 of such a root is congruent Given a to a, where a can be found by means of a linear congruence. number belonging to the exponent nAi5, we can find Ai5 roots of the conL.

>

gruence.

C. G. Reuschle^^^" tabulated the roots of /=0 (mod p), where p = wX+l is the maximum irreducible algebraic prime factor of a^ 1; also the roots of

and X are primes and /

T^Hc^O,
for

r/Hc^^O,
26,

TyHc^sO,
to

rf^'n-\-d=Q,
for various cubic

c<13,

d= 1

to

d=+2

+21, and

and

quartic congruences.

A. Kunerth's method for ^^=c (mod h) will be given in Vol. 2, Ch. XII. E. Lucas^^^^ treated a;^+l=0 (mod p"), where p is a prime >2, for use Given a^+l=0 (mod p), set in the question of the number of satins.
{a+i)"'

= A+Bi,

^B=l (mod

p'").

is a root x of the proposed congruence. B. Stankewitsch^^^ proved that if x^^q (mod p) is solvable, p being an odd prime, the positive root <p/2 is =B/A (mod p), where

Then A^

1-2

A=Si_,+qSi.3+q%_s+ ...+q^

S^,

B = Si+qSi_2+

+q^
.

where i = {p l)/2 and Sk denotes the sum of the products of 1, 2, ., i taken k at a time. Let n be a divisor of p 1. Let F{x) be the g. c. d. modulo p of x" ! and Il(x''^"- 1), where a ranges over the distinct prime factors of n. Call f{x) the quotient of x'' l by i^(a;). Then the
.

roots of f{x) Cauchy.14]

(mod

p) are the primitive roots of

is

x"= 1 (mod

p)

[Cf

N. V. Bougaief^^^ noted that if p = 8n+5 (mod p) is solvable, it has the root g(p+3)/8 ^j.
q2n+i^-^

(pzl)! g(p+3)/8
it

a prime and if x^=q according as

or

-1.

If

p = 2^Z+l,

odd, and q'=l,

has the root x=q^'+'^/\

[Legendre.^^]

T. Pepin^^^ treated x^= 2 by tables of indices. P. Gazzaniga^^^ gave a generalization of Gauss'

1820
. . .

lemma

(the case

n = 8 = 2,

^^^^

Tafeln Complexer Primzahlen Berlin, 1875. Errata, Cunningham."* G6om6trie des tigsus, Assoc, fran^., 40, 1911, 83-6; French transl. of his Italian paper in
,

is'Moscow Math. Soc,

^<^Ibid., p. 103.

I'Ingegnere Civile, 1880, Turm. 10, 1882-3, I, 112 (in Russian).

"Atti Accad. Pont. Nuovi Lincei, 38, 1884-5, 201. "Atti Reale Istituto Veneto, (6), 4, 1885-6, 1271-9.

214
^

History of the Theory of Numbers.

Separate the residues modulo p of kq, for k =
l,

[Chap, vii

= 0).

2,

.,

{p

l)/d,
.':

into three sets:

0<ri,.

.,

P r,<-<Si,.

.,

s,<-^p<tu.

5-1

.,

t^<p

i j

and form the differences mi = p t,. From the set 1,. ., (p 1)/5, delete the r, and ?n,; there remain v numbers i\. If ?/, is a root of s,?/,= yi (mod p), then x"=5 (mod p) is solvable if and only if ( l)"?/!. .2/=l (mod p), where 5 is the g. c. d. of n and p 1 P. Seelhoff^^^ gave the known cases in which x^=r (mod p) can be
. .

In the remaining cases, one solved explicitly [Lagrange, ^^^ Legendre^^^]. uses Gauss' method of exclusion, the process of Desmarest,^^ or, with Here x^=41 Seelhoff, use various quadratic residues of p {ibid., p. 306).

(mod 120097)

is

treated.

A. Berger^^^ considered a quadratic congruence reducible to a:^=D (mod If is prime to n, the number of roots is or 1 (mod 4). 4n), where

D=0

^(D, in)

= 2n{l +

(f ) }

= 2S

(f) f

= 22

(f) f,,

where p ranges over the distinct prime factors of n, while d and di range over the pairs of complementary divisors of n, and f ^ = or 1 according as d has a square factor or not. If g{nm)=g{n)g{m) for all integers n, m,
ands'(l)

= l,
(Z),

zgy

4n)^(n)
all

= 22

Q Q
^(n) -S
TT

^(n) -^2

^(n)^

where n ranges over

positive integers.

Mean

values are found

J,(?)*-;b5ti7S.?,I-"
it=i

h=i\n/n

where

finite for all n's,

a fundamental discriminant according to Kronecker, X, Xi are and p ranges over all primes. G. Wertheim^^^ presented the theory of a;^=a (mod m). R. Marcolongo^ treated x^-\-P=0 (mod p) in the usual manner when Next, from a particular set of solutions explicit solutions are known. X, y of x^+p'"?/+P = 0, where p is a prime >2, we get the solution
is

=i=x,=x-p'"y[ai.. .o_i] (mod p"'+')

of Xi^-\-p"''^^yi-{-P
last

= 0, where [ai. .a_i] is the numerator of next to the convergent to the continued fraction for p"'/{2x). The method is Serret's, Alg. Sup^r., II. For p = 2 the results obtained are the same as in
.

Dirichlet's Zahlentheorie, 36.

i"Zeitschrift Math. Phys., 31, 1886, 378-80. "SQfversigt K. Vetenskaps-Ak. Forhandlingar, Stockholm, 44, 1887, 127-153. Nova Acta regise soc. sc. Upsalensis, (3), 12, 1884. "Elemente der Zahlentheorie, 1887, 182-3, 207-217. ""Giomale di Mat., 25, 1887, 161-173.

Chap. VII]

BiNOMIAL CONGRUENCES.

215
(y<h)

of hx-{-l

F. J. Studnicka^^^ treated at length the solution in integers x, y = y^, discussed by Leibniz in 1716.

L. Gegenbauer^^^ gave a new derivation of the equations of Berger^^^ leading to asymptotic expressions for the number of solutions of x^=Z). A. Tonelli^^^ gave a method of solving x^=c (mod p), when p is a prime 4/i+l and some quadratic non-residue g' of p is known. Set p = 2'y-{-l, where y is odd. By Euler's criterion, the power 72^"^ of c and g are congruent to +1, 1. Set 0 = or 1, according as the power 72^"^ of c is

congruent to

+1
ei

or

1.

Then

For s^3, set = -f-lor-l.

or 1 according as the square root of the left

member

is

Then

Proceeding similarly,

we

ultimately get
e

g2eycy=-^l (mod p),

= o+2i+
(mod

+2'-\_2has the root

Thus a;=

^'^c^^+^^/2

(mod

p).

Then Z^=c (mod

p^)
p^).

X=x^'-'c(^^-'^^"'+i^/2

G. B. Mathews'^^
solvable

(p. 53)

treated the cases in which

x^^a (mod

p)

is

by

formulas.

Cf. Legendre.-^^^

S. Dickstein^^^

noted that H. Wronski^^^ gave the solution

y==hK+{-iy+'+Mi,
of

= /i+(-1)'+'A| ^,
in place of

rM

-l(7r-l)

ttJ

+Mj

2" a?/"=0 (mod M) with (iV^)^

K, and gave, as the condition

for solvability,

a(lV^)2"-l=0(modM).
But there may be
integer
A;.

solutions when the last condition is satisfied by no due to the fact that the value assigned to y imposes a limitation, which may be avoided by using the same expressions for y, z in a parameter K, subject to the condition aK" 1 = (mod M). M. F. J. Mann"^'^ proved that, if n=2^XV. ., where X, m, are distinct odd primes, the number of solutions of x^= 1 (mod n) is GGiGi where G= 1 if n or p is odd, otherwise G is the g. c. d. of 2p and 2^~'^, QiQi and where Gi, Gi,.., gi, g2,. are the g. c. d.'s of p with X"~\ m''~\- > X l,jLi 1,. ., respectively. A. Tonelli^^^ gave an explicit formula for the roots of x^=c (mod p^),

This

is

"iCasopis, Prag, 18, 1889, 97; cf. Fortschritte Math., 1889, 30. "^Denkschriften Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 57, 1890, 520. "'Gottingen Nachrichten, 1891, 344-6. I'^BuU. Internat. de I'Acad. Sc. de Cracovie, 1892, 372 (64-65); Berichte Krakauer Ak. Wiss., 26, 1893, 155-9. "^aMath. Quest. Educ. Times, 56, 1892, 24-7.

"^AttiR. Accad. Lincei, Rendiconti,

(5), 1,

1892, 116-120.

216

History of the Theory of Numbers.

is

[Chap, vii

when p
Set p

an odd prime, and a quadratic non-residue

^ of

is

known.

= 2'a+l, where s^ 1 and a is odd. Then y = ap^~^ is odd, and Tonelli's earlier work for modulus p now holds for modulus {}>(p^) = 2'y. p^ and we get x= g'^c^'^'^^^^. and the root is that given If s = 1, then e = by Lagrange if X = l. If s = 2, whence p = 4a+l = 8Z+5, the expression for X is given a form free of e = cq: x= (c+3)V^+^^/^ y = ap^-\
A. Tonelli^^^ expressed the root x in a form free of
7+1
e for

every

s:

where the

v's

are given

by the

recursion formula
.

v.-H

= c''-S?.t^'\

.t^--,%+k
A;-|-l

(/i

= 2,

3,.

.).

Here k is an existing integer such that and A: 1 a non-residue. Thus, if s = 3,

is

a quadratic residue of
7+1

p,

x=^{c^''+ky {{c-'+ky^C+kl^'c
where we
sible

may

by

3,

take A: = 2 if a is not divisible by 3, but while neither a nor 4a +1 are di\'isible by 5.

A;

= 4

if

is

divi-

N. Amici^^ proved that a;^*=6 (mod 2"), h odd, k^v 2, is solvable only when h is of the form 2^'"^^/i+l and then has 2^+^ roots, as shown by use of indices. For (x'")^ = 5, the same condition on b is necessary thus it remains If i3 = 8A;+l or 8A:+3, it has an to solve x'"=j8 (mod 2') when m is odd. index to the base 8/z + 3 and we get an unique root. If /3 = 8/j 3 or 8A: 1, then x'"= j3 has a root a by the preceding case, and a is a root of the proposed congruence. Jos. Mayer^^^ found the number of roots of x^=a (mod p''), for the are residues of nth powers modulo p, primes 2, 3, p = 6m='= 1. If fli, Go,. and if g is the g. c. d. of n and p 1, then 0102- = -f-l or 1 (modp), according as p' = (p l)/g is odd or even. If p' is even, we can pair the numbers belonging to the exponent p' so that the sum of a pair is or p; hence there exists a residue of an nth power = 1 (mod p) but none if
;
. . .
.

p' is odd.

K. Zsigmondy^^ obtained by the use of abelian groups known theorems on the number, product and sum of the roots of x*= 1 (mod m). G. Speckmann^^^ considered x^=a (mod p), where p is an odd prime. Set P=(p 1)/2. When they exist, the roots may be designated P k, P-\-l-\-k, whose sum is p. The successive differences of P^, (P-|-l)^ is (P+2)2,. .. Thesumof 2 = s+l termsof 2,4, 6, arep, p+2, p+4, s'^+Ss+2 = z^+z. Adding to the latter the remainder r obtained by di\'iding P^ by p, we must get pn-{-a. Hence in pn-\-ar we give to n the values
.

R. Accad. Lincei, Rendiconti, (5), 2, 1893, 259-265. "'Ueber nte Potenzreate und binomische Congruenzen dritten Grades, Progr., Freising, 1895. >^\rcliiv Math. Phys., (2), 14, 1896. 445-8; 15, 1897, 335-6.
iAtti

Chap. VII]

BiNOMIAL CONGRUENCES.

217

1,2,... until we reach a number of the form ^-\-z (found by extracting the square root). Then fc = s, so that the roots P-A^, P+l+Zc are found. nor 6 is divisible by the prime p, N. Amici^^^ proved that if neither and if a is a given root of x'^=h (mod p), and if /3, g are (existing) integers
0,

such that
i3(/)(p')-p'-i

+ l=mg,

then of^'^"^ is a root of x=6 (mod y^). Hence we limit attention to the Consider henceforth x'^=h (mod p), where p = 2''/i+l is an case X = l. odd prime, h being odd, and 6 not divisible by p. First, let ^8. Then 6''=1 (mod p) is a necessary and sufficient condition for solvabihty and x= y^ are roots, where q is such that 2^q 1 is divisible by /i. If gr is a quadratic non-residue of p, all 2" roots are given by 6''gr''', where e = 6i+2e2 and 1 independently. Finally, 4+2*~^^,_i, the ei taking the values Then two roots (3 are determined by the method of TonelU, let A:<s. while all the roots are given by
. . .

x==^^g'',

= e,+2e2+

+2'-\_

or

1.

R. Alagna^ considered a prime p = 4/c+l for which /b is a prime. Since 2 is known to be a primitive root of p, it is easy to write down those powers of 2 which give all the roots of x'^=l (mod p), where d is one of the six must be congruent to divisors 2' or 2'k of p 1, likewise of x'^^N, since apply the first theorem modulus p^, we may an even power of 2. For the treated for a prime questions are The same of Amici or proceed directly. 4A;+3 for which 2A; + 1 is a prime. A. Cunningham^"^ treated at length the solution of x^=\ (mod iV'), where iV is a prime, and gave tables showing all incongruent roots when also for a few additional < = 1, 2, N-^ 101, I any admissible divisor of iV 1

f's

when

Cunningham^oi" treated a^= 1 (mod q^) and 3.2^= 1 (mod p). He^oi*treated the problem to find 5''=+l or a, given a^=\, a''=^h (mod p), where ^ is odd and ^, x, 17 are the least values of their kind; also given a*=l, a'^^^h, a'=^c, to find the least /? and 7 such that h^=c, c^=6

is

small.

(mod (mod

p).

by finding the roots s of s^=6 Then y = ar-\-s, x = ar^-\-2rs+{s'^ h)/a. G. Speckmann^^ replaced x"=A; (mod p) by the pair of congruences until we x"~^=r, xr^A; (mod p). In np+/c give to n the values 0, 1, 2, find one for which np+k = rx such that, by trial, x"~^=r. The method is, of

W. H.
a).

Besant^^ would solve y^ = ax+h

course, impractical.
"'Rendiconti Circolo Mat. di Palermo, 11, 1897, 43-57. ""Rendiconti Circolo Mat. di Palermo, 13, 1899, 99-129. "^Messenger of Math., 29, 1899-1900, 145-179. Errata, Cunmngham226, p. 155. Ch. IV. "i^Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 71, 1899, 43-4; 75, 1901, 52-4.
2"&/6td., (2), 1, 1902, 70-2. ^o^Math. Gazette, 1, 1900, 130. '"'Archiv Math. Phys., (2), 17, 1900, 110-2, 120-1.

See 13a of

218

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, vii

G. Picou^*^ applied to the case n = 2 Wronski's^^^ formula for the resi= \Qa^\, arbitrary. For example, if dues of 71 th powers modulo M,

(h=^Sa)-^ =pa{^h-iy (mod M).

8a were replaced by 4a, we would have an identity in h.] P. Bachmann^^ (pp. 344-351) discussed x"'=a (mod p"), p>2, p = 2. G. Arnoux-^ solved x^^=79 (mod 3-5-7) by getting the residue 2 of 79 modulo 7 and that of 14 modulo 0(7) =6 and solving x'^=2 (mod 7) by use Similarly for moduli 3, 5. Take of a table of residues of powers modulo 7. the product of the roots as usual. M. Cipolla-"'^ generahzed the results of Alagna-*^" to the case of a prime p = 2"'q-\-l, 7n>0, q an odd prime, including unity. For any divisor d of p 1, the roots of x'^=N (mod p) are expressed as given powers of a primiIf 2 belongs to the exponent 2''co modulo p, where w is tive root a of p. odd, theng'= 1 (mod p) if and only if 2""^ is the highest power of 2 dividing m. Cunningham-"^" found the sum of the roots of (i/"=tl)/(?/l) =
[If

(mod

p).

M.

Cipolla'"^

quadi'atic non-residue of the

proved the existence of an integer k such that k~ q is a prime p not dividing the given integer q. Let
Un =

h^q\{kWqr-{k-Vqr\,
it is

v^=Viik+V^r+{k-V^r\.
By
expansion of the binomials
are given

by

=*=W(p_i)/2

and by

y(p+i)/2.

shown that the roots of x^=q (mod p) These may be computed by use of
p)

Wn=2kWn_iqWn-2 (mod
with the

{w = u or

v),

Although u^, y are the initial values Uq = 1, Wi = p; ^0 = 1? Vi = k. functions of Lucas, the exposition is here simple and independent of the
theory of Lucas (Ch. XVII). M. Cipolla-^ proved that if 5 is a quadratic residue and k^q quadratic non-residue of an odd prime p, z~^q (mod p^) has the roots
is

^lVq\{k+Vqr-{k-V~qr\,
where
r

= p^~\p 1)/2.

Other expressions for the roots are

^hq'{(k+V^r+{k-V^y\,
t=ip^-2p^-' + l)/2,
s

= p^-\p + l)/2.
p^ are
^q'zi^^''^

Thus

if

Zi~=q (mod
4).

p), the roots

modulo

(TonelH^^^).

Finally, let n=TLpi^',

Pi=^l (mod

where the p's are primes >3; take e, = ==l when There exists a number A of the form k^q such that

^ML'iatermddiaire dea math., 8, 1901, 162. '^o* Assoc, frang. av. sc, 31, 1902, II, 185-201. Periodico di Mat., 18, 1903, 330-5. 'Math. Quest. Educ. Times, (2), 4, 1903, 115-6; 5, 1904, 80-1. "'Rendiconto Accad. Sc. Fis. e Mat. Napoli, (3), 9, 1903, 154-163. "8/6id., (3), 10, 1904, 144-150.

I
Chap. VII]

BiNOMIAL CONGRUENCES.
.

219

Call (A/pi) = i,. ., (A/pJ = e^, where the symbols are Legendre's. the 1. c. m. of pl^~\pi ei)/2 for {=1,..., v. Then z^=q (mod n) has the root

A. Cunningham^^ indicated

how

his tables

may

be used to solve

n = 2, 3, 4, 6, 12. From p = a^-\-h^, we get the directly x''= = (modp). a/6 of a;^= Also p = a^+ 6^ = c^+2(i^ gives the roots roots re 1 =i= d{a-\-b) c(a6)/(2de) (ce) and of x^^1 (mod p), where e = a or 6. / Again, p = A^+SB^ gives the roots iA-B)/{2B), {B+A)/{B-A), and their reciprocals, of x^=l (mod p). M. Cipolla^^ gave a report (in Peano's symbolism) on binomial conp) for

1 (mod

gruences.

M.

Cipolla^^

proved that

if

is

an odd prime not dividing q and

if

z^=q (mod
where

p)

is

solvable, the roots are

. . .

z= ^2{qs,+q\+q\+

+5'^~'%-4+Sp-2)

s,=r+z+...+
Then x^=q (mod p'^) has the root z^^ V, (mod 4), x'^=q (mod p) has the root
41
1=1
5^S2,_i-

me

= (p^-2p^-^ + l)/2.
(z

For

p=l

2 q^-%j_s+2 S g^s^^.i
y=i
i=l

M.
for

Cipolla^^^ extended the

method

1 / \ of Legendre^^ and proved that

2*),

^)

x^"'=l-\-TA (mod

A odd

and

s^w+2,

has a root

x = l+2^Aci-22M2^2+-

+ (-l)"'"'2"^A"c,
.
.

n=r _^~^ J
.(n^l-2'"-l)

where

^_]_

^(2'"-l)(2-2'"-l)

are the coefficients in

il+zy^'"' = l+c,z-c,z'+c,z'-

-(-1)X2"+.
the

..

0. Meissner^^^ gave for a

+3 ^ 2)^p-i)/4=

prime p = Sn+5

known

root

-1

But

if

= D oix^=D (modp), D * =i (modp). _i (mod p), a root is ^](p 1)/2)!, since the square

of the

last factor is

congruent to ( l)(p+^)/2 j-^y wrjigon's theorem. Tamarkine and Friedmann^^^ expressed the roots of z^^q (mod p) by a
Math. Quest. Educ. Times,
1905, 13-19. 1904, 84-5; 7,

formula, equivalent to Cipolla's,^^

^osQuadratic Partitions, 1904, Introd., xvi-xvii. 1905, 38-9; 8, 1905, 18-9.
6,

""Rendiconto Accad. Sc.

"i/6id., 304-9.

Fis. e

Mat. Napoli,

(3), 11,

'"Archiv Math. Phys. (3), 9, 1905, 96. 2"Math. Annalen, 62, 1906, 409.

220

History of the Theory of Numbers.

(p-3)/2

[Chap, vii

z==b2 2
m=

q^''-''-"'s2^+,.

For, according as

2/^

is

or

is

not

=q

(mod

p),

we have
(mod
p).

y\i-{y^-qy~'\=y

or o

can express S2m+\ in terms of Bemoullian numbers. A. Cunningham-^^ gave a tentative method of solving x'^=a (mod p). He-^^^" noted that a root Y=2r]^ of Y^=-l leads to the roots of y^=-l

We

(mod

p).

M.
If Ti,
. .

Cipolla^^^
.,

r,

employed an odd prime p and a divisor n of p l=ni/. form a set of residues of p whose nth powers are incongruent,
p),

and

if

^'=1 (mod

then x''=q (mod p) has the root

k=0

;=1

becomes his^^ earUer formula by taking 1,2,..., (p 1)/2 as the r's. Next, let p l=mji, where m and /x are relatively prime and m If 7 and 8 belong to the exponents m and /x modulo p, is a multiple of n. the products 7''5* {r<m/n, s<iJi) may be taken as ri,. ., r,. According as nk= 1 or not (mod /x), we have

Forn = 2,

this

y{nk-l)m/n

At=

-ufi

-j^

^_i

or

Ak=0 (mod

p).

If n is a prime and n" is its highest power dividing p 1, there exists a number co not an nth power modulo p and we may set m = n'', 7=0)" (mod p). In particular, if n = 2, x^^q has the root

_
2

P+2^-1

2'"-'-l

=o

where co is a quadratic non-residue CO = 2 and get

of p.

If

p=5 (mod

8),

we may take

M.

CipoUa^^ considered the congruence, with p an odd prime,

x^

=a

(mod

p"*),

r<7n,

a necessary condition for which

is

that h

= {a^ a)/p'"^'

be an integer.

Determine
root axo
if

A
Xq

by
is

a^

A=h

(mod

p"*).

Then

the given congruence has the

a root of
:r'''=l-^p'+' (modp"*).

This

is

proved to have the root

'"Math. Quest. Educ. Times,

^^"^Ibid., 10,

(2), 13, 1908, 19-20. 1906, 52-3. "Math. Annalen, 63, 1907, 54-61. >"Atti R. Accad. Lincei, Rendiconti, (5), 16, I, 1907, 603-8.

Chap. VII]

BiNOMIAL CONGRUENCES.

221

where

Ci

= l/p*",

are given

by the expansion
==lCiZ C2^

^12
set

M. Cipolla^" treated x"=a (mod p"*) where n divides 4>{p^). We may n = p'v, where v divides p 1. Determine integers a, j3 such that
congruence has the root yx^" if y^^=a^ (mod p"*), solved as and if Xi is a root of x''=a (mod p"*). The latter

Then the

initial

in his preceding paper,

has the root

=l

A;=0

where t={p l)/v, pi^rf""' (mod p'"), ri, ., r^ being integers prime to p such that their j/th powers are incongruent and form a group modulo p"*. K. A. Posse^^^ gave a simplified exposition of Korkine's^^^ method of
. .

Cf. Posse/^^ Schuh.^^^'^ obtain all solutions of x^=a^ (mod n), where expressing n as a product of two relatively n is odd and prime to a, prime factors P and Q in all ways, setting x a = Pz and finding z from Pz+2a=0 (mod Q). [Instead of his very long proof, it may be shown at once that we may take x a, x+a divisible by P, Q, respectively.] L. Grosschmid^^ gave for the incongruent roots of x^^r (mod M) an expHcit formula obtained by means of the ideal factors of ilf in a quadratic number-field. L. Grosschmid^^^ treated the roots of quadratic binomial congruences. A. Cunningham^^^ solved x^= 1 (mod p), where p = 616318177 is a prime factor of 2^^ 1; by using various small moduli, he obtained p = 24561^

solving binomial congruences.

F. Stasi^^^ proved that

we by

36161
L.

von

Schrutka^^^'' used a correspondence

certain rational
to results.

between the integers and numbers to treat quadratic congruences without novelty as The method will be given under the topic Fields in a later

volume

of this History. of all the quadratic Grosschmid^^^ employed the products R and residues and non-residues, respectively, ^2n of a prime p = 4n+l. Then

R^={-iy+\

iv2=(_i) (modp).
11, 1910,

2"Atti R. Accad. Lincei, Rendiconti, (5), 16, I, 1907, 732-741. "'Charlkov Soobsc. Mat. Obs6 (Report Math.Soc. Charkov), (2), "I1 BoU. Matematica Gior. Sc.-Didat., 9, 1910, 296-300. 20Jour. fur Math., 139, 1911, 101-5. ""Math. 6s Phys. Lapok, Budapest, 20, 1911, 47-72 (Hungarian). 222Math. Questions Educat. Times, (2), 20, 1911, 33-4 (76). 2Monatshefte Math. Phys., 23, 1912, 92-105.
223Archiv

249-268 (Russian).

Math. Phys.,

(3), 21,

1913, 363; 23, 1914-5, 187-8.

222

History of the Theory of Numbers.

==iV

[Chap, vii

Hence 7? and
p = S7n + l
or

are the roots of

x^= 1 (mod

p)

according as
,;,

Sm + 5.

U. Concina"^ proved the first result by Legendre.^^ A. Cunningham--^ tabulated the roots of i/*=2, 2?/"*=l (mod p), for each prime p< 1000. Cunningham"^ listed the roots of ?/'= 1 (mod p"), where l^qp", p being an odd prime ^19, p''<10^, a = l and often also a = 2, q a factor
of

p 1.
A. Gcrardin and L. Valroff"7 solved 2i/=l (mod p), 1000<p<5300. Cunningham-^^ announced the completion of tables giving all proper
1

roots of ?/'"=

(mod

p*) for

^ 14.
now

These tables

m odd ^15, and of 'y'"= 1 (mod p*) for m even have since been completed up to p* < 100000 and are

nearly all in type. T. G. Creak^-^ announced the completion of like tables for

m = 16

to

50; 52, 54, 56, 63, 64, 72, 75, and 10^<p'^<10^ H. C. Pocklington--^ noted that if p is a prime 8m+5 and a}"'^^=-l, x^=a (mod p) has the roots ==^(4a)'"'^^ He showed how to use {t-\u\/DY to solve a;-= D (mod p=4A-+l), and treated a:^=a. *J. Maximoff^^ treated binomial congruences and primitive roots. *G. Rados-^^ gave a new proof of known criteria for the solvability of He-^^ gave a new exposition of the theory of binomial x- = D (mod p). congruences without using indices. Congruences ^''"^^l (mod p") are treated in Chapter IV. Euler**'' Lazzarini"^ of Ch. I erred on the of Ch. XVI solved x-= 1 (mod p). treat x*=a; number of roots of 2-= 3 (mod n). Many papers in Ch. (mod 10"). The following papers from the first part of Ch. VII treat also binomial congruences: Euler,^ Lagrange,^ Poinsot," Cauchy,^^ Lebesgue," Epstein,i^2 Korkine."^

XX

=*Periodico di Mat., 28, 1913, 212-6.

22*Messenger Math., 43, 1913-4, 52-3. 2"/Wd., 148-163. Cf. Cunningham .201 227Sphinx-0edipe, 1913, 34; 1914, 18-37, 73. 228Messenger Math., 45, 1915-6, 69. 2^Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc, 19, 1917, 57-9. 2^Bull. Soc. Phys.-Math. Kasan, (2), XXI. 23iMath. 4s Term^s Ertesito, 33, 1915, 758-62. ^Ibid., 34, 1916, 641-55.

CHAPTER
A Congruence
J. L.

VIII.

HIGHER CONGRUENCES.
of Degree n has at most n Roots Modulus p is a Prime.
if

if

the

Lagrange^ proved that,

divisible
jS,
. .

is

by p
(7

for at

For, let a,

p,

be

n+1

not divisible by the prime p, ax'^+fex""^ integers x between p/2 and p/2. such distinct integers. Then the quotient of
a
is

most n

a(a:'^-a")+6(a:'^-i-a"-^)+

by

a:

a is a polynomial aa:"~^ +
a:"

which

is

divisible

by p when x=^,.

.,a.
is

Proceeding as before, we finally have a{p<7) divisible by p, which

impossible.
L. Euler^ noted that

by a prime p for not more than n such an integer, then x a divides x^ lmp, where m is a suitable integer; the quotient / is of degree n 1. If a: = 6 is a second such integer, x h divides/ m'p. Proceeding as in alge[The argument is applicable to any bra, we obtain the theorem stated. polynomial of degree n in x.] A. M. Legendre^ noted that P^(x a)Q-\-pA has only one more root than Q. C. F. Gauss'* proved the theorem by assuming that there is a congruence = (mod p) with more than n roots a, ., and that every conox"4gruence of degree I, Kn, has at most I roots. Substituting y+a for x, we obtain a congruence a?/"-f- ... =0 with more than n roots, one of which is zero. Removing the factor y, we obtain a?/"~^+. = with more than w 1 roots, contrary to hypothesis. Gauss^ noted that if a is a root of ^=0 (mod p), then ^ is divisible by x a modulo p. li a, b,. are incongruent roots, ^ is divisible modulo p by the product (x a){x b).... Hence the number of roots does not exceed the degree of ^. A. Cauchy^ made the proof by use of X=(x a)Xi (mod p), identically in x, where the degree of Xi is one less than the degree of X. A. L. Crelle^ and S. Earnshaw^ gave Lagrange's proof. Crelle^ proved that if ei, ., e are n distinct roots,
is

1
if

divisible
is

integers x,

0<x<p.

For,

x = a,

ax^^-i-

= a(x ei)

.{x

e^+pN.

24, ann6e 1768 (1770), p. 192; Oeuvres, 2, 1868, 667-9. Ac. Petrop., 18, 1773, p. 93; Comm. Arith., 1, 519-20. M^m. Ac. Roy. Sc, Paris, 1785, 466; TWorie des nombres, 1798, 184.
='Novi

iMem. Ac. BerUn,

Comm.

Disq. Arith., 1801, Art. 43. ^Posthumous paper, Werke, 2,

p. 217, Art.

of Gauss' Disq. Arith., etc., 1889, p.

338 607

(p.

214, Art. 333).

Maser's German translation

(p. 604).

"Exercices de Math., 4, 1829, 219; Oeuvres, (2), 9, 261; Comptes Rendus Paris, 12, 1841, 831-2; Exercices d'Analyse et de Phys. Math., 2, 1841, 1-40, Oeuvres, (2), 12.

'BerUn Abhand., Math., 1832,

p. 34.

Cambridge Math.

Jour., 2, 1841, 79.

BerUn Abhand., Math., 1843, 50-54.

223

224

History of the Theory of Numbers.

due to
Crelle.'

[Chap.viii
'J

L. Poinsot^" gave the proof

J.

A. Gninert^^ proceeded by induction from n 1 to n, making use of the first part of Lagrange's proof. D. A. da Silva^' gave a proof. I

Number of Roots of Higher Congruences.

G. Libri^" found that
1 b

/(a:, d

?/,

.)

=
COS

(mod m) has
2A-7rf
Tnn
.

Wl x=o v=t

-22
r,
y
,

;--!

.ALi
Lfc=o

\-x

sm

2Uj\

sets of solutions such that

sets of solutions
1 is

a^x^6, c^?/^d, ....

27r/,
47r/
,

The

total

number

of

^ 2 ^ 2

7^1=0 v=o

O +COS m^+cos m^+

if

+COS

2^^

Am-X)'KJ\ '-^

V. A. Lebesgue^^ proved that

residue

is

a prime

we obtain

as follows the
.
.

chosen from 0, 1,. ., p 1, and F is a polynomial with integral coefficients. Let 2A be the sum of the coefficients of x/ of the expansion of F^~'^ in wliich each of the exponents the terms Ax^ of p - 1 Then Sk= ( - 1) *"^^ 2 A (mod p) a, ^ is a multiple > Henceforth, let p = hm+l. First, let F = x"'a. In F^~^ the coefficient of a;""'?-!-"^ is (p-^)(-a)"=a" (mod p). The exponent of x will be a multiple >0 of p 1 only when n = k(p l)/d, for A: = 0, 1,. ., d 1, where c? is the Thus 51=20*^^"^^'''^ (mod p), while evidently Si<p. g. c. d. of m and p-L According as a'-^~^^^'^=l or not, we get Si=d or 0. Next, let F = x"'-ay"'-h. Set c = ay"'-\-h. In (x"'-c)p-^ we omit the terms in which the exponent of x is not a multiple >0 of p 1 and also the ^rn(p-i) jjq|. containing y. Since the arithmetical coefficient is =1 as in the

modulo p

of the

number
x, is

S>k

of sets of solutions of F{xx,

.

.,

x)

(mod

p), in

which each

first case,

we

get

In

this,

we

replace

c''''

by those terms
viz.,

of (ay"* +6)'''' in

which the exponents

are multiples

>0

of

p 1,

kh-lhUh

SGB^"^") w 1 we Set = 1, and sum for = 1, otherwise that *S2 is a multiple <mp of m.
2/
A*
.
.

get

S2 (mod

p).

It is

shown

To
(1)

these two cases

is

reduced the solution of

.

^ = 01X1"*+.

.-\-a^k"=a (mod p = hm-\-l).

"Jour, de Math^matiques, 10, 1845, 12-15. "Klugel'8 Math. Worterbuch, 5, 1831, 1069-71. .Congruencias binomias, Lisbon, 1854. "Proprietades
. .

Cf. C. Alasia,
5,

Rivista di

fisica,

mat.
Jour.

e sc. nat., 4, 1903, p. 9. "Mdm. divers Savants Ac. Sc.

fur Math., 9, 1832, 54.

de I'Institut de France (Math.), To be considered in vol. n.

Cf. vol. 3, 113; vol. 4, 366.

1838, 32 (read 1825).

"Jour, de Math.,

2,

1837, 253-292.

Chap. VIII]

NuMBER OF RoOTS OF CONGRUENCES.

225

of the first / terms of F and by Q the sum of the last be a primitive root of p. Let P be the number of sets of solutions of P=0 (mod p); P^'^ the number for P^g^ (mod p); Q^ and Q^'^ the corresponding numbers for Q=0, Q=g'. Then the number of

Denote by

P the sum
Let
gr

kf

terms.

sets of solution of

P=Q

(mod

p)

is

PQ+/iS:=rP^*^Q^*\

Hence we may

deduce the number of sets of solutions of P=0 from the numbers for a, we employ P = P, Q = /x'"and get P = P P = Aand Q= -A. For -\-{'p l)P^^\ which determines the desired P''^\

P=

The theory

is

applied in detail to (1) for

m = 2,
is

k arbitrary, and for

w = 3,

4,

= 2.

Finally, the

method
.

of Libri^^

amplified.

Th. Schonemann^^ noted that, if Sk is the sum of the A;th powers of the =0 with integral coefficients, that of x"" being x"+ unity, and if >S(p_i)=n (mod p) for <= 1, 2, ., w, where p is a prime >n, = (mod p) has n real roots. the corresponding congruence a;"+ A. L. Cauchy^^ considered F{x) = Q (mod M), with M=AB. ., where (mod A) has a roots, If F{x) are powers of distinct primes. A, B,. roots F(x) = (mod B) has /S roots, etc., the proposed congruence has a/3. (mod A), For, if a, 6, are roots for the moduli A, B,. and in all. then is a root for modulus M. X=b (mod P), P. L. Tchebychef^ proved that, if p is a prime, a congruence /(x)=0 (mod p) of degree m<p has m roots if and only if the coefficients of the remainder obtained by dividing x^x hj f{x) are all divisible by p. Ch. Hermite^^ proved the theorem: If fx and jjl' are the numbers of and M', which sets of solutions of 4>{x, y)=0 for the respective moduli
roots of an equation
. .
. . . .

X=a

are relatively prime, the

If

number

of sets of solutions
p,
it

modulo

MM'

is

/jl/j,'.

0=0

is

solvable for a prime

modulus

will

be solvable modulo p"

if

In this case, the number of sets of the number for modulus p. Similar If ikf is a product results are said to hold for any number k of unknowns. of powers of the distinct primes pi, ., p, and if tt, is the number of sets of solutions of the congruence modulo Pi, then the number of sets for

have no

common

sets of solutions.
is

solutions

modulo p"

p"~V

if tt is

modulus

is

M'k~l

TTi-.-TTn

For a:^+A|/^=A (mod M), we have Xj = p, ( A/p), where (a/p) is according as a is a quadratic residue or non-residue of p. JuUus Konig gave a theorem in a seminar at the Technische Hochschule in Budapest during the winter, 1881-2, which was published in the following
==

paper and that by Rados.^^

"Jour,
fiir

Math.,

19, 1839, 293.

"Comptes Rendus

Paris, 25, 1847, 36; Oeuvres, (1), 10, 324. "Theorie der Congruenzen, in Russian, 1849; in German, 1889, 21. "Jour, fiir Math., 47, 1854, 351-7; Oeuvres, 1, 243-250.

226

History of the Theory of Numbers.

Let

[Chap, viii

G. Raussnitz*^ proved the theorem, due to Konig:

(2)

f{x)

=aoX^-2+OiX''-H

+ap_2,

where the

a's are integers

and

ap_2
if

is

f{x)=0 (mod

p) has real roots

Oo

and only
02
03

not divisible by the prime p. if the cyclic determinant

...
...

Then

Oi

ap_3

ap_2
Oo

(3)

D=

a2

ap_2 Op_4

Op_20o
is

Oi

...

Op.s

In order that it have at least k distinct real roots it is divisible by p. necessary that all p k rowed minors of be divisible by p. If also not 1 rowed minors divisible by k are all p p, the congruence has exactly distinct real roots. k The theorem is applicable to any congruence not ha\'ing the root zero, since we may then reduce the degree to p 2 by Fermat's theorem. Gustav Rados-'* proved Konig's theorem, using the fact that a system of p l linear homogeneous congruences modulo p in p 1 unknowns has at least k sets of solutions linearly independent modulo p if and only if the p k rowed minors are divisible by p. L. Kronecker^^ noted that, if p is a prime, the condition for the existence 1 roots of (2), distinct from one another and from zero, of exactly is that the rank of the system

pm

(3')

(a,+,)
is

(i,A:

= 0, l,...,p-2)
The same
is

modulo p

exactly m, where Os+p_i

= a^.

the condition for

the existence of a {pm l)-fold manifold of

of linear congruences

sets of solutions of the

system

2'a,+,0,=
fc=0

(mod

p)

= 0,

p - 2)

L. Kronecker^^ gave a detailed proof of his preceding results, noted that

the rank
all
VI -{-1

is ? if

not

all

rowed minors
s

(mod

p) has exactly

t?? -rowed minors are divisible by p while +Cp_2a:^~^=0 and added that Co+Ci.t+ roots 7^0 if one and the same linear homogeneous

principal
are,

congruence holds between every set of ps (but not fewer) successive terms of the periodic series Cq, Ci, Cp_2, Cq, Ci, L. Gegenbauer^^ proved Kronecker's version of Konig's theorem. Gegenbauer^^ noted that Kronecker's theorems imply the corollary:
. .

"Math, und Naturw. Berichte aus Ungam, 1, 1882-3, 266-75. "Jour, fiir Math., 99, 1886, 258-60; Math. Termea Ertesito, Magj'ar Tudon Ak., Budapest,
1883, 296; 3, 1885, 178. Jour. fur Math., 99, 1886, 363, 366. **Vorlesungen liber Zahlentheorie, 1, 1901, 389-415, including several additions (pp. 393, 399, 402-3). "Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 95, II, 1887, 165-9, 610-2.
*^Ibid., 98, Ila, 1889, p. 32, foot-note.

1,

by Hensel

Cf. Gegenbauer.

Chap. VIII]

NuMBER OF RoOTS OF CONGRUENCES.

227

There exist exactly pm2 roots of (2), distinct from one another and from zero, if and only if there exist exactly p m 2 distinct linear homogeneous functions
p-2

Xak,hah
h=0

{k

= l,. .,p-m-2)
.

which remain divisible by p after applying

ah,

all cyclic

permutations of the

so that

sVa,^0
A

(mod

p)

filo/iV.'.^.T-!)-

simple proof of this corollary is given. L. Gegenbauer^^ noted that the niunber of roots of /(a^)=0

(mod

k) is

according as /(a:) is divisible by k or not. Let ki,...,ka since D{k) = 1 or be a series of increasing positive integers and g{x) any function. In the Revers.,8. first equation take k = ki, multiply by g{ki) and sum iorl = l,. ing the order of the summation indices I, x in the new right-hand member,
.

we

get

i
1=1

\f(x),

h\g{k)

= S
1=0

G,

G=XD{ix)g{f,),

where in
exceed
oi fifx)
x.

G the summation index n takes those of the values ki,...,ki which Thus G represents the sum G{f{x)] ki,..., k^; x) of the values
.

when ranges over those of the numbers ki,. ., ks which exceed x and are divisors oif{x). In particular, if ^(x) = 1, G becomes the number of the k's which exceed x and divide /(a:). Then f{x) = (mod k) has {k, n) roots or no root Let f{x)=vi^nx.
ij,

x}/

according as
{k, 71]

is

or

is

m) denote

{k,

n) or

not divisible by the g. c. d. {k, n) of k and n; Then in the respective cases.

g{ki)

let

S
'-1

{ki,

n;

m)

= s G(m^nx;
x=0

ki,.

.,

k^; x).

Let G{a,
the divisors
ki

h)

denote the
of a;
.,
.

sum
h)

of the values of g(ii)

when n ranges over

all

>6
S

xl/{a,

the

number

of divisors

>b

of a.

Taking

ioT 1=1,.

d,

we deduce
5-1

S
1=1

(Z,

n;

m)^(0= S {G{m^nx, x)-G{m^nx,

z=0

b)\.

For
a

gil)

= 1,

this reduces to Lerch's^ relation (16) in

b

Ch. X.

Again,

2 {G{m+nx, x 1) Gim+nx,h+x)\ = S
X-l
"SitzuDgsberichte Ak. Wiss.

{G{mnfx,tx)

Giinnfx,ti-\-a)\,

u=0

Wien

(Math.), 98, Ila, 1889, 28-36.

228

History of the Theory of Numbers.

Next,
if

[Chap, viii

which for g{x) = l yields the first formula of Lerch. primes and g is a prime distinct from them,

the

A;'s

are

2
x=0

Gix'^-q] k,,..

.,

k,;

x)= 2
/=1

(fc,-l, n; q)g{ki).

Finally, he treated f{x) of degree d = A-j 2, whose constant term is prime to divisible coefficient of x''~' is A-, and by the prime k^ if i<ks k^. each

modulo

Gegenbauer^" noted that, if p ln is the rank of the system (3) p, the congruence, satisfied by the distinct roots 5^0 of (2) and by these only, is given symboUcally by

(-X--V daj \dai

fli+fc
I

=0

(mod

p)

{%,

= 0,.

.,

p-2).

He obtained easily Kronecker's"^ form of the last congruence. He gave necessary and sufficient conditions, expressed in terms of a comphcated determinant and its /z l successive derivatives with respect to Op_2, in order that (2) and a second congruence of degree p 2 shall have jx common roots ?^0, and found the congruence satisfied by these ji common roots. He deduced determinantal expressions for the sum o-^ of the rth powers of the roots of (2), and for the coefficients in terms of the cr's. Michael Demeczky^^ would employ Euclid's process to find the g. c. d. (mod p) is of degree v it has G{x) modulo p of (2) and x'^x. If G{x) Multiple roots are then V real roots and these give all the real roots of (2) treated. The case of any composite modulus is known to reduce to the If (2) has X distinct real roots, not multiple roots, we case of p', p a prime. (mod p'). If pi, can derive X real roots of /(a;) p are distinct primes (mod pi. .p) has and if /(x) (mod p,) has X, real roots, then/(x) Xi. .X real roots, and is satisfied by every integer x if the former are. Various sets of necessary and sufficient conditions are found that f{x)

(mod m=np'<) shall have m distinct (mod p'<) identically for each i.
p2
in

real roots;

one set
p,

is

that/(x)=0

L. Gegenbauer^^ proved that a congruence

modulo

each of n variables has a set of solutions each divides the determinant of a cycUc matrix

^0

a prime, of degree if and only if p

A'

..

A'-

Chap. VIII]

NUMBER OF RoOTS OF CONGRUENCES.

of sets of solutions each not divisible
s

229

the

number

by

p.

He

proved that

EzlL
^

S ttjXj
y=i

+ S a,+jX,+j-{-h=0
i=i

(mod

p)

has

p""^*"^

sets of solutions.

Of these,

have each x^^O, where

r is the

number

of the 2' integers

6 =1=01 02='= ...=*= a,

which are divisible by

s

p.

The number
Pui
2

of sets of solutions of

l^QjXj
i=i
is

+i:a,+jXs+j+b=0 (modp)
3=1

expressed in terms of the functions used for quadratic congruences. *E. Snopek^^ gave a generalization of Konig's criterion for the solva-

bility of

a congruence modulo p.
if

L. Gegenbauer^^ proved that

the p congruences
(X

S
A:

Zk^x^-^-'=0 (mod p)

= 0,

1,.

.,

p-1)

have in common at least pp distinct roots not divisible by p then all p-rowed determinants in the matrix (^^^x) are divisible by p. The converse By specialization, Konig's is proved when a certain condition holds. theorem is obtained. Gegenbauer^^ proved that, if r is less than the prime p and ii Zq,. ., 2r_i are incongruent and not divisible by p, the system of linear congruences
.

(4)

s'
all its sets of

h+,y,^0 (mod
solutions of the

p)

(p

= 0,

1,.

.,

p-2)

has
(5)

form
(A:

2/*^'sa,2,*
x=o

= 0, l,...,p-2)
.
.

or not, according as the matrix (bk+p), k

has a
(6)

p r 1

= r, r+1, ., p 2; p = 0, rowed determinant prime to p or not. Next, if S

A:=0
.

.,

p 2,

6;fcX^=0

(mod

p)

has exactly r distinct roots Zq, ., z^-i each not divisible by p, every system of solutions of (4) is given by (5), and conversely. By combining this theorem of Kronecker's with the former, we obtain Kronecker's form of Konig's theorem.
.

"Prace Mat.

'^Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss.

1893, 63-70 (in PoUsh). (Math.), 102, Ila, 1893, 549-64. "Monatshefte Math. Phys., 5, 1894, 230-2. Cf. Gegenbauer."
Fiz.,
4,

Warsaw,

Wien

230

History of the Theory of Numbers.

that,
if

[Chap, viii

K. Zsigmondy^^ proved
,K, k)

is

a prime, there are exactly

p'-' -...+(- 1)

= p- .

p-' +

g)

g)
num-

congruences
bers.

x"+

(mod

p) not having as roots k given distinct

Also,

^(n, k)=p4^(n-l, k)
If

+ {-ir(^^,

rPin,

+ l)=^|^{n,

A:)-^(n-l,

k).

n'^k, \J/{n, ^)=p"~''(p 1)^'. For n = k, \p{n, k) is the number \J/{n) of congruences of degree n with no root. The number with exactly i roots is There are {^V)\l/iir) distinct matrices (3) of rank i such {'])\l/{n i). that Qr-i is the first one of Qq, ai,. not divisible by p. K. Zsigmondy^^ considered a function $(/) of a polynomial f{x) such that $ is unaltered when the coefficients of f{x) are increased by integral multiples of the prime p. Let/t^'^(x), i = l,. ., p'', denote the polynomials of degree k which are distinct modulo p and have unity as the coefficient
.

of

x''.

It is stated that
p"
p-

r,n-2

i, i' J

=1
. .

where a takes those values 1, 2, ., p" for which /^(x)=0 (mod p) does not have as a root one of the given incongruent numbers ai, ., a/, while, in the outer sums on the right, i, i',. range over the combinations of 1, ., s without repetitions. Zsigmondy^^ had earlier given the preceding formula for the case in which tti,. ., a, denote 0, 1,. ., p \. Then taking <I>(/) = 1, we get the number of congruences of degree n with no root (Zsigmondy^^) Taking $(/) =/, we see that the sum of the congruences of degree n with no root is
.

=
is

(mod

p), aside

from p
1

specified exceptions.

Taking

$(/)=co-^,

where

co

a pth root of unity, and

1,
. . .

n^p, we

see that the system /j;^(x) takes each

of the values

(mod

p) equally often.

Zsigmondy^^ proved his^^'^^ earher formulas, obtained for an integral value of X the number of complete sets of residues modulo p into which fall the values of the fH (^) not having prescribed roots, and investigated the system 5 of the least positive residues modulo p of the left members of all congruences of degree n having no root. In particular, he found how often the system B^ contains each residue, or non-residue, of a gth power. He investigated (pp. 19-36) the number of polynomials in x which take k prescribed residues modulo p for k given values of x.
Wien (Math.), 103, Ila, 1894, 135-144. 'Monatshefte Math. Phys., 7, 1896, 192-3. "Jahresbericht d. Deutschen Math. Verein., 4, 1894-5, 109-111.
3Sitzung8ber. Ak. Wiss.

"Monatshefte Math. Phys.,

8,

1897, 1-42.

Chap. VIIIJ

NuMBER OF RoOTS OF CONGRUENCES.

231

L. Gegenbauer'*" proved that (2) has as a root a quadratic residue or non-residue of the prime p if and only if the respective determinant

P=

a^+i+o^+i+x

\,

N=

a^+i-a^+i+,

(i, /i
\

= 0,

.,

tt-I)

be divisible by p, where 7r= (p 1)/2. From this it is proved that (2) has exactly irr distinct quadratic residues (or non-residues) of p as roots if (or N) and its tt 1 r successive derivatives with respect to and only if a,_i+ap_2 have the factor p, while the derivative of order tt r is prime These residues satisfy the congruence to p.

where

K = P or N,
^'th

while the

j^th

power

of the sign of differentiation repre-

second set of conditions is obtained. Congruence (2) has exactly tt Ik distinct quadratic residues as roots if and only if the determinants of type P with now i = 0, ., k, k+1 and fi = 0,. 1; while p is not a factor of the K, T, are divisible by p for r = /c+l, ., tt determinant of type P with now i, fx = 0,. ., k. These residues are the
sents the
derivative.
. . . .
.

roots of

S
I

a^+i+a^+i+^
/x

x'~^~^=0 (mod

p),

T=(C

where

= 0,

.,

k,

and

= 0,

.,

1,

t in the determinants.

For non-

residues

We have only

to use the differences of a's in place of sums.

S. O. Satunovskij^^ noted that, for a prime modulus p, a congruence of degree n (n<p) has n distinct roots if and only if its discriminant is not

divisible

sum

by p and Sp+q=S g+i (mod p) ior q = l,. ., n 1, where Sk is the powers of the n roots. A. Hurwitz^^ gave an expression for the number A^ of real roots of
.

of the kth

f{x)=aQ-\-aiX-\-

-\-arX''=0

(mod

p),

where p

is

a prime.

By

Fermat's theorem,
-1

N=X
a;=l

\l-f{xy-'\ (modp).

Letf{xy-'^

= Co-\-CiX+

....

Then

is

determined by
.
. .

Ar+l=Co+Cp_i+C2(,-i)+
sets of solutions of f{xi,

(mod

p).

Letf(xi, X2) be the homogeneous form of f(x). Let A be the number of a:2) (mod p), regarding {xi, X2) and (x/, X2) as the same solution if Xi=pxi, X2=pX2 (mod p) for an integer p. Then

A-l= -0^-1-0^71+2^^:1^1
tto
!
.
.
.

ao'^o.

Mr^r

(mod

a^

p),

"Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 110, Ila, 1901, 140-7. "Kazani Izv. fiz. mat. Obsc. (Math. Soc. Kasan), (2), 12, 1902, No. 3, 33-49.

Zap. mat. otd.

Obsc, 20, 1902, "Archiv Math. Phys.,

I-II.
(3), 5,

1903, 17-27.

232

History of the Theory of Numbers.

sets of solutions
.

[Chap, viii

where the summation extends over the

of

ao+ai+- .+a, = p 1,

ai

+ 2a2+.

.+ra^=0 (mod p-1).

The

member is an invariant modulo p oi f{xi, x^ with respect to all homogeneous transformations on Xi, Xo with integral coefficients whose determinant is not divisible by p. The final sum in the expression If r = 2, p>2, the invariant is congruent for .4 1 is congruent to A^+1. to the power (p 1)/2 of the discriminant a^^aQa^ of/.
right
linear

*E. Stephan^^ investigated the number of roots of linear congruences and systems of congruences. .-\-a with no multiple irreducible H. Kuhne^ considered J{x)=x"'-\For n<m, let ^ = x'*+ factor and with a^ not a multiple of the prime p. + 6 have arbitrary coefficients. The resultant R{f, g) is zero modulo p Thus the number if and only if / and g have a common factor modulo p. of all ^'s of degree n which have no common factor with / modulo p is p,
. .
.

where
P,.^^\R{J,

gYr (mod

p':),

co

= p''-np-l),

the summation extending over the p" possible ^'s. He expressed p as a sum of binomial coefficients. For any two binary forms 4>, \p of degrees w, n, it is shown that

is

invariant

modulo p" under

linear transformations with integral coeffi;

cients of determinant

prime to p

Ji

is

Hurwitz's^" invariant.

M.
powers
the

Cipolla^^ used the

of the roots of

sum of the kth a congruence, and extended the method to show that
method
of Hurwitz^^ to find the

number

of

common

roots of /(x)
i,

= 0,

g{x)

(mod

p), of degrees

r, s, is

congruent to XCjKi, where

j take the values for

which
p),

0<i^s{p-l),
the

0<;^r(p-l),

i+j=0 (mod

Cs

being as with Hurwitz, and similarly

g{xy-' = Ko+K^x+....

The number
the
is

of roots

common

to

n congruences

is

given by a sum.

L. E. Dickson^^ gave a two-fold generalization of Hurwitz's^^ formula for

number

of integral roots of f{x)

to the residue

modulo p

of the

= (mod p) The first generalization number of roots which are rational in a

.

root of an irreducible congruence of a given degree. A further generalization is obtained by taking the coefficients Oi of f{x) to be elements in the Galois field of order p'* (cf. Galois^^ etc.). Then let be the number of

roots of f{x)

which belong to the Galois

field of

order

P = p"'". Then

"Jahresber. Staatsoberrealsch. Steyer, 34, 1903-4, 3-40. "Archiv Math. Phys., (3), 6, 1904, 174-6. Periodico di Mat., 22, 1907, 36-41. BuU. Amer. Math. Soc, 14, 1907-8, 313.

Chap. VIII]

NuMBER OF RoOTS OF CONGRUENCES.

233

N=N*
for

(mod p), where A''*+l is derived from either of Hurwitz's two sums iV+1 by replacing p by P. The same replacement in Hurwitz's expression for A 1 leads to the invariant A* l, where A* is congruent modulo p p""* to the number of distinct sets of solutions in the Galois field of order
of the

equation /(xi, 0:2) =0. G. Rados^'^ considered the sets of solutions of

fix, y)

i\a\i^^ x^'-^+ai''

x''-^+

+05,^^2)2/^"'"'=

(mod

p)

Let Ak denote the matrix of D, in (3), with a^ replaced for a prime p. by ap\ Let C denote the determinant of order (p iy obtained from D by replacing ak by matrix A^. Then/=0 has a solution other than x^y=0 it has exactly r sets of solutions other than if and only if C is divisible by p x=y=0 if and only if C is of rank (p 1)^ r. To obtain theorems including the possible solution x=i/=0, use
;

cf>{x,

y)

= S W^ x^-i+af V-2+
k=0

+af.,)y''-^-'^Q (mod p),

Op-2
Oi
o,p-\

Op-3

ap_2

Op.i+floO

a=

CL2

03

ap_i+ao
ap_3

\ap_i+aoai
and
tt/fc

ap_2

derived from a by replacing a^ by al^\ Let y be the determinant by a matrix whose p"^ derived from la| by replacing a^ by matrix a^; and elements are zeros. Then ^=0 has a set of real solutions if and only if 7=0 (mod p) it has r sets of solutions if and only if y is of rank p^r. *P. B. Schwacha^^ discussed the number of roots of congruences. *G. Rados^^ treated higher congruences.
;

Theory of Higher Congruences, Galois Imaginaries.

C. F. Gauss/'' in a posthumous paper, remarked that "the solution of congruences is only a part of a much higher investigation, viz., that of the Even when ^(x) = has no real root, factorization of functions modulo p. ^ may be a product of factors of degrees ^2, each of which could be said If use had been made of a similar freedom which to have imaginary roots. younger mathematicians have permitted themselves, and such imaginary roots had been introduced, the following investigation could be greatly condensed." As the later work of Serret^^ shows, such imaginaries can be
Normale Sup., (3), 27, 1910, 217-231. Math. 6s Term^s firtesito (Report of Hungarian Ac), Budapest, 27, 1909, 255-272. "Ueber die Existenz und Anzahl der Wurzeln der Kongruenz Sc<x* = (mod w), Progr. Wilher*'Arm. Sc. ficole
ing, 1911,

30 pp.
Arith., etc., 1889,

Math. 6s. Term6s Ertesito, Budapest, 29, 1911, 810-826. "Werke, 2, 1863, 212-240. Maser's German translation of Gauss' Disq.
604-629.

234
introduced in a

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, viii

way

free

from any

logical objections.

Avoiding their use,

Gauss began his investigation by showing that two polynomials in xwith integral coefficients have a greatest common divisor modulo p, which can be found by Euclid's process. It is understood throughout that p is a
prime
(cf.

Maser,

p. 627).

nomials modulo

p, there exist

Hence if A and B are relatively prime polytwo polynomials P and Q such that

PA+QB^l
Thus
if

{mod

p).

"

has no factor in

common

tiplying the preceding congruence

by C that

with the product BC modulo p. If no two of which have a common factor modulo p,
product.

p, we find by mulhas no factor in common a polynomial is divisible by A, B, C,. .,

with

or

C modulo

it is

divisible

by

their

prime modulo p if it has no factor of lower degree is either prime or is expressible in a single way as a product of prime polynomials modulo p. The number of distinct modulo p is evidently p". Let (n) of these be polynomials x''+aa:"~^+ prime functions. Then p'^-l^d{d), where d ranges over all the divisors of n (only a fragment of the proof is preserved). It is said to follow easily from this relation that, if n is a product of powers of the distinct primes a, 6, ... then
is

A polynomial
p.

called

modulo

Any polynomial
. . .

n(n)=p"-2p"/''+2:p"/''^- ....

an equation P = with integral coefficients of the same degree with integral coeffiare the roots of an equation If r is a prime, P^=P (mod r). cients. A prime function P of degree m, other than x itself, divides x' l for some value of vKp"". If v is the least such integer, is a divisor of p*" 1. Hence P divides

The rth powers

of the roots of

Pr =

j^

(1)

x^"-^-l.

The

latter is congruent modulo p to the product of the prime functions, other than x, whose degrees are the various divisors of m. If P = x"'Ax"'~^-{'Bx"'~^ ... is a prime function modulo p, the remainders by dividing the sum, the sum of the products by twos, etc., of

^ ^p

~p'

^p"*~^

by

are congruent to A, B, etc., respectively. is the least positive integer for which not divisible by p and if ^"=1 (mod v), each prime function dividing x" ! modulo p is a divisor of
If V is

(1)
5',

and

its

degree

is

therefore a divisor of m.

Let

8", ... the divisors

<d
. .
.

oi 8; let

ai

be the
,

g. c. d. of v

be a divisor of m, and and p^-1, fx' the

Then the numand set X' =iilii.' \" =m/m", and p*' 1, ber of prime divisors modulo p of degree 6 of a:" 1 is iV/5, if A^ is the number of integers <y. which are divisible by no one of X', X", .... A method of finding all prime functions dividing j" 1 is based on periods of powers of X with exponents < v and prime to v (pp. 620-2).
g. c. d. of V

Chap. VIII]

HiGHER CONGRUENCES, GaLOIS ImAGINARIES.

235

If

p,

we can

X has been expressed as a product of relatively prime factors modulo express X as a product of a like number of factors mod p" con-

gruent to the former factors modulo p. There is a fragment on the case of multiple factors. C. G. J. Jacobi" noted that, if g is a prime 6n 1, x*+^=l (mod q) has
q 1 imaginary roots a

+ 6V 3, where a

+36^=1 (modg),

besides the roots

1.
F(a;)

E. Galois^ employed imaginary roots of any irreducible congruence (mod p), where p is a prime. Let i be one imaginary root of this congruence of degree v. Let a be one of the p" 1 expressions

a-\-aii+a2i^-\in

+a^-ii''~^

which the a's are integers <p, not all zero. Since each power of a can be expressed as such a polynomial, we have a" = 1 for some positive integer Let n be a minimum. Then 1, a, a"~^ are distinct. Multiply them n. by a new polynomial (3 ini; we get n products distinct from each other and from the preceding powers of a. If 2n<p'' 1, we use a new multiplier,
.

etc.
(2)

Hence n divides

p"

1,

and
0^"-^

= !.
It follows
if

[This

is

known

as Galois's generalization of Fermat's theorem.]

that there exist primitive roots a such that a^p^l

tive root satisfies

e<p''

Any
p.

primi-

a congruence of degree

v irreducible

modulo

Since

Every irreducible function F{x) of degree v divides x^''x modulo jF(x)[^"=F(xO modulo p, the roots of F{x)=0 are

p.

All the roots of x^' = x are polynomials in a certain root ^, which satisfies an irreducible congruence of degree v. To find all irreducible congruences
of degree v

modulo

p, delete

from

x^''

all

factors

which

it

has in

common
desired

with x^^x, iJL<v. The resulting congruence is the product of the ones; the factors may be obtained by the method of Gauss, since their roots is expressible in terms of a single root. In practice, we trial one irreducible congruence of degree v, and then a primitive
(2); this is

each of
find

by

root of

done

for

p = 7,

= 3.
To
find

Any

congruence of degree n has n real or imaginary roots.

them, we may assume that there is no multiple root. The integral roots are found from the g. c. d. of F{x) and x^~^ l. The imaginary roots of the second degree are found from the g. c. d. oi F{x) and x^'~^ l; etc. V. A. Lebesgue^^ noted that, if p is a prime, the roots of all quadratic
"Jour,
fiir Math., 2, 1827, 67; Werke, 6, 235. "Sur la tMorie des nombres, Bulletin des Sciences Mathlmatiques de M. Ferussac, 13, 1830, 428. Reprinted in Jour, de Math^matiques, 11, 1846, 381; Oeuvres Math. d'Evariste Galois, Paris, 1897, 15-23; Abhand. Alg. Gleich. Abel u. Galois, Maser, 1889, 100. "Jour, de Math^matiques, 4, 1839, 9-12.

236

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, viii

congruences modulo p are of the form a-}-h\/n, where n is a fixed quadratic non-residue of p, while a, b are integers. But the cube root of a non-cubic The p+1 sets of integral residue is not reducible to this form a-\-hy/n. solutions of y^ nz'^=a (mod p) yield the p-|-l real or imaginary roots

x^y-[-zy/n of
if

x^^=a (mod

p).

The

latter

congruence has primitive roots

= 1.

Th. Schonemann^ built a theory of congruences without the use of He began wath a proof by induction that if a Euclid's g. c. d. process. modulo p, it function is irreducible modulo p and divides a product Much use is made of the concept norm NJ^ of f{x) with divides A or B. respect to <i>{x), i. e., the product /(j8i) ., jS^ are the ./(i3^), where i3i,. roots of 4>{x)=0; the norm is thus essentially the resultant of / and 0. The norm of an irreducible function with respect to a function of lower

AB

shown by induction to be not divisible by p. Hence if / is irreNf^=0 (mod p), then/ is a divisor of modulo p. A long disa are the roots of an algebraic equation cussion shows that if ai, =0 and if /(a:) is irreducible modulo p, then niii]z 0(a,)[ /(x)=a:"-f is a power of an irreducible function modulo p. If a is a root of /(x) and f{x) is irreducible modulo p, and if 4>{a) =^(a)-f-pi?(a), we write (p^^/ (mod p, a); then (f>{x)\p{x) is divisible by J{x) modulo p. If the product of two functions of a is =0 (mod p, a), one of the functions is =0. If /(x) =x'*-f ... is irreducible modulo p and if /(a) =0, then
degree
is

ducible and

/(a;)

= (x-a)(x-a'').
n-l

.(x-a''""'),
P"~'

aP"-^=l (mod
p, a),

p, a),

x^

1 = n )x 0,(a)|- (mod

where
0, 1,.
.

4>i
.,

is

a polynomial of degree n 1 in a with p 1, such that not all are zero. There
p, a,
i.

coefficients

chosen from

roots

moduhs

e.,

primitive functions of a belonging to the exponent p" 1.

exist (^(p"

1)

Let F{x) be irreducible modulis p, a, i. e., have no divisor of degree ^ 1 modulis p, a. Let F{^) = 0, algebraically. Two functions of ^ with coefficients involving a are called congruent modulis p, a, j3 if their difference is the product of p by a polynomial in a, /3. It is proved that

F{x)^ix-^){x-^n

..{x-^^'"'-'"'),

/3^'""^1

(mod

p, a, ^).

If v<n, n being the degree of f(x), and if the function whose roots are the (p" l)th powers of the roots of /(x) is ^0 (mod p) for x = l, then /(a;) Hence if ??? is a divisor of p 1 and if g^ is a primitive is irreducible modulo p. ^* is irreducible modulo p. root of p, and if k is prime to m, then x"*

being the degree of F{x), and if the function whose roots are the (p*^ l)th powers of the roots of F{x) is ^0 (mod p, a) for x = l, then
If

p<m,

"Grundziige einer allgemeinen Theorie der hohem Congruenzen, deren Modul eine reelle Primzahl ist, Progr., Brandenburg, 1844. Same in Jour, fiir Math., 31, 1846, 269-325.

Chap. VIII]

HiGHER CONGRUENCES, GaLOIS ImAGINARIES.

a.

237

F{x)
^(a)

is

is

irreducible modulis p, a primitive root of

Hence

if

is

a divisor of

p" 1, and

if

a;^"-^=l

(mod

p, a),

and

if

If

k is prime to m, then x^ g^ is irreducible modulis p, a. F(x, a) is irreducible modulis p, a, and if at least one coefficient satisfies

^p'-i^j (mod
if

p, a)

and only

if

j'

is

a multiple of n, then
1^(0^)=

n F(a:,
y=o

a^) (mod p, a)

has integral coefficients and is irreducible modulo p. If G{x) is of degree mn and is irreducible modulo p, and G(a) = 0, algebraically, and if ^(a) is a primitive root of a;^'"''=l (mod p, a), then

X(a:)^n (x-F),
y=o

<

= r^

= ^-^, p 1
of irreducible

has integral coefficients and

is irreducible modulo p. two theorems enable us to prove the existence congruences modulo p of any degree. First,

The

last

(x'"-"-'-l)/{x'"'"'-'-l)
is

the existence of

To prove the product of the irreducible functions of degree p" modulo p. an irreducible function of degree Zp", where I is any integer

p, assume that there exists an irreducible function of each degree <Zp", and hence for the degree a = ylp", where A=(f){l)<l. Let a be a root of the latter, and r a primitive root of x^~^= 1 (mod p, a), where P = p'^. Since I divides P 1 by Euler's generalization of Fermat's theorem, x^ r is irreducible modulis p, a. Hence by the theorem preceding the last,

prime to

JI]Zq{x^ r'^)

is

irreducible

modulo

p.

Since

its

degree
Zp".

is

Ip^'A,

the last

theorem gives an irreducible congruence of degree

is of degree a divisor of n. Conversely, every irreducible function of degree a divisor of n is a factor of that binomial. If n is a prime, the number of irreducible functions

Every irreducible factor modulo p

of x^"~^

modulo p
distinct
of degree

of degree n" is (p"'

.

primes A, B,.

.,

)/n\ If n is a product of powers of say four, the number of irreducible congruences

p""^"

n modulo p

is

_ipABCD_pABC_
Tv

_pBCD\pABi

A.pCD_pA_

_pD]

where

Replacing p by p"*, we get the number of irreducible congruences of degree n modulis p, a, where a is a root of an irreducible congruence of degree m. If n is a prime and p belongs to the exponent e modulo n,/= {x'' \)/{x \) is congruent modulo p to the product of (n l)/e irreducible functions of

p = p"/(^sc'Z))

238
degree
e

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, viii

modulo

modulo p. Hence if p is a primitive root of n, / is irreducible p, and therefore with respect to each of the infinitude of primes

p+7.

Thus/

is

algebraically irreducible.
p"*.

Schonemann^^ considered congruences modulo

If g{x) is

not divis-

ible by p, and/=x''+ ... is irreducible modulo p"* and \i A{x) is not divisible by/ modulo p, then/g'=A5 (mod p'") implies that B{x) is divisible by/ modulo p"*. If /=/i, ^=6^1 (mod p) and the leading coefficients of the four functions are unity, while / and g have no common factor modulo p, then He proved the final /f/^/i^iCinod p'") impHes /=/i, g=g\ (mod p"*). theorem of Gauss. ^ Next, {xaY-\-'pF{x) is irreducible modulo p^ if and only if F{a)^0 (mod p) an example is
;

= {x-ir-'+pF{x),

F(l)

= l.

be irreducible modulo p and of degree n. If f{xY-\-'pF{x) p", then (p. 101) /(x) is a factor of F(a;) modulo p. If /(a) = and g(a) ^0 (mod p, a), then g'^ 1 (mod p'", a), where e = p'"~Hp''- 1). If the roots of G{z) are the (p'"~^)th powers of the roots of /(x), then
Henceforth,
reducible
let/(a;)
is

modulo

G{z)^{z-^){z-n...{z-^'''-') (mod
If

p-, a).

integer and if F{x) has the leading coefficient unity, we can such that {x^iy is divisible by F(x) modulo M. A. Cauchy^ noted the uniqueness of the factorization of a function f{x) with integral coefficients into irreducible factors modulo p, a prime. An irreducible function divides a product only when it divides one factor modulo p.
is

any

find z

and

divisor of two functions divides their g. c. d. modulo p. Cauchy^^ employed an indeterminate quantity or symbol i and defined f{i) to be not the value of the polynomial f{x) for x = i, but to be a-\-hi if a-\-hx is the remainder obtained by dividing /(a:) by x^+1. In particular, if /(x) is x^+1 itself, we have i^+1 =0. Similarly, if w(x) = is an irreducible congruence modulo p, a prime, let i denote a sjmiboHc root. Then 0(i);/'(t) = O implies either </)(i) = or
yp{i)
if

A common

(mod

p).

At most n
a:

integral functions of
If

satisfy /(x,
1,

i)

(mod

but not x"* 1, m<n, modulo p, where n is not a divisor of p 1, call i a symbolic primitive root of x''=l (mod p). Then rc"-l=(.T-l)(x-i) (x-i"-^) If s is a primitive root of n and if n l=gh, and p''= 1 (mod n),
the degree of / in
is

nKp.

our

co(x)

divides x"

p),

modulo p with

equals a function of x with integral coefficients, while every factor of x" integral coefficients equals such a product.
Jour. fur Math., 32, 1846, 93-105. "Comptes Rendus Paris, 24, 1847, 1117; Oeuvres, "Comptes Rendus Paris, 24, 1847, 1120; Oeuvres,

(1). 10, (1), 10,

308-12. 312-23.

Chap. VIII]

HiGHER CONGRUENCES, GaLOIS ImAGINARIES.

239

is irreducible modulo p, and a is a G. Eisenstein^^ stated that if /(a;) of degree n, and if ao, ai,. are any integers, root of the equation /(x) =
. .

=
.

K = ao-\-aia-\-.
is

+a_ia"~-^

congruent modulis p, a to one and but one expression

5 = 60/3+61^^+62/3^'+ B

+6_i/3^"-\

where the 6's are integers and /5 is a suitably chosen function of a. Hence form a complete set of residues modulis p, a. If co is a the p" numbers of unity, and if nth root primitive
(/)(X)

=a+ajV+co2V'+

+cu^"-i^V""\

is independent of a if X+X'+ ... is divisible by n. Th. Schonemann^^ proved the last statement in case n is not divisible = B, raise it to the powers p, p^,. ., p"~^ and reduce by p. To make

the product 0(X)0(X') ...

by j8^"=/3 (mod
if

p, a).

This system of n congruences determines

/3

uniquely

the cyclic determinant of order n with the elements hi is not divisible by The statement that the p; in the contrary case there may not exist a (3. expressions B form p" distinct residues is false if jS is a root of a congruence
of degree <n irreducible modulo p; gruence of degree n and if
it is

true

if /3 is

a root of such a con-

i8+/3^+
J.

+/3^""'^0 (mod
g. c. d.

p, a).

process to prove that if an irrep, a prime, it divides one factor modulo p. Then, following Galois, he introduced an imaginary quantity i verifying the congruence F{i) (mod p) of degree v>l, but gave no formal justification of their use, such as he gave in his later writings. However, he recognized the interpretation that may be given to results obtained from their use. For example, after proving that any polynomial

A. Serref^"

made

use of the

ducible function F{x) divides a product

modulo

a{i)

result, for

with integral coefficients is a root of a^''=a (mod p), he noted that this the case a = i, may be translated into the following theorem, free from the consideration of imaginaries: If F{x) is of degree v, has integral coefficients, and is irreducible modulo p, there exist polynomials f{x) and x(x) with integral coefficients such that
x''''-x=f{x)F(x) +px{x).

an irreducible congruence of any given degree and any theorem of the subject. After remarking that Galois had given no satisfactory proof, Serret gave a simple and ingenious argument; but as he made use of imaginary roots of congruences without giving an adequate basis to their theory, the proof is not conclusive.
existence of
is

The

prime modulus

called the chief

'sjour. fur 'Jour. fiir

Math., 39, 1850, 182. Math., 40, 1850, 185-7.

sup6rieure, ed. 2, Paris, 1854, 343-370.

"Cours d'algdbre

240

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, viii

R. Dedekind"^ developed the subject of higher congruences by the of elementary number theory without the use of algebraic prinAs by Gauss^ he developed the theory' of the g. c. d. of functions ciples. modulo p, a prime, and their unique factorization into prime (or irreducible) Two functions A and B are called functions, apart from integral factors. is divisible by the function AI modulo p. congruent modulis p, M, \i We may add or multiply such congruences. If the g. c. d. of A and B is of degree d, Aij=B (mod p, M) has p'^ incongruent roots y{x) modulis p, M. modulo Let <t){M) denote the number of functions which are prime to p and are incongruent modulis p, M. Let ii be the degree of M. A primary function of degree a is one in which the coefficient of a:" is = 1 (mod p). If D ranges over the incongruent primary divisors of M, then 20(Z))=p''. and A^ are relatively prime modulo p, then 4){MN) =4){M)<t){N). If If A is a prime function of degree a, 0(A'') =p*'(l -~ Vp")- If Af is a product of powers of incongruent primary prime functions a,. ., p,

methods

AB

*W=p-(i-l)...(i-l).
If

is

prime to

M modulo

p, F'^^-^^^= 1

(mod
is

tion of Fermat's theorem.

Hence

if

p, M), which is the generalizaprime to M, the above Unear con-

gruence has the solution y=BA'^~^. If P is a prime function of degree tt, a congruence of degree n modulis p, P has at most n incongruent roots. Also
(3)

y''-'-l^Il{y-F)^(mod
p,

p, P),

identically in y,

moduhs

where F ranges over a complete set of functions incongruent and not divisible by P. In particular, l+nF=0 (mod p, P),

the generalization of Wilson's theorem. There are (/)(p' 1) primitive roots modulis p, P. Hence we may employ indices in the usual manner, and obtain the condition for solutions of ?/"=A (mod p, P), where A is not divisible by P. In particular, A is a quadratic residue or non-residue of P according as

^(p'-i)/2^_^^

or

-1 (mod

p, P).

His extension of the quadratic reciprocity law will be cited under that topic. A function A belongs to the exponent p with respect to the prime function P of degree tt if p is the least positive integer for which A^''=A (mod Evidently p is a divisor of tt. Let N{p) be the number of inconp, P). gruent functions which belong to an exponent p which divides w. Then p^='ZN'{d), where d ranges over the divisors of p. By the principle of
inversion (Ch.

XIX),
isr(p) =p''-2p''/''+2:p''/''*-2p''/'''^+
.
.

.,

where
this

a, 6,

are the distinct primes di\'iding

p.

Since the quotient of

sum by
fiir

its last

term

is

not divisible by p,

we have A^(p)>0.

"Jour,

Math., 54, 1857, 1-26.

Chap. VIII]

HiGHER CONGRUENCES, GaLOIS ImAGINARIES.

of the incongruent
tt is

241

The product

whose degree divides

primary prime functions modulo p congruent modulo p to

l!id\l/{d)=p',

is the number of primary prime functions of any degree p, where the summation extends over all divisors d of tt. A comparison of this with XN{d)=p'' above shows that N{p)=p\l/{p). Another proof is based on the fact that

Then,

if xpip)

(y-A){y-A')...{y-A''-')
is

congruent modulis p, P to a polynomial in y with integral coefficients which is a prime function. Moreover, if in (3) we associate the linear factors in which the F's belong to the same exponent, we obtain a factor
of the left

member which

is

irreducible

modulo

p.

The product of the incongruent primary prime functions of degree (m being divisible by no primes other than a, 6, ) is congruent modulo p
. . .

to

\m\-'n.\m/ab\

Il\m/a\'Il\m/abc\

H. J. S. Smith^^ gave an exposition of the theory. E. Mathieu,^^ in his famous paper on multiply transitive groups, gave = l, p. 275) without proof the factorization (p. 301; for

h{z^"'''-z)=u\(hzy"'^''-''+ihzy'"^''-''+
a

..+(hzy"'+hz+a},
/i^"*"=/i;

where a ranges over the roots of a^'^^a, while

and

(p.

302; for

m = l,p. 280)
/^(gp'""

- z) =n(;i^V" -hz-^),

where

jS

ranges over the roots of

If

12 is

a root of a congruence of degree n whose coefficients are roots of

first

z'^"'=z

and whose

member is prime
by

to

z^'^

z,

then

(p.

303)

all

the roots

of z^""'=z are given

Z^

^o+^i^+-

.+^-il2''~\ where the A's satisfy

=Z.

J. A. Serret,'^^ in contrast to his^ earher exposition, here avoided at the outset the use of Galois imaginaries. An irreducible function of degree

modulo p divides

x^x modulo

if

and only

if

v divides

^t.

simple

"British Assoc. Reports, 1860, 120, 69-71; Coll. M. Papers, "Jour, de Math6matiques, (2), 6, 1861, 241-323. "M6m. Ac. Sc. de I'Institut de France, 35, 1866, 617-688. rieure, ed. 4, vol. 2, 1879, 122-189; ed. 5, 1885.

1,

149-155.
in

Same

Cours

d'algfebre sup6-

242

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, viii

proof is given for Dedekind's^^ final theorem on the product of all irreducible modulo p. functions of degree A function F{x) of degree v, irreducible modulo p, is said to belong to the exponent n if n is the least positive integer such that x" 1 is divisible by F{x) modulo p. Then n is a divisor of p" 1, and a proper divisor of it, Let n be a product of powers of the since it does not divide p" 1 for }x<v. Then the product of all functions of degree v, distinct primes a, b,. .. irreducible modulo p, which belong to an exponent n which is a proper

divisor of p"

1,

is

congruent modulo p to

n(a:"/"-l)-n(x"/"'"^-l)...

and

their

number

is

therefore

(f>{n)/v.

obtained theorems of practical importance a determination of irreducible congruences of given degrees. If we for the functions modulo p, which belong to irreducible of degree the know 1= l)/<i, then if we replace x exponent (p" by x^, where X is prime to d the factor different from those which divide p" 1, we obtain and has no prime functions of degree which belong to the exponent \l, irreducible the Xfi of the when is of form 4ih I, fi is odd, and case the exception being made p X is divisible by 4. In this exceptional case, we may set p = 2H l, i'^2, Let k be the least of i, j. Then if we know t odd; X = 2^s, j^2, s odd. the A^/2^~^ irreducible functions of odd degree ju modulo p which belong to the exponent I and if we replace x by x^, where X is of the form indicated, is prime to d and contains only primes dividing p" 1, we obtain N/2^~^ functions of degree Xju each decomposable into 2^~'^ irreducible factors, thus giving A'' irreducible functions of degree \fx/2''~^ which belong to the exponent XL Apply these theorems to x g% which belongs to the exponent (p l)/d if ^ is a primitive root of p and if d is the g. c. d. of e and p 1 we see that x^g^ is irreducible unless the exceptional case arises, and is then a product of 2^"~^ irreducible functions. In that case, irreducible trinomials of degree X are found by decomposing x" g% where = 2'~^X. If a is not divisible by p, a:'' x a is irreducible modulo p. There is a development of Dedekind's theory of functions modulis p and F(x), where F{x) is irreducible modulo p. Finally, that theory is considered from the point of view of Galois. Just as in the theory of congruences of integers modulo p we treat all multiples of p as if they were zero, so in congruences in the unknown X,
skillful analysis, Serret

By

/jl

i'

(?(X,

a:)

(mod

p, F(a:)),

we operate

minate X which we can make use

multiples of F{x) vanish. There is here an indeterof to cause the multiples of F{x) to vanish if we agree that this indeterminate x is an imaginary root i of the irreducible congruence F(a:) (mod p). From the theorems of the theory of functions modulis p, F{x), we may read off briefer theorems involving i (cf.
as
if

all

Galois^2)^

Chap. VIII]

HiGHER CONGRUENCES, GaLOIS ImAGINARIES.

Schiitz^^ considered

243

Harald

a congruence
. . .

Z'^+aiX"-i+
in

+a=0 (mod

Mix))

a's and the coefficients of are any complex integers Cauchy,^ for real coefficients). Let ai,..., a be the roots of the = have the distinct roots corresponding algebraic equation. Let a^ Then the congruence has n"* distinct roots. For, let ., jirnIII,. Taking i>l, we have ., m. =fi{x) have the factor xjii, for i = 1,

which the

(cf.

M M

fi{^)=fl{^)+0.p-(lpi'

Set X = 111.

Then the right member must vanish.

Using these and /i (/^i)

coefficients of /i(x).

we have

m independent linear relations for the

. .

C. Jordan^ followed Galois in employing from the outset a symbol for an imaginary root of an irreducible congruence, proved the theorems of Galois, and that, if j, ji, are roots of irreducible congruences of degrees where p, q, are distinct primes, their product jji ... is a root p", q^,. of an irreducible congruence of degree p^q^ .... A. E. Pellet^^ stated that, if t is a root of an irreducible congruence of degree v modulo p, a prime, the number of irreducible congruences of degree Vi whose coefficients are polynomials in i is
.
.

jp""! Sp'"'i/5i+Sp'"'i/9i2
if

...+( l)"'p''V9i-

-Sm
}

4){n)/vi

primes dividing vi. Of these congruences, belong to the exponent n if n is a proper divisor of (p")"' Any irreducible function of degree ix modulo p with integral coefficients is a product of 5 irreducible factors of degree ix/b with coefficients rational in i, where b is the g. c. d. of fx, v. In an irreducible function of degree vi and belonging to the exponent n and having as coefficients rational functions of i, replace x by x^, where X contains only prime factors dividing n; the resulting function is a product of 2^~^D/n irreducible functions of degree \nvi/{2^~^D) belonging to the exponent \n, where D is the g. c. d. of \n and p""* 1, and 2^~^ is the highest power of 2 dividing the numerators of each of the fractions (p'"''+l)/2 and Xn/(2Z)) when reduced to their lowest terms. Let gf be a rational function of i, and m the number of distinct values
qi,..., qm are the distinct

among
p,

then x^ x g

g, g^,

g^

,.

..

If neither g-{-g^-{-

+9'^"*"
. . .

nor v/m
it is

is

divisible

by

is

irreducible; in the contrary case

a product of

linear functions.

Hence if we replace a; by x^ x in an irreducible function of degree /x having as coefficients rational functions of i, we get a new irreducible function provided the coefficient of x''~^ in the given function is not zero.
^^Untersuchungen liber Functionale Congruenzen, Diss. Gottingen, Frankfurt, 1867.
^Trait^ des substitutions, 1870, 14-18.

"Comptes Rendus

Paris, 70, 1870, 328-330.

244

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, viii

we have

In particular, if p is a primitive root of a prime n, [Proof in Pellet.^] the irreducible function, modulo p,
(xP-a;)"-l

x^'-x-l
C. Jordan^^ listed irreducible functions [errata, Dickson,^"'^ p. 44]. J. A. Serret'^^ determined the product F of all functions of degree p" In the expansion of (^ 1)" replace each irreducible modulo p, a prime.

power

^^"

by

x"

denote the resulting polynomial in x by X^.

Then
p).

X.,rn^\{^-irl=ie"'-^y,
Hence Vn = Xpr^/Xpn-i.
Moreover,

X.m^X^^'^-X (mod

X,+i = (^-l)''+^ = $a-ir-(^-l)''^Z/-X, (modp).

Multiply this by the relations obtained by replacing /ibyju+1,

.,iJi+v

l.

Thus
X,+.^Z,(X/-i-l)(X,^;J -1) ..{X:+l,-l) (mod
.

p).

Take

/i

= p"~\

/x+i'

= p".
X=l

Hence

A = Xjnii+x-i-l. Each /x decomposes into p 1 factors Xg where ^ = 1,..., p The irreducible functions of degree p" whose product is A are said to belong to
F^'"ff"

(mod

p),

1.

by x^x, X^ is replaced by X^+i since ^' 1)" by (^ l)""*"^; thus A is replaced by A+i) while the last factor in F=nA is replaced by Xpn 1, which is the first factor in Vn+i- Hence if F{x) is of degree p" and is irreducible modulo p and belongs to the Xth class, F{x^x) is irreducible or the product p"""\ of p irreducible functions of degree p" according as X= or <p'* For n = l, the irreducible functions of the Xth class have as roots polynomials of degree X in a root of i^ i=l, which is irreducible modulo p. Hence if we eliminate i between the latter and f{i) = x, where f{i) is the
is

is

the Xth class. When x replaced by ^'(^ 1)

replaced

and hence

(^

general polynomial of degree X in i, we obtain the general irreducible function of degree p of the Xth class. For any n, the determination of the irreducible functions of degree p" of the first class is made to depend upon a problem of elimination (Algebre, p. 205) and the relation to these of the functions of the Xth class, X>1, is investigated.
for each

G. Bellavitis'^" tabulated the indices of Galois imaginaries of order 2 prime modulus p = 4n+3^63. Th. Pepin^" proved that x^ ny^=l (mod p) has p + 1 sets of solutions
Same as in Cours d'alg^bre sup^rieure,

'Kllomptes Rendus Paris, 72, 1871, 283-290. "Jour, de Mathdmatiques, (2), 18, 1873, 301^, 437-451. ed. 4, vol. 2, 1879, 190-211.
"f-Atti
Atti

Accad. Lincei, Mem. Sc. Fis. Mat., (3), 1, 1876-7, 778-800. Accad. Pont. Nuovi Lincei, 31, 1877-8, 43-52.

Chap. VIII]

HiGHER CONGRUENCES, GaLOIS ImAGINARIES.

. .
.

245

y selected from 0, 1, p 1, provided n is a quadratic non-residue of the prime p. Then x-\-y\/n is a root of p+^=l (mod p), which therefore has p + 1 complex roots, all a power of one root. There is a table of indices for these roots when p = 29 and p = 41. [Lebesgue.^^] A. E. Pellet^^ considered the product A of the squares of the differences of the roots of a congruence /(x) = (mod p) having no equal roots. Then A is a quadratic non-residue of p if f{x) has an odd number of irreducible factors of even degree, a quadratic residue if f{x) has no irreducible factor of even degree or has an even number of them. For, if 5i, ., 5^ are the values of A for the various irreducible factors of f{x), then A=a^di. .5j (mod p), where a is an integer. Hence it suffices to consider an irreducible congruence /(a:) = (mod p). Let v be its degree and i a root. In
X,
,
. .

v-i i-i

!/=n n
1=1
A;

{x''

-x^)
;^

by the v roots; we get two distinct values if v is even, one if is In the respective cases, i/^=A (mod p) is irreducible or reducible. odd. Dedekind^^ noted that, if P(x) is a prime function of degree / modulo R. congruence F{x) = (mod p, P) is equivalent to the congruence prime, a p, a F(a) = (mod tt), where tt is a prime ideal factor of p of norm p^, and a is a root of P(a) = (mod tt). A. E. Pellet^^ denoted by/(a;)=0 the equation of degree ^(A;) having as its roots the primitive A;th roots of unity, and by /i(i/) =0 the equation derived by setting y = x-\-\/x. If p is a prime not dividing k, f{x) is congruent modulo p to a product of <f>{k)/v irreducible factors whose degree v
replace x

the least integer for which p" ! is divisible by k. li fi{y) (mod p) has an integral root a,f(x) is divisible modulo p by x^ 2ax-\-l. Either the latter has two real roots and f{x) and fi{y) have all their roots real and p 1 is divisible by k, or it is irreducible and f(x) is a product of quadratic factors modulo p and the roots oifi{y) are all real and p+1 is divisible by k. If k divides neither p+l nor p l,fi{y) is a product of factors of equal degree modulo p. [Cf. Sylvester,^^ etc., Ch. XVI.] Let A; be a divisor f^ 2 of p L Let X be an odd number divisible by no prime not a factor of k, and relatively prime to{p+l)/k. Then x^^ 2ax^ is irreducible modulo p [Serret,^^ No. 355]. Also, if h is not divisible by p
is

F={x-\-by''-2aix^-b^)^+ix-by^
is

irreducible

modulo p; replacing x^ by y, we obtain a function of degree X modulo p. If /c is a divisor ?^2 of p 1 and if X is odd, prime to {p l)/k and divisible by no prime not a factor of k, F decomposes modulo p into two irreducible functions of degree X. The function /(x^) is either irreducible or the product of two irreducible
irreducible

factors of degree

v.

In the respective cases, the product

of the squares of

"Comptes Rendus Paris, 86, 1878, 1071-2. "Abhand. K. Gesell. Wiss. Gottingen, 23, 1878,
1894, 571-2. s^Comptes Rendus Paris, 90, 1880, 1339-41.
4,

p. 25.

Dirichlet-Dedekind, Zahlentheorie, ed.

246

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, viii

is a quadratic non-residue or residue the differences of the roots of /(x") like product for J{x). Then A = (-l)'2-' Let Ai be the of p [Pellet^^j. if is irreducible l)7(6)/a'' is a quadratic nonHence /(ax- +6) ( /(0)Ai".

residue and then /(ax '+6) is irreducible modulo p for every i and even v. 0. H. Mitchell^ gave analogues of Fermat's and Wilson's theorems moduhs p (a prime) and a function of x.

A. E. Pellet^ considered the exponent n to which belongs the product P of degree v irreducible modulo p. If g is a prime factor of n, F(x') is irreducible or the product of q irreducible factors of degree v modulo p according as q is not or is a divisor of {p \)/n. In particular, F{x^) is irreducible modulo p if, for v even, X contains onlyprime factors of n not dividing {p \)/n; for v odd, we can use the factor 2 Let i be a root of F(x) 0, I'l a root of an in X only once if p = 4mH-l. (mod p) of degree v^ prime to v. Then irreducible congruence Fi(x) (mod p) of degree vvx. ill is a root of an irreducible congruence G(x) F{x) belongs to the exponent Nn modulo p, where n is prime to (p' 1) -^\{p \)N\. Let qi be a prime factor of .V not dividing p 1. Then G(x'') is irreducible or decomposes into qi irreducible factors of degree vvi according as qi is not or is a divisor of (p'' l)/N. Thus G(x^) is irreducible dividing neither p 1 nor {p'' l)/N. if X contains onlj' prime factors of 0. H. MitchelP^ defined the prime totient of /(x) to mean the number of polynomials in x, incongruent modulo p, of degree less than the degree of (x) and having no factor in conmion with / modulo p. Those which contain S, but no prime factor of / not contained in S, are called >S-totitives
of the roots of a congruence F(x)

of/.

C. Dina^^ proved known results on congruences moduhs p and F{x). A. E. Pellet^^ proved that, if ju distinct values are obtained from a rational function of x with integral coefficients by replacing x successively by the 77i roots of an irreducible congruence modulo p, then ^i is a divisor and these values are the roots of an irreducible congruence. Thus of if A is a rational function of any number of roots of congruences irreducible modulo p, and p is the number of distinct values among A, A^, A^\. ., these values satisfy an irreducible congruence modulo p. If A belongs to the exponent n modulo p, then v is the least positive integer for which p''= 1 (mod n). He proved a result of Serret's^^ stated in the following form: If, in an irreducible function F{x) modulo p of degree v and exponent n, x is replaced by x^, where X contains only primes dividing n, then F(x^) is a product of irreducible factors of degree vq and exponent n\, where q is the least integer for which ^"^=1 (mod n\). He proved the first theorem of Pellet^ and the last one of Pellet."

/jl

"Johns Hopkins University Circulars,

1,

"Comptps Rendus Paris, 93, 1881, 1065-6. "Amer. Jour. Math., 4, 1881, 25-38.
^Giomale di Mat., 21, 1883, 234-263.

1880-1, 132. Cf. Pellet."

For comments on 263-9, see the chapter on quadratic

reciprocity law. Bull. Soc. Math. France, 17, 1888-9, 156-167.

Chap. VIII]

HiGHER CONGRUENCES, GaLOIS ImAGINARIES.

247

E. H. Moore^^ stated that every finite field (Korper) is, apart from notaa Galois field composed of the p" polynomials in a root of an irreducible congruence of degree n modulo p, a prime. E. H. Moore^ proved the last theorem and others on finite fields. K. Zsigmondy^^ noted that the number of congruences of degree n modulo p, having no irreducible factor of degree i, is
tions,

P"-({)p"-^+(2)p"-''
where / is the number of functions of degree i irreducible modulo p. G. Cordone^^ noted that if a function is prime to each of its derivatives with respect to each prime modulus Pi,..., Pn and is irreducible modulo = piK .pn", it is irreducible with respect to at least one of Pi,..., Pn-

If

F(x)

is

not identically

divides a product

modulo

M and

=0

modulo
is

pi, nor modulo p2, etc., and if it prime to one factor according to each

Pi,. ., Pn, then F(x) divides the other factor modulo M. Let F{x) be a function of degree r irreducible with respect to each prime ., Pn, while /(x) is not divisible by F{x) with respect to any one of the Pi, p's, then (pp. 281-8)

modulus
.
.

l/(x)[-^^^^^l
<}>r{M)

(mod M,

F(x)),

0,(M)=M'-(l-^,y .(l-^),
.
.

in all other cases. Borel and Drach^^ gave an exposition of the theory of Galois imaginaries from the standpoint of Galois himself. H. Weber^^ considered the finite field (Congruenz Korper) formed of the p" classes of residues modulo p of the polynomials, with integral coefficients,

A= A= + l

being the number of functions Cix''~^+ -\-Cr, in which the c's take 1 whose g. c. d. is prime to M. Let A be the such values 0, 1,. ., product of these reduced functions modulis M, F{x). Then (pp. 316-8), 1 (mod M, F) if = p^, 2p^ or 4, where p is an odd prime, while
.

M M

the generalizafact that every element is a square or a sum of the squares of two elements. Ivar Damm^* gave known facts about the roots of congruences modulis /(x), where /(x) is irreducible modulo p, without exhibiting the second p, modulus and without making it clear that it is not a question of ordinary congruences modulo p. Let e be a fixed primitive root of the prime p. Then the roots of every irreducible quadratic congruence are of the form
tion of Fermat's theorem, the existence of primitive roots,

in a root of

an irreducible equation

of degree n.

He proved

and the

a hoi,
89Bull.

where

co^

= e.

Let k^^^ = e,

ki

= k^.

New York Math. Soc, 3, 1893-4, 73-8. "Math. Papers Chicago Congress of 1893, 1896, 208-226; University of Chicago Decennial
Publications, (1), 9, 1904, 7-19. 4, 1894, 265-9. "Introd. th^orie des nombres, 1895, 42-50, 58-62, 343-350. 'Lehrbuch der Algebra, II, 1896, 242-50, 259-261; ed. 2, 1899, 302-10, 320-2.

"El Progreso Matemdtico,

"Bidrag

till

Laran

om

Kongruenser med Primtalsmodyl,

Diss., Upsala, 1896,

86 pp.

248

History of the Theory of Numbers.

in

[Chap, viii

Analogous to the definition of trigonometric functions nentials, he defined quasi cosines and sines by

terms of expo-

and Tqx as

their quotient.

Their relations are discussed.

He

defined

pseudo cosines

and

sines

by
Spx = -e-'Sq2x.
(integral) values of

Cpx = Cq[{p - l)x] = e-'Cq2x,

For each prime p<100, he gave (pp. 65-86) the

e^,

ind

x,

Cqx, Sqx, Tqx, Cpx,

Spx
more general case

for

x=l,

2,.

.,

p + 1.

L. E. Dickson^^ extended the results of Serret^* to the

in

which the coefficients of the functions are poljTiomials in a given Galois imaginary (i. e., are in a Galois field of order p"). For the corresponding generaUzation of the results of Serret^^ on irreducible congruences modulo p of degree a power of p, additional developments were necessary. To obtain the irreducible functions of degree p in the GFlp'^'] which are of the first class, we need the complete factorization, in the field,

hiz^'-z-v) =U{h''z''-hz-^)
where hv
is

an integer and

/S

ranges over the roots of

all of

whose roots are

in the field.

For the case

is

this factorization is

if and only In particular, if /3 is an integer not divisible by p, z^ z^ is irreducible in the GF[p"] if and only if n is not divisible by p. R. Le Vavasseur^^ employed Galois imaginaries to express in brief notation the groups of isomorphisms of certain tj-pes of groups, for example, that of the abelian group G generated by n independent operators ai, ., a, each of period a prime p. If i is a root of an irreducible congruence of degree n modulo p, and if j = ai-\-ia2+ .+i''~^a, he defined a^ to be Then the operators of G are represented by the real and Oi"' an"". imaginary powers of a. A. Guldberg^^ considered linear differential forms

due to ]Mathieu."
if

Thus K^z^hz^

irreducible in the field

B^O.

dy d^y A ^y=^>:d^.-^----^^^di+^oy,
, ,

^4th integral coefficients.

Boole's sjTnbolic

The product
to be

of

two such forms

d

is

defined

by

method

d''

Ay'By={au-^-\-

6}

+o)(^/^+

+^^+^o)2/.

"BuU. Amer. Math. Soc.,3, 1896-7, 381-9.

"M^m.

Ac. Sc. Toulouse,

(9), 9,

1897, 247-256.

"^Comptes Rendus Paris, 125, 1897, 489.

Chap. VIII]

HiGHER CONGRUENCES, GaLOIS ImAGINARIES.

is

249

If

the product

=Cy

(mod

p),

Ay and By

Let A?/ be of order n and irreducible modulo p. gruent modulis p, A?/ to one and but one of the p" forms
of Cy.
(4) If
is

are called divisors modulo p Then Ay is con-

s'c,^
It

(c,

= 0, l,...,p-l).
if

forms analogue of Fermat's theorem

of these

any one

(4)

and

= 'p^ \, Guldberg

stated the

dfu

^='M

(mod

p, ^y),
[cf.

but incorrectly gave the right member to be unity

cients,

Epsteen/''^, Dickson^"^].
.
. .

with integral coeffisuch that the product D of the squares of the differences of the roots Let p be any prime not dividing D. Let v be the number of is not zero. factors of F{x) which are irreducible modulo p. He proved by the use of prime ideals that
L. Stickelberger^^ considered F{x) =x^+aix''~^-\-

(f)=(-i)-.
where the symbol in the
residues].
left

member

is

that of Legendre [see quadratic

L. E. Dickson^^ proved the existence of the Galois field GF[p''] of order

p"

by induction from

=n

to r = qn,

by showing that

(a:^"'-a:)/(x^"-x)

a product of factors of degree q belonging to and irreducible in the Any such factor defines the GF[p'"']. L. Kronecker^ treated congruences modulis p, P{x) from the standpoint of modular systems. F. S. Carey ^^ gave for each prime p< 100 a table of the residues of the
is

(?F[p"].

p + 1 powers of a primitive root a-\-hj of z^~^=l (mod p) where /=' The higher powers p), V being an integral quadratic non-residue of p. are readily derived. While only the single modulus p is exhibited, it is Methods of "solving" really a question of a double modulus p and x^v.
first

(mod

2?"-!=! are discussed. In particular, for n = 3, there is given a primitive root for each prime p< 100. L. E. Dickson^"^ gave a systematic introductory exposition of the theory, with generalizations and extensions. M. Bauer^"^ proved that, if /(a;) =0 is an irreducible equation with integral coefficients and leading coefficient unity, w a root, D its discriminant, d = D/k^ that of the domain defined by w, p sl prime not dividing k, x>l,
8Verhand. I. Internat. Math. Kongress, 1897, 186. "^BuU. Amer. Math. Soc, 6, 1900, 203-4. looVorlesungen iiber Zahlentheorie, I, 1901, 212-225 (expanded by Hensel, p. 506). i"Proc. London Math. Soc, 33, 1900-1, 294-310. lo'Linear groups with an exposition of the Galois field theory, Leipzig, 1901, pp. 1-71. lo^Math. Naturw. Berichte aus Ungarn, 20, 1902, 39-42; Math. 6s Phyp. Lapok, 10, 1902, 28-33.

250
then f{x)
is

History of the Theory of Numbers.

.

[Chap, viii

congruent modulo p" to a product of Fi(j),. ., F,(a:), each irreducible modulo p, such that F,(x)=/,(a:)' (mod p), where /(x)= 11/. (x)*'

(mod

p),

and

/.(x) is irreducible

modulo

p.

There

is

an example

of

an

irreducible cyclotomic function reducible with respect to every prime power modulus. P. Bachmann^^ gave an exposition of the general theory. G. Arnoux^"^ exhibited in the form of tables the work of finding a primitive root of the GF\1^] and of the GF[5^], and tabulated the reducible and irreducible congruences of degrees 1, 2, 3, modulo 5. S. Epsteen^^ proved the result of Guldberg,^" and developed the theory of residues of hnear differential forms parallel to the theory of finite fields, ^as presented by Dickson. L. E. Dickson ^^ noted that the last mentioned subjects are identical Let the irreducible form A?/ be abstractly.
d'^y

dy

To

field of

the element (4) we make correspond the element 2c,z* of the Galois order p", where z is a root of the irreducible congruence

52"+...+5i2+5o=0 (mod p). Since product relations are preserved by this correspondence, the p"
dues
(4) define

resi-

field

abstractly identical with our Galois

vi

field.

Dickson^"^''

proved that x'"=.t (mod

= p")

a prime and hence does not define the Galois

stated.

field of

has p and only p roots if p is order m as occasionally

A. Guldberg^"^'' employed the notation of finite differences and wrote n m m n Fy, = 2 afi%, Gy, = 2 hj9%, Fy^.Gy, = 2 afi\ 2 bfi%,
t=0 =0

t=0

=0

where 6y^ = yjc+i,

^'?/x

= 2/1+2.

>

symbolically.
p,

To

these linear forms with

integral coefficients taken

modulo

a prime, we

may

apply EucUd's

g. c. d.

Next, let 6, be not di\'isible process and prove that factorization is unique. by p, so that Gy^ is of order m. With respect to the two moduU p, Gy^, a

complete set of
1,...,

p"*

residues of hnear forms

is

a,_i?/:r+m-i+

+ao2/x
..

(^1

= 0,

p-1).

Amongst
if

these occur
Wi,
.
. .

<}>{Gy^)

=p"'{l- 1 /p'"')

.{1-1 /p"''^)

forms Fy^. prime to Gyj^ of Gyx modulo p, and

niq

are the orders of the irreducible factors

FyJ'^^'^^-^^y,

(mod

p, Gy,)

In particular,

if

Gy^

is

irreducible

and

of order

m,

Fyr-'^yAmodp,Gy,).
1, 1902, 363-399. Assoc. frang. av. sc, 31, 1902, II, 202-227. iBuU. Amer. Math. Soc, 10, 1903-4, 23-30. '"/bid., pp. 30-1. "'"Amer. Math. Monthly, 11, 1904, 39-40. >"f'.\iinaU di Mat., (3), 10, 1904, 201-9.

iNiedere Zahlentheorie,

Chap. VIII]

HIGHER CONGRUENCES, GaLOIS ImAGINARIES.

251

W. H. Bussey^^ gave for each Galois field of order 1000 companion tables showing the residues of the successive powers of a primitive root,
and the powers corresponding to the residues arranged in a natural order. These tables serve the same purposes in computations with Galois fields that tables of indices serve in computations with integers modulo p", where p is a prime. G. Voronoi^^ proved the theorem of Stickelberger.^^ Thus, for n = 3, (D/p) = 1 only when v = 2. Hence a cubic congruence has a single root if (D/p) = 1, and three real roots or none if {D/p) = +1. P. Bachmann^^ developed the general theory from the standpoint of Kronecker's modular systems and considered its relation to ideals (p. 241). M. Bauer^^^ employed a polynomial /(z) of degree n irreducible modulo p, and another one M{z) of degree less than that of f{z) and not divisible by/(2) modulo p. Then if {t, a) = l, the equation

<

/(2)+pM(2)=0
The case is due to Schonemann^^ (p. 101). G. Arnoux,^^^ starting with any prime m and integer n, introduced a symbol i such that i^^^ 1 (mod m) and such that i, i^, ., i^ are distinct, where s = m" 1, without attempting a logical foundation. If /(x) is irreducible modulo m and of degree n, there is only a finite number of distinct residues of powers of x modulis/(x), m] let x^ andx'^'^^have the same residue. Thus x^ 1 is divisible by/(x) modulo m. It is stated (p. 95) without proof that p divides s. "Call a a root of /(a:) = 0. To make a coincide with the primitive root i of a;^= 1, we must take p = s, whence every such primitive root is a root of an irreducible congruence of degree n modulo m." Following this inadequate basis is an exposition (pp. 117-136) of known properties
is

irreducible.

a=1

of Galois imaginaries.

L.

I.

field of

Neikirk^^^ represented geometrically the elements of the Galois order p" defined by an irreducible congruence
/(x) =rc"+aia:"-^H. . .

-fa=0 (mod

p).

Let j be a root of the equation f{x)

and represent
(c's

Ci/~^+
by a point

+c_ii-Fc

integers)

in the complex plane. The p"" points for which the c's are chosen from 0, 1, 1 represent the elements of the Galois field. ., p G. A. Miller^^^ listed all possible modular systems p, 4>{x), where p is a prime and the coefficient of the highest power of x is unity, in regard to which a complete set of prime residues forms a group of order ^12. If 4>{x) is the product of k distinct irreducible functions 4>i, (f)^ modulo p,
.
. . . .

"SBuU. Amer. Math. Soc, 12, 1905, 21-38; 16, 1909-10, 188-206. lO'Verhand. III. Internat. Math. Kongress, 1905, 186-9. ""AUgemeine Arith. d. Zahlenkorper, 1905, 81-111. "iJour. fur Math., 128, 1905, 87-9. "'Arithm^tique Graphique, Fonctiona Arith., 1906, 91-5. "'BuU. Amer. Math. Soc, 14, 1907-8, 323-5. "Archiv Math. Phys., (3), 15, 1909-10, 115-121.

252

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, viii

the residues prime to p, (t>{x) constitute the direct product of the groups with respect to the various p, 0.(a:). Not every abelian group can be represented as a congruence group composed of a complete set of prime residues ., Fx, where the F's are functions of a single variable. with respect to Fj, Mildred Sanderson^ ^^ employed two moduU m and P{y), the first being any integer and the second any polynomial in y with integral coefficients. Such a polynomial /(?/) is said to have an inverse /i (y) if //i= 1 (mod m, P). If P{y) is of degree r and is irreducible with respect to each prime factor of m, a function f{y), whose degree is <r, has an inverse moduhs m, P{y), if and only if the g. c. d. of the coefficients of /(?/) is prune to m. For such an/, /" = 1 (mod vi, P), where n is Jordan's function Jr{fn) [Jordan, ^"^ Ch. V]. In case m is a prime, this result becomes Galois'^^ generalization The product of the n distinct residues having of Fermat's theorem. inverses moduHs m, P{y), is congruent to 1 when m is a power of an odd prime or the double of such a power or when r= 1, w = 4; but congruent to 1 in all other cases a two-fold generahzation of Wilson's theorem. There exists a polynomial P{y) of degree r which is irreducible with respect Then if A{y), B{y) are of degrees <r and their to each prime factor of m. coefficients are not all divisible by a factor of m, there exist polynomials a(i/), ^{y), such that aA+/3B=l (mod m, P). Several writers^^^ discussed the irreducible quadratic factors modulo p of {x'^\)/{x^ l), where A' = 1 or 2, p is a prime, a a divisor of p-fl. G. Tarry^^^ noted that, if f=q (mod m), where 5 is a quadratic nonresidue of the prune m, the Galois imaginary a+hj is a primitive root if its norm {a-\-'bj){a hj) is a primitive root of m and if the ratio a:h and the analogous ratios of the coordinates of the first m powers of a-\-hj are incon. .

gruent.

two polynomials in two variables with have a unique g. c. d. modulo p, a prime. Thus the unique factorization theorem holds.
L. E. Dickson^ ^^ proved that
integral coefficients

G. Tarr>'^^^ stated that Ap is a primitive root of the GF[p^] if the norm is a primitive root of p and if the imaginar>^ p belongs to the exponent p+1. The 0(p-f 1) numbers p are found by the usual process to obtain the primitive roots of a prime. U. Scarpis^- proved that an equation of degree v irreducible in the Galois field of order p" has in the field of order p"*" either v roots or no root according as v is or is not a di\dsor of m [Dickson^^, p. 19, lines 7-9].
of

A = a-\-'bj

Cubic Congruences.
A. Cauchy^^ solved y'^-\-By-\-C={) (mod p)

when

it

has three distinct

'"Annals of Math., (2), 13, 1911, 36-9. "L'interm^diaire dea math., 18, 1911, 195, 246; 19, 1912, 61-69, 95-6; 21, 1914, 158-161; 22, Sphinx-Oedipe, 7. 1912, 2-3. 1915, 77-8. "'Assoc, fran^. av. sc, 40, 1911, 12-24. "sBuU. Amer. Math. Soc, (2), 17, 1911, 293-4. "'Sphinx-Oedipe, 7, 1912, 43^, 49-50. ""AnnaU di Mat., (3), 23, 1914, 45. ""Exercices de Math., 4, 1829, 279-292; Oeuvres, (2), 9, 326-333.

Chap. VIII]

CuBIC CONGRUENCES.
2/2,

253

integral roots y^,

^Vi

Vs,

and p is a prime
^V2

=1

(mod 3), and

B^O (mod p)

Set

= yi+ry2-\-r%,
p),

= yi+r^y2+ry3,

r^+r+ 1=0 (mod

p).

The
Vi

roots of

u^-\-CuB^/27=

from Vi^=Ui (mod

we

(mod p) are Ui get V2= B/{3vi),

3^1, Sv2.

= ^i^,

U2

= ^2^.

After finding
y's

and determine the

from

'2yi=0 and the expressions for

2/i=yi+z;2,

Thus

y2=r\+rv2,

ys^rvi+r^ (mod

p).

Since by hypothesis the cubic congruence has three distinct integral roots, the quadratic has two distinct integral roots, whence
p-l
P-l
7^2

^3

"^"^7

'

+(~^+^7

'

^2'

'

^^

(modp).

Conversely, if the last two conditions are satisfied, the cubic congruence (mod p). has three distinct real roots provided p=l (mod 3), G. Oltramare^^^ found the conditions that one or all of the roots of x^+Spx+2q=0 (mod fx) given by Cardan's formula become integral modulo Set fx, a prime.

B^O

D = q^-\-p\
is

First, let /x be a prime a quadratic residue of /x, there a single rational root 2g/(p+(r^"+T^"). If Z) is a quadratic non-residue of fx, there are three rational roots or no root according as the rational part of the development of o-^"~^ by the binomial theorem satisfies or does not
.

a=-q+VD, If D is 6n 1

T=-q-VD,

satisfy
roots,

ilfp^+g^O (mod //)

if

also

/x

= 18m+ll and

there are three rational

they are

2M^,
(72"*+i
if

-^(MiW-3i)),
result

Next,
of
o-^" is

= ikf 4-iVVD; with a like let /x = 6n+l. If Z) is

or
is

when m = 18m+5.
^x,

a quadratic non-residue of

rational root or

none according as the rational part

M of the development

there

is

one

not such that

(2M-l)2(ikf+l)=-2gVp3 (modM),
and
of
If Z) is a quadratic residue a rational root exists it is 2q/ p {2M 1 ) } there are three rational roots or none according as cr^''= 1 (mod /x) or not. When there are three, they are given explicitly if ^t=18m-|-7 or 18m 13, while if // = 18m l there are sub-cases treated only partially. G. T. Woronoj^^^ (or Voronoi) employed Galois imaginaries a -{-hi, where
if
\
.

IX,

i^N=0 (mod p)
I'lJour. fiir

is

irreducible,

p being an odd prime,

p).

to treat the solution of

x^rx s=0 (mod

'"Integral algebraic

Math., 45, 1853, 314-339. numbers depending on a root of a cubic equation (in Russian), St. Petersburg, 1894, Ch. I. Cf. Voronoi."' Cf. Fortschritte Math., 25, 1893-4, 302-3.

254

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, viii

If 4r^ 27s^ is a quadratic non-residue of p, the congruence has one and only one root; but if it is a residue, there are three roots or no root. G. Cordone^^^ gave simpler proofs of Oltramare's^^^ theorem II on the case = Qn I, gave theorems to replace VII and VIII, and proved that the condition in IX is sufficient as well as necessary. Ivar Damm^^ found when Cardan's formula gives three real roots, one or no real root of a cubic congruence, and expressed the roots by use of his quasi sine and cosine functions. For the prime modulus p = 3nH-l,
fjL

f=x^-\-ax-\-b

is

irreducible

if

c If p = 3n 1, it There are given

J.

= ^isrea.,(-|+cf.*l.
irreducible
if

is

and

6/2+0)"

are both imaginary.

/ is irreducible. Iwanow^^ gave another proof of the theorem of Woronoj.^^^ Woronoj ^^^ gave another proof of the same theorem and stated that the congruence has the same number of roots for all primes representable by a binary quadratic form whose determinant equals 4r^+27s^.
(p.

52) explicit expressions for h such that

G. Arnoux^^*^ gave double-entry tables of the roots of the congruences

x''+6x*+a=0 (mod m), and solved numerical cubic congruences by

terpreting Cardan's formulas.

in-

For
of

G. Arnoux^^^ treated x^+6x+a=0 (mod m) by use of Cardan's formula. m = 1 1 he gave a table of the real roots for a ^ 10, 6^ 10, and the residues
,

^-4+27
When R
use of

a/2=t y/R are found by is a quadratic residue, the cube roots of 11^ table for the Galois field of order defined a by (mod 11),

r=2

and the cubic

seen to have a real and two imaginary roots involving i. is quadratic non-residue, there are three real roots or none. If jR a Like 1 is not divisible by 3. If results are said to hold when 1 (mod 3), there is a single real root if 7? is a quadratic non-residue three real or three imaginary roots of the third order if ^ is a residue. L. E. Dickson'^^ proved that, if p is a prime >3, x^-\-^x-\-b=0 (mod p) has no integral root if and only if 4/3^ 276^ is a quadratic residue of p^
is

w=

say

= 81)u^

y+zy/ 3,

The reducible and irreducible integers. cubic congruences are given explicitly. Necessary and sufficient conditions for the irreducibility of a quartic congruence are proved.
'"Rendiconti Circolo Mat. di Palermo, 9, 1895, 221-36. "^BuU. Ac. Sc. St. Petersburg, 5, 1896, 137-142 (in Russian). '^Natural Sc. (Russian), 10, 1898, 329; of. Fortschritte Math., 29, 1898, 156. '3 Assoc, franc;, av. sc, 30, 1901, II, 31-50, 51-73; corrections, 31, 1902, II, 202. '"Assoc, frang. av. sc, 33, 1904, 199-230 [182-199], and Amoux'", 166-202. '"BuU. Amer. Math. Soc, 13, 1906, 1-8.

and if ( 6+/xV where y and z are

3)

is

not congruent to the cube of any

Chap. VIII]

CUBIC CONGRUENCES.

255

D. Mirimanoff^^^ noted that the results by Arnoux"^'^" may be combined by use of the discriminant 4b^ 27a^= 3-Q^R in place of R, since 3 is a quadratic residue of a prime p = Sk-{-l, non-residue ofp = Sk l, and we obtain the result as stated by Voronoi.-^^^ To find which of the values 1 or 3 is taken by v when D is a quadratic residue, apply the theorem that if /(x) (mod p) is an irreducible congruence of degree n and if Xq is one of its imaginary roots (say one of the roots of the equation f{x) = 0) the roots are

D=

pnl

Hence a function unaltered by the cycHc substitution (xqXi. .Xn-i) has an integral value modulo p. Take w = 3, D=d^, a a root 5^1 of 2^=1 (mod p), and let
.

If

p=l (mod

3),

is

M = (xo+aXi+a^X2)^. an integer, and M an integer

is
if

if

^^

= 1,

while

is

the cube of an integer

if ilf
J/

=3

Thus we have Arnoux's or-| ( 9a+V 3d) is a cubic residue modulo p. If if and only if ilf^^l (mod p), where k = {p'^ -l)/3.
v
(a^o

= S.

criterion :^^^ v

=S
3)

p= 1

(mod

For quartic congruences, we can use

R. D. von
Sterneck^"*"

a:i-|-a:2 a^s)^.
but,
if

and
is

if

= SAC B^^O

noted that if p is a prime >3 not dividing A, (mod p), then the number of incongruent values
is

taken by

Ax^+Bx^+Cx-\-D
if

if

p = Sn l, (p+2)/3

i{2p+(-3/p)j

k=0, the number

C. Cailler^^^ the algebraic method leading to Cardan's formula, in the form

(1)

p = 3n+l. Generalization by Kantor.^^^ treated x^+px-\-q=0 (mod I), where I is a prime >3.

By

we

write the congruence

x^-Sabx+abia+b)^0 (mod
a, h

/), T),

where

are the roots of z^-{-Sqz/pp/S=0

(mod

z={xQ-\-aXi+ a^X2) V (9p)

Let

a^

+a+ 1 =

whence (mod I)

A = 4p^+27g^.
If
is

and real. where N

If 3A is a quadratic residue of i, a and b are distinct 3A is a non-residue, a and b are Galois imaginaries rs\/iV^ any non-residue. For a root a: of (1),

Use

is

made
2/0,

of

to get

Vi,..

..

a recurring series S with the scale of relation Write Q = (3A/Z). If ; = 3m-l, Q = l, then

[a +6,

ab]

If

= 3m-\-l, Q = l,
is
I,

the congruence
i.

is

possible only
let

a/b

a cubic residue,

e., if

2/^=0 in S;

when the real number a/b belong to the exponent

3m=f1 modulo

whence
9,

'"L'enseignement math.,
"oSitzungsber. Ak. Wiss.

1907, 381-4.
116, 1907, Ila, 895-904.

Wien (Math.),

"'L'enseignement math., 10, 1908, 474r-487.

256

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, viii

w=

\o/

x=
2/2^-1

or
2/m

>

according as the upper or lower sign holds.

2/3m+2=0,
li
l

If l==Sm-\-l,

Q=
.

1, then

(rl
\0/

=-,

realx=-;
y2m+l

= Sm l, Q= 1,
I,

residue of
case.

viz.,

there are three real roots if and only if a/b is a cubic 2/^=0; when real, the roots may be found as in the second

Cailler^^^

noted that a cubic equation

X=

has

its

roots expressible

in one root and VA, where A is the discriminant (Serret's Algebre, ed. 5, vol. 2, 466-8). Hence, if p is a prime, (mod p) has three real roots if one, when and only when A is a quadratic residue of p. If p = 9m^l, his^^^ test shows that x^ 3xH-l (mod p) has three real roots, but no real root for other prime moduli 5^3. The function

rationally

X=0

F{x) =x^-{-x- 2x l for the three periods of the seventh roots of unity is divisible by the primes 7m=*= 1 (then 3 real roots, Gauss", p. 624) and 7, but by no other primes. E. B. Escott"^ noted that the equation F(x) =0 last mentioned has the roots a, ^ = a^2, 7=/3^ 2, so that F{x) (mod p) has three real roots if one real root. To find the most general irreducible cubic equation with roots a, (3, y such that

^=/(a),

y=m,

a=f{y),

we may assume that/(x)

(2)

is

of degree 2.

For /(a) = a^n, we get

x^-\-ax'^-{a'-2a-\-3)x-ia^-2a^-\-da-l)=0,

with ^ = a^ c, y=j3^c, a=y^c, c = o^ a+2. The corresponding congruence has three real roots if one. To treat/(a)=a^+^a+Z, add k/2 to each root. For the new roots, jS' = a'^ n, as in the former case. To treat /(a) = ta^-\-ga-\-h, the products of the roots by t satisfy the preceding relation. L. E. Dickson^^ determined the values of a for which the congruence corresponding to (2) has three integral roots. Replace x by za; we get

z^-2az^+{2a-S)z-\-l =
If

(mod

p).

the others are 1 1/z and 1/(12). Evidently a is rational If is a quadratic non-residue of p, there are exactly (p 2)/S values of a for which the congruence has three distinct integral roots. If 3 is a residue, the number is (pH-2)/3. A second method, yielding an explicit congruence for these values of a, is a direct application of his^^ general criteria for the nature of the roots of a cubic congruence. T. Hayashi^^^ treated cyclotomic cubic equations with three real roots by use of Escott's^'*^ results.

one root
z.

is z,

in

"L'interm^diaire des math., 16, 1909, 185-7. '"Annals of Math., (2), 11, 1909-10, 86-92.

'"/bid., (2), 12, 1910-11, 149-152. >/6id., 189-192.

Chap. VIII]

MISCELLANEOUS RESULTS ON CONGRUENCES.

Miscellaneous Results on Congruences.

257

Linear congruences will be treated in Vol. 2 under linear diophantine equations, quadratic congruences in two or more variables, under sums of four squares; ax''+hy''-}-cz''=0, under Fermat's last theorem. Fermat^^^ stated that not every prime p divides one of the numbers a+1, a^+l,a^+l,. .. For, if /c is the least value for which a^' 1 is divisBut if k is even, ible by p and if k is odd, no term a^-{-l is divisible by p.
.

^fc/2_|_2

jg

divisible

by

p.

12nl divides S'^+l, every prime 12n=t5 divides certain S'^+l, no prime 10nl divides 5""+!, every prime lOn^S divides certain 5"^+!, and intimated that he possessed a rule relating
Fermat^^^ stated that no prime

See Lipschitz.^^*^ Legendre^^ obtained from a given congruence x"=ax'*~^+(mod p), p SiTi odd prime, one having the same roots, but with no double Express x^^"^'^^ in terms of the powers of a; with exponents <n, and roots. equate the result to +1 and to 1 in turn. The g. c. d. of each and the given congruence is the required congruence. An exception arises if the
to all primes.

A.

M.

1. proposed congruence is satisfied by 0, 1, ., p Hoen4 de Wronski^^^ developed {ni-\- .-\-nJ"', replaced each multi.+nj\"*. nomial coefficient by unity, and denoted the result by A[ni+ +n. Then (pp.65-9), Thus A[ni+n2f = ni^+nin2+n2^. SetiV = ni+
.

(1)

A[N^-nX-A[N^-nX={n,-n,)A[NT~'=0 (mod
Let
(ni.
.

n,-n,).

.nS)m be the
(p. 143), if

time.
(2)

Then

sum of the products A[Nj' = l,

of ni,.

.,

n taken

at a

A[NJ={n,.. .nJ,A[N^Y-'-in,.. .nJ^AWJ-' + in,.. .n^)sA[NJ-'- .+{-iy+\n,. .nJ),A[Nj.

. .

He

discussed (pp. 146-151) in an obscure

manner the
v.

solution of

Xi=X2
. .
.

(mod X), where the X's are polynomials H-n_2+np+ng. Let the negatives of

in ^ of degree

Set

N^ = ni-\-

P = Po-\-PiX+
the roots of

.+P^^2^"~^-\-x"~^
.

Q = Qo+

= 0; = .+x"~^ 0. We
(2)

Ui,..., n_2, Up be the roots of the negatives of ni,..., n^-2, "riq may add fiX and ^2^ to the

members

of our congruence.

It is stated that the

new

first

member may

be taken to be A[A^ nj"", whence by

X,-\-^,X = P^_2A[N^-nr-'-P.-3A[N^-nX-^+

.,

and the A's may be expressed

^2+^2^

in terms of the P's by niay be expressed in terms of the Q's. By (1),

(2).

Similarly,

X = nqnp = Q^_2

Since P = 0, Q = have co 2 roots in common, we have further It is argued that w 3 of the latter conditions on the coefficients Pi, Qi.
"^Oeuvres, i^Oeuvres,
2,
2,

P_2.

i"M6m._Ac.

209, letter to Frenicle, Oct. 18, 1640, 220, letter to Mersenne, June 15, 1641. Sc. Paris, 1785, 483.

"^Introduction a la Philosophic des Math^matiques et Technie de I'Argorithmie, Paris, 1811. He used the Hebrew aleph for the A of this report. Cf. Wronski^^' of Ch. VII.

258

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, viil

remain arbitrary, and that ^ is a function of them and one of the n's, which has an arbitrary rational value. A. Cauchy^" noted that if / and F are polynomials in x, Lagrange's interpolation formula leads to polynomials u and v such that uJ-\-vF = R, where i? is a constant [provided / and F have no common factor]. If the Hence R is the greatest of the coefficients are all integers, R is an integer. For /= x^x, we may express i2 as a prodintegers di\-iding both / and F. uct of trigonometric functions. If also F{x)= (x"+l)/(a:+l), where n and p are primes, R=0 or 2 according as p is or is not of the form nx-\-\. Hence the latter primes are the only ones dividing x^+l, but not x-\-\. Cauchy^^^ proved that a congruence /(x) = (mod p) of degree m<p is equivalent to (x r)'</)(x) = 0, where 4> is of degree mi, if and only if
/(r)^0,
/'(r)

= 0,.

.,

r-'\r)^Q (mod

p),

where p is a prime. The theorem fails if m'^p. He gave the method of (mod p) of Libri (M^moires, I) for solving the problem: Given"/(a:) = degree m^p and with exactly m roots, and/i(x) of degree l^m, to find a polynomial </)(a;), also with integral coeflficients, whose roots are the roots common to/ and /i. He gave the usual theorem on the number of roots of a binomial congruence and noted conditions that a quartic congruence have
four roots.
roots of /(x)=0

Cauchy^^ stated that if 7 is an arbitrary modulus and if ri, (mod 7) such that each difference ViTj is prime
f{x)={x-ri)
. .

.,

r,

are

to 7, then

.(x-rJQ(x) (mod

7).

If in addition,

m exceeds the degree of /(x), then/(x) = (mod 7) for every x. congruence of degree n modulo p^, where p is a prime, has at most n If /(r) (mod 7) and if in the irreroots unless every integer is a root. ducible fraction equal to
A

_
the denominator is prime to 7, then V. A. Lebesgue^^^ wrote a/b=c

/(r)

a root of /(a:)=0 (mod P). p) if h is prime to p and a=bc (mod p), and a/b=c/d (mod p) \i h, d are prime to p and ad=bc (mod p). J. A. Serret^^^ stated and A. Genocchi proved that, if p is a prime, the sum of the mth. powers of the p" polynomials in x, of degree n 1 and with integral coefficients <p, is a multiple of p if m<p'' 1, but not if m = p'' 1. J. A. Serret^^^ noted that all the real roots of a congruence f{x) = (mod p), where p is a prime, satisfy \j/{x)^0, where \f/ is the g. c. d. of f{x)
is

r r7
(mod

andxP~^-l.
'"Exercices de Math., ^"Exercices de Math.,
1826, 160-6; Bull. Soc. Philomatique; Oeuvres, (2), 6, 202-8. 1829, 253-279; Oeuvres, (2), 9, 298-326. i"Compte8 Rendus Paris, 25, 1847, 37; Oeuvres, (1), 10, 324-30. '"Nouv. Ann. Math., 9, 1850, 436.
1,

4,

j
~\

i^Nouv. Ann. Math., 13. 1854, 314; 14, 1855, 241-5 "'Cours d'alg^bre sup6rieure, ed. 2, 1854, 321-3.

Chap. VIII]

MISCELLANEOUS RESULTS ON CONGRUENCES.

259

N. H. AbeP^^ proved that we can solve by radicals any abelian equation, one whose roots are r, 0(r), 0^(r) = <t)[<i){r)], is a rational ., where function. H. J. S. Smith^^^ concluded that when the roots of a congruence can be similarly expressed modulo p, its solution can evidently be reduced to the solution of binomial congruences, and the expressions for the roots of the corresponding equation may be interpreted as the roots For the special case a:"=l, this was done by Poinsot of the congruence. in 1813-20 in papers discussed in the chapter on primitive roots. M. Jenkins^^^" noted that all solutions of a^=l(mod x) are x= Un=UiU2 .Un, where Ui is any divisor of any power of a 1; u^ any divisor prime to a 1, of any power of a'" 1;. .; u,, any divisor, prime to a^"-2 1, of any power of a^^-'^ l. For a*+l = (mod x), modify the preceding by taking odd factors of a+1 instead of factors of a 1. J. J. Sylvester^ proved that if p is a prime and the congruence /(a:) = (mod p) of degree n has n real roots and if the resultant of f{x) and g{x) is divisible by p, then g{x)^0 has at least one root in common with /(a;) = 0. There are exactly p 1 real roots of x^~^=l (mod p^). A. S. Hathaway^^^ noted the known similarity between equations and congruences for a prime modulus. He^^^ made abstruse remarks on higher
i.

e.,

</>

congruences. G. Frattini^^^ proved that x^ Dy'^=\ and x'^ Dy^=\ are each solvable when the modulus is a prime p>5 and Dp^O. If d = B^AC^O, then Ax'^-i-2Bx^y+Cy"=\ (mod p) is solvable since dx'^+XC can be made congruent to a square and hence to {Cy-{-Bx^y. Likewise for ax'^-\-2bx-\-c=y'^. A. Hurwitz^^^ discussed the congruence of fractions and the theory of the congruence of infinite series. If (/)(x) =ro-\-riX-{and +ra:V^-+ if yp{x) is a similar series with the coefficients s^, then and \l/ are called congruent modulo if and only if Vn^s^ (mod m) for n = 1, 2, G. Cordone^^^ treated the general quartic congruence for a prime modulus ji by means of a cubic resolvent. The method is similar to Euler's solution of a quartic equation as presented by Giudice in Peano's Rivista For the special case x'^-\-%Hx^-\-K=0 (mod /x), di Matematica, vol. 2. set t = {ix l)/2, r^ = 9H^ K; then if is a quadratic residue of /jl, there are four rational roots or none according as ( 3/f+r)'=+l or not; but if is a non-residue, there are two rational roots or none according as one of the congruences
. . .

(-3H+r)'=4-l,
is satisfied
i^sjour. fur

i-ZH-ry^-l

or not.

Math., 4, 1829, 131; Oeuvres, 1, 114. "sReport British Assoc. 1860, 120 seq., 66: Coll. M. Papers, 1, 141-5. "9aMath. Quest. Educ. Times, 6, 1866, 91-3. ""Amer. Jour. Math., 2, 1879, 360-1; Johns Hopkins University Circulars,
Papers,
3,

1,

1881, 131.
6, 1884,

Coll.

320-1.

i"Johns Hopkins Univ. Circulars, 1, 1881, 97. "^Amer. Jour. Math., "^Rendiconti Reale Accad. Lincei, Rome, (4), 1, 1885, 140-2. i"Acta Mathematica, 19, 1895, 356. 6Rendiconti Circolo Mat. di Palermo 9, 1895, 209-243.

316-330.

260

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, viii

R. Lipschitz^^^ examined Fermat's^^^ statement and proved that the primes p for which a' +1 = (mod p) is impossible are those and only those for which a solution u of w" =a (mod p) is a quadratic non-residue of p and for which X^A.', where 2^ is the highest power of 2 dividing p 1. Cases when a''+l = is impossible and not embraced by Fermat's rule are a = 2, p = 89, 337; a = S, p = 13; a=-2, p = 281; etc. L. Kronecker^^^ called /(.r) an invariant of the congruence k=k' (mod m), If also, conversely, if the latter congruence implies the equality /(/v) =/(//). the equality implies the congruence, f{x) is called a proper (or characteristic) invariant, an example being the least positive residue of an integer modulo m. It is shown that every invariant of k=k' (mod m) can be represented as a symmetric function of all the integers congruent to k modulo m. G. Wertheim^^^ proved that a^+l = (mod p) is impossible if a belongs to an odd exponent modulo p [Fermat^'^^]. E. L. Bunitzky^*^^ (Bunickij) noted that, for any integer M, the congruences

f(a+kh)=rk (mod M)
hold
if

(A:

= 0,

1,.

.,

n)

and only

if

the coefficients Ak of /(x) satisfy the conditions

{k

k\h''Ak=A% (mod M)
If

= 1,

n).

g. c. d. of

M) {j = k,k-\-l,...,m-l).^

the least value of x for which xlh"" is divisible by M, and if the is k<m, where is a divisor of M, then if /(a;)=0 (mod has the roots a, a-\-h,..., a-\-{k l)h, it has also the roots a-\-jh
k
is

M and h

G. Biase^^'' called a similar to h in the ratio m:n modulo k if the remainders on dividing a and h by k are in the ratio m:n. Two numbers similar to a third in two given ratios modulo k are similar to each other modulo k in
a ratio equal to the quotient of the given ratios. The problem^ to find n numbers whose n^ n differences are incongruent modulo n^ n+1 is possible for n = 6, but not for n = 7. R. D. von Sterneck^^ proved that, if A is not divisible by the odd prime p, Ax'^+Bx^+C takes \p{2AB, p) incongruent values (when x ranges 1) if 5 is not divisible by p, while if B is divisible over the set 0, 1, ., p by p, it takes (p+3)/4 or (p-fl)/2 values according as p = 4n-l-l or p = 471 1. In terms of Legendre's symbol,
'^^
. .

des Sc. Math., (2), 22, I, 1898, 123-8. Extract in Oeuvres de Fermat, 4, 196-7. >"Vorlesungen iiber Zahlcntheorie, I, 1901, 131-142. "^AnfangsRTunde der Zahlenlehre, 1902, 265. ''"Zap. mat. otd. Obsc. (Soc. of natur.), Odessa, 20, 1902, III- VIII (in Russian); cf. Fortschr. Math., 33, 1902, p. 205. ^"Il Boll. Matematica Gior. Sc. Didat., Bologna, 4, 1905, 96. i"L'interm6diaire des math., 1906, 141; 1908, 64; 19, 1912, 130-1. Amcr. Math. Monthly, 13,
>Bull.

1906, 215; 14, 1907, 107-8.

Chap. VIII]

MISCELLANEOUS RESULTS ON CONGEUENCES.

261

E. Landau^'^ proved that, if /(x) =0 is an equation with integral coeffiand at least one root of odd multiplicity, there exist an infinitude of primes p = 4:n l such that /(a;) (mod p) has a root. R. D. von Sterneck^^^ found the number of combinations of the ith. class (with or without repetition) of the numbers prime to p of a complete set of residues modulo p^ whose sum is congruent to a given integer modulo p^, p being a prime. E. Piccioli^^'* gave known theorems on adding and multiplying concients

gruences. C. Jordan^^^ found the number of sets of integers aik for which the determinant |aa-| of order n is congruent to a given integer modulo M. C. Krediet^^^ gave theorems on congruences of degree n for a prime modulus analogous to those for an algebraic equation of degree n, including the question of multiple roots. The determination of roots is often simplified

by seeking first the roots which are quadratic residues and then those which are non-residues. The exposition is not clear or simple. G. Rados"^ proved that, if p is a prime,
fix)

= ao^^-^+
common

+p-2= 0,
if

g{x)
if

= hx^'-^-i-

+bp_2=
where

(mod p)

have a

root

and only

each

Ri=0 (mod
. .
.

p),

*(w) =Rou''-^+Riu''-^-\-

+Rp-i
ap_2W+6p_2
aoU-{-bo

aou+bo aiu+bi
ap_2U+bp-2

aiU+bi
a2U-\-b2

...
. . .

aou+bo
. . .

...

ttp-s^+^p-s

^(u) become DoU^~^-\+i)p_2; thus/(a:)^0 (mod p) has a if and only if each (mod p). Each of these theorems is extended to three congruences. Finally, if f(x) and f'(x) are relatively prime algebraically, there is only a finite number of primes p for which the number of roots of /= (mod p'') exceeds the degree of /. G. Frattini^^^ proved that if p and q are primes, q a divisor of p 1, every homogeneous symmetric congruence in q variables is solvable modulo p by values of the variables distinct from each other and from zero except when the degree of the congruence is divisible by q. C. Grotzsch^'^ noted that if a is a root of a^'^^a (mod p), where a is prime to p, then x=a (mod p^ p) is a root, and proved that if d is the g. c. d. of ind a and p 1 and if ind a>0, it has exactly

For ^=/',

let

multiple root

A=0

^''^Handbuch .Verteilung der Primzahlen, 1, 1909, 440. ^"Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 118, 1909, Ila, 119-132. '^"11 Pitagora, Palermo, 16, 1909-10, 125-7. "5Jour. de Math., (6), 7, 1911, 409-416. '^^Wiskundig Tijdschrift, Haarlem, 7, 1911, 193-202 (Dutch). i"Ami. sc. ecole norm, sup., (3), 30, 1913, 395-412. "speriodico di Mat., 29, 1913, 49-53. "'Archiv Math. Phys., (3), 22, 1914, 49-53.
.

262

History of the Theory of Numbers.

iV =

[Chap, viii

0(p-l)+2^^)

modulo p(p 1), where 5 ranges over all divisors > 1 of ^. If ind a = 0, the number of such roots is p l-\-N, where now 5 ranges over the di\asors >1 of p 1. A. Chdtelet^^ noted that divergences between congruences and equations are removed by not Umiting attention to the given congruence fix) =
roots incongruent

but considering simultaneously all the polynomials g{x) derived from f{x) by a Tschirnhausen transformation ky (i>{x), where k is an has integral coefficients and is of degree n 1. integer and *M. Tihanyi^^"" proved a simple congruence. R. Kantor^^^ discussed the number of incongruent values modulo m taken by a polynomial in n variables, and especially for ax^-\.+d
of degree n,
</>
.
.

modulo

p', generalizing

von

Sterneck.^"*"

The

solvabiUty of

x^+9a;+6=0 and

x^-\-y{y-\-l)

(mod

p) has been

treated.^2

Woodall and Creak,

A. Cunningham^^ announced the completion, in conjunction with of tables of least solutions {x, a) of the congruences

T^=^y% rV==*=l (mod p*< 10000),

T. A. Pierce^^^ gave two proofs that
/(a;)

= 2,

10;

?/

= 3,

5, 7, 11.
if

(mod

p) has a real root

a^

and only

if

the odd prime p divides 11(1 a^^"^), where

ranges over the

is

roots of the equation f{x) = 0. Christie^^ stated that P(F+1)

odd prime.

= 1 (mod p) if t= 2 sin 18 and p Cunningham gave a proof and a generalization.

any

*G. Rados^^^ found the congruence of degree r having as its roots the ?^0 of a given congruence of degree p 2 modulo p, a prime.
r distinct roots
i8'omptes Rendus Paris, 158, 1914, 250-3.

"""Math, es Phys. Lapok, Budapest, 23, 1914, 57-60. i8iMonatshefte Math. Phys., 26, 1915, 24-39. '2Wiskundige Opgaven, 12, 1915, 211-2, 215-7. '"Messenger Math., 45, 1915-6, 69. '"Annals of Math., (2), 18, 1916, 53-64. i*Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 71, 1899, 82-3. 'Math. is Term6s firtesito, 33, 1915, 702-10.

CHAPTER
DIVISIBILITY OF FACTORIALS

IX.

Highest Power of a Prime Dividing

AND MULTINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS. ml

!
.

of 2 dividing (2'*) is 2^""^ and the 3"-'(5-7)"-2(9-lM3-15)"-^(17. .31)""^ .(2"-l). In general if P = 2"'+2"'+. .+2% where the n's decrease, the highest power of 2 dividing P! is 2^-^ A. M. Legendre^ proved that if p" is the highest power of the prime p which divides !, and if [x] denotes the greatest integer ^ x,

Genty^ noted that the highest power

is
.

quotient

where

= ao+

is

the

sum

of the digits of

m to the base p:

Th. Bertram^ stated Legendre's result in an equivalent form. H. Anton* proved that, U n = vp+a, a<p, v<p, and p is a prime,
n!

P
while,
if

= (p l)'a!y!

(mod

p),

= vp-\-a,

a'<p, v'<p,

^,= {p-iy+^'a\a\v\v\
is

(modp).

D. Andr^^ stated that the highest power p" of the prime p dividing n! given expHcitly by }i=^lZi[n/p^] and claimed that merely the method of finding ii had been given earHer. He appHed this result to prove that the product of n consecutive integers is divisible by n!. J. Neuberg*' determined the least integer such that m\ is divisible by a given power of a prime, but overlooked exceptional cases. L. Stickelberger^ and K. HenseP gave the formula [cf. Anton*].

(2)

^^(-irao!ai!...aj(modp).
of the highest

F. de Brun^ wrote g[u] for the exponent prime p dividing u. He gave expressions for

power

of the

rP{n;k)=Uf\
3

g[rP(n;k)]
.
. .

=1

in terms of the functions h{a; k)

^Hist. et

= l*+2*-f

+a^.

A special case gives

3,

(1).

M6m.

Ac. R. Sc. Inscript. et Belles Lettres de Toulouse,

1788, 97-101 (read Dec. 4,

1783).
''Th^orie des nombres, ed. 2, 1808, p. 8; ed. 3, 1830, I, p. 10. 'Einige Satze aus der Zahlenlehre, Progr. Coin, Berlin, 1849, 18 pp. *Archiv Math. Phys., 49, 1869, 298-9. "Nouv. Ann. Math., (2), 13, 1874, 185. ^Mathesis, 7, 1887, 68-69. Cf. A. J. Kempner, Amer. Math, Monthly, 25, 1918, 204-10. 'Math. Annalen, 37, 1890, 321.

sArchiv Math. Phys., (3), 2, 1902, 294. Arkiv for Matematik, Astr., Fysik, 5, 1904, No. 25 (French).

263

264

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

ix

R. D. CarmichaeP" treated the problem to find m, given the prime p and s = ^ai, in Legendre's formula; a given solution m-, leads to an infinitude Again, to find 771 such that p"*~' is the highest of solutions m-zv'', k arbitrary. have m t={m s)/{p l), and see that m dividing m\, we power of p>2 values; there is always at least one solution m. has a hmited number of notation H\y\ for the index of the highest power Carmichael" used the evaluated of the prime p dividing y, and

;i=i/{n(xa+c)|,

where
Let

a, c

are relatively prime positive integers.

is

the least integer such that iVa+Cr-i

divisible

by

Set Co = c and let % be p, the quotient being Cr.

ei
t-i

[^4^']'
t

^'=[^]'
. .
.

^>i-

Then

/i= 2(6^+1), where

r=l

is

the least subscript for which

(cta+Ct)

Ct{a-\-Ct){2a-^Ct)
is

not divisible by p.

It follows that

If n is a where R is the index of the highest power of p not exceeding 7i 1 power of p, /i = (n l)/(p 1). But if n = 8kp''-\.-\-dip-\-8o, 8k9^0, and one further 8 is not zero, least at
.
.

^SftSfc+^.
P

<r

= 6.+

...+6o.
c

In case the
all
,

first

the

Cr

are equal

x for which xa-\-c is divisible by p gives and hence all the v; then
.

as the quotient,

_ rn 1i+pl rn li ip-\-p^l rn li ip ip'^-i-p^l p' L J"^L J"^L J"^'" p w = = = = The case a c l yields Legendre's^ result. The case a 2, c 1, gives
. ,

Hll.3.5.

.(2-l)(

[?^^] + [?^^^>.
(1)

..

E. Stridsberg^^ wrote

H^ for
Trt

and considered
. .

= a{a-\-m)

.{a-{-'mt),

where a is any integer not divisible by the positive integer m. Let p be a prime not dividing m. Write a^ for the residue of aj modulo m. He noted
that,
if

pj=l (mod m),

14,

1
1907-8, 74-77; Amer. Math. Monthly, 15, 1908, 15-17.

"BuU. Amer. Math. Soc,

''Ibid., 15,

1908-9, 217.

"Arkiv

for

Matematik,

Astr., Fysik, 6, 1911,

No.

34.

Chap. IX] DIVISIBILITY

OF FACTORIALS, MULTINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS.

265

is

an

integer,

and wrote L^

for its residue

modulo p^+\

Set

:.=

P
p*,
.
. .

He proved
first

that tt^ is divisible by one of the numbers tq, ti,

where which is
k

= Hi+Sj;io2^.
tt^

If t is

the
p",

<p 1,

is

divisible

by

dividing p, the

A. Cunningham^^ proved that if number of times p

^

/
is

is the highest power of the prime z a factor of p"! is the least of the

numbers

2^-^+i-l

for the various primes z dividing p.

W.

Janichen^^ stated

and G. Szego proved that

i:tx{n/d)v{d)=ci>{n)/{v-l),

summed
power
of

for the divisors d of n,

(a

prime factor

of n)

where v{d) is the exponent of the highest which divides d\, for /x as in Ch. XIX.

Integral Quotients Involving Factorials.

Th. Schonemann^^ proved, by use

of unity, that
if

of

symmetric functions

of

pth roots

b is

the

g. c. d. of fjL,v,'...,

8-{m-l)l
.ii/l fJLlVl

= integer,

{mfx+v-\-

.).

He gave

(p. 289) an arithmetical proof by showing that the fractions obtained by replacing 8 by fi, v, .. are integers. A. Cauchy^^ proved the last theorem and that
.

-^
a\.
.

^ = integer,

{m = a-\-

.+k).
.

.k\

D.

Andre^*^ noted that, except

when n = l, a = 4, n(n + l).

.(na 1)

is

not or is divisible by a" according as a is a prime or not. E. Catalan^^ found by use of elliptic functions that

{m-\-n-\)\
are integers, provided m,

(2m) (2n)
!

m!n! n are

m\n\{m-\-n)\
relatively

prime in the

first fraction.

^^L'intermediaire des math., 19, 1912, 283-5. Text modified at suggestion of E. Maillet. "Archiv Math. Phys., (3), 13, 1908, 361; 24, 1916, 86-7. 8Jour. fur Math., 19, 1839, 231-243.

"Comptes Rendus

Paris, 12, 1841, 705-7; Oeuvres, (1), 6, 109.

(2), 11,

20N0UV. Ann. Math.,

"/fttd., (2), 13, 1874, 207, 253.

1872, 314. Arith. proofs,

Amer. Math. Monthly,

18, 1911, 41-3.

266
P.

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

ix

Bachmann^- gave arithmetical proofs of Catalan's results. a have the sum and if k of the a's D. Andr^-^ proved that, if aj, are not di\isible by the integer >1 which divides the greatest number of the a's, then (iV A;)! is di\'isible by ai!. .a!. J. Bourguet^^ proved that, if k^2,
.

M.
by
tl

{kmi)l ikmo)\...{knh)\
^
,
.

Wi!.

.nikl

(wi+.

.+mk)l

r:

= mteger.
(tq)
!

WeilP^ proved that the multinomial coefficient

is

-r-

{q\y

is

divisible

WeilP^ stated that the following expression

an integer
!

(a+i8+

+pg+Pigi+
.

+rst)

am.

.{piyq\{p,\y^q,\.

.{r\ns\yt\'

WeilP^ stated the special case that {a-\-^-\-pq-\-rs)\ is divisible by a\^\{q\rp\{s\yrl D. Andr^-^ proved that (tq) -r- (g!)' is divisible by (<!)* if for every prime p the sum of the digits of q to base p is ^k. Ch. Hermite'^^ proved that n! divides
!

m{7n+k){m+2k)

lm+{n-l)k]k''-\

C. de PoUgnac^" gave a simple proof of the theorem by WeilP^ and expressed the generalization by Andr^^^ in another and more general form. E. Catalan^^ noted that, if s is the number of powers of 2 having the sum

^+^'

(2a)! (26)!

a!6!(a+6)!
is

an even integer and the product of 2' by an odd number. -{-t, E. Catalan^^ noted that, if n = a+6+
.
. .

n\{n+t)
a\h\...tl
is

divisible

by a+t, h+t,. ., a-\-h-\-t,. ., a-\-b+c+t,. .. E. Ces^ro^^ stated and Neuberg proved that (p) is divisible by n(n
. .

1)

if

prime to n(n 1), and p l prime to n 1; and divisible by (p + 1) X(p+2) if p-\-l is prime to n+1, and p+2 is prime to (n + l)(n+2).

is

Math. Phys., 20, 1875, 161-3. Die Elemente der Zahlentheorie, 1892, 37-39. Math. France, 1, 1875, 84. "Nouv. Ann. Math., (2), 14, 1875, 89; he wrote r(n) incorrectly for n!; see p. 179. 'MDomptes Rendus Paris, 93, 1881, 1066; Mathesis, 2, 1882, 48; 4, 1884, 20; Lucas, Th^orie des nombres, 1891, 365, ex. 3. Proof by induction, Amer. M. Monthly, 17, 1910, 147. Bull. Soc. Math. France, 9, 1880-1, 172. Special case, Amer. M. Monthly, 23, 1916, 352-3. "Mathesis, 2, 1882, 48; proof by Li6nard, 4, 1884, 20-23. "Comptes Rendus Paris, 94, 1882, 426. "Faculty des Sc. de Paris, Cours de Hermite, 1882, 138; ed. 3, 1887, 175; ed. 4, 1891, 196. Cf. Catalan, M6m. Soc. Sc. de Li6ge, (2), 13, 1886, 262-^ ( = Melanges Math.); Heine."" "Comptes Rendus Paris, 96, 1883, 485-7. Cf Bachmann, Niedere Zahlentheorie, 1, 1902. 59-62. Atti Accad. Pont. Nouvi Lincei, 37, 1883-4, 110-3. "Mathesis, 3, 1883, 48; proof by Cesiro, p. 118.
"Zeitschrift

Bull. Soc.

"Ibid., 5, 1885, 84.

Chap. IX] DIVISIBILITY

OF FACTORIALS, MULTINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS.

267

E. Catalan^^ noted that

e::r)'(?)"*e)-"
F.

Gomes

Teixeira^^ discussed the result

due to Weill. ^

De

Presle^

proved that
{k-\-l)(k+2)...{k+hl)

nw

^ ^^

^^^''

being the product of an evident integer by {hl)\/{U{h\y}. E. Catalan^^ noted that, if n is prime to 6,

(2n-4)!
nl{n-2)\

= integer.

H. W. Lloyd Tanner^^ proved that

= integer.
{\,\...\,\ng\y
L.
if

Gegenbauer stated and

J.

A. Gmeiner^^ proved arithmetically that,

n=Sjrja_,iaj2.

Oys,

the product
.

m{m+k)(m-h2k)
is

{m+{n-l)k}k''-'

divisible

by

where m,
result

k, n,

an,-

,
l.

o,rs

by taking r = s =

The

are positive integers. This gives Hermite's'^' = A; = l,s = 2, is included in the result case

by

Weill.26

Heine^^" and A. Thue^ proved that a fraction, whose denominator is k\ and whose numerator is a product of k consecutive terms of an arithmetical
progression, can always be reduced until the
mite's^^ result].

new denominator contains only such primes as divide the difference of the progression [a part of HerF. Rogel'*^ noted that,
if

P be the product of the primes between (p 1)/2

and p + 1, while n is any integer not divisible by the prime p, (n-l)(n-2). ..{n-p-^l)P/p=0 (mod P).
S. Pincherle^^

noted that,

if

is

a prime,
.

P={x+l){x+2) ..(x+n-l)
is

divisible

by n and,

if

x is not divisible by n, by n !.

If

n = Up",

P is divisible

="Nouv. Ann. Math., (3), 4, 1885, 487. Proof by Landau, (4), 1, 1901, 282. ^eBuU. Soc. Math. France, 16, 1887-8, 159. Math. Phys., (2), 2 1885, 265-8. "M6m. Soc. Roy. Sc. Li^ge, (2), 15, 1888, 111 (Melanges Math. III). Mathesis, 9, 1889, 170. ^QMonatshefte Math. Phys., 1, 1890, 159-162. "Proc. London Math. Soc, 20, 1888-9, 287. "a Jour, fur Math., 45, 1853, 287-8. Cf. Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 56, 1892, 62-63. "Archiv for Math, og Natur., Kristiania, 14, 1890, 247-250. "Archiv Math. Phys., (2), 10, 1891, 93. "Rendiconto Sess. Accad. Sc. Istituto di Bologna, 1892-3, 17.
35Archiv

268
by n
of
!

History of the Theory of Numbers.

if

[Chap,

ix

and only

if

divisible

by

IIp"'''^,

where

/3

is

the exponent of the power

.)'

-7-

p dividing (n 1)!. G. Bauer^^ proved that the multinomial coefficient (n+ni+n2+. } is an integer, and is even if two or more n's are equal. {7i!7?i!
. . .

Qij,

E. Landau^^ generalized most of the preceding results. bij, each ^ 0, and positive integers Xj, set

For integers

Then / is an

integer

if

and only

if

m
t=i

n
t=i

for all real values of the Xj for

which O^Xj^l.

A new example is
a

(4m)!(4n)!

m!n!(2m+n)!(m+2n)!~^^^^^^'
P. A.

|
which

MacMahon^^

treated the problem to find

all a's for

an integer for all values of n; in particular, to find those "ground forms" from which all the forms may be generated by multiplication. For m = 2, For m = 3, the additional the ground forms have (ai, a2) = (1, 0) or (1, 1). ground forms are (1, 1, 1), (1, 2, 1), (1, 3, 1). For ?7i = 4, there are 3 new ground forms; for m = 5, 13 new.
is

J. W. L. Glaisher^ noted that, if Bp{x) is Bernoulli's function, i. e., the (x 1)^"^ [Bernoulli^^"'' polynomial expression in x for F~^+2^"^+ of Ch. V],
. . .

x{x-\-l)

.{x-\-p

l)/p=Bp{x)x (mod

p).

He

gave

(ibid., 33,

1901, 29) related congruences involving the left

if

member

and Bp_i{x).
Glaisher^^ noted that,
l

r is

not divisible by the odd prime p, and

= kp+t, 0^t<p,
l{r+l){2r+l)
.

{(p-l)r+i)/p^-|[^]^+A:}

(mod

p),

where

mod

denotes the least positive root of px=t (mod r). The residues same product l{r-\-l) are found to be complicated. E. Maillet*^ gave a group of order t\{q\y contained in the sjrmmetric
[t/p]r

p^ of the

group on

tq letters,

whence follows

Weill's^^ result.

"Nouv. Ann. Math.,

SitzunKsber. Ak. Wiss. Miinchen (Math.), 24, 1894, 34&-8. (3), 19, 1900, 344-362, 576; (4), 1, 1901, 282; Archiv Math. Phys., 1901, 138. Correction, Landau." Trans Cambr. Phil. Soc, 18, 1900, 12-34. "Proc. London Math. Soc, 32, 1900, 172. ^'Messenger Math., 30, 1900-1, 71-92. *Mem. Pr6s. Ac. Sc. Paris, (2), 32, 1902, No. 8, p. 19.

(3), 1,

Chap. IX]

DIVISIBILITY OF FACTORIALS, MULTINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS.

269
.

M.

Jenkins^^" counted in
4>

two ways the arrangements

cycles of g letters, obtained the result

of
.

n = 4>f-\-'yg-\.

elements in

cycles of / letters each,

where/,

g,

...

are distinct integers

> 1,

and

fct>\g'y\...

\2\

Sr4\

' '

'

^^

n\)'

C. de Polignac*^ investigated at length the highest power of n! dividing Let rip be the sum of the digits of n to base p. Then (nx) \/{x\y.
{x-\-n)p

= Xp+np-k{p -1)

{xn)p = Xp-np-k'{p-l),

where k

is the number of units "carried" in making the addition x-\-n, and k' the corresponding number for the multiplication x-n. E. Sch6nbaum^ gave a simplified exposition of Landau's first paper.^^ S. K. Maitra^i proved that (n - 1) (2n - 1) (n - 2)n - 1 is divisible by (n 1) if and only if n is a prime.
. . .

E. Stridsberg^^ gave a very elementary proof of Hermite's^^ result. E. Landau^^ corrected an error in his^'* proof of the result in No. Ill of his paper, no use of which had been made elsewhere. Birkeland^^ of Ch. XI noted that a product of 2^k consecutive odd integers

is^l (mod

2^).

Among
those by:
G.

the proofs that binomial coefficients are integers

may

be cited

Schriften, pub. by C. I. Gerhardt, 7, 1863, 102. 1908, 278-282. Gioachino Pessuti, Memorie di Mat. Soc. Italiana, 11, 1804, 446. W. H. Miller, Jour, fiir Math., 13, 1835, 257. S. S. Greatheed, Cambr. Math. Jour., 1, 1839, 102, 112.

W.

Leibniz,

Math.
3,

B. Pascal, Oeuvres,

Proofs that multinomial coefficients are integers were given by:

C. F. Gauss, Disq. Arith., 1801, art. 41. Lionnet, Complement des elements d'arith., Paris, 1857, 52. V. A. Lebesgue, Nouv. Ann. Math., (2), 1, 1862, 219, 254.

Factorials Dividing the Product of Differences of

Integers.

of the differences of any r distinct by (r l)!(r 2)!. .2!. For the special case of the integers 1, 2, ., n, r+1, the theorem shows that the product of any n consecutive integers is divisible by n!.

H. W. Segar^" noted that the product

is

integers

divisible
. .

A. Cayley^ used Segar's theorem to prove that

m{m n)
is

.{m r ln)-rf
[a

divisible

by

r! if

m, n are relatively prime

Segar^ gave another proof of his theorem.

part of Hermite's-^ result]. Applying it to the set

^8aQuar. Jour. Math., 33, 1902, 174-9. "Bull. Soc. Math. France, 32, 1904, 5-43. "Casopis, Pras, 34, 1905, 265-300 (Bohemian). "Math. Quest. Educat. Times, (2), 12, 1907, 84-5. ^^Acta Math., 33, 1910, 243. "Nouv. Ann. Math., (4), 13, 1913, 353-5. soMessenger Math., 22, 1892-3, 59. "Messenger Math. 22, 1892-3, p. 186. Cf. Hermite." ^Hbid., 23, 1893-4, 31. Results cited in I'interm^diaire des math., 2, 1895, 132-3, 200; 5, 1898,

197; 8, 1901, 145.

270
a, a-\-N,.
.,

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

ix
is

divisible

by n!(n 1)!.

a+A^", we conclude that the product of their differences But the product equals .21 = p.
. .

p=iN-ir-' (ir--ir-\
in

.{N^-'^-iyiN"-'-!),

is prime to n!, P is divisible by v; multiplied by a power of A^. Hence, if any case a least number X is found such that N^P is divisible by ;'. It is shown that the product of the differences of mi,. ., m^ is divisible by k\{k l)\. .2! if there be any integer p such that Wi+p, ., nik+p are
.

proved that the product of any n distinct integers multiplied by the product of all their differences is a multiple of n!(n-l)!. .2!. E. de Jonquieres^^ and F. J. Studnicka^ proved the last theorem. E, B. Elliott^^ proved Segar's theorem in the form: The product of the differences of n distinct numbers is di\'isible by the product of the differences He added the new theorems: The product of the of 0, 1,..., n 1. differences of n distinct squares is divisible by the product of the differences of 0", 1",..., (n 1)"; that for the squares of n distinct odd numbers, multiplied by the product of the n numbers, is divisible by the product of the differences of the squares of the first n odd numbers, multiplied by their
relatively

prime to each of
.

1, 2,

A;.

It

is

product.

Residues of Multinomial Coefficients.

Leibniz^'
di\'isible
'^

of

Ch. Ill noted that the coefficients in

if

(ZaYZa^
is

are

by

p.

Ch. Babbage^^ proved that,

n^, while ("p")

is

divisible
if

by p

if

n is a prime, and only if p

is

(^n-/)
is

divisible

by

a prime.

G.

Libri^''

noted that,

m = 6p-hl

a prime,

2^p-^-^ep-l-(^^P~^y+(^P~^y'- ..=0 (mod

E.

m).

Kummer^^ determined
^; ^1
>

the highest power p^ of a prime p dividing

.

A = ao+aip-{-.

.-{-aip\
0, 1,.
.

B=ho+hip-{.,

.+bip\
determine

where the
Ci

a,

in this set

and 6, belong to the set and e, = or 1 such that

p 1.
ei

We may

(3)

ao+6o = oP+Co,
first

o+ai+6i = eip+Ci,
1,

+a2 + ?>2 = 2^4-^2,

p^, etc.,

Multiply the
add.

equation by

the second by p, the third by

.

and

Thus

A+B = Co-\-Cip+
"Comptes Rendus
"Edinburgh
Phil. Jour.,
9,

.+Cip'+e,p'+\

Paris, 120, 1895. 408-10. 534-7. "Vpstnik Ceske Ak., 7, 1898, No. 3, 165 (Bohemian). Messinger Math., 27, 1897-8, 12-15.
1, 1819, 46. Proofs by Stern, 12, 1834, 288. 1832, 73. "/6ui., 44, 1852, 115-6. Cayley, Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 10, 1868, 88-9.

"Jour, fur Math.,

Chap. IX] DIVISIBILITY

OF FACTORIALS, MULTINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS.

(1),

271

Hence, by Legendre's formula

ip-l)N = A-\-B-y-ei-{A-a)-{B-P),
Insert the value of a+/3 obtained

a=Sa

^ = 26^,
(3).

7=Sc,.

by adding equations

Thus

A. Genocchi'^^ proved that,

divisible

if

m is the sum of n integers a,h,...,k,

{a\bl.
.

each

by p l, and

if

m<p" 1, then m\-i-

.k\} is divisible

by the

prime
J.

p.

Wolstenholme^^ proved that f"ll) = l(mod n^) if n is a prime > 3. H. Anton^ (303-6) proved that if n = vp+a, r = wp+h, where a, h, v, are all less than the prime p,

according as

a^ 6

or a

< 6.
an odd prime p the sum
"^^

M.

Jenkins^^" considered for

^\mr+k{p-l)J'

extended over all the integers k between nr/(p l) and mr/{p l), inclusive, and proved that (Tr=o'p (mod p) if the g. c. d. of r, p 1 equals that
of p,

p-1.

l(mod p), if p is a prime. E. Catalan^^ noted that C'^_}) Ch. Hermite^^ proved by use of roots of unity that the odd prime p divides

{p-l) + [2p-2r[sp-3r-'
,

/2n+l\

/2n+l\

/2n+l\

E. Lucas'^^ noted that, a prime.

if

m = pmi-\-ii, n = pni+v,

ii<p, v<p, and p

is

In general,

if fxi,

fJL2,

denote the residues of

. . .

and the integers contained

. . .

in the fractions

m/p, m/p^,

while the

v's

are the residues of n, [n/p],

e)-t;)t)E.
Lucas'^'^

'-'^^'-

proved the preceding results and

0-0.
according as n
is

f ;>(-!)".
between
14, 1855,

(^:>0(modp),
1

and
241-3.

p,

and p l, or

and

p.

"Nouv. Ann. Math.,

"Quar. Jour. Math., 5, 1862, 35-9. For mod. w^ Math. Quest. Educ. Times, (2), 3, 1903, 33. ^'Nouv. Corresp. Math., 1, 1874-5, 76. "'^Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 12, 1869, 29. '^Bull. Soc. Math. France, 6, 1877-8, 52. '^Jour. fur Math., 81, 1876. 94. "Amer. Jour. Math., 1, 1878, 229, 230. For the second, anon. of Ch. Ill (in 1830).

272

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

ix

J. Wolstenholme"^ noted that the highest power of 2 dividing i^""^^) isq p l, where q is the sum of the digits of 2m I to base 2, and 2" is the highest power of 2 dividing ?. J. Petersen"^ proved by Legendre's formula that C^'') equals the product of the powers of all primes p, the exponent of p being (ta+tb ta+b) -^(p 1), where ta is the sum of the digits of a to base p. E. Cesaro^ treated Kummer's^^ problem. He stated (Ex. 295) and Van den Broeek^^ proved that the exponent of the highest power of the prime p dividing (-") is the number of odd integers among [2n/p], [2n/p^],

[2n/p'],....

O. Schlomilch^^" stated in effect that E. Catalan^'- proved that if n is odd,

+ i)

is

divisible

by

n.

p:)+io(t-^) =
W.
J.

(modn+2).
is

C. Sharp^^" noted that {p-\-n)\ p\n\

(''t") 1
is

divisible

by

p^, if

is

prime >n. This follows also from L. Gegenbauer^^ noted that, if a 3s according as n is odd or even,

any

p) [Dickson^"]. integer, r one of the form 6s or

(mod

The

gives Catalan's result. E. Catalan^ proved Hermite's'^^ theorem. Ch. Hermite^^ stated that (Z) is divisible by

case

n odd, a = 2, r = 3,

m n-f-1

if

is

divisible
if

by n; by (m n+l)/
the
g. c. d. of

if

e is

the

g. c. d. of

m+1

and n; by m/8,

is

m, n. E. Lucas^^ noted that,

ifn^p 1, p 2, p 3,

respectively,

(^;3)-(-ir(^^lM)(:nodp),
if

is

F.

a prime, and proved Hermite's'^ result (p. 506). RogeP^ proved Hermite's"^ theorem by use of Fermat's.
de math. 6\6m.
et spec., 1877-81, ex. 360.

^*Jour.

^Tidsskrift for Math., (4), 6, 1882, 138-143. soMathesis, 4, 1884, 109-110.

8'7feid., 6,

1886, 179.

>"Zeitschrift

Math. Naturw. Unterricht, 17, 1886, 281. <M6m. Soc. Roy. Sc. de Li6ge, (2), 13, 1886, 237-241 ( = Melanges Math.).

Mathesis, 10, 1890.

257-8. 82aMath. Quest. Educ. Times, 49, 1888, 74. s^Sitzunpsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 98, 1889, Ila, 672.

wM6m.
*Jour.

Soc. Sc. Li^KC, (2), 15, 1888, 253-4 (Melanges Math. III). de math, sp^ciales, problems 257-8. Proofs by Catalan, ibid., 1889, 19-22; 1891, 70; by G. B. Mathews, Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 52, 1890, 63; by H. J. Woodall, 57,

1892, 91.

"Th^orie des nombres, 1891, 420.

"Archiv Math. Phys.,

(2), 11,

1892, 81-3.

Chap. IX]

DIVISIBILITY OF FACTORIALS, MULTINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS.

273

C. Szily^^ noted that no prime

>2a

divides

?M)
and
specified the intervals in

F. Morley^^ proved that, That divisible by p^ ii p>S.

in

which its prime factors occur. if p = 2n+l is a prime, (2")-(-l)"2*" is it is divisible by p^ was stated as an exercise Mathews' Theory of Numbers, 1892, p. 318, Ex. 16.
L. E. Dickson^ extended Rummer's''^ results to a multinomial coefficient
if

it is not divisible by a given prime p the partition of into nii,..., nit arises by the separate written to the base p into the corresponding partition of each digit of In this digits oi TUi, case he proved that rrit.
if

M and noted the useful corollary that

and only

^= n
(xi+
. .

.1),''"

.,,

(mod

p),

m, = ao''Y-{-

+a,^''K

This also follows from

.

(2)

and from
. .

+x/'ro (mod p). F. Mertens^^ considered a prime p^n, the highest powers p" and 2" of p and 2 which are ^n, and set n = [n/2"]. Then nl-^ {niln2l. .nj} is divisible by Up'", where p ranges over all the primes p.
.

+xtr= {x,+ ... +x,)"(xiP+

+x,o"-i

(0^1^''+

J.

W.

L. Glaisher^^ gave Dickson's^" result for the case of binomial

considered (349-60) their residues modulo p"', and proved if {n)r denotes the number of combinations of n things r at a time, 'Z{n)r^(j)k (mod p), where p is any prime, n any integer =j (mod p l), while the summation extends over all positive integers r, f"^n, r=k (mod p l), and j, k are any of the integers 1,. ., p l. He evaluated S[(?^)r-^p] when r is any number divisible by p l, and (n)^ is divisible by p, distinguishing three cases to obtain simple results. Dickson^^ generalized Glaisher's^^ theorem to multinomial coefficients: l to which is congruent Let k be that one of the numbers 1, 2, ., p modulo p l, and let ki,..., kt be fixed numbers of that set such that
coefficients.

He

(pp. 361-6) that

ki-\-

-\-kt=k

(mod p l).

Then

if

is

a prime,

where
(mi,
. .

. ,

nit)

=
J

m
;

The second

of the

two proofs given

is

much

the simpler.

ssNouv. Ann. Math., (3), 12, 1893, Exercices, p. 52.* Proof, (4), 16, 1916, 39-42. s^Annals of Math., 9, 1895, 168-170. ^"Ibid., (1), 11, 1896-7. 75-6: Quart. Jour. Math., 33, 1902, 378-384. siSitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 106, lla, 1897, 255-6. '2Quar. Jour. Math., 30, 1899, 150-6, 349-366. o^Ibid., 33, 1902, 381-4.

274

History of the Theory of Numbers.

Glaisher^^ discussed the residues

[Chap,

ix

modulo

p^ of binomial coefficients.

T. Hayashi^^ proved that

if

is

a prime and fjL+v = p,

(nsr>(-i)'C)..i(-<ip)according as 0<s^v, v<s<p, or T. Hayashi^^ proved that, if Iq

s

= 0.
the least positive residue of
I

is

modulo

p,

and

if

= pii,

modulo p. Special cases of the first result had been given by Lucas. *^ A. Cunningham^^ proved that, if p is a prime,

(^;^)^(-ir

(modp),

^(p^)^! (modp^p>3).

= l,. ., n 1, have a common factor B. Ram^^ noted that, if (^), o>l, then a is a prime and n = a''. There is at most one prime <n which = l,. ., n 2, and then only when n+l=?a^ does not di\dde n(^) for = 0, 1, ., n, the number of odd (^) where a is a prime and q<a. For is always a power of 2. P. Bachmann^^ proved that, if h{p l) is the greatest multiple <A; of

p-i,

(,!i)+(2(pii))+-+(M/-i>''("^'^^>'
the case k odd being due to Hermite.'^ G. Fonten^ stated and L. Grosschniid^ proved that

(p(pil))^(-l)' (^odp),
A. Fleck^^i proved that,
if

P = p\

a^O.
p),

0^p<p, aH-6=0 (mod

N. Nielsen^"^ proved Bachmann's^^

result

by use

of Bernoulli

numbers.

wQuar. Jour. Math., 31, 1900, 110-124. "Jour, of the Physics School in Tokio, 10, 1901, 391-2; Abh. Geschichte Math. Wias., 28, 1910, 26-28. "Archiv Math. Phys., (3), 5, 1903, 67-9. 'Math. Quest. Educat. Times, (2), 12, 1907, 94-5. "Jour, of the Indian Math. Club, Madras, 1, 1909, 39-43. "Niedere Zahlentheorie, II, 1910, 46. ""Xouv. Ann. Math., (4), 13, 1913, 521-4. "'Sitzungs. BerUn Math. Gesell., 13, 1913-4, 2-6. Cf. H. Kapferer, Archiv Math. Phys.
(3), 23,

1915, 122.
(3), 22,

"Annali di mat.,

1914, 253.

Chap. IX]

DIVISIBILITY OF FACTORIALS,

MULTINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS.

275

A. Fleck"^ proved that

if

and only

if

is

Gu^rin^'^ asked

a prime. The case a = 1 is Wilson's theorem. if Wolstenholme's^^ result is new and added that

(iLij ^~1
The Congruence
J.

(modp^),
.

p prime >3.
p).

1-2-3.

.(p 1)/2= 1 (mod

L. Lagrange^^" noted that

to

modulo p

1, 2,...,
(l-2.3.
of the

p 1, p 2, ..., (p+l)/2 (p 1)/2, respectively, so

are congruent that Wilson's

theorem gives
(4)
.

.P=iy^(-1)

(mod

p).

For p a prime
(5)

form 4n+3, he noted that

l-2-3...^==tl (modp).

E. Waring^^^ and an anonymous writer^^^ derived (4) in the same manner. G. L. Dirichlet^^^ noted that, since 1 is a non-residue of p = 4n+3, the sign in (5) is -f or according as the left member is a quadratic residue or non-residue of p. Hence if is the number of quadratic non-residues
,

<p/2ofp,

l-2.3...^=(-ir
C. G.
J. Jacobi^^^

(modp).

where

observed that, for p>3, m is of the same parity as N, being the sum of the least positive quadratic residues of p, and Q that of the non-residues. Writing the quadratic residues in the form ^k, l^A;^|(p 1), let m be the number of negative terms k, and T their sum. Since 1 is a non-residue, m is the number

2Nl = {QP)/p, P

of non-residues

< ^p

and

^{=i=k)=Sp,

P=2{+k)-{-X{p-k)=mp+Sp,

Since p
since

= 4n+3,

N = n-\-lmS.

But

7i-|-l

and S are

of the

same parity

p>S+2r = l+2+...+Kp-l)=iy-l) = (2n-H)(n+l).

lo^Sitzungs. BerUn Math. GeseU., 15, 1915, 7-8. lo^L'intermgdiaire des math., 23, 1916, 174. ""Nouv. M6m. Ac. BerHn, 2, 1773, ann6e 1771, 125; Oeuvres, 3, 432. "iMeditat. Algebr., 1770, 218; ed. 3, 1782, 380. i"Jour. fur Math., 6, 1830, 105.
"'/bid., 3, 1828,

407-8; Werke, 1, 107. Cf. Lucas, Th^orie des nombres, 438; rinterm^diaire des math., 7, 1900, 347. i"/6id., 9, 1832, 189-92; Werke, 6, 240-4.

276

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

ix

is the number of reduced forms ay^+hyz-\-cz^, stated empirically that for b odd, ac \b~ = p for b even, where b<a, b<c. C. F. Arndt^^^ proved in two ways that the product of all integers = %r or 2/)", and not exceeding (ilf 1)/2, is relatively prime to or according as the (mod M), when p is a prime 4fe+3, the sign being of is even or odd. Again, number of residues

He

4:ac

b~ = p

=1

>M/2

M
.

{l-3-5-7...(p-2)}2=l (modp),
or according as the prime p is of the sign being 472+1. In the first case, 1-3. .(p 2)=1 (mod p). L. Kronecker^^^ obtained, for Dirichlet's^^^ exponent (mod 2), where v is the number of positive integers of the set p 2^, p 4", p 6", ., and g is a prime not

the form

4n+3

or

267) gave m=k-\-v" (mod 2), when p = 8^+3 of positive integers of the form g'^'+V^ in the set p 4^, p 8^, p 12^, .. J. Liou\'ille^" gave the result ?n=cr+r (mod 2), for the case p = 8^'+3, where r is the number of positive integers of the form 2g^'"^^ r^ {q a prime not and a is the number of equal dividing r) in the set p 1^, p 3^, p 5^,
\'ille (p.
.

m, the result m=j/ the form q^^^'^r^ in dividing r. Liouand v" is the number
.

or distinct primes 4gr+l di\'iding b, where p = a^+26" (uniquely). A. Korkine^^^ stated that, if [x] is the greatest integer ^x,

_p-3
4
J.

(p-3)/4

[Vp^l (modp).

Franel"^ proved the last result by use of Legendre's symbol and

(-i)""'TG>
M.
H.
S.

=(-^)''

"-TBI
(mod
2).

(-'^2)-

Lerch^^ obtained Jacobi's"* result.

Vandiver^^"" proved Dirichlet's"^ result and that

(p-i)/2r.-2-i

m=

Y~\

(4) holds if and only if p is a prime. E. Malo^^^ considered the residue r of 1-2. .(p 1)/2 modulo p, where p is a prime 4m+l, and 0<r<p/2. Thus r^= 1. The numbers 2, 3, ., (p 1)/2, with r excluded, may be paired so that the product == 1 of the two of a pair is (mod p) If this sign is minus for k pairs,

R. D. CarmichaeP^^ noted that

1-2.

.(p-l)/2=(-l)V (mod
Ouspensky gave a

p).

*J.

rule to find the sign in (5).

Other Congruences Involving Factorials.

V. Bouniakowskyi29 noted that (p-l)! = PP', PP'=0 (mod p) according as p = 4/j=f1. For, if p is a primitive root of p, we may set P = pp^
I'SArchiv Math. Phys., 2, 1842, 32, 34-35. "Jour. de Math., (2), 5, 1860, 127. ^^Ubid., 128.

i^o^Amer.

Math. Monthly,

11, 1904, 51-6.

^^'IMd., 12, 1905, 106-8.

L'interm6diaire des math., 1, 1894, 95. "/6id., 2, 1895, 35-37. '"Prag Sitzungsber. (Math.). 1898, No. 2.

'22i;interm6diaire des math., 13, 1906, 131-2 23Bu11. Soc. Phys. Math. Kasan, (2), 21.

i"M6m.

Ac. Sc. St. P6tersbourg,

(6), 1,

1831, 564.

Chap. IX]

DiVISIBILTY OF FACTORIALS, MULTINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS.

277

...p\ P'

pV-^

.,

= p'+^..p^-' with t = {v-l)/2, when p = 4A;-l; but P=pp''-^ P' = pY-'' pV"". ., when p = 4A; + l.

G. 01tramare^^ gave several algebraic series for the reciprocal of the binomial coefficient C^) and concluded that, if the moduli are primes,

!+(-')= -2{(i)%(||)%(i|^J+
2=+(-')

.}

(mod 4^+1), ^^'^ *-+3)Qs,

-K(iy+(riT+(wy+

}
.

V. Bouniakowsky^^^ considered the integers qi,. ., prime to N, arranged in ascending order of magnitude. integer ^s, multiply
q,

If

each and X is any chosen

<N

= N-qi,

qs-i

= N-q2,...,
.

g,_x+i

= iV-gx
. .

together and multiply the resulting equation by qi. Apply the q^^xgeneralized Wilson theorem qi. .g^+( 1)^=0 (mod A'"). Hence
9i?2

5x-gi?2.

.g.-x-f(-l)'+^=0 (mod N).

For

N a prime, we have s = Nl

and

X!(iV-l-X)!+(-l)'=0 (mod N)

(l^XSN-l).
^=

C. A. Laisant and E. Beaujeux^^^ gave the last result and

{'-.'} (-If (mod

F. G. Teixeira^^^ proved that
if

p),

^-

a=-2^''-^p-a,
.

a<2p-l,

a{a+l)
Thus, for p = 3, a =
1
,

.{a+2p-l)=3^-5\ .{2p-iyp (mod a+a+l+a+2+...+a+2p-l).

(mod 585 = 95+

a = 95,

95-96-97-98-99-100=32-52-3

.+100).
follows
(4).

M.
by

Vecchi^^^ noted that the final formula

by Bouniakowsky^^^

induction.

Taking X = (iV 1)/2, we get Lagrange's formula

From

the latter,
{3.5-7.
.

we
.

get

(22/-l)}2|

(^^^^) \f/2'^^{-l)'^ (mod p).

The
(6)

case

y={p l)/2

gives Arndt's"^ result

{3-5-7...(p-2)P=(-l)~ (modp).
Vecchi^^^ proved that,
if

v is

the
.

number

of

odd quadratic non-residues

of a

prime p = 4n+3, then

of non-residues
I'lnstitut

1-3-5.

number

<p/2,

1)" (mod p). If n is the 2) ( .(p 1-3-5. .{p-2)={-iy+^2^''-^^^^ (mod p).

.

""M^m. de

Nat. Genevois,

4,

1856,

"sjomal de Sciencias Math, e

Astr., 3, 1881,

33-6.
"iBull. Ac. Sc. St. P^tersbourg, 15, 1857, 202-5.

"2Nouv. Corresp. Math.,

5,

1879, 156 (177).

105-115. i^^Periodico di Mat., 16, 1901, 22-4. '^Hbid., 22, 1907, 285-8.

278

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap.

DC

R. D. Carmichael^^^ proved that,

(a!)*

is di^'isible

by

(a

+ l)(2a + l),

if a+1 and 2a + 1 are both primes, and conversely.

A. Ar^valo^^^ proved (6) and Lucas'" residues of binomial N. G. W. H. Beeger"^ proved that [if p is a prime]

coefficients.

(p_l)!+l = s-p+l (rnodp^),

where h
is
a.

= l+2^-'-\-

.+{p-iy-' = pK.

by the symbolical equation (/i + l)" = /i", hi = l/2. By use of Adams'^"" table of /i 2<114, it was verified that p = 5, p = 13 are the only p<114 for which (p 1)!+1=0 (mod p^). T. E. Mason^^^ and J. M. Child^'^ noted that, if p is a prime >3,
Bernoulli

number

defined

inp)\

= nl(piy
if

(modp"+^).
.

N.

Nielsen^^''

proved that,

p = 2n+l, P=l-3-5.
(4n-l)

(2n-l),

(-l)'^2np2=22'.3.5.
If

(mod

IGn^).

p
C.

is

a prime >3, P=(-l)"2^"n!

^"^^

(mod

p^).

He

gave the
.

last result

also elsewhere.
I.

visible

Marks"- found the by 3-5 ... (2n- 1).

1913, 130-1.

smallest integer x such that 2-4.

.{2n)x

is di-

iRevista de la Sociedad

Mat. Espanola,

2,

"Math. Quest. Educat. Times,

26, 1914, 19.

"'Messenger Math., 43, 1913-4, 83-4. ""a Jour, fiir Math., 85, 1878, 269-72.

""Annali di mat., (3), 22, 1914, 81-2. K. Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Skrifter,
1913, 353.

(7),

10

"STohoku Math.

Jour., 5, 1914, 137.

"'Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 21, 1912, 84-6.

CHAPTER
SUM AND NUMBER OF
The sum
Often (r(n)
of n; also,

X.
DIVISORS.

of the A;th

will

powers of the divisors of n will be designated crk(n) be used for (7i(n),and T{n) for the number ao{n)oi the divisors !r(7i)=T(l)+T(2)+...+r(n).

The
in

early papers in
II.

which occur the formulas

for T{n)

and a{n) were

cited

Chapter

L. Euler^'^'^ applied to the theory of partitions the formula

(1)

p{x)='n.{l-x'')=s^l-x-x'+z^+x^-x'^-....
fc=l

Euler'' verified for

(2)

n<300

that
.,

a{n)=(T{n-l)+(7{n-2)-a{n-b)-(j{n-7)+(7in-12)+..
are
1, 3, 2, 5, 3, 7,

in

which two successive plus signs alternate with two successive minus
. . . . .

signs, while the differences of 1, 2, 5, 7, 12,

.,

the

and the others being the successive odd numbers. He stated that (2) can be derived from (1). Euler^ noted that the numbers subtracted from n in (2) are pentagonal numbers (3a;^ a:)/2 for positive and negative integers x, and that if a(nn) occurs it is to be replaced by n. He was led to the law of the series s by multipljdng together the earlier factors of p{x), but had no proof at that time that p = s. Comparing the derivatives of the logarithms of p and s, he found for xdp/{pdx) the two expressions equated in
alternate ones being
1, 2, 3, 4,
.

,.

2j

nx""

{o)

n=l

\X

^=

x+2x^-bx^-1x^+l2x^^+
S

He
(4)

verified for a

few terms that the expansion

of the left

member

is

I
n=l

a;V(n).

Multiplying the latter by the series s and equating the product to the numerator of the right member of (3), he obtained (2) from the coefficients of x". Euler proved (1) by induction. To prove (2), multiply the left member of (3) by dx/x and integrate. He obtained log p{x) and hence log s,

and then
''Euler,

(3)

by

differentiation.

D. Bernoulli, Jan. 28, 1741, Corresp. Math. Phys. (ed. Fuss), II, 1843, 467. Introductio in Analysin Infinitorum, 1748, I, ch. 16. ^Novi Comm. Ac. Petrop., 3, 1750-1, 125; Comm. Arith., 1, 91. ^Letter to Goldbach, Apr. 1, 1747, Corresp. Math. Phys. (ed. Fuss), I, 1843, 407. Posth. paper of 1747, Comm. Arith., 2, 639; Opera postuma, 1, 1862, 76-84. Novi Comm. Ac. Petrop., 5, ad annos 1754-5, 59-74; Comm. Arith., 1, 146-154. "Letter to Goldbach, June 9, 1750, Corresp. Math. Phys. (ed. Fuss), I, 1843, 521-4. Novi Comm. Ac. Petrop., 5, 1754-5, 75-83; Acta Ac. Petrop., 41, 1780, 47, 56; Comm. Arith., Cf. Bachmann, Die Analytische Zahlentheorie, 1894, 13-29. 1, 234-8; 2, 105.
^Letter to

279

280
Material on
J.

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

(1) will be given in the chapter on partitions in Vol. II. H. Lambert/ by expanding the terms by simple division, obtained

n=l

1X
x"* is

in

which the

coefficient of

T{n).

Similarly, he obtained (4)

(2).

from the

left

member

of (3).

E. Waring^ reproduced Euler's^ proof of E. Waring^ employed the identity

n
k=l

{x''-l)=x''-x'-'-x'-^+x'-^+x'-''-

-...=A,

the coefficient of x^'", for

not of that form. If A=0 is a{m). Thus

coefficients

and sums
,o^

1)^ if v={3z^^z)/2 and zero if v is ( the sum of the mth powers of the roots of (2) follows from Newton's identities between the of powers of the roots. He deduced
v^n, being

m^n,

m(m-l)
\o)
I

m{m-l)im-2)
a{S)

m{m-l){m-2){m-S)
o-(4)

(t{2)-\

+
where c=
==

+
,

?n(m-l)(m-2)(m-3)

{o-(2)j^-...= c-ml,

.^

or

is

the coefficient of x^~"* in series A.

.

Let
. .

U{x''-l)=x''-x'''-'-x''-^+x''-''-\-x''-^-

=A',

where p ranges over the primes mth powers of the roots of A' = Thus of m.
ff'(m)

1, 2, 3, 5,

.,

n.

equals the

sum

If m^n, the sum of the a'{m) of the prime divisors

=(r'(w- 1) +o-'(m-2) -t7'(m-4) -o-'(w-8) +(r'(m- 10) +o-'(m- 11)

-(T'{m-12)-a'{m-lQ)+.

..

We obtain
A'.

(5)

with a replaced by

a',

and

by the

coefficient of

ic^'"*"

in series

Consider

n {x^^-l)=x^-x^-^ -x^-2'+x^-^'+ ...

with coefficients as in series A.
of

=5,

The sum

of the (Zm)th

B=

equals the

sum (T^^\m)
^

of those divisors of

powers of the roots which are multiples of I.

.,

Thus

(T'^'\m)=(T'^'^{m-l)W\m-2l)-a^'\m-U)with the same laws as

(2)
.

The sum

of those divisors of

m which are divisible

'Anlage ziir Architectonic, oder Theorie des Ersten und des Einfachen in der phil. und math. Erkenntniss, Riga, 1771, 507. Quoted by Glaisher.'* ^Meditationes Algebraicse, ed. 3, 1782, 345. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, 78, 1788, 388-394.

Chap. X]

SuM AND NuMBER OF

relatively

DiVISORS.

281

by the

prime numbers a,h,

c,.

is

Waring noted that o-(a|8) = ao-(/3) + (sum Similarly, divisible by a)

.

of those divisors of

jS

which are not

<T(a^y

= aai^y = a(3a{yd
.

.)

+ (sum of divisors of 187 + (sum of divisors of JS7.

.

+a(sum
etc.

of divisors of 76

not divisible by a) not divisible by a) not divisible by jS),

Again,

(r^'^(a/3)=ao-^"(i8)

+ (sum of
00

divisors of

divisible

by

but not

by

a).

similar to that just given for a. C. G. J. Jacobi^^ proved for the series s in (1) that
is

The

generalization

s^

= l-3x-\-5x^-7x^+...= S (-l)"(2n+l)
n=0

a;"'"+^)/2.

Jacobi^^ considered the excess E{n) of the number of divisors of the form 4w + l of n over the number of divisors of the form 4m +3 of n. If n = 2^uv, where each prime factor of u is of the form 4m + 1 and each prime factor of V is of the form 4m+3, he stated that E{n) =0 unless y is a square, and then E{n) =t{u). Jacobi^^ proved the identity
(6)

{l+x-{-x^-{-

+a;'(^+i)/24-

.y = l-\-a(3)x+

+(r(2n+lK+ ....

A. M. Legendre^^ proved (1). G. L. Dirichlet^^ noted that the mean (mittlerer Werth) of (T{n) is x^n/6 1/2, that of T{n) is log n+2C, where C isEuler's constant 0.57721. He stated the approximations to T{n) and \pin), proved later^'^, without obtaining the order of magnitude of the error. Dirichlet^^ expressed in all ways as a product of a square by a complementary factor e, denoted by v the number of distinct primes dividing e, and proved that 22" = T(m). Stern^^" proved (2) by expanding the logarithm of (1). If C" is the number of all combinations with repetitions with the sum n,
. .

(T(n)=nCn-C\ain-l)-C'2(T{n-2)Let S{n) be the

..

sum of

the even divisors of n.

Then, by

(1),
. .

S{2n)=Si2n-2)-\-S{2n-4:)-S{2n-10)-Si2n-U)-\"Fundamenta Nova,
transl., Jour,

.,

S{0)=2n.

Jour, fiir Math., 21, 1840, 13; French 1829, 66, (7); Werke, 1, 237. Cf. Bachmann, pp. 31-7. 7, 1842, 85; Werke, 6, 281. "Zfeid., 40; Werke, 1, 1881, 163. i^Attributed to Jacobi by Bouniakowsky" without reference. See Legendre (1828) and

de Math,

Plana (1863) in the chapter on polygonal numbers, vol. 2. "Th^orie des nombres, ed. 3, 1830, vol. 2, 128. "Jour, fiir Math., 18, 1838, 273; Bericht Berlin Ak., 1838, 13-15; Werke,
^'Ibid., 21,

1,

373, 351-6.

1840, 4.

Zahlentheorie,

124.

i576id.,

177-192.

282

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

Let S'(n) be the sum of the odd di\'isors of n, and C be the number of all combinations without repetitions with the sum n, so that C7 = 5. Then

S'in)=nCn-S'{n-l)Ci-S\n-2)C2+
Z)(n)

.,

= -D(n-l)-D(n-3)-D(n-6)-...,

D{n)=S'{n)-S{n).

complicated recursion formula for T(n)is derived from

\og{{l-x){l-x^y{l-3^)r

.}

=- I

^-Tin)x\

n=in

Complicated recursion fonnulas are found for the number of integers not factors of m, and for the sum of these integers. A recursion formula for the sum Sr{n) of the di\'isors ^r of n is obtained by expanding

<m

log {l-x)(l-x2)...(l-a:'-)l

=- S

-Sr(n)x".

n=in
Jacobi^ proved (1). Dirichlet^^ obtained approximations to T(n).
in as

An

integer

s^n occurs
. . .

many

terms of this

The number

as there are multiples of s among 1, 2, of these multiples is [n/s], the greatest integer ^n/s.

sum

n.

Hence

''(")=iG]
This

sum

is

approximately the product of n by

i = logn+C+i+....
Hence T{n)
Let
ju

is

of the

same order

of

be the least integer

^ y/n
.

magnitude as n log n. and set v = [n/ii]. Then

.

if

g{x) is

any

function and G{x)=g{l)-\-g{2)-\-

+^(x),

=:LsJ
In particular,
if

2 r^i^(s)= -.GGu)+s pi^(s)+s Gjr^ii=iLsJ

=i

LLsJJ

^(x)

= 1,
=iLsJ

=iLsJ

Giving to
(7)

[n/s] the

approximation n/s, we see that

T(n)=n log,n+(2C-l)n+e,
is

where

of the same order of magnitude as Vn. Let pin) be the number of distinct prime factors >1 of ti. Then 2"^"^ is the number of ways of factoring n into two relatively prime factors, taking
"Jour, fur Math., 32, 1846, 164; 37, 1848, 67, 73. "Abhand. Ak. Wiss. Berlin, 1849, Math., 69-83; Werke, Math., (2), 1, 1856, 353-370.

2,

49-66.

French

transl., Jour,

de

Chap. X]

SuM AND NuMBER OF

DiVISORS.

283

account of the order of the factors. The number of pairs of relatively prime integers ^, 17 for which ^r^^n is therefore

y=i

For the preceding

C and

r(n),

it is

proved that
. t

r(n)=S^,/.[P],

= [V^],
"

^in)=^(log.n+'-^+2C-l)+m,
IT

IT

C- 8=2 I H^, S
number
of pairs of integers

where
2)s~^
X,

m is of the order of magnitude of n\ 8>y/2, while 7 is determined by

(s

=l

=2

to 00).

y for which xy^n.

He

Moreover, T(n) noted that

is

the

(7(l)+(r(2)

+ ...+(r(n)=Ssr^l 8=1
Ls-i
this

and that the

difference

between

sum and ir^n^/12 is of an order of magni-

tude not exceeding n loge n. G. H. Burhenne^^ proved by use of infinite series that
"^^

r(n)=i2)/"K0),

fix)^-

and then expressed the result as a trigonometric series. V. Bouniakowsky^^ changed x into x^ in (6), multiplied the and obtained
(x^

result

by

x'^

+x' +x^

.)*

= x*+(r(3)x'2_^
is

+(r(2w+l)a:^"'+H
in

....

Thus every number

8m+4

sum

of four

odd squares

(r(2w+l) ways.
get

By
(8)

comparing

coefficients in the logarithmic derivative,

we

(l2-2m+l)(r(2m+l) + (3^-2m-l)(7(2m-l) + (52-2m-5)(r(2m-5)

+ ...=0,
in

which the successive differences For any integer N,

(9)

of the

arguments

of

<r

are 2, 4,

6, 8, ...

{l^-N)a{N) + {S^-N-h2)(r{N-l-2) + i5''-N-2-3)a{N-2'3)

+ -..=0,
where o-(O)
,

if it

occurs,

means A^/6.

It is

proved

(p.

269)

by use of Jacobi's^

result for s^ that

l+x+x'+x'+

=P^= (i+x)a+x'){l+x')
4,

{l-x')(l-x'){l-x')...,
"Archiv Math. Phys.,

M6m.

19, 1852, 442-9. Ac. Sc. St. P^tersbourg (Sc. Math. Phys.), (6), Extract in Bulletin, 7, 170 and 15, 1857, 267-9.

1850, 259-295 (presented, 1848).

284

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

where the exponents in the series are triangular numbers. Hence if we count the number of ways in which n can be formed as a sum of different together w^ith different terms from 2, 4, 6, terms from 1, 2, 3, ., first taking an even number of the latter and second an odd number, the differaccording as n is a triangular number or not. ence of the counts is 1 or It is proved that
. .

(10)

<r(n)

+ {(T(2)-4o-(l))(r(n-2)+(r(3)(T(n-4) + {(r(4)-4(r(2))(r(n-6) +(r(5)(7(n-8) + {(r(6)-4(r(3))tr(n-10)+. =^(7(n+2).

.

The
for

fact that the second

follows: for

n odd,

n even, (T{n) contrary case.

member must be an integer is generaUzed as even or odd according as n is not or is a square; is even if n is not a square or the double of a square, odd in the Hence squares and their doubles are the only integers whose
(T(n) is

sums

of divisors are odd.

= kc^ or V. Bouniakowsky-'^ proved that (r(A^) = 2 (mod 4) only when 2kc^, where A: is a prime 4Z+1 [corrected by Liouville^]. the expansion of the V. A. Lebesgue-^ denoted by l-{-AiX+A2X^-\mth power of p{x), given by (1), and proved, by the method used by Euler
. .

for the case

m = 1,

that
. .

a{n)+A,a{n-l)-\-A2<T{n-2)+
This recursion formula gives

.+Ar,_,a{l)-\-nAjm = 0.

A,= -m,
The

A, =

m(m 3)

^^2

'

^^

= m(m l)(m S)
1:2:3

expression for Aj, was not found. E. MeisseP2 proved that (c/. Dirichlet^^)

(11)
J. Liouville^^

T{n)

= i^[jj

-''

=^i:[j]

(^

= [V^])-

noted that by taking the derivative of the logarithm of

each

member

of (6)

we

get the formula, equivalent to (8)

J S^n

5m(m+l) 1
^
.
.

2 /o n Ya{2n+lmm)=0,
,

summed

for

m = 0,

J. Liouville^^

1, ., the argument of a remaining stated that it is easily shown that

^0.

Sd<T(d)=s(|y(r(d),
20M6m. Ac. Sc. St. P^tersbourg, (6), 5, 1853, 303-322. "Nouv. Ann. Math., 12, 1853, 232-4.
"Jour, fur Math., 48, 1854, 306. "Jour, de Math., (2), 1, 1856, 349-350
^Ibid., (2), 2, 1857, 56;
(2,

1857, 412).
16, 1857, 181;

Nouv. Ann. Math.,

proof by

J. J.

Hemming,

ibid., (2), 4,

1865, 547.

Chap. X]

SuM AND NuMBER OF

of

DiVISORS.
(p.

285

where d ranges over the divisors

m.

He proved

411) that

S(-l)'"/'^fi
J. Liouville^^

= 2(T(m/2)-(7(m).
:

ranges over

all

stated without proof the following formulas, in which d the divisors of m, while 5 = m/d

Xaid) =2:5r(d),
XcT{d)cr{8)

S0(d)r(5) =(r(m),
Sr(d)r(5)

20(d)r(6)

[rim)}^,

=SdT(d)r(5),

=2:|t(^)}'

where (}){d) is the number of integers < d and prime to d, 6{d) is the number of decompositions of d into two relatively prime factors, and the accent on S denotes that the summation extends only over the square divisors D^ of m. He gave (p. 184)
S0(cf)=r(m2),

^'e{^)i=r{m),

the latter being implied in a result due to Dirichlet.^^ Liouville"*' gave the formulas, numbered (a),. ., {k) by him, in which X(m) = +1 or 1, according as the total number of equal or distinct prime is even or odd: factors of
.

Sr(d2'')=T(m)r(m''),
S5(7(d)

2r(d2'')T(5)

=ST(d)rOT,

S(^(5)(7((i)

=mT(m),

=SdT(d),

SX(c^)

=1

or 0,

^\{d)d{d)r{b)

=1

or 0,

according as

m is or is not a
= l,

square;

i:\{d)d{d)r{h^)

X\{d)e{d)=\im),
SX(5)o-(ci)

SX(d)0(5)

= l,

l^X{d)d{d)did)=0,

=mS'-^.

The number

of square divisors

D^

of

m is '2\(d)T{8).
Sdr(52) =S^(5)(r(d),

Liouville^^
ST(52)(/)(d)

gave the formulas, numbered I-XVIII by him:

=S5^(d),

ST(52)X(d) =T(m),
S0(d)T(5)r(5'') =SdT(62''),
ST(52'')(7(d) =25r(d)T(d''),

2 {T{8)}Md)d{d)

=tW,
^(^)

^e{b)T{d)r{d'') =Sr(52)T(d-''),

S'0(i))T(^) =S'Z)

SX(5)T(d)TW
'^Jour.

=2't(^)

^\id)(T{d)

=mX(m)S'2)2
1st article.

de Mathematiques, (2), 2, 1857, 141-4. "Sur quelques fonctiona num^riques," Here Sa6c denotes S(a6c).
244-8, second article of his series.

^^Ihid.,

"76id., 377-384, third article of his seriea

286

History of the Theory of Numbers.

S'X(i))r(^2) =^"d(^^'

[Chap,

2{W!'' = T(m^),

Sr(0^(5)
where, in 2",
Liouville^^
e

=S{^(d))''T(52),

2r(OX(5)

=2|0(^) j^

ranges over the biquadrate divisors of m.

gave the formula

X{T{d)V={Xr{d)]',
odd) has no factor of the form 4)u+3 and if we even factors as a sum of two odd squares, the sum of the cubes of the numbers of decompositions found will equal thesquare of their sum. Thus, for m = 25,

which implies that

if

2m (m

find the

number

of decompositions of each of its

50=l2+72 = 72+l2 = 52+5^

whence

10 = 32+12 = 12+32,

2=

+ 1,

3H2Hl' = 62.
if a, 6,
. . .

Liouville2^ stated that,

are relatively prime in pairs,

a^iah.

.)=o'n(oVn(?>)-

while

if

p, 9,

are distinct primes,

He

stated the formulas

2(r^((i)</)(5)

=m<T,_,{m),

2ciV,(5) =2d''(T^(5),

2X(d)r(d2)(r^(5) =2d''r(5)X(5),

2dV^(6)

=2c/''r(d),

2dX(d) =252v,(d),
2dX+,(d)(7,(5) =2(iV,+,(d)(r,(5),
2T(d2'')(r,(5)

2dV3,(5) =2c^V2,(d),
2X(d)(T,(5)

=S'(^)'

=2^^(5)7(5"),

2{^(rf)} V,(5) =2d''r(52'),

and various

To the seventh of these Liouville^" later special cases of them. gave several forms, one being the case p = of
2d''-V.+X^)(r,+,(5)=2d''-X+,((i)(r,+,(5),
(p. 84) the known theorem that a{m) is odd if and only if m is a square or the double of a square [cf. Bouniakowsky,^^ end]. He proved that (t{N) = 2 (mod 4) if and only if is the product of a prime 4X 1, raised to the power 4Z + 1 (Z^O), by a square or by the double of a square not divis-

and proved

"Jour. de Math6matiques, (2), 2, 1857, 393-6; Comptes Rendus Paris, 44, 1857, 753, ^^Ibid., 425-432, fourth article of his series,
"/bid., (2), 3, 1858, 63.

Chap. X]

SuM AND NuMBER OF

The
Also,

DiVISORS.

287
is

ible

by the prime 4X+1.

but not
sufficient.

condition given

by Bouniakowsky^

neces-

sary,

o-3(m)

= S <T{2j-l)a{2m-2j+l)

{m odd).
. .

J. Liouville's series of

18 articles, "Sur quelques formules

.utiles

dans

la

th^orie des nombres," in Jour, de Math., 1858-1865, involve the function (r, but will be reported on in volume II of this History in connection with

A paper of 1860 by Kronecker will be considered in of squares. connection with one by Hermite.'^'^ C. Traub^^ investigated the number {N; M, t) of divisors T oi which where is prime to t and N. t (mod M) Let a,h,. .,lhe the integers are let them belong modulo to the respective exponents < and prime to be a common multiple of the latter. Since any prime a', h',. ., V; let is of the form Mx+k, where k = a,. factor of .,1, any T is congruent to
sums

m
.

a^6^.
.

.Z^= (mod M),

O^A<a',.

.,

O^KV.

Let A',. ., L' he one of the n sets of exponents satisfying these conditions. If P is a primitive mth root of unity, the function
1/'

= ^7-^SP^
for all sets
a'),.
.

= {A-A')am/a'+
.
.

.+{L-L')\m/V,

summed
cases.

A = A'(mod

Thus {N]

0^a<a', O^X<r, has the property that i^ = l if = in all other L=L'(mod simultaneously, while V) ., M, t) =SSt/', where one summation refers to the n sets
.,
i/'

mentioned, while the other refers to the various divisors T of N. This double sum is simplified. [The properties found (pp. 278-294) for the set of residues modulo of the products of powers oi a,. ., I may be deduced more simply from the modern theory of commutative groups.] V. Bouniakowsky^^ considered the series

n=l'c.

n=l
,

"'

By forming the
No{n)=T{n)

product of xl/ix)""'^ by \{/{x) he proved that

z, 2 is

the

number

of the divisors of n,

and

Zn,m equals

where (and below) d ranges over the divisors

\p(x)\l/{x-l)=
2)

of n.

Also,

''

n=l

From \l/{xYxl/(x-iy for (i, j) = (2, 1), (2, 2), (1, 2), he derived the first and fourth formulas of Liouville's^^ first article and the fourth of his^^ second article. He extended these three formulas to sums of powers of the divisors
Math. Phys., 37, 1861, 277-345. 32M^m. Ac. Sc. St. P^tersbourg, (7), 4, 1862, No.
^lArchiv
2,

35 pp.

288

History of the Theory of Numbers.

article

[Chap,

and proved the second formula in Liouville's first summation formulas of Liouville.-^ He proved

and the

first

two

i.(2.-l)=2.-l+z[^-^],

.=

[^],
The
last

where 77 = 1 or according as 2o- 1 is divisible by 3 or not. were later generaUzed by Gegenbauer.^^ E. Lionnet^ proved the first two formulas of Liouville.^^ J. Liou^ille^ noted that, if q is divisible by the prime a,
(r,(a5)+a''a-M^|j

two

= (a'' + l)(r,(g).

C. Sardi^^ denoted by A the coefficient of x" in Jacobi's^'' series for s^, that so An = unless n is a triangular number. From that series he got

S(-l)P(2p+l)(7{7i-p(p + l)/2)=(-l)^'+^'/W3orO
p

{t

= Vl+8n),

according as n

is

or

is

not a triangular number, and

|.4+A_,cr(l)+...+Ai(r(n-l)+Ao(r(n)=0.
This recursion formula determines A in terms of the c's, or (T{n) in terms of the A's. In each case the values are expressed by means of determinants of
order n. IM. A. Andreievsk}^^ wrote N^h^^i for the number of the divisors of the are distinct primes. We have where a, b,. form 4/i 1 of n = a'^h^
. .
.

where d ranges over Evidently

all

the di\'isors of

n and the symbols are Legendre's.

l
if

a'=o\

( ^) = a + a
}

/-i\a'

= 4Z + l, = 4Z-l,
1

or

1 if

according as a is odd or even. Hence, if any prime factor 4Z Next, let to an odd power, we have iV4A+i=iV4A_i.

of

n occurs
*|

where each

p, is

a prime of the form

4Z

+1
.

each

g,

of the

form

4?

1
.

Then
..

iV4A+i-iV4.-i

(ai

+ l)(ao + l).

=r(^),

D = q,\^\

^'Souv. Ann. Math., (2), 7, 1868, 68-72. "Jour, de math., (2), 14, 1869, 263-4. "Giomale di Mat., 7, 1869, 112-5. 3%Iat. Sbomik (Math. Soc. Moscow), 6, 1872-3, 97-106 (Russian).

Chap. X]

SUM AND NUMBER OF

of the

DiVISORS.

289

The sum

N's

is

T{n)

^riD^Mn/D^).

Hence
l

N^^^rm +
which
is

requires that

never an integer other than 1 or 2 when n is odd. If it be 2, t(D^) D be a prime. Similarly, for Legendre's symbol (2/a),

=3

if any prime factor 8^ 3 of n occurs to an odd power, but is 11 (a^H1) n each p, is a prime 8Z1 and each Qi a prime 8Z3. For n odd, Ngh^i/Nsh^s can not be an integer other than 1 or 2; if 2, D is a prime. F. Mertens" proved (11). He considered the number v{n) of divisors of n which are not divisible by a square > 1. Evidently v{n) =2", where p is the number of distinct prime factors of n. If ju(n) is zero when n has a square factor > 1 and is + 1 or 1 according as n is a product of an even or odd number of distinct primes, v{n) =XiJL^{d), where d ranges over the divisors

is
if

zero
in

of n.

Also,

fc=i

k=i

\/c

obtained Dirichlet's^'^ expression \l/{n) for this sum, finding for m a limit depending on C and n, of the order of magnitude of \/n log^ n. E. Catalan^'^" noted that So-(i)o-(i) =80-3(72) where i-{-j = 4n. Also, if i is odd, r{i) equals the sum of the products two at a time of the E's of the odd numbers whose sum is 2i, where E denotes the excess of the number of divisors 4/i+l over the number of divisors 4/^ 1. = pi''ip2"2. ., H. J. S. Smith^^ proved that, if

He

..W-2..(^)+S.,(^)-.
For,
if

..=.-

P=l+p'+...+p",
= P.P. ...
initial
<..

P' = l+p'+...+p'"-"', then

c.(m)

(^)

= P/P,

a.

(^J

= P/P/Pa ....

and the
J.

W.

sum equals (Pi Pi){P2 P2) .=m\ L. Glaisher^^ stated that the excess of the sum of the reciprocals of
.

the odd divisors of a number over that for the even divisors is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the divisors whose complementary divisors are odd. The excess of the sum of the divisors whose complementary divisors are odd over that when they are even equals the sum of the odd divisors. G. Halphen^ obtained the recursion formula

(T(n)=3(r(n-l)-5(r(n-3)+.

-(-l)"(2a;+l)Jn-^^^^|+.

.,

"Jour, flir Math., 77, 1874, 291-4. ^'"Recherches sur quelques produits indefinis, M^m. Ac. Roy. Belgique, 40, 1873, 61-191. Extract in Nouv. Ann. Math., (2), 13, 1874, 518-523. asProc. London Math. Soc, 7, 1875-6, 211. '^Messenger Math., 5, 1876, 52. ^oBuU. Soc. Math. France, 5, 1877, 158.

290

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap.X
pc!

where, if n is of the form x{x+l)/2, (t(0) is to be taken to be n/3 [Glaisher^"]. The proof follows from the logarithmic derivative of Jacobi's^" expression for s^, as in Euler's^ proof of (2). Halphen"*^ formed for an odd function /(z) the sum of

s.i

(-1)7

(t*)'
a,

X taking all integral values between the two square roots of over all positive odd divisors of ax^. This sum is

and y ranging

a square, zero if a is not a square. Taking /(s) =z, we get a recursion formula for the sum of those di\dsors d oi x for which x/d is odd [see the Taking f{z)=a^ oT', topic Sums of Squares in Vol. II of this History]. recursion formula for the number of odd di\dsors <a/m of a. we get a gives for the sima of the divisors a recursion formula A generalization of (2) of the forms 2nk, n{2k-\-\)^m, wdth fixed n, m. E. Catalan^'- denoted the square of (1) by l+LiX+ .. +Lx'*Hif

is

Thus
o-(n)

+IiO-(7i-

1)

+L20-(n-2) +
. . .

+^n-l

n"~o-^n>

I'n-I>n-l-I>.-2+I^n-54-Z>_7according as n
is

Or (2X

+ 1)(-1)\

form X(X + l)/2. In \dew of the equality of (3) and (4) and the fact that l/p=2;/'(n)x", where yp{n) is the number of partitions of n into equal or distinct positive integers, he concluded that
not or
is

of the

(7(n)=;//(n-l)+2,/'(n-2)-5;/'(n-5)-7i/^(n-7)
J.

+ 12^(n-12)+.
sum

.".
.

W.

L. Glaisher^^ noted that,

if

B{n)

is

the excess of the

of the

odd

di\'isors of

n over the sum

e{n) +<9(n

of the

even

dii'isors,

- 1) +d{n - 3) +d{n - 6) -f

where

are the triangular numbers, 1, 3, 6, E. Cesaro^ denoted bj^ s the sum of the residues obtained by dividing n by each integer <n, and stated that
. .

= 0, and B{nn) = n.
.

s+(7(l)+(7(2)+...+(7(n)=n2.
E. Catalan^^ proved the equivalent result that the sum of the divisors of n equals the sum of the greatest multiples, not >/?, of these numbers. Catalan'*^ stated that, if <^(a, n) is the greatest multiple ^^ of a,
. .

1,

a{n)= 2

{</)(a,

n)4>{a, n 1)).

"Bull. Soc. Math. France, 6, 1877-S, 119-120, 173-188. "Assoc, frang. avanc. sc, 6, 1877, 127-8. Cf. Catalan.^^" Messenger Math., 7, 1877-8, 66-7. "Nouv. Corresp. Math., 4, 1878, 329; 5, 1879, 22; Nouv. Ann. Math., 473.

(3), 2,

1883, 289;

4,

1885,

/Wd., *mid.,

5,

6,

1879, 296-8; stated, 4, 1879, ex. 447. 1880, 192.

Chap. X]

SuM AND NuMBER OF DiVISORS.

1,
. .

291
.

Radicke (p. 280) gave an easy proof and noted that if we take n = and add, we get the result by E. Lucas^^ o-(l) + +o-(m) =0(1, m) + +0(m, m).
.
.

J.

W.

and

if

if f{n) is the sum of the odd divisors of n sum of the even divisors of n, and /(O) =0, g{0) =n, then /(n)+/(n-l)+/(n-3)+/(n-6)+/(n-10) + ... = g{n)+g{n-l)+gin-S)+ ..

L. Glaisher^^ stated that

is

g{n)

the

Chr.Zeller^^ proved (11). R. Lipschitz^o wrote G(t) for

<t{1)-\-

.-\-a{t),

D{t) for {t''+t)/2,

if 2, 3, 5, 6,
. .
.

and

$(0

using Euler's integers not divisible by a square > 1

for (^(1)
.

+(f>{t),

(f>{t).

Then

are the

^w--[l]--[l]--G] +
G(n)-2G

=n,

D(n)-D
the sign depending on the number of prime factors of the denominator. He discussed (pp. 985-7) Dirichlet's^'^ results on the mean of T{n), o-(n), (f>{n). A. Berger^^ proved by use of gamma functions that the mean of the sum of the divisors d of n is ir^n/Q, that of S d/2'^ is 1, that of Sl/d! is ir^/Q, G. Cantor^^" gave the second formula of Liouville^^ and his^^ third. A. Piltz^^ considered the, number Tk{n) of sets of positive integral solutions of Ui.
.

.Uk

= n, where

differently arranged u's give different sets.

s,

Thus T'i(n) = 1, T'2(n) =T{n). If a- is the real part of the complex number and n* denotes e^ '^ " for the real value of the logarithm, he proved that
n=l
"'

m=
the 6's are constants,
of /.
6^

where

= \(T \/k, and

magnitude

for s ?^

while 0(/)

is^'^

of the order of

Taking

s
.

= 0, we
.

obtain the

number

'SiTkin)

of sets of positive integral solutions of

t^i

.u^'^x.

H. Ahlborn^Hreated
of

(11).

E. Cesaro^^ noted that the

mean

of the difference of

between the number

log 2 the limit for
;

odd and number

of

even divisors

any integer

is

^^Nouv. Corresp. Math., 5, 1879, 296. 48NOUV. Corresp. Math., 5, 1879, 176. "Gottingen Nachrichten, 1879, 265. ^oComptes Rendus Paris, 89, 1879, 948-50.

Cf.

Bachmann^"

of

Ch. XIX.

Sc. Upsal., (3), 11, 1883, No. 1 (1880). Extract Math., 6, 1880, 551-2. Cf. Gram.^ "G6ttmgen Nachr., 1880, 161; Math. Ann., 16, 1880, 586.

"Nova Acta Soc.

by Catalan

in

Nouv. Corresp.

"Ueber das Gesetz, nach welchem die mittlere Darstellbarkeit der natiirlichen Zahlen ala Produkte einer gegebenen Anzahl Faktoren mit der Grosse der Zahlen wachst. Diss.,
Berlin, 1881.

"Progr.,

Hamburg,

1881.

"Mathesis, 1, 1881, 99-102. Ces^ro," 113-123, 133.

Nouv. Ann. Math.,

(3), 1,

1882, 240; 2, 1883, 239, 240.

Also

292
7i=
00

History of the Theory of Numbers.

of r(r2)/(n log
-'^s

[Chap,

r?) is

l;cf. (7);

themean

of

2(d+p)-'

is (1

+ 1/2+...
is

generalizations of Berger's^^ results, the mean of H.d/'p^ l/p)/Pof the sum of the rth powers of the divisors of n mean l/(p 1); the ^r the inverses of their rth powers is f(r+l), where of that ^(/--f 1) and

is

(12)
J.

f(s)=ilM
n=l

W.

L. Glaisher^^ proved the last formula of Catalan^^

and

(r(n)-(r(n-4)-(r(n-8)+(T(n-20)+o-(n-28)-...

= Q(n-l)+3Q(n-3)-6Q(n-6)-10Q(n-10)+...,
is the number of partitions of n without repetitions, and 4, 8, He gave another are the quadruples of the pentagonal numbers. formula of the latter tj-pe. R. Lipschitz,^^ using his notations,^" proved that

where Q{n)
20,
.

7'(n)-.r0+.r[^]-...=n+z[|],
G(n)-SaGg]+26G[^] D(.)
. .
.

=n+Sp[|],
=$(n) +2*[|]

-SD

[2]

+XD [^] .

ranges over those numbers ^ n which are composed exclusivelj'' of than given primes a,h,. ., each ^ n. other primes Ch. Hermite"^ proved (11) very simply. R. Lipschitz^^ considered the number T^it) of those divisors of t which are exact sth powers of integers and proved that

where

where

p' is the largest sth

power

^rz,

and

= [n/ii']. The

last expression,

found by taking

/i = [n^^"^*^" ], gives a generahzation of (11). T. J. Stieltjes^^ proved (7) by use of definite integrals. E. Cesaro^ proved (7) arithmetically and (11). E. Cesaro^^ proved that, if d ranges over the divisors of n, and 5 over those of X,

(13)

2G(d)/Q)=2^(d)FQ),
g(x)

F{x)^i:fi8),

G{x)^Xg{8).
of Liouville^^

Taking

= l,f{x) =x, 4>{x),

1/x,

we get

the

first

two formulas

"Messenger Math.,

12, 1882-3, 16&-170. "Comptes Rendus Paris, 96, 1883, 327-9. "Acta Math., 2, 1883, 299-300. "/&id., 301-4.

5Cdmpte9 Rendus Paris, 96, 1883, 764-6.

^Hhid., 1029.

"Mdm.

Soc. Sc. Li^e, (2), 10, 1883,

Mem.

6,

pp. 26-34.

Chap. X]

SuM AND NuMBER OF DiVISORS.

293
for-

and the fourth of Liouville.^^ Taking g = x, f=(t>, we get the third mula of Liouville.^^ For g=l/x,f=(j), we get
S#(d)(7 ^

0)

=Sdl

For g=(f) or x'',f=x% we get the first two of Liouville's^^ summation formulas. If ir(x) is the product of the negatives of the prime factors 5^ 1 of a:,

Sx(d)*(d)<70)i = T(),

ST(d)<#,(d)J3

= ^,2#(d).
(p.

Further specializations of (13) and of the generalization

47)

2G(d)/(^) =i:F(d)g(^fj,
led Cesaro

F{x)^l:^|^{^)f(^^y

G(a;)

^2,^(5)^

(^),

similar ones.

(pp. 36-59) to various formulas of Liouville^^"^^ It is shown (p. 64) that

and many-

n=l

fl'

n=l

"

for f

and

as in (12), (13).

under Cesaro^^ in Ch. V.

For /(n) =(^(n), we have the result quoted For/(n) = 1 and n'', m k>l,

^^=r{m),
n=l
If (n, j) is
''

S-- = ^(m)f(m-A;).
n
''

the

g. c. d. of n, j,

then (pp. 77-86)

nT(n)=i:a{n,j),
<j{n)=^T{n,
3),

.ST^-jr

= 2S(7(d)-l,
j)=n(Tk-i(n),

S
y=i
If in

(Tk{n,

^j(T{n, j) =-^lnT{n)-\-a{n)}.

the second formula of Liouville^^

we take

m = l,.

.,n and add,

we

get

s0(i)rr?i=s<T(i).
Similarly (pp. 97-112) we may derive a relation in [x] from any given relation involving all the divisors of x, or any set of numbers defined by x, such as the numbers a, h,. for which x a^, x W,. are all squares. Formula It is shown (pp. 135-143) that the mean of the (7) is proved (pp. 124-8). sum of the inverses of divisors of n which are multiples of k is 7rV(6A;^) the excess of the number of divisors 4)U+1 over the number of divisors 4^i+3 is in mean 7r/4, and that for 4/x+2 and 4ju is ^ log 2; the mean of the sum of the inverses of the odd divisors of any integer is ttYS the mean is found of various functions of the divisors. The mean (p. 172) of the number of divisors of an integer which are mth powers is f(^)j and hence is 7rV6 if
.
. .

294

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

m = 2.
of

The mean
for

(pp. 216-9) of the

number

of divisors of the

form aix+r

is,

r>0,

i+ijlog/a+2C-/;ij^dx}
pp. 341-2 and, for a = 4, 6, pp. 136-8), while several proofs (also, p. 134) are given of the known result that the number of divisors of n which are multiples of a is in mean
(cf.

-(log7i/a+2C).
a
291-2) a ranges over the integers for which [2n/d] is odd, the number (sum) of the a's is the excess of the number (sum) of the divisors of n; the means are n log 4 and 7rW/6. 2n over that of 1, n + 1, n+2, If (pp. 294-9) k ranges over the integers for which [n/k] is odd, the number ., n over the of the A:'s is the excess of the number of odd divisors of 1, number of their even divisors, and the sum of the A;'s is the sum of the odd
If (pp.
. .
.

divisors of

1,

w; also

S*W=9^
Several asymptotic evaluations
for the functions \{n)

9=[^]'

Cesaro each is
J.

(p. 307, p.

157)

by Cesaro are erroneous. For instance, defined by Liouville^^ and Mertens,^^ gave as the mean values 6/7r^ and 36/7r*, whereas
and
At(n),

zero.^^

W.

L. Glaisher^^ considered the

sum A(n)

of the

odd

divisors of n.

If

n = 2^m {m odd), A(n) =(j{m).

The

following theorems were proved

by

use of series for elliptic functions

A(l)A(2n-l)+A(3)A(2n-3)+A(5)A(2n-5)+...+A(2n-l)A(l)
equals the sum of the cubes of those divisors of n whose complementary The sum of the cubes of all divisors of 2n+l is divisors are odd.

A(2n+l) + 12{A(l)A(2n)+A(2)A(2n-l)+.
If

+A(2n)A(l)).

A, ,

C are

the sums of the cubes of those divisors of 2n which are respec-

tively even, odd, with

odd complementary

divisor,
.

2A(2n)+24JA(2)A(2n-2)+A(4)A(2n-4)+. .+A(2n-2)A(2))

= i(2A-2J5-C)=i(3-23^-10)5
o
if

2n = 2'"m

(ttz

odd).

Halphen's formula^*'

is

stated on p. 220.

Next,

n(r(2n+l)

+ (n-5)(r(2n-l) + (n-15)(T(2n-5) + (n-30)(7(2n-ll)+.

=0,

"H.

Mangoldt, Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Berlin, 1897, 849, 852; E. Landau, Sitzungsber, Ak. Wiss. Wien, 112, II a, 1903, 537. Quar. Jour. Math., 19, 1883, 216-223.
V.

Chap. X]

SuM AND NuMBER OF

DiVISORS.

295

which the differences between the arguments of a in the successive terms 2, 4, 6, 8, ... and those between the coefficients are 5, 10, 15, ... while Finally, there is a similar recursion formula for A(n). o-(O) =0. Glaisher^^ proved his^^ recursion formula for Q{n), gave a more complicated one and the following for (j{n)
in

are

o-(n)-2{o-(n-l)+o-(n-2)) +3{(7(n-3)+(r(n-4)+(7(n-5)!

+ (-irV{...+(r(l)) = (-l)V-s)/6,
where s = r unless ra-(l) is the last term of a group, in which case, s = r+l. He proved Jacobi's^^ statement and concluded from the same proof that E{n) =JlE{ni) if n=nn the n's being relatively prime. It is evident that E{p')=r-\-l if p is a prime 4m+l, while '(pO = l or if p is a prime 4m+3, according as r is even or odd. Also '(2'') = 1. Hence we can at once evaluate E{n). He gave a table of the values oi E{n),n = \,. ., 1000. By use of elliptic functions he found the recursion formulae
.

E{n)-2E{n-^)+2E{n-\io)-2E{n-m)+
for

=0

or

(-l)'^-^^/^^,

n odd, according as n

is

not or

is

a square; for any n.

. .

E{n)-E{n-l)-E{n-S)+E{n-6)-{-E{n-10)= or (-ir{(-l)('-i)/2^-l}/4, ^^ Vs^^fl,

according as n is not or recursion formulae for
is

a triangular number

1, 3, 6,

10,

..

He

gave

S{2n)

=E(2)+E(4)+

+E{2n),
. .

S{2n-l)=E{l)-\-E{S)+

.+Ei2n-1).

The

functions E, S, 6, a are expressed as determinants. J. P. Gram^^" deduced results of Berger^^ and Cesaro.^'* +o-(2n-l), (t(3) +o-(7) Ch. Hermite^^ expressed (T(l)+<r (3) +(7(4n+l) as sums of functions +o-(4n 1) and o-(1)+<j(5)+

E,{x)=^{[xf-^[x\]/2.

Chr. Zeller^^ gave the final formula of Catalan.^^ W. L. Glaisher^ noted that, if in Halphen's^" formula, n is a triangular number, (T{nn) is to be given the value n/3; if, however, we suppress the undefined term (7(0), the formula is
J.

(T(n)-3(j(n-l)+5(7(n-3)according as n
is

=0

or {-lY-\l''+2''+

.+r''),

r(r+ 1)/2.
<T{n)

He
yp

(with

not a triangular number or is the triangular number reproduced two of his^^'^"*'^^ own recursion formulas for for <j in two) and added

o-(n)-{(7(n-2)+o-(n-3)+(r(n-4)j

+o-(n-10)+(7(n-ll)[-{(T(n-15)+...)

+ !(7(n-7)-f(r(n-8)+(7(n-9) + ...=A-B,

^Proc. London Math. Soc, 15, 1883-4, 104-122. "Det K. Danske Vidensk. Selskabs Skrifter, (6), 2 1881-6 (1884), 215-220 296.

"^Amer. Jour. Math., 6, 1884, 173-4. 6Acta Math., 4, 1884, 415-6. 6Troc. Cambr. Phil. Soc, 5, 1884, 108-120.

296
where

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

B denote the number of positive and negative terms respeccr{0) =n as a term; counting tively, not
A
and
n<T(n)+2{(n-2)(r(n-2) + (n-4)(r(n-4)l +3{(n-6)(r(n-6) + (n-8)(7(n-8) + (n-10)tr(n-10)} = a{n) + {V-+3')\a{n-2)+a{n-4:)] + (l-+3- + 5') {(r(n-6)+(r(n-8)+<r(n-10)l + ...

+ ...
(n odd).

He reproduced his^ formulas for d{n) and E{n). He announced {ibid., p. 86) the completion of tables of the values of ^(n), T{n), (T{n) up to n = 3000, and inverse tables. Mobius^^ obtained certain results on the reversion of series which were combined by J. W. L. Glaisher^^ into the general theorem: Let a,h, ... be distinct primes; in terms of the undefined quantities e^, %,..., let e
= e^V/ ...
if

n = a'^lP

and

let ei

= 1.

Then,

if

F(a:)=SeJ(a:"),

where n ranges over

all

products of powers of

a, 6,

we have

/(x)=S(-l)^6^(a;0,

where v ranges over the numbers wdthout square factors and divisible by no prime other than a, 6, ... while r is the number of the prime factors of v. Taking
,

Glaisher obtained the formula of H. J. S. Smith^^ and

aM -2aV,(^) +2a'fcV.(^^^ Using the same/, but taking

that,
if

= 1.

= 0,

Ar{n)

is

the

sum

of the rth

Cp = p\ when p is an odd prime, he proved powers of the odd divisors of n,

A,()-.A,-f.A,(|)
according as n
If A'r(^) is
is

=
it

or rf,

even or odd.

In the latter case,

reduces to Smith's.

n whose complementary divisors are odd, while Er{n) [or E'r{n)] is the excess of the sum of the rth powers of those divisors of n which [whose complementary divisors] are of the form 47?i + 1 over the sum of the rth powers of those divisors which [whose complementary divisors] are of the form 4772+3,
the
of the rth

sum

powers of those

di\'isors of

A',(n)-2a'A',(^)+2a'6'A',(^^)

=;, =

ijl-(-l)-),

A',()-2A',Q+2A-,(^)-...=n-,
"Jour,
fiir

Math.,

9,

"London, Ed. Dublin

1832, 105-123; Werke, 4, 591. Phil. Mag., (5), 18, 1884, 518-540.

Chap. X]

SuM AND NUMBER OF

DiVISORS.

297

EM -s^.(^) +s^.() -

= (-i)^"-^>/v.,

E'Xn) -^a^E\(^^ +^a%^E',{^^ -... =^{-\r-'^'\

E\{n)-U-ir-'"'E\{^ +S(-l)(^-i)/2^;(^JL^ . .

=n^

where A,B,. are the odd prime factors of n. Note that ^ = or 1 according n is even or odd. By means of these equations, each of the five functions determinant of (Tr{i^),-J E'r{n) is expressed in two or more ways as a
as

order n. Ch. Hermite^ quoted five formulas obtained by L. Kronecker'^^ from the expansions of elHptic functions and involving as coefficients the functions $(n)=o-(n), the sum Z(n)_of the odd divisors of n, the excess ^(n) of the sum of the divisors >\/n of n over the sum of those <\/n, the excess $'(n) of the sum of the divisors of the form 8k=^l of n over the sum of the divisors of the form 8k^S, and the excess ^'(n) of the sum of the divisors 8A; 1 exceeding and the divisors 8A; 3 less than y/n over the sum of the divisors Sk=i=l less than \/n and the divisors 8A; 3 exceeding \/n. Hermite found the expansions into series of the right-hand members of the five formulas, employing the notations

Vn

Ei{x)

= [a:+i] - [x],
5,...;
6

a=

l, 3,

E^ix) = [x\[x+\]/2, = 2,4,6,...; c = l,

2, 3,...,

and

for a

number
.

of type a, etc.

He

obtained

Z(l)+X(3)+.
(r(l)

.+X(A)=SE2(^),
.

+(7(2)

(7

(C)

=SE2(C/c),

^(l)+^(2)+. .+^(0=2^2 (^'),

.

X(2)+Z(4)+

+Z(B) =is|a[^] +&^i[|]|

l>'(l)+*'(3)+.

.+$'(A)=S(-l)^"^-^)/a[^],
.

^'(l)+^'(3)+

+^'{A)

=S(-l)('^^+^>/a|
l^

^+^^-^'
j

"BuU. Ac.
"Jour,
fiir

Sc. St. Petersbourg, 29, 1884, 340-3;

Math., 57, 1860, bottom

p.

Acta Math., 252 and top p. 253.

5,

1884-5, 315-9.

298

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

The first three had been found and proved purely arithmetically by Lipschitz and communicated to Hermite. Hermite proved (11) by use of series. Also,

i F{a)=i
a=
l

r^l/(a),
l

a=

LuJ

F(n)^2/(d),

where d ranges over the di\'isors of n. When f{d) = I, F{n) becomes T{n) and the formula becomes the first one by Dirichlet.^^ L. Gegenbauer"'- considered the sum p^. (n) of the A:th powers of those divisors d, of n whose complementary divisors are exact ^th powers, as well By means of the f -function, (12), he as Jordan's function Jk{n) [see Ch. V]. proved that
,

(Tk{m)po, 2(n)

=2po.
r,

2t{d)pk,

j
all

where d ranges over the divisors which mv} = r',

of

and

7n,

n over

pairs of integers for

2 Jtk{n)p,, t{m) = rV^jt. <(r)

the latter for
t

=l

being Liouville's^

2 <T,_k{m)T{n)m'' ='Epk, t{d)p,, \j) seventh formula ioT v = 0;

t

2dV,(^) =2dV..(0,
,

2/.(d)dV.(0

=P.+.<(r),

<

the latter f or ^ = t- = 1 A- = 0, being the second formula of Liouville"^, while for = 1 it is the final formula by Cesaro^^ of Ch. V;

2X(d)dV.,2.(0 =2X(d)p,.,((i)p*.,^0
according as
r is

=0

or P2k,t{\^),

not or

2X(n)p,.

is

a square;
2X(d)T(d2) =Hr)T{r),

=p,,2t{r),

^r\d)J,Q
2
2=iLa;J

=r^^,
=2 At),
r=l
first

2dV(d2)(7,(0 =2dV(d),

\l\r{x')

2 r^1x(x)(7,(x) i=lL3;J
subscript of
p,

=2 p^r).
r=l

By

changing the sign of the

we obtain formulas
7i

for the

sum

Pk,i{n)=n''p_i,j{7i) of the A:th

powers

of those divisors of

which are

tth powers.

By taking

the second subscript of p to be unity,

we

get formulas

for (Tkin).

There are given

.

fain) of solutions of nin2.

many formulas invohnng .71^ = 71, and the number co()

also the
of

number ways n can be

expressed as a product of two relatively prime factors. Two special cases [(107), (128)] of these are the first formula of Liou\ille-^ and the ninth summation formula of Liouville,^^ a fact not observed by Gegenbauer. He

proved that,

if

p^n,

2
i=p+l
"Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss.

B{x)

=-

2
x=A

Cix)-\-Bn-Ap,
+
l

Wien (Math.),

89, II, 1884, 47-73, 76-79.

Chap. X]

SuM AND Number of Divisors.

299

where

and

B = B{n), A=B{p+l);
z=p+l

also that

2 D{x)=
where

S
x=D+l

F{x)+Dn-Ep,

= D(n), E = D(p-{-l). It is stated that special cases of these two formulas (here reported with greater compactness) were given by Dirichlet, In the second, take t = 1, p = 0, and choose the Zeller, Berger and Cesaro. integers a, j8, b, n so that
and
hn''^-^>a>h{n-iy-\-^,

whence
bx'+jS,

D = 0.
we
get

If Xr is

the

number

of divisors of r

which are

of the

form

Change n

to

n + 1 and

set

i3

= 0,

= = l, whence
o-

a = n [also set p

= [Vn]];

we

get Meissel's^^ formula (11). Other speciaHzations give the last one of the formulas by Lipschitz,^^ and

where

v = [-\/n\, k{r) is the number of odd divisors of r, while ^ = or 1 according as [n/v ^]>v \ or =v \. L. Gegenbauer'^^ proved by use of ^-functions many formulas involving his'^^ functions p, / and divisors d<. Among the simplest formulas, special cases of the more general ones, are

2(r,(d)d^=S(r,+x(0rf'=2(r^(0d^+\

Xn\d,) =SX(A),
=Zd{h),

mh)tx\d,) =Xfx\h),

i:r{h')}x\d,)

2m'(^)^(0

='r(r'),

Xrid^Uh)

=e{r),
d^,

Xi/{d)J,(^^

^^dMh),
Other special cases are the fourth
first,

summed

for d,

c?2,

where h = Vr/dg.

and sixth formulas

Beginning with

of Liouville,^^ the

third

and

last

of Liouville.^^

p. 414,

the formulas involve also

{l

oi,{n)^n'Ti
1=1

+ \/vt),

n=ilp:\
1=1

"Sitzungsber. Ak. Wien (Math.), 90, in the paper. For his \pf,, ^, u,

II,

we

1884, 395-459. The functions used are not defined write 0-^, r, e, where e is the notation of Liouville."

300
Beginning with

History of the Theory of Numbers.

p.

[Chap,

425 and
n"

p.

430 there enter the two functions

.?,(i)-{

-''-}
1

in

which (A/p)
J.

is

Legendre's symbol, with the value

or

1.

W.

powers

L. Glaisher^'* investigated the excess tr{n) of the sum of the rth of the odd di\'isors of n over the sum of the rth powers of the even

sum A'r(n) of the rth powers of those divisors of n whose complementary divisors are odd, wrote f for f i, and A' for A'l, and proved
divisors, the

A'3(n)=nA'(n)+4A'(l)A'(n-l)+4A'(2)A'(n-2)+.
nA'(n)=A'(l)A'(2n-l)-A'(2)A'(2n-2) +

.+4A'(n-l)A'(l),

r3(n) = (2n-l)r(n)-4r(l)r(n-l)-4r(2)r(n-2)-...-4r(n-l)f(l),
. .

.+A'(2n-1)A'(1),
. .

(-l)''-H(n)=A'(n)+8r(l)A'(n-2)+8f(2)A'(n-4) +
A'3(n)=7zA'(n)+A'(2)A'(2n-2)+A'(4)A'(2n-4) +
. .

.,

.+A'(2n-2)A'(2),
{n even),

-f3(7i)=3A(n)+4{A(l)A(n-l)+9A(2)A(n-2)+A(3)A(n-3) +9A(4)A(n-4)+ +A(n-1)A(1))

. . .

2^-W2.+i(n)
(2r)!

2r-3] [2r-l, 1] _ l!(2r-l)!"^3!(2r-3)!'^""'^(2r-l)!l!'

[l,2r-l]
[3,

where

b,?]=(7p(lK(2n-l)+(rp(3K(2n-3) +

.+(Tp(2n-lK(l).

For n odd, f (n) =A'(n) =a{n) and the fourth formula gives

(/i-lM7i)=8{(7(lMn-2)H-r(2M7i-4)+(7(3Mn-6)+r(4Mn-8) +
Glaisher'''^

.).

proved that

5o'3(n)

6w(7(n) -\-(j{n) = 12{(7(l)(7(7i-l)+o-(2)(r(n-2)+...+(7(n-l)(T(l)),

(r(l)(r(2n-l)+(r(3)(r(2n-3)

.+or(2n-l)(T(l)
=A'3(n)=|{cr3(2ii)-(T3(n)}.

The

latter includes the first

Glaisher'^^

theorem in his^^ earUer paper. proved for Jacobi's^^ E{n) that

.

+ l)=E(l)E(4m + l)+;(5)^(4w-3)+E(9)E(4w-7) + +(4m + l)E(l), =0 = 8n+5), E(0-2^(^-4)+2E(<-16)-2E(-36) + =0 (7(y)-2(r(y-4)+2(7(y-16)-2(7(y-36) + (y = 8n+7), <t(w) +(t(?/- 8) H-(r(i/- 24) +(r(w- 48) + =4{(r(w)+2(T(m-4) +2(r(rn-16)+2(7(m-36)+. .) (m = 2n + l, w = 8n+3),
cr(2m
.
. . .

and three formulas analogous

(p. 158) his^'*

to the last (pp. 125, expressions for A'3(n).

129).

He

repeated

^^Messenger Math., 14, 1884r-5, 102-8. "Hbid., 156-163. 'Quar. Jour. Math., 20, 1885, 109, 116, 121, 118.

Chap. X]

SuM AND NuMBER OF

number

DiVISORS.

301
^[\/n]
of ^

L. Gegenbauer^^ considered the

Ti(k) of the divisors

and the number

T2ik) of the

remaining divisors and proved that

STi(/c)=5(log,n+2C)+0(V^),
^r^ik)
0(s) being
of the
^

=|(log,n+2C-2)+0(V^),

magnitude of s. He proved (p. 55) that the mean the reciprocals of the square divisors of any integer is 7rV90; that (p. 64) of the reciprocals of the odd divisors is ttVS; the mean (p. 65) of the cubes of the reciprocals of the odd divisors of any integer is 7r^/96,
of the order of

sum of

that of their fifth powers

7r/4.

is

7r^/960.

The mean

(p. 68) of Jacobi's^^

E{n)

is

G. L. Dirichlet^^ noted that in (7), p. 282 above, we may take e to be of lower [unstated] order of magnitude than his former -\/nL. Gegenbauer^^ considered the sum r^ k,s (n) of the kth powers of those divisors of n which are rth powers and 'are divisible by no (sr) th power except 1 also the number Qa{b) of integers ^ b which are divisible by no ath power except 1. It follows at once that, if /Xg(^) =0 if is divisible by an
;

sth

power >1, but =1 otherwise,

r,,.,(n)=SM.(^|);''

where the summation extends over all the divisors plementary divisors are rth powers, and that
(14)

dr

of

n whose com-

ST..,,(a;)=

-; hr^V.(^),
=S[n/a;'^]/z(x),

= Wn].
.

From.the known formula Qr{n)

x=

1,

.,

j^,

is

deduced

the right

Bougaief.

member reducing to n for = and From this special result and (14) is
A;

thus giving a result due to derived

From

these results he derived various expressions for the

mean value

of

Tr,-k,s{^)

and

of the

sum

t^.aj.X^) of

the

which are rth powers and are divisible than 1. He obtained theorems of the type: The mean value of the number of square divisors not divisible by a biquadrate is 15/x^; the mean value of the excess of the number of divisors of one of the forms 4rjLi+y(j = l, 3, ., 2r 1) over the number of the remaining odd divisors is
. .

powers of those divisors of n by at least one (sr) th power other

A;th

1
"Denkschr. Akad. Wien (Math.),
49,

i cot(2LdV.
4r
1885, 24.
I,

4ri^i

78G6ttingen Nachrichten, 1885, 379; Werke, 2, 407; letter to Kronecker, July 23, 1858. "Sitzungsberichte Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 91, II, 1885, 600-^21.

302

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

L. Gegenbauer^" considered the number Ao{a) of those di\'isors of a which are congruent modulo k and have a complementary divisor =1 (mod k). He proved that, if p<k,

If we replace (t by <t 1 and subtract, we obtain The above formulas give, for k = 2, p = l,

expressions for Ao{k(Tp).

and formulas of Bouniakowsky.^^ odd number a is a prime if

L2(2a:+1)

The same developments show

that an

x^[(a Z)/2]; likewise x^[(a 5)/Q], with similar

for
nitely, for

^2j L2(2x+l)^2j for a = 6fc=*=l if the same equality tests for a = 3n 1, or 4n 1.

holds

when

C. Runge^^ proved that T{n)/n* has the limit zero as n increases indefi-

every e>0.

if x^p is the number of ways of decomposing a product of n distinct primes into p factors >1, order being immaterial,

E. Catalan^- noted that,

xp

px_ip+x_i,_i

= jp'-^-(PTi)(p-ir-^+(^-^)(p-2r-^-...i}
-^{(p-l!).

E. Cesaro^ considered the number F (x) of integers ^x which are not divisible by mth powers, and the number T^ (x) of those di\'isors of x which are mth. powers, evaluated sums involving these and other functions, and

determined mean values and probabilities relating to the greatest square

divisor of

an arbitrary

integer.

R. Lipschitz^ considered the sum k{m) of the odd di\'isors of m increased by half the sum of the even di\'isors, and the function l(m) obtained by interchanging the words "even," "odd." He proved that

k{m)-2k{m-l)+2k{m-9)according as

=(-1)"-'^

or 0,

m is a square

or

is

not;
. .

l{m)+l{m-l)+l{77i-S)+l{m-6)+. according as m is a triangular number or is not

-m or 0,
+ ...+m[^],

XW=A'(1)+A'(2)+...+A-W = H+[|]+3[|]+2[^]
L(m) = /(l)+Z(2)+
"M^m.
.

+l{m)

= -[m]-^2[f\ -^[f\+^[f\
II,

->
7,

"Sitzunpsberichte Ak. Wien. (Math.), 91,

1885, 1194-1201.

"Acta Math.,

1885, 181-3.

80C. roy. sc. Lifege, (2), 12, 1885, 18-20; Melanges Math., 1868, 18. "Annali di Mat., (2), 13, 1885, 251-268. Reprint "Excursions arith. k Tinfini," 17-34.

"Comptes Rendus

Paris, 100, 1885, 845.

Cf. Glaisher", also Fergola" of Ch. XI, Vol. II.

Chap. X]

SuM AND NuMBER OF

DiVISORS.
.

303

where

fx

M.
1

= or m/2 according as is odd or even. Cf Hacks.^^ A. Stern^^ noted that Zeller's^^ formula follows from B=pA, where
00

pix)

= A=

Si/'(n)a;",

n=o
p(rc)
is

-^=S= S V{x)
by

00

o-(n)a:'*-\

p=

l+2a:-5x*-7x^+
and

where

defined

(1), yp{n) is

the

number

of partitions of n,

the second equation follows from the equality of (3) and (4) after removNext, if N{n) denotes the number of combinations of ing the factor x.
1, 2,
. .

.,

n without

repetitions producing the

sum

n,

X
rZi

2, N(n)x''= {l+x){l+x^) ^ ' '

'

''

'^- = {l-x){l-x')...'
.

(l-x')il-x')

then by the second equation above,

B{\-x^-x'^x^''+x^^-

.)=pSA^(n)x~,
. .

(r(n)-o-(n-2)-o'(7i-4)+(r(n-10)+(7(n-14)where
S. (T{n

=i\r(n-l)+2i\r(n-2)-5iV(n-5)-7iV(n-7)+...,

n) =0, N{nn) = 1.

Roberts^^ noted that Euler's^ formula (2) is identical with Newton's for obtaining the sum aS_ of the ( n)th relation S^n = S-n+i+S^n+2 powers of the roots of s = 0, where s and p are defined by (2). In p, the sum according as k is or is of the ( n)th powers of the roots of 1 a:^ = is A; or not a divisor of n. Hence the like sum for p is (r{n). [Cf. Waring^.] The process can be applied to products of factors 1 f(k)x^. His further results may be given the following simpler form. Let 0 be the sum of the even divisors of n, and xpn the sum of the odd divisors, and set s=0+2i^ if n By elliptic function expansions, is even, s= 2i^ if n is odd.

+ 8{s2n_itAi+3S2H-2'/'2+S2n-3'A3 + 3S2n-4^4+ -hSiXf/ 2n-l] +12ni/^2n = 0, S2n+l+8{s2lAi+3S2_l^2+ +3SilA2n) +(4n + 2)l/'2n+l=0

S2n

the coefficients being 1 and 3 alternately. He indicated a process for finding a recursion formula involving the sums of the cubes of the even divisors and the sums of the cubes of the odd divisors, but did not give the formula. N. V. Bougaief^" obtained, as special cases of a summation formula,

^{Sx+5-5i2u-iy}(Ti2x + l-u''
where P{n)
is

+ u) = 0,
number

S{n -3(7(t/)}P{n -o-(w)}

of

=
.

0,

=n. odd divisors of 1, 2, equals the sum of the greatest integers in (n+l)/2, (n+2)/4, (nH-3)/6, (2n)/(2n). The number of divisors of the form Bx'yoil,...,nis
the

number

of solutions u, v of a{u) +(t(v)

L. Gegenbauer^'' proved that the

.,
.
.

n
.,

ex-

pressed as a
J.

sum

of greatest integers; etc.

W.

L. Glaisher^^ considered the

sum A^n)

divisors of n, the

Hke sum Dsin)

for the

of the sth powers of the odd even divisors, the sum D',{n) of the

s^Acta Mathematica, 6, 1885, 327-8. 8Quar. Jour. Math., 20, 1885, 370-8. 8Comptes Rendus Paris, 100, 1885, 1125, 1160. sebDenkschr. Akad. Wiss Wien (Math.), 49, II, 1885, 111. 8'Messenger Math., 15, 1885-6, 1-20.

304

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

sth powers of the divisors of n whose complementary divisors are even, the excess f ',() of the sum of the sth powers of the divisors whose complementary'' di\'isors are odd over that when they are even, and the similar The seven functions can be expressed in terms of any functions'^ A' f a,.

two:

where the arguments are all n. Since D\{2k) =(T,(k), we may express all the functions in terms of a^n) and (TXn/2), provided the latter be defined to be Employ the abbreviation 'EfF='S,Ff for zero when n is odd.

/(l)F(n-l)+/(2)F(n-2)+/(3)F(n-3) +

.+/(n-l)F(l).

This sum is evaluated when/ and F are any two of the above seven functions If w^th s = 1 (the subscript 1 is dropped)
.

f{n)=aa(n)+^D'in),
then

F(n) =aV(n)+/3'Z)'(n),

2/F = aa'2(T(r+(ai8'+a'/3)S(Ti)'H-/3iS'2i)'Z)'.

By

using the

first

formula in each of two earUer papers,'^' '^ we get

= 5(T2{n) 6na{n) -\-a{n) 122D'D' = 5Ds'(n)-dnD'{n)+D'in), 242o-D' = 2(r3(n) + (l-3n)(7(7i) + (l-6n)D'(n)+8Z)3'(n).

12'Z(ja

Hence
0-3,

all
(T

21 functions can

now be

expressed at once linearly in terms of

Ds',

and

D'.

The

resulting expressions are tabulated; they give the

coefficients in the products of any two of the series 2f/(n)x", where/ is any one of our seven functions vsithout subscript. Glaisher^^ gave the values of l^a^ai for 2 = 3, 5, 9 and ^<r^(TT, where the notation is that of the preceding paper. Also, if p = 7ir,

12

S
r=l

rpa{f)a{fi)

^n^a^in) -nV(n),

S
r=l

rj{r)F{p)

=^/F.
A

L. Gegenbauer^^ gave purely arithmetical proofs of generalizations of theorems obtained by Hermite'" by use of elliptic function expansions. Let
5,(r)

=2/,

-v&,{y),

(7=J^5,([^])

v^\yM'

Then

(p.

1059),

The

left

member
1,

is
.

knowTi to equal the

n.

divisors of

2,

.,

The

first
1,
.
.

sum of the ^th powers of all sum on the right is the sum of the
.

the
A-th

powers of the divisors

^ y/n of

n.

Hence

if

A^fx)

is

the excess of the

"Messenp;er Math., 15, 188.5-6, p. 36. 'Sitzungsberichte Ak. Wien (Math.), 92,

II, 1886,

1055-78.

Chap. X]

SuM AND NuMBER OF DiVISORS.

of the kth

305

sum
A;th

powers of the divisors > \/x of x over the sum of the powers of the remaining divisors, it follows at once that
t/'fc'(a;)

['fi~\

x=l

x=lL-CJ

Also

^J,\x) ='S^([3) +^''+M - (^+i)5,(.),

with a similar formula for ^^^(a;), where "^k(^) is the excess of xpki^) over the sum of the A;th powers of the divisors < y/x of x. For k l, the last formula reduces to the third one of Hermite's. Let Xk{^) be the sum of the kth powers of the odd divisors of x; Xk\^) that for the odd divisors > \/x; Xk"{x) the excess of the latter sum over the sum of the A;th powers of the odd divisors < ^/x of x; Xk"'{'^) the excess of the sum of the kih. powers of the divisors 8sl>\/x of x over the sum of the For y = 2x and y = 2x l, the kih. powers of the divisors 8s='=3<\/^ of ^sum from x = l to a: = n of Xkiv), Xk'iv), X/iy) and Xk"{y) are expressed as complicated sums involving the functions Sk and [x\. E. Pfeiffer^ attempted to prove a formula like (7) of Dirichlet/^ where now e is 0{'n}^^^^) for every k>0. Here Og{T) means a function whose quotient hy g{T) remains numerically less than a fixed finite value for all sufficiently large values of 7". E. Landau^ ^ noted that the final step in the proof fails from lack of uniform convergence and reconstructed the proof to secure this convergence. L. Gegenbauer,^^ in continuation of his^ paper, gave similar but longer
expressions for

r{y),

(Tkiy)

(2/

= 4a;+l,

6a;+l, 8a:+3, 8a:+5, 8a:+7)

and deduced

similar tests for the primality of y. Gegenbauer^^" found the mean of the number of divisors \x-\-a of a number of s digits with a complementary divisor iiy-\-^; also for divisors
ax'^+hy'^.

+A(n) where A{x) is the sum of the Gegenbauer^^'' evaluated A(l) pth powers of the crth roots of those divisors d oi x which are exact o-th powers and whose complementary divisors exceed kdJ/'^. A special case gives (11), p. 284 above. Gegenbauer^^" gave a formula involving the sum of the A;th powers of those divisors of 1, whose complementary divisors are divisible by no rth power >1.
.

Jahresbericht der Pf eiffer'schen Lehr- und Erzieh'"Ueber die Periodicitat in der Teilbarkeit ungs-Anstalt zu Jena, 1885-6, 1-21. "Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 121, Ila, 1912, 2195-2332; 124, Ila, 1915, 469-550. Landau.^^^ 276id., 93, II, 1886, 447-454. "-^Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 93, 1886, II, 90-105. 92676id., 94, 1886, II, 35-40. "^c/feid., 757-762.
. .

306

History of the Theory of Numbers.

if

[Chap,

x 1

C^'

Ch. Hermite^' proved that

n=l

F{N)

is

the

number

of

odd

divisors of

N,

and then that

F(l)+F(2)+
$(l)+$(2)+
asATnptotically,

+F{N) =^N
+$(iV)

log
log

iV+ (c-^N,

=^N

N/k+ (c-^N,

factors d,

where ^(N) is the number of decompositions of such that d'>kd. E. Catalan^^" noted that, if n = i+i' = 2i"d,
d',

N into two

'La{i)a{i')=2(P,

i:{aii)a{2n-i)} =Si:{<j{i)<x{n-i)].

2xV(l a;*).
and

E. Ces^ro^ proved Lambert's^ result that T{n) is the coefficient of x" in Let T,{n) be the number of sets of positive integral solutions of

s,{n) the

sum

of the values

taken by

^,.

Then

sM = TM + TXn-v) + TXn -2v)+...,

T{n) =Si(n) -Szin) +83(71)

Let

aa^)=S(-l)'*+^r,(x-n),
for the divisors

summed

d of

n.
.

Then
.

Tin)=tM+t2{n)+

.+TM-T2{n) + Ts{n)-

..

E. Busche^^ employed two complementary di\isors 5^ and 8 J of m, an arbitrary function/, and a function y=^(x) increasing with x whose
inverse function
is

x = ?/)/' (7/).

Then
}

2 limx)],
x=l

X) -/(O, x)

=2 {/(5'^, 5 J -/(5'^- 1, 5 J
all

where

in the

second

positive integers,

member the summation extends over and $(w)^6;^a. In particular,

=2/(5J,

divisors of all

2
1=1

/(x)[tA(x)]

2
2=1

[rA(x)]

= number

of 5,

subject to the same inequalities. a = [\/n]', we get (11).

J.

In the

last

equation take \l/(x)=x,

Hacks^ proved that,

if 7?i is

odd,
.

^W^T(l)+r(3)+T(5) +

+r(7n)

=2[^],

wjour. fur Math., 99, 1886, 324-8. "^Mdm. .Soc. R. Sc. Li^ge, (2), 13, 1886, 318 (Melanges Math., II). *Jomal de sciencias math, e astr., 7, 1886, 3-6. Jour. fiir Math., 100, 1887, 459-464. Cf. Busche." "Acta Math., 9, 1887, 177-181. Corrections, Hacks, ^ p. 6, footnote.

Chap. X]

SuM AND NUMBER OF

@(m)=or(l)+(7(3)+(r(5)

DiVISORS.

307

.+(7(m)=S^[^^],

where t ranges over the odd integers ^ m. For the K and -\-<T(m), it is shown that and G{m) =(r(l)+o-(2) +
. .

of Lipschitz^

LW^(?(m)^[Vm] + [^|],
J.

!r(m)^[v^] (mod

2).

Hacks^^ gave a geometrical proof of (11) and of Dirichlet's^^ expression He proved that the smn of all the divisors, which are exact ath powers, of 1, 2, is m
for T{n), just preceding (7).
.
. .

=1

S{1^+2+...+[a/^H.

He

gave (pp. 13-15) several expressions for his^^ i^M, &(m), K{m). ^^ L. Gegenbauer^^" gave simple proofs of the congruences of Hacks.

M.
that
(15)

Lerch^^ considered the

[n/2]

number \p{a,
n

h) of

divisors

>6

of a

and proved

X
p=0

\}/{np, p) =71,

Si/'(n4-p,
p=0

p)=2n.

A. Strnad^^ considered the same formulas (15). Lerch^ considered the number x(j b) of the divisors proved that

M.

^6

of a

and

[(m-l)/a]

S
<7

{\J/{maa,k+a)xi'maa,a)]
k

S
x=i

{\J/{m+\a,

X-l)-x(m+Xa,

a))

=0.

This reduces to his (15) for a = l, k = l orm + 1. Let (k, n; m) denote the g. c. d. {k, n) of k, n or zero, according as {k, n) is or is not a divisor of m.

Then
a
a

(16)

{i/'(m4-an,

a) ;/'(m+an,

a)]

= S

(A;,

n; m).

In case

and n are

relatively prime, the right

member

0(a, n) of integers^ a
(17)

which are prime to

a)

n.

Finally,

it is

equals the number stated that

.

S
a=

1/^(772

an,

= S x(^ ctn, =
a

n),

c=

n J
it.

Gegenbauer,^^ Ch. VIII, proved (16) and the formula preceding

"Acta Math., 10, 1887, 9-11. "oSitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 95, 1887, "Prag Sitzungsberichte (Math.), 1887, 683-8.
"Casopis mat.
fys., 18,

II,

297-8.

1888, 204.
Bull, des sc.

""Compt. Rend.

Paris, 106, 1888, 186.

math,

et astr., (2), 12,

1,

1888, 100-108, 121-6.

308

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

can be expressed C. A. Laisant^"^ considered the number nk{N) of ways and QP as a product of k factors (including factors unity), counting PQ
.
. .

as distinct decompositions.

Then

n,{N)

=n,_,{N)u(l-\-^y

N=Upr.

E. Ces^ro^"^ proved Gauss' result that the number of di\'isors, not n is asymptotic to Gtt"^ logn. Hence T{n~) is asymptotic to The number of decompositions of n into two factors whose Stt"^ log^n. g. c. d. has a certain property is asymptotic to the product of log n by the probability that the g. c. d. of two numbers taken at random has the same property. E. Busche^''^ gave a geometric proof of his^^ formula. But if we take $(x) to be a continuous function decreasing as x increases, with $(0)>0, then the number of positive divisors of y which are ^4^iy) is S[$(a:)/x], with $(x) ^ 0. This result is extended to give the summed for x = 1, 2, number of non-associated di\'isors of y+zi whose absolute value is ^4>{y, z). J. W. L. Glaisher^^ considered the excess H{n) of the number of divisors 1 (mod 3) of n over the number of divisors =2 (mod 3), proved that H{pq) =H{p)H{q) if p, q are relatively prime, and discussed the relation of H{n) to Jacobi's^i E{n). Glaisher^^^ gave recursion formulae for H{n) and a table of its values for
squares, of
.

n = l,...,

100.

L. Gegenbauer^^ also (pr) th powers

found the mean value

of the

number
pi,
.

of divisors of
.
.

integer which are relatively prime to

given

primes

Pa,
is

an and are
di\'isible

and have a complementary divisor which

Also the

by no rth powers.
powers of those

mean

of the

sum

of the reciprocals of the A;th

pi,
. . .

di\'isors of

an integer which are prime to

and are

Also many similar theorems. rth powers. Gegenbauer^o^" expressed S^=S i^(4.T+l)
Jacobi's symbols (A/?/)

and SF(4a;+3)
[ij]

in

terms of

the sum of the A;th powers of those divisors ^ -x/x of x which are prime to D, or are divisible by no rih. power > 1, etc.; and gave asymptotic evaluations of these sums. of n, the J. P. Gram^^ considered the number D(m) of di\dsors number iV"2, 3 ..(^) of integers ^n which are products of powers of the primes 2, 3, and the sum -Lo. 3. (n) of the values of \(k) whose arguments . k are the preceding numbers, where X(2"3^ ) = ( ~ 1)"+'^+ If p = Pi'P2'. ., where the p, are distinct primes,

and greatest

integers

when F{x)

is

^m

Dj,{n)

= Nin) -'LN(n/p,''^+') +SiV(n/pi"'+ ^2'^'^') I,

""Bull. Soc. Math. France, 16, 1888, 150. i^Atti R. Accad. Lincei, Rendiconti, 4, 1888, >MJour. fur Math., 104, 1889, 32-37.

452-7.

"xProc.

London Math. Soc, 21, 1889-90, 198-201, 209. ^Hbid., 395-402. See Glaisher.'" Wien (Math.), 57, 1890, 497-530. '""'Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 99, 1890, Ila, 390-9. '"Det K. Danske Videnskab. Selskaba Skrifter (natur. og math.), (6), 7, 1890, 1-28, with r68um6 in French, 29-34.
'Denkschi-iften Ak. Wiss.

Chap. X]

Sum and Number of

Divisors.

309

In particular, if the pi include all the primes in order, we may replace N{x) by [x], the greatest integer ^x. Since there are as many divisors

>a

of

n as there are

divisors

<n/a,

D+i),(^^^=+n(a,+l),
where

=1

or

according as n

is

or

is

not a divisor of

p.

serve as recursion formulas for the computation of N{n).

These two formulas For the case of

two primes

pi

= 2,

p2

= 3,

The

functions

satisfy similar formulas

J.

W.

L.

Glaisher^"^

and are computed similarly. = stated a theorem, which reduces for

to

Halphen's,4

/S=o-^(n)-3o-^(n-l)+5o-^(n-3)-7(r(n-6)+9(7^(n-10)-.

= 2s(^'^^{cr^_,(n-l)-(l^+2V^_,(n-3)+(lH2H3V^_,(n-6)-.
provided
while
6

odd, where k ranges over the even numbers 2, 4, ., ?n 1, = 1 according as n is not or is of the form g'(^ l)/2. As in = l, the series are stopped before any term (Ti{n n) is Glaisher^^ for reached; but, if we retain such terms, we must set 6 = for every n and
is
.

or 6

define

o-i(O)

by
<r(0)

m+2

''^^'^^l^-^'+i^^'K
B.

.;(o)= m+2

where Bi, B2,

are the Bernoullian numbers.

Glaisher^^ stated the simpler generalization of Halphen'*":

'S+S

2Hk^(!k)

f^-'^^'')

-3^+V^_,(n-l)+5^+V_,(n-3) -

where the summation index k ranges over the even numbers 2, 4, and m is odd. If we include the terms <T2,_i(0) = ( !)' 5r/(4r) member, the right member is to be replaced by

...

m 1,

in the left

5{-iy
"^Messenger Math.,
^o^Ibid.,

2'"+2(m+2)

20, 1890-1, 129-135.

177-181.

310

History of the Theory of Numbers.

Gn[\l/(d),

[Chap,

Glaisher"" considered the set

x(^>-

of the values of

\l/(d),

when d ranges over all the di\isors of n, and wrote G{\J/, x,-) x(cO, By use of the ^-function (12), he proved (p. 377) that for G{\f/, X, )

the numbers given

by

GM-Gn-i(d,
all

d=^l)+Gn-z{d, d^l,
is

d=^2)-G,.M d^l, ^2, ^3) +

not a triangular number, but reduce to one 1, two each taken with the sign ( )*~\ if n is the ^th ., g angular number ^(gr+l)/2. For example, if n = 6, whence g = S,
cancel
3's,
if
.

2's,
tri-

three

g's,

{1, 2, 3, 6)

{1, 5; 2, 6; 0, 4}

+ {l, 3;

2, 4; 0, 2; 3, 5;

-1,

1}

{1,2,2,3,3,3).

Let \l/{d) be an odd function, so that \f/{ and let 2r/(c?) denote the sum of the values of f(d) when d ranges over the divisors of r. Then the above theorem implies that
2iA(d)

d)=\l/{d),

-2-i iHd) +4^{d=^ 1) +2_i_2 [rPid) +rl^{d^

)

1) -{-^p{d^ 2)
1

-2_i_2-3 {rpid) +yp{d^

1)

+iA(d 2) +^(d 3)
. . .

= 5( - 1)''-^ {,^(1) +2^(2) +3V^(3) +

where
is

+g^l^{g)

=
we

\l/{d^i) is to

odd,

1 according as n is not or is of the form ^(^+l)/2, and where be replaced by \}/{d+i)-{-yl/{d i). Taking \l/{d) =d"', where m obtain Glaisher's^^ recursion formula for (Tm{n), other forms of

or

which are derived.

For the function^^

. .

^3,

we

derive

Un)+Un-1)+Un-S) +
= (-l)''-^(l^-2H3'according as n
. . .

.+Q{nn-l)-{l'-2'mn-3)

+ (l2-22+3^)r(n-6)-...)
+(-l)'-y)
or
0,
is of the form ^(^+l)/2 or not. Next he proved a companion theorem to the

first

^/ 2d+l

2d+3

V^

2d+5

2d-\-7

\,

-[2d-7];+

all cancel if n is not a triangular number, but reduce to 1, 3, 5,. .., 2^ 1, each taken with the sign ( )", together with ( l)''+^(2^+l) taken g times, if n is the gth triangular number ^(^+l)/2. For example, if n = 6,

{-tt J-;?}-{-t"M-3;-"}={-'-'-Hence
if

^- ^-

^}-

x(c^)

be any even function, so that x(d) = x{d),

2{x(2d+l)-x(2d-l)l-2_i{x(2ci+3)-x(2d-3)l+S_3-....

= 5(-l)''-M^x(2^ + l)-x(l)-x(3)Taking
"oProc.

.
.

-x(2^-l)l.

^(A;)

= fc'""*"\ where
(5), 33,

k and

m are

odd,

we

get Glaisher's^^ formula.

London Math. Soc,

Mag.,

22, 1890-1, 359-410.

Results stated in London, Edinb., Dublin

Phil.

1892, 54-61.

Chap. X]

SUM AND NuMBER OF

DiVISORS.
1, 2,
. .

311
.,

He proved two theorems

relating to the divisors of

w:

+ (G^n-3 + ^n-4 + G^n-5)( _y_3l

)

cancel with the exception of 2, 4, ., (p 2), each taken twice, and if even; 1 times be but with the exception of 1, 3, ... taken 0, p p p p 2, each taken twice, and p taken p 1 times, if p be odd, where p(p+l)/2 is the triangular number next >n;
all
.

all

cancel with the exception of k taken k times, for A; = 1, 3, 5, p 1, if p = for of A; taken k times, A; and even; if be 2, 4, 6, p 1, p be odd; here zeros are ignored. The last two theorems yield (as before) corresponding relations for anyeven function x aiid any odd function xp. Applying them to x{d+l) = (d+l)"' and \l/{d)=d"*, where is odd, and in the first case dividing by 2(m+l), and modifying the right members, we get for
. .
.

r=o-Jn)-2{(T^(n-l)+(r^(n-2)}+3{Mn-3)
+(rm{n-4:)+(Tm{n-5)]-.
the respective relations
..

+3*+^ (next three)

. .

-^-^M2(m^"^^^ +3 V2J^P
where
s

-5V4/3"^
three)

+...=^2

-p^,

= (m+l)/2 and

0-^(0)

terms are suppressed;

!r=S2(^^{(r^_,(n-l)+(7^_fc(n-2)-2^ (next
_(2^+4*^) (next five)
r

+
if

1^3') (next

four)
.

+ (lH3*+5'=) (next six) - (2H4H6') (next seven) +

_{_

. .

^m+i_^^m+i_^^m+i_^ i-|_ 2^+1 _ 4^+1 _gm+i_

where, in each,
of
A:

(^ _ l)-+i^

_(p_i)m+i^
. . .

if

p bg eveu, p be odd,

1. These sums of like powers takes the values 2, 4, odd or even numbers are expressed by the same function of Bernoullian = l, the first formula becomes that by Glaisher,^^ repubnumbers. For Ushed.^^ Three further (t formulas are given, but not applied to o-. according as n/m is integral or J. Hammond"^ wrote (n; m) = l or fractional, also t{x) =a{x)=0 if x is fractional, and stated that
,

00

00

T(n/m)

=S
y=i

(n; jm),

a (n/m)

= 2 j(n;
}=i

jm).

"^Messenger Math., 20, 1890-1, 158-163.

312

History of the Theory of Numbers.

the

[Chap,

From

sum

of Euler's

(f}(d)

for the di\'isors d of n, he obtained

a{n)=iT(jj<t>iJ),

nr{n)=i<T(tjct>{j).

E. Lucas^^- proved the last formulas, the result of Cesaro/* and the
related one o-(n)+s

= s_i+2n 1.

A. Berger"^ considered the mean of the number of decompositions of 1,2,. ., X into three or more factors, and gave long expressions for \l/{l)-\He .. .+^(7J), where i/'(A-) =2d'c?i*', summed for the solutions of ddi = k. gave (pp. 116-125) complicated results on the mean value of (Tk{n). D. N. Sokolov and D. T. Egorov^^^" proved, by use of Bougaief's formulas for sums extending over all the divisors of a number, the formulas in Liou\'ille's-"'-^ series of four articles.
.

J.

W.

L. Glaisher^^"* gave Zeller's^^ formula

and
. .

P(n - 1) +2-P(n - 2) - 5-P(n - 5)

- 7'P{n - 7) +

= ^|5(r3(n)-(18n-lMn)l,
where
are pentagonal numbers (3r=i=r)/2 and P(0) = 1. 1, 2, 5, Glaisher"^ proved formulae which are greatly shortened by setting
. . .

a./n)=n''(rXn)-3(n-l)V/n-l)+5(n-3)VXn-3)-7(n-6)'(T,(n-6)+....
Write
Qij

for ay(n).

Besides the formula

[of

Halphen^]

aoi

= 0,

he gave

ao3-2an = 0,
007

ao5-10ai3+ya2i = 0,

40

126 ^_ ,756 5~^15H H~^23 105031

= 0,

Oo9

- 50017+720025 - 336O033 +336O041 = 0,

o-(O)

with the agreement that

^3(0)

=n/3 and

t--\-l
-24o-'

f 1 <^M = -^'

^7(0)^^>

^'*+l

t^1

<^9i0)=-^,

where t = Sn+l, but did not find the general formula of this type. Next, he gave five formulas of another set, the first one being that of his earlier paper,^ the second involving the same function of 0-3 with added terms in ra{r). Finally, denoting Euler's formula (2) by Ea{n) =0, it is shown that
5Eas{n)-lSE{n(T{n)\ =0.
Glaisher^^^

showed that

his"^ third

not expressible as a

sum

of three squares

formula holds for all odd numbers v and hence in particular for the

"T'htorie des nombres, 1891, 403-6, 374, 388. '"Nova Acta Soc. Upsal., (3), 14, 1891 (1886), No. 2, p. 63. >"^Math. Soc. Moscow, 16, 1891, 89-112, 236-255. "Messenger Math., 21, 1891-92, 47-8. ^''Ibid., 4^-69. ^*Ibid., 122, 126. The further results are quoted in the chapter on sums of three squares.

Chap. X]

SUM AND NuMBER OF

DiVISORS.

313
formula

former case
equals

v=7 (mod

8).

Also the

left

member

of the third

when

V is

odd,

4jE(y-l)-3^(y-9)+5^(y-25)provided E{0) = 1/4. If A'(n) denotes

divisors are odd,
. .

.)

the

sum

of those divi-

sors of

n whose complementary

A'(7i)-2A'(n-l)+2A'(n-4)-2A'(n-9)+.
n
is

=0

or

(-l)'^-^

not or is a square. [Cf. Lipschitz.^^] according as deduce a formula involving c's and A"s. for n odd, we proved Lerch"'' M. (11) and

Since A'(n) =a{n)

F{n) =2/(d), d ranging over the divisors of n. K. Th. Vahlen^^^ proved Liouville's^^ formula and Jacobi's^" result. A. P. Minin"^ proved that 2, 8, 9, 12, 18, 8g and 12p (where g is a prime >2, p a prime >3) are the only numbers such that each is divisible by the number of its divisors and the quotient is a prime. Minin^^ found that for which the number of 1, 3, 8, 10, 18, 24 and 30 are the only numbers divisors equals the number of integers < A^ and prime to A^. M. Lerch^^^ considered the number x{a, b) and sum X{a, h) of the divisors ^b oi a, proved his^ final formula (17) and
if

a,

X{m a.n,

a)

= 2a{x(m an, n)yp{m an,

a=l

a)},

o=l

(18)
If 6

a=o

S \l/[m-an, ^) = 2 xim-an, ^/ a=o \

n)}

rn),

c=\ ^^- L n J

ranges over the divisors of n,

i sV{(a-am,
't

=2^^^^,
S
a=l

a=0

sV|(a-am, | n a=0
(m, n)).

n)\ =2(5,

m)

a),

(am, n)

=nS^-(5,

TO

He

quoted

(p. 8)

from a

letter to

him from Chr.

Zeller that

2
a=l

a\p{m a, a)
integers

equals the

sum

of the remainders obtained

on dividing

by the

<m.
M.
Lerch^^^ proved that

'Zxf/im+pcrn, a)

=2x(w+p o-n,

n)

\,

i:\pim-p-pn, a)=Xx{m-p-(rn, ^)

-2[^:j:YjLn+fJ'
Cf.

i^Casopis, Prag, 21, 1892, 90-95, 185-190 (in Bohemian). 24, 1892, 186-7. "sjour. fur Math., 112, 1893, 29. i^Math. Soc. Moscow, 17, 1893, 240-253.
i2o/6id., 17,

Jahrbuch Fortschritte Math.,

1894, 537-544. "iPrag Sitzungsberichte (Math.), 1894, No. 11.

^Ubid., No. 32.

314

History of the Theory of Numbers.

for p,
o-

[Chap,

summed

= 0,

1,

.,

with p^<r.

Also,

"s
a-O

(-l)V(w-a,a)=2 2
a=0

(-l)"e'(/n-a)
PtwH
,

+ (-l)'"m,

m
l

2^'(7n-a,a)=2(-l)*-Mf L^J t= a-O

2
=o

Um-a,
is

2a)

=m+^-ii^
of

^+2 2
v=i

(-1)'
L

"^
if
is

where 6' (A")

div'isors

the

number

odd

divisors of k; yp'{n, a)

the

number
is

of

n whose complementary di\isors are odd; while \po{k, n) number of even di\'isors >/i of k. In No. 33, he expressed in terms of greatest integer functions
of

>a

the

X{\p{7npan, k-jr(T)xi'mp (7n,n)}}

2{^(w a,
a

k-\-a)

{k-]-a)\l/{m a,

k-\-a)}-

E. Busche^^^ gave a geometrical proof of Meissel's^^ (11). Schroder^^ obtained (11) and the first relation (15) of Lerch^^ as special cases of the theorem that m m 0,1,2,... 2 \J/r,+sin-ri: ipi, 2p,)
J.
Pi.--.Pm=

=1

=1

equals the coefficient of x" in the expansion of m-l

1- n
1=0

(l-a:"+0
'

li::ri

(l-x^"*)

n(l-x"+0
t=0

where ypr,+>{o-j ^) is the number of di\isors of a which are >^ and have a complementary divisor of the form rv-{-s{v = 0,l,. .). He obtained
.

\f/r,+i{n-rp, p)

=
y
J
x".

Schroder^^ determined the mentioned coefficient of Schroder ^^^ proved the generaUzation of (11):

p=iLpJ

p=iLpJ
. .

p=2

LpJ

For

(j{\)-\-

+(r(n), Dirichlet," end, he gave the value

E. Busche^^^ proved that if function whose inverse function

X = 4)(m)
is
3,

is

an increasing

(or decreasing)

m=<l>(X), the divisors of the natural

1894, 167-172.

iMittheilungen Math. GeseU. Hamburg, "*Ibid., 177-188. ^Ibid., 3, 1897, 302-8. "/feid., 3, 1895, 219-223. "Ubid., 3, 1896, 239-40.

Chap. X]

SuM AND NuMBEK OF

<^(m) and a, including the ^a) each taken ^= [$(x)/x]

DiVISORS.
limits, are the

315

numbers between
1

to o (or those

times,
.

the limits which are multiples of x are x,2x,.

.,

numbers x from and the numbers within For example, if a = 3, ^x.

</)(m)=900/m^, then <I>(a;)=30/Vx and it is a question of the divisors of ForI>(x)=n, 3. ., 17; for x = 'd, ^ = 5 and 3 is a divisor of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15. a = l, the theorem states that among the divisors of 1,. ., n any one x occurs [n/x] times and that these divisors are l,...,7i;l,..., [n/2]; 1,. ., Hence the sum of the divisors of 1, n is [w/3]; etc.
. . . . .

and

their product

is

n3.[n/x]=n[nA]!.
x=l

x=\
.
.

n (pp. 244-6) that the number of divisors =r (mod s) of 1, 2, equals A-\-B, where A is the number of integers [n/x] for x = \,. ., n which have one of the residues r, r+l,...,s 1 (mod s), and B is the number

He proved

of all divisors of 1, 2,

[n/s\.

The number
\ n

of the divisors b of

m, such that

divides m/8, equals the number of divisors of 1, 2, ., n. primes among n, [n/2], ., [n/n] equals the number of those divisors of 1, ., n which are primes decreased by the number of divisors which exceed by unity a prime. P. Bachmann^^^ gave an exposition of the work of Dirichlet,^^' ^^ MerHermite,^^ Lipschitz,^^ Ces^ro,^'' Gegenbauer,'^'^ tens,^'^ Busche,^^^' ^"

and such that

5"

The number

of
.

Schr6der.i24.

126

N. V. Bougaiefi29 stated that

where d ranges over the divisors

>1

of n,

and

= [Vn]

-i^HMM'
where d ranges over the divisors
a
of

for

which d <n.

If 6 is

any function,

nZ-^d{d)= Xi:d{d),
y=i d

where, on the left, d ranges over all the divisors of n; on the right, only over those ^ [nVj]. For 6{d) l, this gives

a(n)

= Sx(n,[y]).
b)

"8Die Analytische Zahlentheorie, 1894, 401-422, 431-6, 490-3. i^'Comptes Rendus Paris, 120, 1895, 432-4. He used $ (a, 6), ^(a, as xib, a), X{b, a) of Lerch,"^ and fi(n) for (r{n).

with the same meaning

316

History of the Theory of Numbers.

Lerch" proved relations of the type

[Chap,

i>^

M.

The number

of solutions of [n/ x]

= [n/ (x-\-l)], x<n,

p)

is
).

2i/^(n-r,

r)+2 x{n-p,

(A:=

- + Vn + 1/4

F. NachtikaP^^ gave

an elementary proof

of (15).

M.

Lerch^^' proved that

2
remains unaltered
that
it
if

\yp{viaa,-)-]r'4^{m(Ta,ra)\
interchange r and
special case (17)
s.
.

we

also follows

from the

He proved (18) and showed From (17) f orn = 2 he derived

which includes as special cases four When x ranges over a given set S of n positive integers, the sum2/(x)[x(a:)] is expressed as sums of expressions $(p) and <J>i(p), where p takes values depending upon x, while $(2) is the sum of the values of /(x) for x in *S and x^z, and $1(2) is the analogous sum with
L. Gegenbauer^^^" proved a formula
of the five general formulas by

Bougaief .^^^

X'^Z.
F. RogeP^^ differentiated repeatedly the relation

|x|<l,

'y-'.J

Chap. X]

SuM AND NuMBER OF DiVISORS.

317

where

= 3,

5, 7,.
.

in S', while the a's range over the solutions of

ai+. .+ar-3 = i,

ai+2a2+.

+(r-3)a,_3 = r.

The

case

n=

leads to relations for T{r).

J. de Vries^^^" proved the first formula of Lereh's.^^'^ A. Berger"^ considered the excess \l/{k) of the sum of the odd divisors of k over the sum of the even divisors and proved that

xl/{n)+x{/in-l)+\l/{n-3)+x(/{n-Q)+xl/in-10)+

.=0 orn,

according as n is not or is a triangular number; also Euler's (2). J. FraneP^^ employed two arbitrary functions /, g and set
d{n)

^Xmg(fj,
id{j)

F{n)

= ifU),
Then

G{n)

= S

gU),

where d ranges over the divisors

of n.

= 2 /(r)G[^] +^j(r)F\j]

-F{v)G{v),

The case f{x)=g(x) = l gives Meissel's^" (11). Next, he v = ['\^n]. evaluated St?(j), where ??(n) =Xf{x)g{y)h(z), sunmied for the sets of positive In particular, d(n) is the number of such sets integral solutions of xyz = n. Using Dirichlet's series, it is shown (p. 386) that if f=g = h = l.
where

2^(i) = Si(logn+3C-l)2-3C2+6Ci+l}+e,
where
Ci
e is

of the order of
.

magnitude
Landau^"].

of nP^^ log n,

is

Euler's constant

and

= 0.0728

[Piltz,^2

FraneP^^ proved that

r=i

2^ =
r

1 log'

P+2C

log

p+e+Ao,

is a coefficient in a certain expansion, and ep^^^ remains in absolute value inferior to a fixed number for every p. E. Landau ^^'^ gave an immediate proof of (11) and of

where Aq

S7^3(^)=2T(.)r-l
y= l

u=l

Li'J

where T^iv)

He is the number of decompositions of v into three factors. obtained by elementary methods a formula yielding the final result of
R. D. von Sterneck^^^" proved Jacobi's^^ formula for
Akad. Wetenschappen te Amsterdam, Verslagen, 5, 1897, 223. i3*Nova Acta Soc. Sc. UpsaUensis, (3), 17, 1898, No. 3, p. 26. "^Math. Annalen, 51, 1899, 369-387. i3676id., 52, 1899, 536-8. i"/6ici., 54, 1901, 592-601. i^^Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 109, Ila, 1900, 31-33.
i33aK.
s^.

318
J.

History of the Theory of Numbers.

Franel"^ stated that,
a, h
if

[Chap,

/(n)

is

the

number

of positive integral solutions

of

x''y^ = n, where

are distinct positive integers,

2/(r)

=^i^l)n^+^{^n'+o{n'-^ +6J,

where'" 0{s) is of the order of magnitude of s. Taking a = l, 6 = 2, we see that /(n) is the number of di\isors of q, where <f is the greatest square dividing n, and that the mean of /(n) is tt"/ 6. E. Landau^^^ proved the preceding formula of Franel's. EUiott^^ of Ch, V gave formulas involving a{n) and rin). L. Kronecker^'*'^ proved that the sum of the odd divisors of a number equals the algebraic sum of all its di\isors taken positive or negative according as the complementary^ di\'isor is odd or even (attributed to Euler^); proved (pp. 267-8) the result of Dirichlet'^ and (p. 345) proved (7) and found the median value (Mittelwert) of T{n) to be log^ n+2C with an error of the order of magnitude of n~^^^when the number of values employed is of the order of Calling a di\isor of n a smaller or greater di\dsor according as it is less n^''^. than or greater than \/n, he found (pp. 343-369) the mean and median value A^ [cf. Gegenbauer^^], of the sum of all smaller (or greater) di\'isors of 1, 2, the sum of their reciprocals, and the sum of their logarithms. The mean of
. .
.

Jacobi's^^ E{n)
J.

is

x/4

(p. 374).

n = l,..., 1000 the values of the H{n) and of the excess J{n) of the number of divisors of n which are of the form 8A- + 1 or 8A;+3 over the number of divisors of the form 8A:+5 or 8A:+7. WTien n is odd, 2J{n) is the number of representations of n

W.

L. Glaisher^^^ tabulated for

function^'^

by

x'-\-2f. J. W. L. Glaisher"^ derived

from

Dirichlet's^^ formula,

and

also inde-

pendently, the simpler formula

2 0.(s) = -pG(p)+f[5],(.)+(?{g]},
where p =

The case g{s) = l gives Meissel's^- formula (11), which is {\/n]. applied to find asymptotic formulae involving n/s [n/s]. The error of the approximation (7) is discussed at length (pp. 38-75, 180-2). The first formula above is applied (pp. 183-229) to find exact and asymptotic formulas for 2/(s), when/(n) is Jacobi's" E{n), Glaisher's^^^ H{n) or J{n), or the excess D{n) of the number of odd divisors of n over the number of even di\'isors, or more general functions (p. 215, p. 223) involving the number of di\isors with specified residues modulo r. G. Voronoi^^^ proved a formula like Dirichlet's^^ (7), but with e now of the same order of magnitude as -^/n log^ n.
"L'intermddiaire des math., 6, 1899, 53; 18, 1911, 52-3. "/6ui., 20, 1913, 155. "Vorlesungen iiber Zahlentheorie, I, 1901, 54-55. "'Messenger Math., 31, 1901-2, 64-72, 82-91. >Quar. Jour. Math., 33, 1902, 1-75, 180-229. 'Jour. fiir Math., 126, 1903, 241-282.

Chap. X]

SuM AND NUMBER OF

DiVISORS.

319

of

H. Mellin"^ obtained asymptotic expressions for2T(n), So-(n). I. Giulini^^^ noted that, if m and h are given integers, and /3(r) is the sum the divisors d = mk-\-h of r, then
i8(l)

.+/3(n)=2:4n/d],
k

A;

= 0,

1,.

.,

[{n-h)/m],
.,

The number and sum

[(n-w]r^-i

of the divisors d='mk-\-h oil,.

[n/im+h)]

are

S
fc=o

hj LttJ

'

^ 2 r=i

Eal \

/^-hA
mr
/

]+hi:\
,

,%'^\-n-sh
s=iL

ms

+1 h
,

,-|

respectively,

where ^2(2^) = W[a^+l]/2. G. Voronoi^^^" gave for T{x) the precise analytic expression
g{t)dt^

x(logx+2(7-l)+i+Ma^)-2|
and
(p.

{g{-x+ti)-g(-x-U)}idt,

515) approximations to these integrals, where

,(x)=

-i

log

.-iC-!2i^+2^

i^x()

,og5(^+-i-).
asympis

He

discussed at length the function g{x)

of Sr(n)(x 7i)V^!J.

and

(pp. 467, 480-514) the

totic value

Schroder^^ proved that the

sum

of the I'th

powers

of 1,

. .

p=i

S pf-1 =n(T._i(n)+ "S p'+ r pT^1, LpJ LPJ p=t+i P=i

jjL

the accent on the last S denotes that the summation only over the values ^ ^ of p which are not divisors of n. extends by each divisor E. Busche^*^ proved that, if we multiply each divisor of divisor a of mn is given obtain the number of times we a Tiixv/a), where of n, A like theorem is proved for is the g. c. d. of m,a, and v is that of n, a. th^ divisors of mnp .... He stated (p. 233; cf. Bachmann^^^) that

where

= [n/2], and

(Th{m)(Th{n)

=SdV;,f

^j,
of divisors of

where d ranges over the common divisors of m, n. C. Hansen ^^^ denoted by Ti{n) and T^{n) the number of the respective forms 4/c 1 and 4/^ 3, and set

A=r3(4n-3)-ri(4n-3).

By

use of Jacobi's

B^{v, s) for ^

= 1/4,
^

he proved that

=i

'^^

~Zx^

l-s'^"-^

l-2s^+2s^+...

iActa Math., 28, 1904, 49. iGiornale di mat., 42, 1904, 103-8.
Cf. Hardy.i^" i^'^Annales sc. I'ecole norm, sup., (3), 21, 1904, 213-6, 245-9, 258-267, 472-480. "Mitt. Math. GeseU. Hamburg, 4, 1906, 256-8. "V6id., 4, 1906, 229. "^Oversigt K. Danske Videnskabemes Selskabs Forhandlinger, 1906, 19-30 (in French).

320

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

and hence deduced the law of a recursion formula for A. The law recursion formula for B = 4{T2{7i) Ti{n)\ is obtained from

of a

S
n=0

^y S

s''"+'^'

cos(2n+l)^=
4

i;

(2n+l)s<2n+i)'sijj(2n+l)7,

n=0

n=0
of Jacobi's d{\, s).

4
Next,

with Bo=l, which was found by use

is

shown

to satisfy the functional equation

$(ts)=lj$(s)-$(-s)}-$(s2)+2$(s*).
If a convergent series liens'" is a solution $(s) of the latter, the coefficients are uniquely determined by the C4i_3(/j = 1, 2, Hence ), which are arbitrary. the function 5 is determined for all values of n by its values forn = 4/c
.
.
.

(A:

= l,

2,...).

S. Wigert^^^

proved that, for

sufficiently large values of

e

where

(l

+ e)

log n^-log log n, for every

>0;

n, r(n)<2', while there exist certain

values of n above any limit for which riri) >2', s = (1 e) log n -i-log log n. J. V. Pexider^^ proved that, if a, n are positive, a an integer,

by the method used, for the case in which n is an integral multiple of a, by E. Cesaro.^ Taking a = [Vn], we have the second equation (11). Proof is given of the first equation (11) and

S.[g=2.W,

2[2][!^]=S<?-.W,
.

where d ranges over the divisors of [n]. 0. Meissner^" noted that, if m =pi". distinct primes pi, 7?, then
.

.p/",

where pi

is

the least of the

,=iPj

,=2Pt

log

and independent of m. If /v> 1, (Tk{m)/rn!' is bounded. proved that the mean of the number of integers whose squares divide n, of their sum, and of the greatest of them, are 3 1, x^ 9C 36 - logs .3^
where
is finite

W.

Sierpinski^^^

-logn+^C,

-:2lognH

rA

-^Z

^^,

respectively,
J.

where

is

Euler's constant.

W.

L. Glaisher^^^ derived formulas differing from his^^ earlier ones

{

only in the replacement of d by

lY~^d,

i.

e.,

by changing the

sign of each

"Arkiv for mat., ast., fys., 3, 1906-7, No. 18, 9 pp. "Rendiconti Circolo Mat. Palermo, 24, 1907, 58-63. "'Archiv Math. Phys., (3), 12, 1907, 199.

"^prawozdania Tow. Nank. (Proc. Sc. Soc. Warsaw), i"Proc. London Math. Soc, (2), 6, 1908, 424-^67.

1,

1908, 215-226 (Polish).

Chap. X]

SuM AND NuMBER OF

DiVISORS.

321

In the case of the theorems on the cancellation of actual d. results follow at once from the earlier ones. But the recursion the divisors, Cancellation and for o- formulae f are new and too numerous to quote. formulas (pp. 449-467) are proved for the divisors whose complementarydivisors are odd, and applied to obtain recursion formulae for the related

even divisor

function A/(n) of Glaisher.''^' E. Landau ^^^ proved that log 2 is the superior limit for x= oo of log T(x)-log log a;-^log X. M. Fekete^^^ employed the determinant RkX obtained by deleting the and last t rows and last t columns of Sylvester's eliminant of x'^ 1 = Set, for A;^n, a;"-l = 0.

Then 6(A;) =
if

or

according as k

is

or
k,

is

ik

= n and

i is

relatively

prime to

not a divisor of n; while c(i, k) = l but = in the contrary cases. Thus

T(n)=S6(fc),
k= \

(T{n)=ikK{k),
A:

=l

while the number and sum of those divisors d of n, which are relatively prime to the complementary divisors n/d, equal, respectively,
n
1

"
i:

S
i,

Cn{i, k),

k= \

(i+k) ^ i,k = l
final

c^{i, k).

J.

Schroder^" deduced from

his^^"*

equation the results

The

final

sum

equals XIZI

i//(s,

[s/{r+l)]).

P. Bachmann^^^ gave an exposition of the

Zeller,66 stern,^^ Glaisher,iio Liouville.^^

work of

Euler,^'^ Glaisher,^^'

^^

E. Landau ^^^ proved that the number of positive integers^ a; which have exactly n positive integral divisors is asymptotic to
Aa;^/^^-^^(log log rr)'"-Vlog x,

where p
while

is the least prime factor of n, and p occurs exactly depends only on n. K. Knopp^^" obtained, by enumerations of lattice points,

times in n,

w
k=l

w
k=l

i:Mq,k)= i:hik,q)= i:f,iq,k)+i:f2{k,q)-F{w,w),

k=l k=l

where q = [n/k] and

/i(r,

k)=k fij,
y=i
.

k),

h{k,

s)=i f{k,
y=i

j),

F(r,

s)=i Mr, j).

i=i

i66Handbuch. .Verteilung der Primzahlen, I, 1909, 219-222. i^^Math. 6s Phys. Lapok (Math. phys. soc), Budapest, 18, 1909, 349-370. Math. Naturwiss. Berichte aus Ungarn, 26, 1913 (1908), 196-211, >"Mitt. Math. Gesell. Hamburg, 4, 1910, 467-470. issNiedere Zahlentheorie, II, 1910, 268-273, 284-304, 375. i^Annaes So. Acad. Polyt. do Porto, Coimbra, 6, 1911, 129-137. ""Sitzungsber. Berlin Math. Gesell., 11, 1912, 32-9; with Archiv Math. Phys.

German

transl.,

322
Taking
is
/(/j,

History of the Theory of Numbers.

k)

[Chap,

= l,
S

we obtain
/(/i,

also given.

Taking

Meissel's" (11), a direct proof of which k)=f{h)g{hk), we get

S/0>(j/c)=S/(/c)S^(iA:),

-m-

special cases of

which yield niany known formulas involving Mobius's func(f>{n).

tion ju(n) or Euler's function

E. Landau^^^ proved the result due to PfeifTer^, and a theorem more terms replaced by 0{x-), where, effective than that by Piltz^^, having the for every e>0,

k-1

E. Landau^^- extended the theorem of Piltz^^ to an arbitrary algebraic domain, defining Tk{n) to be the number of representations of n as the norm of a product of k ideals of the domain. J. W. L. Glaisher^^, generalizing his^^^ formula, proved that

Sf[^]^(s)=Sf[^]^(s) + 2g[^]/(s)-F(p)G(p),
where F(s) =/(!)+
.
.

+/(s),

generalization of another formula

G{s)=g{l)+. -\-g{s), p = [v^]. A similar by Dirichlet^^ is proved, also analogous

. .

theorems involving only odd arguments. Glaisher^^ applied the formulas just mentioned to obtain theorems on the number and sum of powers of divisors, which include all or only the even or only the odd divisors. Among the results are (11) and those of The larger part of the paper relates to asymptotic formulas Hacks.^'^^ for the functions mentioned, and the theorems are too numerous to be
cited here.

E. Landau^^ gave another proof of the result by Voronoi^^^. He proved 2223) that T(n)< 471^/^ J. W. L. Glaisher^^^ stated again many of his^^ results, but without determining the limits of the errors of the asymptotic formulas. S. Minetola^^^ proved that the number of ways a product of m distinct primes can be expressed as a product of n factors is
(p.

iy{"-G)("-')"+(2)(-2)"--(:ii)4
T. H. GronwalP^^ noted that the superior limits for a:=
oo of

aM/x"

(a>l),
e^,

(r{x)/{x\oglogx)
respectively,

are the zeta function f (a) and

being Euler's constant.

"'Gottingen Nachrichten, 1912, 687-690, 716-731.

"Tran8. Amer. Math. Soc, 13, 1912, 1-21. Quar. Jour. Math., 43, 1912, 123-132. ^**Ibid., 315-377. Summary in Glaisher.i '"Messenger Math., 42, 1912-13, 1-12.
iIl

Matematica Gior. Sc.-Didat., Roma, 1, No. 7. "Trans. Amer. Math. Soc, 14, 1913, 113-122.
Boll, di

11, 1912,

43-46;

cf.

Giomale

di Mat., 45, 1907,

344-5; 47, 1909, 173,

Chap. X]

SuM AND NuMBEE OF

DiVISORS.

323

P. Bachmann^^^ proved the final formula of Busche.^^' K. Knopp^^^ studied the convergence of 26a:V(l 2:"), including the series of Lambert^, and proved that the function defined in the unit circle by Euler's^ product (1) can not be continued beyond that circle.

E. T. BelP' proved that,

factors of m,

and X

is

their

if P is the product of all the distinct prime number, and d ranges over all divisors of m,

6^Sr(d)T(^^ =r{m)T{Pm)T{P''m).
J.

F. Steffensen^'^^ proved that,^

if

Ix denotes log x,

S. Wigert^^^

proved, for the

(1 )e^ log

sum

n's{n) of the divisors of n,

log

n< s{n) < {l-\-e)e^ log

rP{x)

log n,

^s{n) = '^x-^l^{x),
for

= x^

+
x.

2 Ip(^),

>

and p{x)=x [x].

For x

sufficiently large,

(i-e) log x<xP{x)<(l+e) log

Besides results on Ss(a^)(x n)*, lls{n) log x/n, he proved that

X ns{n)=^+xlh\ogx-rP{x)}+0{x).
E. Landau^^^ gave corrections and simplifications in the proofs by Wigert."2 E. T. Bell^^^ introduced a function including as special cases the functions treated by Liouville,^^"-^ restated his theorems and gave others. J. G. van der Corput^^^ proved, for ix(d) as in Chapter XIX,
Sd'')u(d)So-(A;)=x.
S.

Ramanujan^'^ proved that t{N)

is

always

less

than 2* and

2',

where^"
.-!,

^=

lWV+ (IsSpf
{

'=^*-('^

^)+^f'

iVe
N

for Li(x) as in
2'

for

for

Ch. XVIII, and for a a constant. Also, t(N) exceeds 2*'and an infinitude of values of N. A highly composite number is one which TiN)>T{n) when N>n', if Ar = 2''^3". .p"p, then aa^as^ag^
.

"SArchiv Math. Phys., (3), 21, 1913, 91. "9Jour. flir Math., 142, 1913, 283-315; minor errata, 143, 1913, 50.

""Amer. Math. Monthly, 21, 1914, 130-1. i"Acta Math., 37, 1914, 107. Extract from his Danish Diss., "Analytiske Studier delser paa Taltheorien," Kopenhagen, 1912.

med Anven-

"HUd., 113-140.
"^Gottingsche gelehrte Anzeigen, 177, 1915, 377-414. "<Univ. of Washington PubUcations Math. Phys., 1, 1915, 6-8, 38-44.
"oProc.

'"Wiskundige Opgaven, 12, 1915, 182-4. London Math. Soc, (2), 14, 1915, 347-409.

324
. .
.

History of the Theory of Numbers.

^flp, while
. . .

[Chap.

except when A'' = 4 or 36. The value of X for which >ax is investigated at length. The ratio of two consecutive a2>ai> highly composite numbers A'' tends to unity. There is a table of A"s up An is called a superior highly composite number k to t{N) = 10080. there exists a positive number e such that

ap=

N.^
for all values of

N'

Ni^

A^ and No such that A'2> A'> A^i. Properties of t{N) are found for (superior) highly composite numbers. Ramanujan^" gave for the zeta function (12) the formula

j=i

and found asjTnptotic formulae

for

S
=1

r'(j),

Sr(jr+c),
or
1
,

S(7(j>i(i),

A(n),

for a

where

A(n) =

S^r(i.)
v.

=SM(d)r (0Z),(^),
a

summed

for the di\isors d of

If 5 is

common

di\isor of u,

v,

xM=iMW.g)rg)=2.W.@x(0.
E. Landau^'^^'' gave another asjinptotic formula for the number of decompositions of the numbers ^ x into k factors, A' ^ 2. Ramanujan^'* wrote c^O) =^^("5) and proved that

2,,(,>.(n-,)
J=0

^^Pm^ +
r(r+s
2)

^^l^lV f(r+s+2)

^^+*+^ (n)

r(i-r)+r(i-^)
/Z(r,+,_i(n)+0(n2'^++^^/^),

odd integers r, s. Also that there is no error term in the right r=l, s = 1, 3, 5, 7, 11; r = 3, s=3, 5, 9; r = 5, s = 7. member J. G. van der Corput^"^ wrote s for the g. c. d. of the exponents ai, a-z,... in m='n.pi''i and expressed in terms of zeta function f(i), i=2, ., k-\-l,
for positive
if
.

2 {a,{s)-l]/m
m=2
if
A'

>1

the

sum being

CifA= 1,

where

is

Euler's constant.

"'Messenger Math., 45, 1915-6, 81-84. "'"Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Miinchen, 1915, 317-28. i^Trans. Cambr. Phil. Soc, 22, 1916, 159-173. "Wiskundige Opgaven, 12, 1916, 116-7.

Chap. X]

SuM AND NUMBEK OF

DiVISORS.

325

G. H. Hardy^^ proved that for Dirichlet's^^ formula (7) there exists a such that e > Kn^^'^, e < constant Kn^^'^, for an infinitude of values of n surpassing all limit. In Piltz's^^ formula

S
n=l

Tk{n) = x{akii\og xy-'-\-

-^-a^k}

+e

He gave two proofs of an equivalent to Voronoi's^^^'' explicit expression for T{x). Hardy^^^ wrote A(n) for Dirichlet's e in (7) and proved that,^ for every positive e, /l{n) = 0{n'^^''^) on the average, i. e.,
iJiA(0M=O(n'+"*).
G. H. Hardy and S. Ramanujan^^^ employed the phrase "almost all numbers have a specified property" to mean that the number of the numbers ^ X having this property is asymptotic to a: as a; increases indefinitely, and proved that if / is a function of n which tends steadily to infinity with n, then almost all numbers have between a 6 and a-\-h different prime factors, The same result holds also for the total where a = log log n, h=f-\/d. number of prime factors, not necessarily distinct. Also a is the normal order of the number of distinct prime factors of n or of the total number of its prime factors, where the normal order of g{n) is defined to mean f{n) if for every positive e, (1 )/(n)<gr(n)<(l+e)/(n) for almost all values
,

ek>Kx\ ik<Kx\ where t={k \)/{2k).

of n.
S. Wigert^^^ gave an asymptotic representation for l!,n^j:r{n){x n)^. E. T. BelP^ gave results bearing on this chapter. F. RogeP^^ expressed the sum of the rth powers of the divisors ^g* of as an infinite series involving Bernoullian functions. A. Cunningham^^^ found the primes p< lO'* (or 10^) for which the number of divisors of p 1 is a maximum 64 (or 120). Hammond^^ of Ch. XI and RogeP^^ of Ch. XVIII gave formulas involving (J and r. Bougaief^^' ^^ of Ch. XIX treated the number of divisors ^ of n. Gegenbauer^ of Ch. XIX treated the sum of the pth powers of the divisors ^ of n.

i^oProc.

London Math. Soc,

(2), 15,

1916, 1-25.

i"/&id., 192-213.

i82Quar. Jour. Math., 48, 1917, 76-92. i83Acta Math., 41, 1917, 197-218.

is^Annals of Math., 19, 1918, 210-6. i85Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 72, 1900, 125-6. i86Math. Quest, and Solutions, 3, 1917, 65.

CHAPTER XL
MISCELLANEOUS THEOREMS ON DIVISIBILITY, GREATEST COMMON DIVISOR. LEAST COMMON MULTIPLE.
Theorems on
Divisibility.
, . .

An anonymous author^ noted that for n a prime the sum of 1 2, n1 taken by twos (as 1+2, 1+3,. .), by fours, by sixes, etc., when divided by n give equally often the residues 1, 2,..., n 1, and once oftener the
,
.
.

residue 0.
1,.
.

.,

The sum by threes, fives, n 1 and once fewer the residue

.

.
.

give equally often the residues

0.

J.

by the prime
1,

Dienger^ noted that p, then the

.

m^", m^'^", m^'^",

is

w''-+'l and (m^'-+2_ 1)7(^2 _i) are divisible of any 2r+l consecutive terms of the set divisible by p. The case = 2, r = l, p = 3 or 7
if

sum

was noted by

Stifel (Arith. Integra).

.

G. L. Dirichlet^ proved that when n is divided by 1, 2, ., n in turn the number of cases in which the remainder is less than half the divisor bears to n a ratio which, as n increases, has the limit 2 log 4 = 0.6137 the sum of the quotients of the n remainders by the corresponding divisors bears to n a ratio with the limit 0.423 .... Dirichlet^ generalized his preceding result. The number h of those
.

divisors 1,2,.
is less

p (p^ ti), which yield a remainder whose ratio to the divisor than a given proper fraction a, is
. .

-liH-B-"]}
if

Assuming that n/p increases

pVn

increases indefinitely with n, the limit of /i/p

is

indefinitely with n,

but

if

n/p remains

finite is

J. J. Sylvester^

noted that

2"""^^

is

a factor of the integral part of

/c^"*"*"^

and of the integer just exceeding h^"^, where ^ = l + \/3N. V. Bougaief^ called a number primitive if divisible by no square >1, secondary if divisible by no cube. The number of primitive numbers ^ n is

H,{n)=i:q{u)+iq{u)+..
1 1

.,

<i

= [VnA'],
'

where q{u)

is

zero
is

according as

?/

if u is not primitive, but is +1 or 1 for a primitive u, a product of an even or odd number of prime factors.

iJour. fiir Math., 6, 1830, 100-4. ^Archiv Math. Phys., 12, 1849, 425-9. 3Abh. Ak. Wiss. BerMn, 1849, 75-6; Werke, 2, 57-58. Cf. Sylvester, Amer. Jour. Math., 5, 1882, 298-303; CoU. Math. Papers, IV, 49-54. Berlin Berichte, 1851, 20-25; Werke, 2, 97'-104; French <Jour. fur. Math., 47, 1854, 151-4. transl. by O. Terquem, Nouv. Ann. Math., 13, 1854, 396. ^uar. Joum. Math., 1, 1857, 185. Lady's and Gentleman's Diary, London, 1857, 60-1. "Comptes Rendus Paris, 74, 1872, 449-450. BuU. Sc. Math. Astr., 10, I, 1876, 24. Math. Sbornik (Math. Soc. Moscow), 6, 1872-3, I, 317-9, 323-331.

327

328

History of the Theory of Numbers.

obtain the

[Chap,

xi

To

number Hoin)
/,.

of secondary

numbers ^n, replace square roots

by cube

roots in the

We

have

ffi(n)+Hi([|:,])+/fi([|])
and
similarly for Hi,_i{n) given

=n,

H2{n)+Ho{]^^ +

=n,

by (2) below. Grolous" considered the probability R^ that a number be divisible by at least one of the integers Qi,. ., Qk, relatively prime by twos, and showed that
J.
.

Chr.

Zeller''"

modified Dirichlet's^ expression for

,=iLs

h.

The sums

,=iLs

+ aJ
,

The sum of the terms of the second with s>fjL = [\/p] equals are equal. the excess of the sum of the first n terms of the first over fx^ or ju^ 1 the Hence we may abbrelatter in the case of numbers between fi^ and m^+m\iate the computation of h.

E. Cesaro^ obtained Dirichlet's^'^ results and similar ones. The mean (p. 174) of the number of decompositions of A^ into two factors having p as The mean (p. 230) of the number of their g. c. d. is 6(log N)/(p~Tr^). di\isors common to two positive integers n, n' is 7rV6, that of the sum of
their

common

di\isors

is

ilog,

nn'+2C-Y^+i,

where

C = 0.57721
is

tive integers

E. Cesaro^
the

.... The sum of the inverses of the nth powers of two posimean ^^+2) where is defined by (12) of Ch. X. proved the preceding results on mean values; showed that

in

s"

whose 1. c. m. is n is the number of divisors and (6, a) are both counted when a^^b; found the mean of the 1. c. m. of two numbers; found the probability that in a random division the quotient is odd, and the mean of the first or last digit of the quotient; the probability that the g. c.d. of several numbers shall have specified

number
if (a,

of couples of integers

of n",

b)

properties.

Cesaro^" noted that the probability that an integer has no divisor 1 is an exact rth power is l/f(r). L. Gegenbauer^ proved that the number of integers ^ x and divisible by no square is asymptotic to Gx/tt", with an error of order inferior to He proved the final formulas of Bougaief.^ \/x-

>

which

Philomatique de Paris, 1872, 11(>-128. '"Nachrichten Gesell. Wiss. Gottingen, 1879, 265-8. 8M6m. Soc. R. Sc. de Li^ge, (2), 10, 1883, No. 6, 175-191, 219-220 (corrections, p. 343). Annali di mat., (2), 13, 1885, 235-351, "Excursions arith. 4 I'lnfini." "Nouv. Ann. Math., (3), 4, 1885, 421. I'Denkschr. Akad. Wien (Math.), 49, 1, 1885, 47-8. Sitzungsber. Akad. Wien, 112, II a, 1903, 562; 115, II a, 1906, 589. Cf. A. Berger, Nova Acta Soc. Upsal., (3), 14, 1891, M6m. 2, p. 110; E. Landau, Bull. Soc. Math. France, 33, 1905, 241. See Gegenbauer,".'" Ch. X.
'Bull. Sc. Soc.

Chap. XI]

MISCELLANEOUS THEOREMS ON DIVISIBILITY.

329

Gegenbauer^" proved that the arithmetical mean of the greatest integers contained in k times the remainders on the division of n by 1, 2, ., n approaches
.

kl

k\ogk-{-k-l-ki:i/x
as

increases.

The

case

A;

=2

is

due to Dirichlet.

Gegenbauer^^ gave formulas involving the greatest divisor t^n), not divisible by a, of the integer n. In particular, he gave the mean value of the greatest divisor not divisible by an ath power. L. Gegenbauer,^^ employing Merten's function ix (Ch. XIX) and R{a)=a \a\, gave the three general formulas

2 sV(^V(2/) = j/=i
Xi

sV(A;)
k=i

i:

\y /

A=i

m-

i
it=i

m,

X2 ranges over the divisors >n of (r l)n+l, while Xi ranges over all positive integers for which

where

(r

l)n+2,

.,

rn,

r-\-n

'

g'

'

'

gj
is

where g is the g. c. d. of r, n. Take f{x) power or not. Then the functions

(1)

=1

or

according as x

an sth

2/x(^)/(2/) \y/ if the exponent of any prime become [-^m] and \{^), with the value factor of X is ^0, 1 (mod s), otherwise the value ( 1)", where a is the number of primes occurring in x to the power /cs+1. Thus
/(A;),
k=\

y= \

2x,(x2)
If j{x)

\y^ - \</V^r?^ - [i/i\

is

or

according as x

divisible

by an

sth

power or

not, the func-

tions (1) become Qs(w) and ix{\/x)j the former being the number of integers If J{x) = 1 or divisible by no sth power. according as x is prime or

^m

not, the functions (1) become the number of primes and a simple function a(x) ; then the third formula shows that the mean density of the primes

^m

loiDenkschr. Akad. Wien (Math.), 49, II, 1885, 108. "Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 94, 1886, II, 714. i276id., 97, 1888, Ila, 420-6.

330
If

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xi

/(x)=log X, the second function (1) becomes v{x), ha\ing the value* Besides the log p when x is a power of the prime p, otherwise the value 0. resulting formulas, others are found by taking J{x) = v{x), Jacobi's symbol (A/x) in the theor>' of quadratic residues, and finally the number of representations of X by the system of quadratic forms of discriminant A. L. Saint-Loup^^ represented graphically the divisors of a number. Write the first 300 odd numbers in a horizontal line; the 300 following numbers are represented by points above the first, etc. Take any prime as 17 and mark all its multiples; we get a rectilinear distribution of these multiples, which are at the points of intersection of two sets of parallel lines. J. Hacks^^ proved that the number of integers which are divisible by an nth power >1 is

^m

p(m)

=S g] -2 [^] +S

[jtTi^.]

where the A;'s range over the primes >1 [Bougaief^]. Then yp2{fn) = not divisible by a square >1, and mp2{'m) is the number of integers

^m

like

^.w+^.(f)+^.(f)+...+^.([-^.) formula holds for \p3 = 7n p3(m), using quotients

= m.
of

m by

cubes.

Gegenbauer"" found the mean of the sum of the reciprocals of the A:th powers of those divisors of a term of an unlimited arithmetical progression which are rth powers also the probabiUty that a term be divisible by no rth power; and many such results. L. Gegenbauer^^ noted that the number of integers 1, n not divisible by a Xth power is
L.
;
. . .

(2)

Qx(n)= S^[5J/x(x).
Ch. de
la Valine Poussin^

proved that,

if

is

divided

by each

positive

number ky-\-b^x, the mean

of the fractional parts of the quotients

has for

the limit 1 C; if x is divided by the primes ^x, the mean of the fractional parts of the quotients has for x = co the limit 1 C. Here C is Euler's constant.^ L. Gegenbauer^^ proved, concerning Dirichlet's^ quotients Q of the remainders (found on di\'iding n by 1 2, n in turn) by the corresponding divisors, that the number of Q's between and 1/3 exceeds the number of Q's between 2/3 and 1 by approximately 0.179n, and similar theorems.
00
,
. .
.

x=

Cf. Bougaief 1" of Ch. XIX. "Comptes Rendus Paris, 107.

"Acta Math.,
14,

1888, 24; ficole Norm. Sup., 7, 1890, 89. 1890-1, 329-336. ""Sitzungsber. Ak. Wien (Math.), 100, Ila, 1891, 1018-1053. ^Ibid., 100, 1891, Ila, 1054. Denkschr. Akad. Wien (Math.), 49 I, II, 1885; 50

I,

1885.

Cf.

Gegenbauer"

of

Ch. X.

"Annale.^ de la soc. ac. Bruxellea, 22, 1898, 84-90. "Sitzungsberichte Ak. Wiaa. Wien (Math.), 110, 1901, Ila, 148-161.

Chap. XI]

MISCELLANEOUS ThEOEEMS ON DIVISIBILITY.

331

He

investigated the related problem of Dirichlet.* Finally, he used as powers ^ n and found the ratio of the number of remainders less than half of the corresponding divisors to the number of the others. l) L. E. Dickson^^" and H. S. Vandiver proved that 2">2(7i+l)(n' ., are the divisors of an odd number n> 3. if 1, n, n', R. Birkeland^^ considered the sum Sg of the qth. powers of the roots
divisors all the sth

Oi,

.,

flm

of z'^+Aiz"'~^-\of a

+^m = 0.
is

If Si,

s^ are divisible

by the

power a^
a. Afi is

prime

a,

then A^
a,

divisible

If g is divisible

divisible

by by a^~^\

and

a^' is

a" unless q is divisible by the highest power of a dividing q, then

. .
.

by

Then (n+aai)

In particular, the product of

(n+aa^) n"" is divisible by a^. consecutive odd integers is of the form

1+2^^ if m is divisible by 2". E. Landau^^ reproduced Poussin's^^ proof of the final theorem and added a simplification. He then proved a theorem which includes as special cases the two of Poussin and the final one by Dirichlet^. Given an infinite class of positive numbers q without a finite limit point and such that the number of g's ^a; is asymptotic to x/w{x), where w{x) is a non-decreasing positive function having
x=oo

w{x)

if x is divided by all the q's ^ x, the mean of the fractional parts of the quotients has for x = > the limit 1 C. St. GuzeP wrote 5(n) for the greatest odd divisor of n and proved in an elementary way the asymptotic formulas

then

[X]

rfi

\X\

S
n=l

5(n)

=|-+0(x),
O

^^ =f:r+0(l), n=l n
S

U^\

for

as in Pfeiffer^", Ch. X. A. Axer^^ considered the x'''''(^) decompositions of n into such a pair of factors that always the first factor is not divisible by a Xth power and the second factor not by a z^th power, X^2, v'^2. Then S^iix'"'" (n) is given asymptotically by a compHcated formula involving the zeta function. F. RogeP^ wrote Rx,n for the algebraic sum of the partial remainders < [i] in (2), with n replaced by 2, and obtained
Qx(2)=2P,,-|-i2x.n,

Px.n=

(l-:;^x)'

where p

is the nth prime and Pn''^ 2<p+i. He gave relations between the values of Qx{z) for various 2's and treated sums of such values, and tabuHe^^" gave many relations lated the values of ^2(2) and jB2,n for 2^288.

I'^Amer. Math. Monthly, 10, 1903, 272; 11, 1904, 38-9. "Archiv Math, og Natur., Kristiania, 26, 1904, No. 10. "Bull. Acad. Roy. Belgique, 1911, 443-472. "Wiadomoaci mat., Warsaw, 14, 1910, 171-180.

"Prace mat.

fiz.,

22, 1911,

73-99

(Polish),

99-102 (German).

Review

in Bull, des sc. math.,

(2), 38, II,

1914, 11-13.

^Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 121, Ila, 1912, 2419-52. "/6id., 122, Ila, 1913, 669-700. See RogeP of Ch. XVIII.

332

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xi

between the QAz), relations involving the number A{z) of primes ^z, and relations involving both Q's and A's. A. Rothe'*^^ called b a maximal divisor of a if no larger divisor of a conThen a/b is called the index of b with respect to a. 1| tains 6 as a factor. If also c is a maximal divisor of b, etc., a,b, c, ., I are said to form a series In all series of composition of a, the sets of indices of composition of a. are the same apart from order [a corollary of Jordan's theorem on finite groups applied to the case of a cyclic group of order a]. *Weitbrecht-^ noted tricks on the divisibility of numbers. *E. Moschietti-^ discussed the product of the divisors of a number. Each-^ of the consecutive numbers 242, 243, 244, 245 has a square factor > 1 likewise for the sets of three consecutive numbers beginning with 48 or 98 or 124. C. Avery and N. Verson^^ noted that the consecutive numbers 1375, 1376, 1377 are divisible by 5^ 2\ 3^ respectively. J. G. van derCorput^^ evaluated the sum of thenth powersof all integers, not divisible by a square >1, which are ^x and are formed of r prime factors of m.
. .

Greatest Common Divisor, Least Common Multiple.

On the number of divisions in finding the g. c. d. of two integers, see Lame^^ et seq. in Ch. XVII; also Binet^^ and Dupre^. V.A.Lebesgue^^notedthatthel.c.m.of a, .,A;is(p]P3P5. )/{v2ViP&- ) k, while p2 is the product of their g. c. d.'s two if pi is the product of a, ... If a, 6, c at a time, and ps the product of their g. c. d.'s three at a time, etc. have no common divisor, there exist an infinitude of numbers ax-^b relatively prime to c. of all integers represented V. Bouniakowsky^^ determined the g. c. d. by a polynomial /(x) with integral coefficients without a common factor. Since A^ divides the constant term of f{x), it remains to find the highest p". power p" of a prime p which divides J{x) identically, i. e., for x = 1, 2, Divide /(x) by Xp={x 1). .{x p) and call the quotient Q and remainder R. Then must R^O (mod p") for x = l,. ., p, so that each coefficient of R is divisible by p", and iu = Mu vvhere p"' is the highest power of p dividNext, let /ii>l. Divide ing the coefficients of i?. If /ii = l, wehaveju= 1.
.

^^Zeitschrift

"Vom

Math.-Xaturw. Unterricht, 44, 1913, 317-320. Zahlenkunststiick zur Zahlentheorie, Korrcspondenz-Blatt d. Schulen Wiirttembergs, Stuttgart, 20, 1913, 200-6. "Suppl. al Periodico di Mat., 17, 1914, 115-6. i^Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 36, 1881, 48. 2'Math. Miscellany, Flushing, N. Y., 1, 1836, 370-1. "Nieuw Archief voor Wi.skunde, (2), 12, 1918, 213-27. "Jour, de Math., (1), 6, 1841, 453.
Ibid., (1), 11, 1846, 41.

'*Nouv. Ann. Math., 8, 1849, 350; Introduction k la th6orie des nombres, 1862, 51-53; Exercises d'analyse num^rique, 1859, 31-32, 118-9. "M<5m. acad. sc. St. P^tersbourg, (6), ac. math, et phys. 6 (so. math. phys. et nat. 8), 1857 305-329 (read 1854); extract in Bulletin. 13, 149.

Chap. XI]

GREATEST COMMON DiVISOR.

333

Q by (x p l)... {x 2p) and call the quotient Q' and remainder R'. Then must X^R'+XopQ'^O and hence XpR'=0 (mod p"). Thus if 1^2 is the exponent of the highest power of p dividing the coefficients of R', we
have At^M2 + l- In general, if [j.^ and X^-i are the exponents of the highest powers of p dividing the coefficients of the remainder i?'^~^^ and X^k-Dp identically, then fi^ iJLk+\k-i' Finally, if l = [m/p], /x^X^. The extension to several variables is said to present difficulties. [For simpler methods, It is noted (p. 323) that see Hensel^^ and Borel.^^]

It is conjectured (p. 328) that/(a;)/iV repreare identically divisible by p". sents an infinitude of primes when f{x) is irreducible.

E. Cesaro" and J. J. Sylvester^^ proved that the probabihty that two numbers taken at random from 1 n be relatively prime is Q/tt^ asymp,
.

totically.

L. Gegenbauer^^ gave 16 sums involving the g. and deduced 37 asymptotic theorems such as the

c. d.

of several integers

fact that the square of

four integers has the mean value IS/tt^. He gave the mean of the g. c. d. of r integers. J. Neuberg^^" noted that, if two numbers be selected at random from .,N, the probability that their sum is prime to is k=cf){N) 0Tk/{Nl) 1, according as is odd or even. T. J. Stieltjes,^^ starting with a set of n integers, replaced two of them
the
g. c. d. of

of the kth.

power

1. c. m., repeated the same operation on the new set, get a set such that one number of every pair divides the other. Such a reduced set is unique. The 1. c. m. of a, ? can be expressed (pp. 14-16) as a product a'. J' of relatively prime factors divi-

by

their g.

c. d.

and

etc.

Finally,

we

ding a,...,l, respectively. The 1. c. m. (or g. c. d.) oi a,h,. .,1 equals the quotient oi P = ab. .Ihy the g. c. d. (or 1. c. m.) of P/a, P/b, P/l. E. Lucas^^ gave theorems on g. c. d. and 1. c. m. L. Gegenbauer^^" considered in connection with the theory of primes, the g. c. d. of r numbers with specified properties. J. Hacks^^ expressed the g. c. d. of and n in the forms
. .

ql^]-.n^.^n,
where =
J.

2'|;[f]+2'}:g]-2[|][|]-^.
a,

or

Hammond^^

according as m, n are both or not both even. considered arbitrary functions / and F oi p and

such

1, 1881, 184; Johns Hopkins Univ. Circ, 2, 1882-3, 85. "Johns Hopkins Univ. Circ, 2, 1883, 45; Comptes Rendus Paris, 96, 1883, 409;

"Mathesis,

Coll. Papers, 3,

675; 4, 86. "Sitzungsberichte Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.) 92, 1885, II, 1290-1306. 39Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 50, 1889, 113-4. ^''Sur la theorie des nombres, Annales de la fac. des sciences de Toulouse, ^iTheorie des nombres, 1891, 345-6; 369, exs. 4, 5. ""Monatshefte Math. Phys., 3, 1892, 319-335. *2Acta Math., 17, 1893, 208. ^Messenger Math. 24 1894^5 17-19.

4,

1890, final paper.

334
,

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xi

that /(p, 0) = 1 F{p, 0)=0, and any two integers m=np", n='n.p^, where Set the p's are distinct primes and, for any p, a ^ 0, /3 ^ 0.

rP{7n)=Uf{p,a),

$=2F(p,

a).
g. c. d.

the usual proof that mn equals the product of the by their 1. c. m. n, we get

By

M of m and n

yPim)4/{n)=^P{M)xl/(jx),

<I>(w)+$(n) =$(M)+$(iu).

In particular,

if

and n are

relatively prime,

yl/{m)\p{n) =\p{vin),

$(w)+<l>(n) =<l>(mn).

These hold

if

i/'

is

Euler's 0-function, the

of divisors of ?n of the
;

sum
if

o-(m) of
is

the divisors of
of

or the

number T{m)

also,

^{m)

the

number

prime

factors of vi or the

sum

exponents a in

m = Iip''.

K. Hensel^ proved that the g. c. d. of all numbers represented by a polynomial F{u) of degree n with integral coefficients equals the g. c. d. of the values of F{u) for any n+1 consecutive arguments. For a polynomial we have only to use ni + 1 consecutive of degree ni in Ui, 712 in ^2, values of ui, 712+ 1 consecutive values of U2, etc.

F. Klein"*^ discussed geometrically Euclid's g. c. d. process. F. ^Vlertens^^ calls a set of numbers primitive if their g. c. d.
If 7719^0,
.

is

unity.

a primitive set, we can find integers ai,. ., is a primitive set. Let d be the that so ak+mxk ai-\-mxx,. ., ., Xk Xi,. = and find ji that db-\-vi^ \. Take integral soluof so c. d. ., Oifli, g. 5, tions a of OittiH-. .+akak = d and primitive solutions ^i not all zero of Then 7i=/3,+6a,('i = l,. ., k) is a primitive set. +aii3/; = 0. aij3i+ Determine integers ^ so that 71^1+. .+7*^^ = 1 and set a:,=/i^<. Then Ci+TTix, form a primitive set. R. Dedekind^^ employed the g. c. d. d oi a,h, c; the g. c. d. (6, c) =Oi, Then a' = ajd, h' = hi/d, c' = C]/d are relatively prime (c, a) = 61, (a, h) = Ci. Then cf6'c' is the 1. c. m. of 61, Ci, and hence is a divisor of a. Thus in pairs. = = da'h'c". The 7 numbers a', .,a" ,. .,d are called = h dc'a'b", c a dh'c'a", generalization from 3 to n numbers is given. of h, c. The a, the " Kerne" Borel'*^ considered the highest power of a prime p which di\'ides a E. polynomial P{x, y,. .) with integral coefficients for all integral values of .. If each exponent is less than p, we have only to find the highest X, y,. power of p dividing all the coefficients. In the contrary case, reduce all exponents below p by use of x^ = x-\-pxi,Xi' = Xi -\-px2,. and proceed as above with the new polynomial in x, Xi, X2,...,y,yi,.... Then to find all arithmetical divisors of a polynomial P, take as p in turn each prime less than the highest exponent appearing in P. L. Kronecker^^ found the number of pairs of integers i, k having t as their g. c. d., where l^i^m, l^k^n. The quotient of this number by
.

k>\, and
.

o^,

is

Jour. fur Math., 116, 1896, 350-6. "Ausgewahlte Kapitel der Zahlentheorie, I, 1896. *Sitzung8berichte Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 106, 1897, II a, 132-3. *^Ueber Zerlegungen von Zahlen durch d. grossten gemeinsamen Teller, Braunschweig, 1897. "BuU. Sc. Math. Astr., (2), 24 I, 1900, 75-80. Cf. Borel and Drach'^ of Ch. III. "Vorlesungen uber Zahlentheorie, I, 1901, 306-312.

Chap. XI]

GREATEST COMMON DiVISOR.

335

and n increase indefinitely, the mean becomes the mean. When The case ^=1 gives the probability that two arbitrarily chosen integers are relatively prime; the proof in Dirichlet's Zahlentheorie fails to establish the existence of the probability. E. DintzP proved that the g. c. d. A(a, ., e) is a linear function of reproduced the proof of Lebesgue's^^ formula as given in e, and a, iiber Zahlentheorie Vorlesungen and by de Jough.^^ Merten's the 1. Pichler,^" given m. or of two numbers and one of them, c. c. d. A. g. found values of the other number. J. C. Kluyver^^ constructed several functions z (involving infinite series or definite integrals) which for positive integral values of the two real He gave to Stern's^^ function the somewhat variables equals their g. c. d.

mn

is

Q/iirH"^).

different

form

[;r]

W.

Sierpinski^^ stated that the probability that

two integers

^n

are

relatively

prime

is

-,2

contrary to Bachmann, Analyt. Zahlentheorie, 1894, 430. G. Darbi^^ noted that if a = (a, N) is the g. c. d. of a, N,

(iV,abc...)=a(6,^)(c,^(^_^/J
and gave a method of finding the g. c. d. and 1. c. m. of rational fractions without bringing them to a common denominator. E. Gelin^ noted that the product of n numbers equals ah, where a is the 1. c. m. of their products r at a time, and h is the g. c. d of their products n r at a time.
tti,
.

B. F. Yanney^'^ considered the greatest common divisors Di, D2, Then a in sets of k, and their 1. c. m.'s Li, L2,
.

... of

HA Lt' ^
The limits
P.

(ai

n)^

^ n D ^-^L

(^y

= (^~ I)

coincide ii k = 2. The products have a single term iik = n. Bachmann^^ showed how to find the number N obtained by ridding a given number n of its multiple prime factors. Let d be the g. c. d. of n and 0(n). If d = n/d occurs to the rth power, but not to the (r+l)th power
in n, set ni
"Zeitschrift

= n/5^
fiir

From

rii

build

di

as before, etc.

Then

N = 86182 ....
5, II

6o76id., 26, 1901,

das Realschulwesen, Wien, 27. 1902, 654-9, 722. 331-8. "Nieuw Archief voor Wiskunde, (2), 5, 1901, 262-7. ^^K. Ak. Wetenschappen Amsterdam, Proceedings of the Section of Sciences, 662. (Versl. Ak. Wet., 11, 1903, 782-6.) "Jour, flir Math., 102, 1888, 9-19. "Wiadomosci Mat., Warsaw, 11, 1907, 77-80. ^^Giornale di Mat., 46, 1908, 20-30. S6I1 Pitagora, Palermo, 16, 1909-10, 26-27.

1903, 658-

"Amer. Math. Monthly,

6Archiv Math. Phys.,

19, 1912, 4-6.

(3), 19,

1912, 283-5.

336

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap.

XI

Erroneous remarks^^ have been made on the g. c. d. of 2"" 1, 3"" 1. ]\I. Lecat^ noted that, if a,j is the 1. c. m. of i and j, the determinant loyl was evaluated by L. Gegenbauer,^^ who, however, used a law of multipHcation of determinants valid only when the factors are both of odd class. J. Barinaga^" proved that, if 5 is prime to iV = nk, the sum of those terms which are between nk and n{k-\-hd) of the progression A'', N-\-d, iV+25, and which have with n = mp the g. c. d. p, is ^n<l){n/p){2k-\-hd)h. R. P. Willaert- noted that, if P{n) is a polynomial in n of degree p with integral coefficients, f{n)=aA'"'-\-P{n) is divisible by D for every integral value of 7} if and only if the difference A''f{0) of the Ath order is di\"isible by D for k = 0, 1,. ., p-\-l. Thus, if p = l, the conditions are that /(O), /(l),/(2) be divisible by D. *H. Verhagen^^ gave theorems on the g. c. d. and 1. c. m. H. H. ]\Iitchell^ determined the number of pairs of residues a, b modulo X whose g. c. d. is prime to X, such that ka, kb is regarded as the same pair as a, b when k is prime to X, and such that X and ax + by have a given g. c. d.
.
.

W.

A. Wijthoff^^ compared the values of the sums

S (-l)'"-WF{(w,
m=l

a)},
a,

"s
m=l

m'F{{m,a)},

= l,

2,

where {m,
F. G.

a) is the g. c. d. of

m,

while

F is any

arithmetical function.

Ross^^ wTote h, U, ...,ln for the 1. c. of A, Ai, and gi, g^, for the c of d. the pau-s Ai, A^; A^, Az; gn ., g If L, G are the 1. c, m. and g. c. d. of Ai, ^2, these pairs, respectively. A, then

W. Brown and

C.
.

M.
.

gm

.gn

= G'',
9i92
g. c.

9n
(a, 6)

G'
of a, 6 results like

C. de Polignac^^ obtained for the

d
fi

(a\btJi)={a,by{\,fx).(--\
\{a, b)

\
m) J

X
(X, m)>

(X,

\(a, 6)'

mV
.

and others considered the g. c. d of Z) and Z)+i where D^ is the n-rowed determinant whose diagonal elements are 1, 3, 5, 7, ., and having 1, 2, 3, 4, ... in the line parallel to that diagonal and just above it, and units in the parallel just below it, and zeros elsewhere.
Sylvester^*
.

On

the

g. c. d.,
'

X, Cesaro^'

of

see papers 33-88, 215-6, 223 of Ch. V, Cesaro" of Ch. Ch. XI, and Kronecker^^ of Ch. XIX.

"L'interm6diaire des math., 20, 1913, 112, 183-4, 228; 21, 1914, 36-7. ^''Ibid., 21, 1914, 91-2. 'Sitzungs. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 101, 1892, II a, 425-494. ""Annaes Sc. Acad. Polyt. do Porto, 8, 1913, 248-253. ^Mathesis, (4), 4, 1914, 57. "Nieuw Tijdschria voor Wiskunde, 2, 1915, 143-9. "Annals of Math., (2), 18, 1917, 121-5. "Wiskundige Opgaven, 12, 1917, 249-251. "Math. Quest, and Solutions, 5, 1918, 17-18. 'Xouv. Corresp. Math., 4, 1878, 181-3. 6Math. Que.st. Educ. Times, 36, 1881, 97-8; correction, 117-8.

CHAPTER
In the Talmud^ lOOa+6
ible
is

XII.

CRITERIA FOR DIVISIBILITY BY A GIVEN NUMBER.

stated to be divisible

by 7

if

2a+b

is

divis-

by

7.

division of certain

Hippolytos^", in the third century, examined the remainder on the sums of digits by 7 or 9, but made no appHcation to

checking numerical computation. Avicenna or Ibn Sina (980-1037) is said to have been the discoverer of the familiar rule for casting out of nines (cf Fontes^^) but it seems to have been of Indian origin.-^'' Alkarkhi^^ (about 1015) tested by 9 and 11. Ibn Musa Alchwarizmi^'* (first quarter of the ninth century) tested by 9. Leonardo Pisano^^ gave in his Liber Abbaci, 1202, a proof of the' test for 9, and indicated tests for 7, 11. Ibn Albanna^-'^ (born about 1252), an Arab, gave tests for 7, 8, 9. In the fifteenth century, the Arab Sibt el-Maridini^'' tested addition by casting out multiples of 7 or 8. Nicolas Chuquet^^ in 1484 checked the four operations by casting out 9's. J. Widmann^'' tested by 7 and 9. Luca Paciuolo^ tested by 7, as well as by 9, the fundamental operations, but gave no rule to calculate rapidly the remainder on division by 7. Petrus Apianus^" tested by 6, 7, 8, 9.
.

by 7 = 10 3 we multiply the first subtract multiples of 7, add the residue to the next digit, then multiply the sum by 3, etc. Blaise Pascal^ stated and proved a criterion for the divisibility of any number by any number A. Let ri, r2, 7*3, be the remainders obtained when 10, lOfi, lOrg, ... are divided by A. Then iV = a+ 106 100c+ ... is divisible by A if and only if a-\-rib-\-r2C+ is divisible by A.
digit

Robert Recorde^'' tested by 9. Pierre ForcadeP noted that to test

by

3,

'Babylonian Talmud, Wilna edition by Romm, Book Aboda Sara, p. iM. Cantor, Geschichte der Math., ed. 3, I, 1907, 461.
^^Ibid., 511, 611,

96.

756-7, 763-6.

i^Cf.

i<^M.

Carra de Vaux, Bibliotheca Math., (2), 13, 1899, 33-4. Cantor, Geschichte der Math., ed. 3, I, 1907, 717.

i^Scritti, 1, 1857, 8, 20, 39, 45; Cantor, Geschichte, 2, 1892, 8-10. '/Le TaUfhys d'Ibn Albanna public et traduit par A. Marre, Atti Accad. Pont. Nuovi Lincei, Cf. M. Cantor, Geschichte Math., I, ed. 2, 757, 759; ed. 3, 805-8. 17, 1863-4, 297. iffLe Triparty en la science de nombres. Bull. Bibl. St. Sc. Math., 13, 1880, 602-3. ^''Behede vnd hubsche Rechnung Leipzig, 1489. ^Summa de arithmetica geometria proportion! et proportionalita, Venice, 1494, f. 22, r. 2"Ein newe. .Kauffmans Rechnung, Ingolstadt, 1527, etc. ^^The Grovnd of Artes, London, c. 1542, etc. ^L'Arithmeticqve de P. Forcadel de Beziers, Paris, 1556, 59-60. *De numeris multiphcibus, presented to the Acad^mie Parisienne, in 1654, first published in 1665; Oeuvres de Pascal, 3, Paris, 1908, 311-339; 5, 1779, 123-134. 337
.

338

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, xii

D'Alembert^ noted that if N = A-10'"+B-W-\-. ..+E is divisible by 10-6, then Ab"'+Bb"-\- ..+E is divisible by 10-6; if A' is divisible by +^ is divisible by 10+6. The case 10+6, then A(-6)'"+B(-6)"+
. . . .

=1

gives the test for divisibiUty

by 9 or

11.

By
.

separating
. .

A''

into parts
. .

= A-10"'+ each with an even number of digits, 100-6, Ah"*^^ -\di\'isible by is A^ if then even;
100-6.

+E, where m,
.

.are

+E

is

divisible

by

Fontenelle^ gave a test for divisibility by 7 which is equivalent to 6 = 3 of D'Alembert; to test 3976 multiply the first digit by 3 and case the second digit; it remains to test 1876. For proof see F. Sanvitali, to the add Italiae, vol. 6, and Castelvetri.^ Literariae Hist. gave the same test as Pascal for the factor 7. Kraft^ W. G.

De

A. A. Castelvetri^ gave the test for 99: Separate the digits in pairs, two-digit components, and see if the sum is a multiple of 99. For the add digits. of triples 999 use Castelvetri^ tested 1375, for example, for the factor 11 by noting that 13+75 = 88 is divisible by 11. If the resulting sum be composed of more than two digits, pair them, add and repeat. To test for the factor 111, separate the digits into triples and add. The proof follows from the fact that lO-*" has the remainder 1 when divided by 11. J. L. Lagrange^ modified the method of Pascal by using the least residue modulo A (between .4/2 andyl/2) in place of the positive residue. He noted that if a number is written to any base a its remainder on division by a 1 is the same as for the sum of its digits. J. D. Gergonne^^ noted that on di\dding iV = Ao+Ai6"*+A26^'"+ ., written to base 6, by a di\'isor of 6'" 1, the remainder is the same as on Similarly for dividing the sum A0+A1+A2+ ... of its sets of m digits.
J.
. .

6'"+l and A0-A1+A2-A3+ C. J. D. HilP^ gave rules for abbre\dating the testing for a prime factor p, for p<300 and certain larger primes. C. F. Liljevalch^^a ^^^^^ ^^^^^ jf lO^a-/? is di\^sible by p then a- 10^6 will be a multiple of p if and only if aa /36 is a multiple of p. J. ]\I. Argardh" used Hill's symbols, treating divisors 7, 17, 27, 1429. 106+100c+ ... is divisible by 10nl if F. D. Herter^^ noted that a

'Manuscript R. 240* 6 (8), Bibl. Inst. France, 21, ff. 316-330, Sur une propri^t^ des nombres. Histoire Acad. Paris, ann^e 1728, 51-3. 'Comm. Ac. Sc. Petrop, 7, ad annos 1734-5, p. 41. De Bononiensi Scientiarum et Artium Institute atque Academia Comm., 4, 1757; commentarii, 113-139; opuscula, 242-260. De Bononiensi Scientiarum et Artium Institute atque Academia Comm., vol. 5, 1767, part 1, pp. 134-144; part 2, 108-119. "Lemons 6\6m. sur les math, donn^es k I'^cole normale en 1795, Jour, de I'^cole polytechnique,
vols. 7, 8, 1812, 194-9;

OemTes,

7,

pp. 203-8.

"Annales de math, (ed., Gergonne), 5, 1814-5, 170-2. "Jour, fur Math., 11, 1834, 251-261; 12, 1834, 355. Also, De factoribua numerorum compositonim dignoscendis, Lund, 1838. "<De factoribus numerorum compositorura dignoscendis, Lund, 1838. "De residuis ex divisione. ., Diss. Lund, 1839. "Ueber die Kennzeichen der Theiler einer Zahl, Progr. Berlin, 1844.
.

Chap. XII]

CRITERIA FOR DIVISIBILITY.

. . .

339

is divisible by 10nl, with a like test for 10n3 a=F&/nH-c/n^=F (replacing 1/n by 3/n), and deduced the usual tests for 9, 11, 7, 13, etc. A. L. Crelle^^ noted that to test XmA""-^ +XiA-i-Xo for the divisor s we may select any integer n prime to s, take r=nA (mod s), and test
. . .

For example, if A = 10, s = 7, 10^= 1 (mod 7), so that is to be tested for the divisor 7, where Xq, .are the three-digit components of the proposed number from right to left. Similarly for s=9, 11, 13, 17, 19. A. Transon^^ gave a test for the divisibility of a number by any divisor of 10"-nl. A. Niegemann^^ noted that 354578385 is divisible by 7 since 35457 -f 2X8385 is divisible by 7. In general if the number formed by the last m digits of A^ is multiplied by k, and the product is added to the number derived from N by suppressing those digits, then is divisible by d if the resulting sum is divisible by d. Here k{0<k<d) is chosen so that 10'"/:
for the divisor
Xo
s.
.

Xi-\-X2.

0:^

Thus k = 2 if m = 4, d = 7. subsequent papers are listed at the end of the chapter. H. Wilbraham^^ considered the exponent p to which 10 belongs modulo m, where m is not divisible by 2 or 5. Then the decimal for 1/m has be marked off into periods of pa period of p digits. If any number digits each, beginning with units, so that A^ = ai + 10^a2+10^^a34, = (mod m), and is divisible by m if and only if then ai-\-a2-]is divisible by m. i+<J2+ E. B. Elliott^^ let 10'' = MD+r^,. Thus iV = 10%-h +10ni+no is divisible by D if ='ZfnjMD-{-'Znjrj is divisible by D. The values of the r's are tabulated for D = S, 7, S, 9, 11, 13, 17. = a-\-10kis divisible by 7 if k 2a is divisA. Zbikowski^ noted that
is

divisible

by

d.

Many

of the

ible

by 7. If divisible by d

= a-\-10k is divisible by 5 if A; na is the form lOn+1, this holds also if 5 is replaced by a divisor of a number 10n+ 1 V. ZeipeP^ tests for a divisor h by use of nh = 10d-\-l. Then 10a2+ai is
8 is of
;

divisible
J.

by

if

a2

aid

is

divisible

N={p 1)Q+R

by p 1 is easy, that is divisible by p. is divisible by p if F. Folie^^ proved that if a, c are such that ak'^ck = mp then AB-\-C is divisible by the prime p = aB-{-c if Ak'=^Ck = m'p, provided a, c, k, k' are
C. Dupain^^ noted, for use
division

by b. when

RQ

isjour. fur Math., 27, 1844, 125-136. 16N0UV. Ann. Math., 4, 1845, 173-4 (cf. 81-82 by O. R.). i^Entwickelung u. Begrlindung neuer Gesetze iiber die Theilbarkeit der Zahlen. Kath. Gym. Koln, 1847-8.

Jahresber.

i^Cambridge and Dublin Math. Jour., 6, 1851, 32. "The Math. Monthly (ed. Runkle), 1, 1859, 45-49.
"oBull. ac. sc. St. Petersbourg, (3), 3, 1861, 151-3;
3,

Melanges math.

astr. ac. St.

P^tersbourg,

1859-66, 312.
(2), 6,

2iOfversigt finska vetensk. forhandl., Stockhohn, 18, 1861, 425-432.

Nouv. Ann. Math.,

23M6m. Soc.

1867, 368-9.

Sc. Liege, (2), 3, 1873, 85-96.

340

History of the Theory of Numbers.

Application
is

[Chap, xii

not multiples of p. p is a prime and

made

to the primes

p^37.

Again,

if

aB-+cB+d = ak"-\-ck'-\-dk = Ak"-{-Ck'-\-Dk = mp,

k'^

where k, kk"

k',
is

k" are prime to p, then AB~-\-CB-[-D a multiple of p.

is

divisible

by p provided

C. F. IMoller and C. Holten-^ would test the divisibility of n by a given prime p by seeking a such that ap= =*= 1 (mod 10) and subtracting from n such a multiple of ap that the difference ends with zero. L. L. Hommel"-^ made remarks on the preceding method. V. SchlegeP^ noted that if the di\isor to be tested ends with 1, 3, 7 or 9, Then a, with the final its product by 1, 7, 3 or 9 is of the form (i = lOX+1. Then treat Oj aswe did a, etc. digit u, is divisible by d\i ai = {a ud)/\0 is. P. Otto"^ would test Z for a given prime factor p by seeking a number n such that if the product by n of the number formed by the last s digits of Z be subtracted from the number represented by the remaining digits, the remainder is di\'isible by p if and only if Z is. ^Material is tabulated for the
application of the method when p<100. if N. V. Bougaief-^" noted that a^. .Ci to base B is divisible by .a to base d is divisible by D, where dB= 1 (mod D). For jB = 10 and fli l, 9?i+l, 3nH-l, 7n+5, respecZ) = 10/1+9, 1, 3, 7, we may take c? = n Again, kB--\-aB-\'h is di\'isible by tively. if kB-\-a-\-hd is divisible. W. Mantel and G. A. Oskamp'^ proved that, to test the di\isibility of a number to any base by a prime, the value of the coefficient required to eliminate one, two, digits on subtraction is periodic. Also the number of terms of the period equals the length of the period of the periodic fraction arising on division by the same prime. G. Dostor-^'' noted that \{)t-\-u is divisible by any divisor a of 10A 1 if
.

is di\dsible by a. [A case of Liljevalch^-''.] Hocevar^^ noted that if N, wTitten to base a, is separated into groups each of q digits, is di\'isible by a factor of a'+l if Gi G2+G3 Gi, (x2, - ... is divisible. Thus, for a = 2, g = 4, A'' = 104533, or 11001100001010101 to base 2 is divisible by 17 since 0101-0101 + 1000-1001 + 1 = 0. J. Delboeuf^ stated that if p, q are such that pa-\-qh is a multiple of Z) and = Aa.-\-B^ is a multiple of Z) = aa + 6/3, then pA+qB is a multiple of Z). if E. Catalan {ibid., p. 508) stated and proved the preceding test in the following form: If a, h and also a', h' are relatively prime, and

t=^Au

iV

= aa'+66',
is

Nx = Aa-\-Bh,
sum

Nx' = A'a'+B'h',
of 2 squares
if

then AA'-\-BB'

a multiple of A^ (and a

is).

"Tidsskrift for Math., (3^, 5, 1875, 177-180. *Tidsskrift for Math., (3), 6, 1876, 15-19. "Zeitschrift Math. Phys., 21, 1876, 365-6. 'Zeitschrift Math. Phys., 21, 1876, 366-370. ^"''Mat. Sbornik (Math. Soc. Moscow), 8, 1876, I, 501-5. "Nieuw Archief voor Wiskunde. Amsterdam, 4, 1878, 57-9, 83-94. "-^.Ajchiv Math. Phys., 63, 1879, 221-4. "Zur Lehre von der Teilbarkeit. ., Prog. Imisbruck, 1881. "La Revue Scientifique de France, (3), 38, 1886, 377-8.
.

Chap. XII]

CRITERIA FOR DIVISIBILITY.

(ibid.,

341
.

Noel

378-9) gave tests for divisors 11, 13, 17,.

.,

43.

Bougon {ibid., 508) gave several tests for the divisor 7. For example, is divisible by 7 if the quadruple of the number of its tens diminnumber a ished by the units digit is divisible by 7, as 1883 since 188-4 3 = 749 is J. Heilmann (ibid., 187) gave a test for the divisor 7. divisible by 7. P. Breton and Schobbens {ibid., 444-5) gave tests for the divisor 13.
gave a rule to reduce the question of the divisibility of a to that for a smaller number. A. Loir^2 gave a rule to test the divisibihty of N, having the units digit a, by a prime P. From {N a)/10, subtract the product of a by the number, say (mP 1)/10, of tens in such a multiple mP of P that the units digit is 1. To the difference obtained apply the same operation, etc., until we exhaust is divisible by P. N. If the final difference be P or 0, R. Tucker^^ started with a number N, say 5443, cut off the last digit 3 and defined ^2 = 544 2-3 = 538, ^3 = 53 2-8, etc. If any one of the ^^'s is is divisible by 7. divisible by 7, R. W. D. Christie (p. 247) extended the test to the divisors 11, 13, 17, 37, the respective multiphers being 1, 9, 5, 11, provided always the number tested ends with 1, 3, 7 or 9. R. Perrin^^ would find the minimum residue of modulo p as follows. Decompose N, written to base x, into any series of digits, each with any number of digits, say A, Bi, Cj,. ., where Bi has i digits. Let p be any integer prime to x and find qi so that qiX^^ 1 (mod p). Let a be any one of the integers prime to p and numerically <p/2. Let j8 be the ith integer following a in that one of the series containing a which are defined thus: as the first series take the residues modulo p of 1, g, g^, as the second series take the products of the preceding residues by any new integer prime Let y be the jth integer following /S in the same series, etc. to p; etc. Then N' = Aa-\-BS-{-Cjy-\-... is or is not divisible by p according as
S. Dickstein^^

number

to

any base by another

A'' is

or not.

By

repetitions of the process,

we

get the

minimum

residue

special case A-{-Biqi, with p a prime, is due to Loir.^^ Dietrichkeit^^ would test Z = \Ok-\-a for the divisor n by testing k xa, where 10a:+l is some multiple of n. To test Z (pp. 316-7) for the divisor
of

N modulo p.

The

4, 5,

the sum of the products of the units digit, tens digit, ... by 1, 3, 2, 6, taken in cyclic order beginning with any term (the remainders on converting 1/7 into a decimal fraction) Similarly for 1/n, when n is prime to 10. J. Pontes^ ^ would test for a divisor by using a number <iV and = (mod M), found as follows. For the base B, let q be the absolutely
7, test
.

least residue of B""

modulo M.
. . .

Commencing
,

at the right,

decompose
. . .

into sets of

digits, as X,,

a^,

and

set f{x)=a^x"'+^jn^"'~^-\-

+X;;,,

whence N=f{B'^).
desired
S.

By

expanding

N=f{q+M^), we

number

<N

and

=N

see that f{q)

is

the

(mod M)

Levanen^^ gave a table showing the exponent to which 10 belongs for

Museum (Polish), 1886. "Comptes Rendus Paris, 106, 1888, 1070-1; errata, 1194. ^'Nature, 40, 1889, 115-6. 34 Assoc, franp. avanc. sc, 18, 1889, II, 24-38. '^Zeitschr. Math. Phys., 36, 1891, 64. 3Comptes Rendus Paris, 115, 1892, 1259-61. "Ofversigt af finska vetenskaps-soc. forhandUngar, 34, 1892, 109-162. Cf Jahrbuch Fortschr. Math., 24, 1892, 164-5.
siLemberg
.

342
primes

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, xii

6<200 and

certain larger primes, from

which are

easily

deduced

tests for the divisor 6.

Several"" noted that if 10 belongs to the exponent n modulo d, and if beginning with the first, .denote the sums of every nth digit of second, ... at the right, the remainder on the division of A^ by d is that of
Si, Si,

S1

+ IOS2+IO-S3+
J.

Fontes^^ would find the least residue of A^ modulo M. If 10" has the if we multiply residue q modulo M, we do not change the least residue of = 19, a set of n digits of A^ by the same power of q as of 10". Thus for iV=10433 = 10'+4-10H33, 10" has the residue 5 modulo 19 and we may replace by 5- +4 ',5+ 33. The method is applied to each prime 149. Fontes^^ gave a history of the tests for divisibility, and an "extension of the method of Pascal," similar to that in his preceding paper. by 39, for example, by subP. Valerio* would test the divisibility of tracting from a multiple of 39 with the same ending as N. F. Belohldvek^^ noted that 10A-\-B is divisible by 10pl if A=FpB is. C. Borgen'^^ ^oted that Z = a-10"+ +ai-10+ao is divisible by A^ if

M M^

"T'
..=0

(a_+rlO''-'+

+a,)(10"-A^)''/''

is

divisible

by

if

by N. For A'' = 7, take a = 1 then 10" AT = 3 and ao+3ai+2a2 ^3 3a4 2a5+ ... is divisible by 7.
;

Z is

divisible

J. J. Sylvester^^"

be multiplied by the
1, 4,
.

noted that, if the r digits of A'^, read from left to right, first r terms of the recurring series 1, 4, 3, 1,-4, 3;
.

[the residues, in reverse order, of 10, 10^,

is

of the products

5, 106+a(a<10) by p, where mp = 10x-\-a (a< 10) and m = l, 7, 3, 9 according as p=l, 3, 7, 9 (mod 10), respectively. A. Loir^^ gave tests for prime divisors < 100 by uniting them by twos To test N, multiply or threes so that the product P ends in 1 as 7 -43 = 30 1 the number formed of the last two digits of A'^ by the number preceding 01 in P, subtract the product from A^, and proceed in the same manner with the difference. Then P is a factor if we finally get a difference which is zero. If a difference is a multiple of a prime factor p of P, then N is divisible by p. Plakhowo"*^ gave the test by Bougaief, but without using congruences.
if

C. L. 9 or 11. L. T. Riess^' noted that,

divisible

modulo 13], the sum by 13. Dodgson^^** discussed the quotient and remainder on division by
.

.,

divisible

by

13

if

and only

if

is

divisible

is

not divisible by 2 or

is

by p

if

xa

is

divisible

'"'Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 57, 1892, 111. "Assoc, frang. avanc. sc, 22, 1893, II, 240-254. M4m. ac. sc. Toulouse, (9), 5, 1893, 459-475. "La Revue Scientifique de France, (3), 52, 1893, 765 "Casopis, Prag, 23, 1894, 59. "Mature, 57, 1897-8, 54. MEducat. Times, March, 1897. Proofs. Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 66, 1897, 108. Heal, Amer. Math. Monthly, 4, 1897, 171-2. "'^Nature, 56, 1897, 565-6. Russ. Nat., 1898, 329. Cf. Jahrb. Fortschritte Math., 29, 1898, 137. "Assoc, frang. avanc. sc, 27, 1898, II, 144-6. Bull. des sc. math, et phys. 61(mentaires, 4, 1898-9, 241-3,

Cf.

W.

E.

Chap. XII]

CRITERIA FOR DIVISIBILITY.

343

To testiV = ao+Oi-S+ X so that Bd = Dx+l.

Thus

+On5"for the divisor D prime to B, determine d and Multiply this equation by Oq and subtract from N.

N=-BN'-DaoX,
Hence

N' = aod-\-{ai+a2B-\if

+a^B''-^)B.

is

divisible

by D

and only

if

N'

is

divisible

by D.

Now, N'

is

by supressing the units digit do and adding to the result the derived from Next operate with N' as we did with A^. product aod. Malengreau^^ would test for a factor q prime to 10 by seeking a J. digits) of q, then an exponent t such that the number multiple 11 ... 1 (to of digits of lO'-A^ is a multiple of m. From each set of digits of lO'-A^ subtract the nearest multiple of 1 ... 1 (to digits) The sum of the resi-

m
.

dues is divisible by q if and only if A'' is divisible by q. = aQ-\-gai-\- .-\-g''ak is divisible by a if and G. Loria^^ proved that +a^ of the digits of written to a base g of only if a divides the sum ao+ the form /ca+ 1 or if a divides Oq ai +02 when the base g is of the form ka 1. Taking g = IC", we have the test, in Gelin's Arithm^tique, in terms of groups of m digits. We may select m to be |0(a) or a number such that lO'^il has the factor a. Inplace of 00+^1+ wheng' = 10'", we may employ

pao+Xai + 10Xa2+
k

+10"-'Xa^_i
. .

+ s\o^-^(a,^+10a,^+i+ =
l

+10"'-'a,^+m-i),

where X = l, 2 or 5, and p is determined by 10p/X=l (mod o). Taking a = 7, 13, 17, 19, 23, special tests for divisors are obtained. G. Loria^^ proved that, if ao, ai,. are successive sets of t digits of N, counted from the right, and o- = ao='=cti+02=^3+ , then
.

N-(T = a,{10'=Fl)-\-a2{10^'-l)+as{10^'=pl) +
so that a factor of 10'=f1 divides A^

.,

if and only if it divides a. A. Tagiuri^^ extended the last result to any base g. We have

N = ao+ga,+
if

=Nom+g"'Nr^+g''^N2^-\Heuce,
if

N,m = o,pm+apm+i9-\-

+pm+m-i^"'"^

9"^=
a).
if

(mod

a),

N=Nom^Nim+N2m=^... (mod
L. Ripert^" noted that lOD-\-uis divisible

by lOS+i

Dibu is divisible,

and gave many

tests for small divisors.

G. Biase^^ derived tests that \Od-\-u has the factor 7 or 19 from

2{l{)d+u)^2u-d (mod

7),

2{lQd+u)=2u+d (mod

19).

O. Meissner^^ reported on certain tests cited above.

"Mathesis, (3), 1, 1901, 197-8. *^Rendiconti Accad. Lincei (Math.),
(5), 10,

"II Boll. Matematica Gior. Sc.-Didat., Bologna, "Periodico di Mat., 18, 1903, 43-45. "II Boll. Matematica Gior. Sc.-Didat., Bologna, ^''Math. Naturw. Blatter, 3, 1906, 97-99.

1901, sem. 2, 150-8. Mathesis, (3), 2, 1902, 33-39. Cf. A. Bindoni, ibid., 4, 1905, 87. 1, 1902. ^oL'enseignement math., 6, 1904, 40-46. 4, 1905, 92-6.

344
E.

History of the Theory of Numbers.

.

[Chap, xii

NanneF employed ri=Oi aoX, r2 = a2riX,. (a-<10). Then, if = 10"a4+10ai+Oo is divisible by lOx-fl and the quotient has The cases x = 1, 2 are discussed and several the digits r_i, r_2, QoFor a:= 1/3, we conclude that, if r = 0, N is divisible tests for 7 deduced.
.

= 0,

A''

7*i,

digits of the quotient are r_i/3, r^/S, ao/3. A. Chiari^ employed D'Alembert's^ method for 10+6, 6 = 3, 7, 9. is divided by G. Bruzzone^^ noted that, to find the remainder R when an integer x of r digits, we may choose y such that x-\-y = 10'', form the groups of r digits counting from the right of N, and multiply the successive or by their residues modulo x; then R groups (from the right) hy l,y,y^,. equals the remainder on dividing the sum of the products by x. If we choose x y = lO^, we must change alternate signs before adding. For practical use, take y = l. Fr. Schuh^^ gave three methods to determine the residue of large numbers for a given modulus. Stuyvaert^^ let a, 6, ... be the successive sets of n digits of A'' to the baseB, rj.^^^ -^ (^^.^isibie ^^y ^ factor D of B''=pR'' so that iV = a+6jB'*+c52''+ For R = l, B = 10, if and only if a=^bR''+cR~''^ ... is divisible by D. A divisor, n = 1, 2, ., we obtain tests for divisors of 9, 99, 11, 101, etc. = a+bB if and only if it divides hma. prime to B, of niB+l divides
. .
.

by 13 and the

Further Papers Giving Tests for a Given Divisor

J.

d.

R.

Young and Mason

for

d = l, 13

[Pascal^], Ladies'

Diary, 1831, 34-5, Quest.

1512.
P. Gorini [Pascal^], Annali di Fis., Chim. Mat., (ed., Majocchi), 1,1841, 237. A. Pinaud for d = l, 13, Mem. Acad. Sc. Toulouse, 1, 1844, 341, 347. *Dietz and Vincenot, Mem. Acad. Metz, 33, 1851-2, 37. Anonymous writer for d = 9, 11, Jour, fiir Math., 50, 1855, 187-8. *H. Wronski, Principes de la phil. des math. Cf. de Montferrier, Encyclop^die math., 2, 1856, p. 95. O. Terquem for d^l9, 23, 37, 101, Nouv. Ann. Math., 14, 1855, 118-120. A. P. Reyer for d = l, Archiv Math. Phys., 25, 1855, 176-196. C. F. Lindman for d = l, 13, ibid., 26, 1856, 467-470. P. Buttel for d = 7, 9, 11, 17, 19, ibid., 241-266. De Lapparent [Herter^^], Mem. soc. imp. sc. nat. Cherbourg, 4, 1856, 235-258. Karwowski [Pascal^], Ueber die Theilbarkeit ., II, Progr., Lissa, 1856. *D. van Langeraad, Kenmerken van deelbarheid der geheele getallen, Schoonhoven, 1857. Flohr, Ueber Theilbarkeit und Reste der Zahlen, Progr., Berlin, 1858. V. Bouniakowsky for d = 37, 989, Nouv. Ann. Math., 18, 1859, 168. Elefanti for d = l-n, Proc. Roy. Soc. London, 10, 1859-60, 208. A. Niegemann for d = 10'"-n+a, Archiv Math. Phys., 38, 1862, 384-8. J. A. Grunert for d = 7, 11, 13, ibid., 42, 1864, 478-482. V. A. Lebesgue, Tables diverses pour la decomposition des nombres, Paris, 1864,
.

p. 13.
"II Pitagora, Palermo, 13, 1906-7, 54-9. 1907-8, 35-7.

/6r(f., 14,

"/6td., 15, 1908-9, 119-123.

"Supplem. De Vriend der Wiskunde, 24, 1912, 89-103. "Les Nombres Positifs, Gand, 1912, 59-62.

Chap. XII]

CrITEEIA FOR DIVISIBILITY.

345

Assoc. Report, 35, 1865, 7 (trans.). Quest. Educ. Times, 8, 1868, 69, 111. F. Unferdinger [Gergonnei^], Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 59, 1869, II, 465-6. H. Anton for d = 9, 11, 13, 101, Archiv Math. Phys., 49, 1869, 241-308. W. H. Walenn, British Assoc. Report, 40, 1870, 16-17 (trans.); Phil. Mag., (4), 36, 1868, 346-8; (4), 46, 1873, 36-41; (4), 49, 1875, 346-351; (5), 2, 1876, 345; 4, 1877, 378; 9, 1880, 56, 121, 271. M. A. X. Stouff for d< 100, Nouv. Ann. Math., (2), 10, 1871, 104. J. Lubin, ibid., (2), 12, 1874, 528-30 (trivial). Szenic for d = 7, 9, 37, Von der Kongruenz der Z., Progr. Schrimm, 1873. E. Brooks for d = 7, Des Moines Analyst, 2, 1875, 129. W. J. Greenfield and M. Collins for d = 47, 73, Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 22, 1875, 87. F. da Ponte Horta for d = 7, 9, 11, 13, Jornal de Sciencias Mat. Ast., 1, 1877, 57-62. Mennesson for d = 7, Nouv. Corresp. Math., 4, 1878, 151; generahzation by Cesaro,

C.

M. Ingleby for d = 9, 11, British M. Jenkins for any prime d, Math.

p. 156.

C. Lange, for d = 7, 13, 17, 19, Ueber die Teilbarkeit der Zahlen, Progr., Berlin, 1879. F. Jorcke for d = 7, 9, 11, Ueber Zahlenkongruenzen Fraustadt, 1878. ., Progr, K. Broda for any base, Archiv Math. Phys., 63, 1879, 413-428. A. Badoureau for d = 19, Nouv. Ann. Math., (2), 18, 1879, 35-6. S. M. Drach for d = 7, Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 35, 1881, 71-2. W. A. Pick for d = 7, ibid., 38, 1883, 64. A. Evans for d = 7, Des Moines Analyst, 10, 1883, 134. K. Haas, Theilbarkeitsregeln ., Progr., Wien, 1883. G. Wertheim, Elemente der Zahlentheorie, 1887, 31-33. B. Adam for d<100, Ueber die Teilbarkeit. ., Progr. Gym. Clausthal, 1889. A. Loir for d<138. Jour, de math, elem., 1889, 66, 107-10, 121-3. A. G. Fazio [SchlegeP^], Sui caratteri. ., Palermo, 1889. E. Gelin, Mathesis, (2), 2, 1892, 65, 93; (2), 12, 1902, 65-74, 93-99 (extract in Mathesis, (3), 10, 1910, Suppl. I); Ann. Soc. Sc. Bruxelles, 34, 1909-10, 66; Recueil de problemes d'arith., 1896. Extracts by M. Nasso, Revue de Math. (ed., Peano), 7, 1900-1, 42-52. Speckmann, Dorsten, Haas, Dorr, Zeitschrift Math. Phys., 37, 1892, 58, 63, 128, 192, 383. Lalbaletrier, Jour, de Math, (ed., de Longchamps), 1894, 54. H. T. Burgess [Pascal*], Nature, 57, 1897-8, 8-9, 30, 55. A. Conti [Pascal*], Periodico di Mat., 13, 1898, 180-6, 207-9. F. Mariantoni, ibid., 149-151, 191-2, 217-8. T. Lange for d<30, Archiv. Math. Phys., (2), 16, 1898, 220-3. W. J. Greenstreet, Math. Gazette, 1, 1900, 186-7. Christie for d = 2^p,5'^p (p prime). Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 73, 1900, 119. A. Cunningham and D. Biddle for d = rp=i=l, ibid., 75, 1901, 49-50. M. Zuccagni for d = 7, Suppl. al Periodico di Mat., 6, fasc. V. Calvitti for d = 7, ibid., 8, fasc. IV. S. Dickstein, Wiad. Mat., Warsaw, 6, 1902, 253-7 (Pohsh). B. Niewenglowski, ibid., 252-3. Pietzker ford = 7, 11, 13, 27, 37, Unterrichtsblatter Math. Naturwiss., 9, 1903, 85-110. A. Church for d = 7, 13, 17, Amer. Math. Monthly, 12, 1905, 102-3. E. A. Cazes, Assoc, frang., 36, 1907, 55-63. A. Gerardin for d = 7, 13, 17, 37, 43, Sphinx-Oedipe, 1907-8, 2. M. Morale for d = 7, Suppl. al Periodico di Mat., 11, 1908, 103. *T. Ghezzi, ibid., 12, 1908-9, 129-130. Lenzi, II Boll. Matematica Gior. Sc.-Didat., 7, 1908.
.

346
R. Polpi,

History of the Theory of Numbers.

ibid., 8, 1909,

[Chap, xiii

281-5.

M. Morale

Mat., 13, 1909-10, 38-9. A. L. Csada, ibid., 56-8. *A. La Paglia, ibid., 14, 1910-11, 136-7, extension of Morale to any d. A. V. Filippov, 8 methods for d = 9, Kagans Bote, 1910, 88-92, No. 520. P. Cattaneo for rf= 11, II Boll. Matematica Gior. Sc.-Didat., 9, 1910, 305-6. per un numero a Matera, *L. Miceli, Condizioni di divisibility di un numero 1911, 8 pp. R. Ayza for d = a-10''l, Revista sociedad mat. espanola, Madrid, 1, 1911, 162-6. *Paoletti, II Pitagora, Palermo, 18, 1911-12, 128-132. *R. La Marca, Criteri di congruenza e criteri di divisibilita, Torre del Greco, 1912,
for d
13, Suppl. al Periodico di

= 7,

30 pp. K. W. Lichtenecker, Zeitschr. fur Realschulwesen, 37, 1912, 338-49. R. E. Cicero, Sociedad Cientifica Antonio Alzate, 32, 1912-3, 317-331. J. G. Gal6 for d = 7, Revista sociedad mat. espanola, 3, 1913-4, 46-7.
C. F. lodi for d = 7, 13, 17, 19, Suppl. al Periodico di Mat., 18, 1914, 20-3. E. Kylla for d=ll, Unterrichtsblatter Math. Naturwiss., 20, 1914, 156. R. Krahl for d = 7, Zeitschrift Math. Naturw. Unterricht, 45, 1914, 562. P. A. Fontebasso, II Boll. Matematica, 13, 1914-5. G. M. Persico, Periodico di Mat., 32, 1917, 105-124. Sammlung der Aufgaben in Zeitschrift Math. Naturw. Unterricht, 1898: ford=7, II, 337; IV, 404, 407; for d = 9, 11, XXIV, 606; XXV, 587-8; for d = 37, etc., XXVI, 18, 25-27.

..

>

Criteria for di\dsibility in connection with tables were given

by Barlow ,^^

Tarry6 ^nd

Lebon"

of

Ch. XIII, and Harmuth^^ of Ch. XIV.

Papers on Divisibility not Available for report.

Joubin, Jour. Acad. Soc. Sc. France et de I'Etranger, Paris, 2, 1834, 230. J. Lenth^ric, Th^orie de la divisibility des nombres, Paris, 1838. R. Volterrani, Saggio sulla divisione ragionata dei n. interi, Pisa, 1871. F. Tirelli, Teoria della divisibilita de' numeri, Napoli, 1875. Arezzo, 1890. E. Tiberi, Teoria generale sulle condizioni di divisibility J. Kroupa, Casopis, Prag, 43, 1914, 117-120. G. Schroder, Unterrichtsblatter fiir Math. Naturwiss., 21, 1915, 152-5.
. . .

CHAPTER

XIII.

FACTOR TABLES. LISTS OF PRIMES.

Eratosthenes (third century B.C.) gave a method, called the sieve or crib of Eratosthenes, of determining all the primes under a given limit I, which serves also to construct the prime factors of numbers <l. From the series of odd numbers 3, 5, 7, ... strike out the square of 3 and every third number after 9, then the square of 5 and every fifth number after 25, Proceed until the first remaining number, directly following that one etc. whose multiples were last cancelled, has its square >l. The remaining
,

numbers are primes. Nicomachus and Boethius^ began with 5 instead of with 5^, 7 instead of with 7^, etc., and so obtained the prime factors of the numbers <l. A table containing all the divisors of each odd number ^113 was printed at the end of an edition of Aratus, Oxford, 1672, and ascribed to Eratosthenes by the editor, who incorrectly considered the table to be the sieve of Eratosthenes. Samuel Horsley^ believed that the table was copied by some monk in a barbarous age either from a Greek commentary on the Arithmetic of Nicomachus or else from a Latin translation of a Greek manuscript, published by Camerarius, in which occurs such a table to 109. Leonardo Pisano^ gave a table of the 21 primes from 11 to 97 and a table giving the factors of composite numbers from 12 to 100; to determine whether n is prime or not, one can restrict attention to divisors ^ ^/n. Ibn Albanna in his Talkhys^ (end of 13th century) noted that in using the crib of Eratosthenes we may restrict ourselves to numbers ^ -y/l. Cataldi^ gave a table of all the factors of all numbers up to 750, with a separate list of primes to 750, and a supplement extending the factor table from 751 to 800. Frans van Schooten gave a table of primes to 9979. J. H. Rahn^ (Rhonius) gave a table of the least factors of numbers, not divisible by 2 or 5, up to 24000.
divisible

T. Brancker^ constructed a table of the least divisors of numbers, not by 2 or 5, up to 100 000. [Reprinted by Hinkley.^^]
Nicomachi; Arith. Boethii,

lib. 1, cap. 17 (full titles in the chapter on perfect Extracts of the parts on the crib, with numerous annotations, were given by Horsley.2 Cf. G. Bernhardy, Eratosthenica, Berlin, 1822, 173-4. 2Phil. Trans. London, 62, 1772, 327-347. 311 Liber Abbaci di L. Pisano (1202, revised 1228), Roma, 1852, ch. 5; Scritti, 1, 1857, 38. *Transl. by A. Marre, Atti Accad. Pont. Nuovi Lincei, 17, 1863-4, 307. "Trattato de' numeri perfetti, Bologna, 1603. Libri, Histoire des Sciences Math, en Italic, ed. 2, vol. 4, 1865, 91, stated erroneously that the table extended to 1000. Exercitat. Math., libri 5, cap. 5, p. 394, Leiden, 1657. ^Algebra, Zurich, 1659. WaUis,!"* p. 214, attributed this book to John Pell. *An Introduction to Algebra, translated out of the High-Dutch [of Rahn's' Algebra] into EngHsh by Thomas Brancker, augmented by D. P. [=Dr. Pell], London, 1668. It is cited in Phil. Trans. London, 3, 1668, 688. The Algebra and the translation were described by G. Wertheim, BibUotheca Math., (3), 3, 1902, 113-126.

*Introd. in Arith.

numbers).

347

348

History of the Theory of Numbers.

(Chap, xiii

D. Schwenter^ gave all the factors of the odd numbers < 1000. John Wallis^ gave a list of errata in Brancker's^ table. John Harris," D. D., F. R. S., reprinted Brancker's^ table. De Traytorens^^ emphasized the utility of a factor table. To form a table showing all prime factors of numbers to 1000, begin by multiplying by all other primes < 1000, then multiply 2X3 by all the primes, 2, 3, ..
.

then

2X3X5,

etc.

Joh. Mich. Poetius^^ gave a table (anatomiae numerorum) of all the prime factors of numbers, not divisible by 2, 3, 5, up to 10200. It was reprinted by Christian Wolf," Willigs,^^ and Lambert. ^-

Johann Gottlob
Jager of Niirnberg.

Krliger^*

gave a table

of

million, as in the title), stating that the table

primes to 100 999 (not to 1 was computed by Peter

James Dodson^ gave the least di\'isors of numbers to 10000 not divisible by 2 or 5 and the primes from 10000 to 15000. Etienne FranQois du Tour^^ described the construction of a table of all composite odd numbers to 10000 by multiplying 3, 5, ... 3333 by 3, ... 99. Giuseppe Pigri^^ gave all prime factors of numbers to 10000. Michel Lorenz Willigs^^ (Willich) gave all di\dsors of numbers to 10000. Henri Anjema- gave all divisors of numbers to 10000.
,

Rallier des Ourmes-^ gave as if new the sieve of Eratosthenes, placing 3 above 9 and every third odd number after it, a 7 above 49, etc. He expressed each number up to 500 as a product of powers of primes. J. H. Lambert^^ described a method of making a factor table and gave Poetius'^^ table and expressed a desire for a table to 102 000. Lagrange called his attention to Brancker's^ table. Lambert-^ gave [Ivriiger's^^] table showing the least factor of numbers

not
in

di\'isible by 2, 3, 5 up to 102000, and a table which were noted by KliigeP^.

of

primes to 102 000, errata

London, vol. 2, 1710 (under Incomposite Numbers). In ed. 5, London, 2, 1736, the table was omitted, but the text describing it kept. WaUis, Opera, 2, ,511, listed 30 errors. "Histoire de I'Acad. Roy. Science, ann6e 1717, Paris, 1741, Hist., 42-47. "Anleitung zu der Arith. Wissenschaft vermittelst einer parallel Algebra, Frkf u. Leipzig, 1728. "VoUst. Math. Lexicon, 2, Leipzig, 1742, 530. '*Gedancken von der Algebra, nebst den Primzahlen von 1 bis 1 000 000, Halle im Magd., 1746, Cf. Lambert. ^a "The Calculator. .Tables for Computation, London, 1747. "Histoire de I'Acad. Ro>. Sc, Paris, ann6e 1754, Hist., 8&-90. "Nuove tavole degli elementi dei numeri dall' 1 al 10 000, Pisa, 1758. "Griindhche Vorstellung der Reesischen allgemeinen Regel Rechnungsarten, Bremen u. Gottingen, 2, 1760, 831-976. ^Table des diviseurs de tous les nombres naturels, depuis 1 jusqu'4 10 000, Leyden, 1767, 302 pp. "M^m. de math, et de physique, Paris, 5, 1768, 485-499. "Bej-trage znm Gebrauche der Math. u. deren Anwendung, Berlin, 1770, II, 42. "Zusatze zu den logarithm ischen imd trig. Tabellen, BerUn, 1770. "Math. Worterbuch, 3, 1808, 892-900.
. .

Geometria Practica, Numb., 1667, I, 312. loTreatise of Algebra, additional treatise, Ch. Ill, 22, London, 1685. "Lexicon Technicum, or an Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences,

Chap. XIII]

FACTOR TABLES, LiSTS OF PrIMES.

349

Ozanam^^ gave a table of primes to 10000. A. F. Marci^^ gave in 1772 a list of primes to 400 000. Jean Bernoulli^^" tabulated the primes 16n+l up to 21601. L. Euler" discussed the construction of a factor table to one miUion.
J.

Given a prime p = 30ai

11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29,

(^

= 1,

7, 11, 13),

he determined for each

= l,
p,

7,

the least q for which

arranged the results in a single He showed how to use this auxiliary table to construct a factor 7 to 1000. table between given limits. C. F. Hindenburg^^ employed in the construction of factor tables a "patrone" or strip of thick paper with holes at proper intervals to show the multiples of p, for the successive primes p. A. FelkeP^ gave in 1776 a table of all the prime factors (designated by letters or pairs of letters) of numbers, not divisible by 2, 3, or 5, up to 408 000, requiring for entry two auxiliary tables. In manuscript^", the table extended to 2 million; but as there were no purchasers of the part printed, the entire edition, except for a few copies, was used for cartridges The imperial treasury at Vienna, at the cost of which in the Turkish war. the table was printed, retained the further manuscript. [See Felkel.^^] L. Bertrand^^ discussed the construction of factor tables. The Encyclopedie of d'Alembert, ed. 1780, end of vol. 2, contains a factor table to 100 000. Franz Schaffgotsch^^ gave a method, equivalent to that of a stencil for each prime p, for entering the factor p in a factor table with eight headings SOm+k, /c = 1, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, and hence of numbers not divisible by Proofs were given by Beguelin and Tessanek, ibid., 362, 379. 2, 3, or 5. The strong appeals by Lambert^^ that some one should construct a factor table to one million led L. Oberreit, von Stamford, Rosenthal, Felkel, and Hindenburg to consider methods of constructing factor tables and to prepare such tables to one million, with plans for extension to 5 or 10
^^Recreations Math., new ed., Paris, 1723, 1724, 1735, etc., ^^Primes "in quater centenis millibus," Amstelodami, 1772. 26aNouv. M6m. Ac. Berlin, ann^e 1771, 1773, 323.
I,

and table with p ranging over the primes from

is

SOq+r

divisible

by

p. 47.

Petrop., 19, 1774, 132; Comm. Arith., 2, 64. ''^Beschreibung einer ganz neuen Art nach einem bekannten Gesetze fortgehende Zahlen durch Abzahlen oder Abmessen bequem u. sicher zu finden. Nebst Anwendung der Methode auf verschiedene Zahlen, besonders auf eine damach zu fertigende Factorentafel

"Novi Comm. Acad.

Leipzig, 1776, 120 pp.

2*Tabula omnium factorum simphcium, numerorum per 2, 3, 5 non divisibilium ab 1 usque 10 000 000 [!]. Elaborata ab Antonio Felkel. Pars I. Exhibens factores ab 1 usque 144 000, Vindobonae, 1776. Then there is a table to 408 000, given in three sections. There is a copy of this complete table in the Graves Library, University College, London. Tafel aller einfachen Factoren der durch 2, 3, 5 nicht theilbaren Zahlen von 1 bis 10 000 000. Entworfen von Anton Felkel. I. Theil. Enthaltend die Factoren von 1 bis 144 000, Wien, 1776. There is a copy of this incomplete table in the hbraries of the Royal Society of London and Gottingen University. "Cf. Zach's Monatliche Correspondenz, 2, 1800, 223; Allgemeine deutsche BibUothek, 33, II, 495. '^Develop, nouveau de la partie ^1. math., Geneve, 1774. '''Gesetz, welches zur Fortsetzung der bekannten Pellischen Tafehi dient, Abhand. Privatgesellschaft in Bohmen, Prag, 5, 1782, 354-382.

350
million.

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, xiii

'^

Their extended correspondence with Lambert^^ was published. Of the tables constructed by these computers, the only one published is that by Felkel.-^ The history of their connection with factor tables has been
treated

by J. W. L. Glaisher.^ Johann Neumann^^ gave all the prime factors of numbers Desfaviaae gave a like table in the same year.
F. Maseres^^ reprinted the table of Brancker.^

to 100 100.

G. Vega^^ gave all the prime factors of numbers not divisible by 2, 3, or 5 000 and a list of primes from 102 000 to 400 031. Chernac hsted errors In Hiilsse's edition, 1840, of Vega, the Ust of primes extends in both tables. to 400 313. A. Felkel,^^ in his Latin translation of Lambert's'^^ Zusatze, gave all the prime factors except the greatest of numbers not divisible by 2, 3, 5 up to 102 000, large primes being denoted by letters. In the preface he stated that, being unable to obtain his extensive manuscript^" in 1785, he calculated again a factor table from 408 000 to 2 856 000. J. P. Griison^^ gave all prime factors of numbers not divisible by 2, 3, 5 to 10500. He^^'' gave a table of primes to 10000. F. W. D. Snell^ gave the prime factors of numbers to 30000. A. G. Kastner^^ gave a report on factor tables. K. C. F. Krause'*- gave a table of 22 pages showing all products < 100 000 of two primes, a table of primes < 100 000 with letters for 01, 03, ... 99, and (pp. 25-28) a factor table to 10000 by use of letters for numbers < 100. N. J. Lidonne^^ gave all prime factors of numbers to 102 000. Jacob Struve"*^" made a factor table to 100 by de Traytorens'^^ method. L. Chernac^ gave all the prime factors of numbers, not divisible by 2, 3 or 5, up to 1 020 000. J. C. Burckhardt*^ gave the least factor of numbers to 3 million. He did not compute the first million, but compared Chernac's table with a manuscript (mentioned in Briefwechsel,^^ p. 140) by Schenmarck which extended to 1 008 000. Cf. iVIeissel.''^
to 102
,

Heinrich Lamberts deutscher gelehrter Briefwechsel, herausgegeben von Joh. Bernoulli, "Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc, 3, 1878, 99-138. '^Tabellen der Primzahlcn und der Faktoren der Zahlen, welche unter 100 100, und durch 2, 3 Oder 5 nicht theilbar sind, Dessau, 1785, 200 pp. '*The Doctrine of Permutations and Combinations. ., London, 1795. '^Tabulae logarithmico-trigonometricae, 1797, vol. 2. **J. H. Lambert, Supplementa tab. log. trig., Lisbon, 1798. "Pinaeoth6que, ou collection de Tables. ., Berlin, 1798.
^'Joh.

Berlin, 1785, Leipzig, 1787, vol. 5.

''"Enthiillte

Zaubereyen u. Geheimnisse d. Arith., Berlin, 1796, I, 82-4. *Ueber eine neue und bequeme Art, die Factorentafeln einzurichten, nebst einer Kupfertafel der einfachen Factoren von 1 bis 30000, Gicssen and Darmstadt, 1800. "Fortsetzung der Rechenkunst, ed. 2, Gottingen, 1801, 566-582. ^'Factoren- und Primzahlentafel von 1 bis 100 000 neu berechnet, Jena u. Leipzig, 1804. "Tables de tous les diviseurs des nombres < 102 000, Paris, 1808. ^'''Handbuch der Math., Altona, II, 1809, 108. **Cribrum Arithmeticum Daventriae, Isil, 1020 pp. Reviewed by Gauss, Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen, 1812; Werke 2, 181-2. Errata, Cunningham.*' "Tables des diviseurs. 1 ^ 3 036 000, Paris, 1817, 1814, 1816 (for the respective three milliona), and 1817 (in one volume).
. .
.

'I;i

Chap. XIII]

FACTOR TABLES, LiSTS OF PrIMES.

351

P. Barlow^ gave the prime and power of prime factors of numbers to 10000 and a list of primes to 100 103. C. Hutton^^ gave the least factor of numbers to 10000. Rees' Cyclopaedia, 1819, vol. 28, Hsts the primes to 217 219. Peter Barlow^^ gave a two-page table for finding factors of a number iV< 100 000. The primes p = 7 to p = 313 are at the head of the columns, while the 18 numbers 1000, 9000, 10000, 20000, 90000 are in the lefthand column. In the body of the table is the remainder of each of the To test if p is a factor of N, add its latter when divided by the primes p. last two digits to the remainders in the line of hundreds and thousands in the column headed p and test whether the sum is divisible by p. J. P. Kulik'^^ gave a factor table to 1 million. J. HantschP gave a factor table to 18277; J. M. Salomon,^^ to 102 Oil. A. L. Crelle^^ gave the number of primes 4n+ 1 and the number of primes 4n+3 in each thousand up to the fiftieth. A. Guyot^^ hsted the primes to 100 000. A. F. Mobius,^^" using square ruled paper, inserted from right to left 0, 1, 2, ... in the top row of cells, and inserted n in each cell of the nth row below the top row whenever the corresponding number in the top row is divisible by n. We thus have a factor table. Certain numbers of the table Ue in straight lines, others in parabolas, etc. P. A. G. Colombier^^^ discussed the determination of the primes <V, given those < I. H. G. Kohler'^ gave a factor table to 21524. E. Hinkley^^ gave a factor table to 100 000, listing all factors of odd numbers to 20000 and of even numbers to 12500. F. Schallen^^"gave the prime and prime-power factors of numbers < 10000. F. Landry^*^ gave factor and prime tables to 10000. A. L. Crelle^^ discussed the expeditious construction of a factor table, and in particular a method of extending Chernac's^ table to 7 million. J. HoiieP^ gave a factor table to 10841. Jacob Philip Kulik (1773-1863) spent 20 years constructing a factor
.
.

*^New Mathematical Tables, London, 1814. Errata, Cunningham.^ and Math. Dictionary, 1815, vol. 2, 236-8. ^8New Series of Math. Repository (ed., Th. Leybourn), London, 4, 1819, II, 30-39. ^'Tafeln der einfachen Faktoren aUer Zahlen unter 1 million, Graz, 1825. 60Log.-trig. Handbuch, Wien, 1827. "Log. Tafeln, Wien, 1827. ^2Jour. fur Math., 10, 1833, 208. '^Thdorie g^nerale de la divisibihte des nombres, suivie d'applications varices et d'une table de nombres premiers compris entre et 100 000, Paris, 1835. 63a Jour, fvir Math., 22, 1841, 276-284. "^Nouv. Ann. Math., 2, 1843, 408-410. "Log.-trig. Handbuch, Leipzig, 1848. Errata, Cunningham.** ^^Tables of the prime numbers and prime factors of the composite numbers from 1 to 100 000, Baltimore, 1853. Reproduction of Brancker's* table. ssaprirjizahlen-Tafel von 1 bis 10000. ., Weimar, 1855. For 99 errata, see Cunningham.*^ 6*Tables des nombres entiers non divisibles par 2, 3, 5, et 7, jusqu' k 10201, avec leurs diviseurs simples en regard, et des carres des 1000 premiers nombres, Paris, 1855. Tables des nombres premiers, de 1 l 10000, Paris, 1855. "Jour, ftir Math., 51, 1856, 61-99. "Tables de log., Paris, 1858.
<Thil.
.

352

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Ch.u'.

xiii

table to 100 million; the manuscripts^ has been in the library of the Vienna Royal Academy since 1867. Lehmer^- gave an account of the first of the eight volumes of the manuscript, listed 226 errors in the tenth million, and

concluded that Kulik's manuscript is certainly not accurate enough to warrant publication, though of inestimable value in checking a newly Lehmer^^ gave a further account of this manuscript constructed table. Volume 2, running from 12 642 600 to which he examined in Vienna. eight volumes contained 4,212 pages. The missing. is 800 852 22 B. Goldberg*^" gave all factors of numbers prime to 2, 3, 5, to 251 647. Zacharias Dase,^^ in the introduction to the table for the seventh million, printed a letter from Gauss, dated 1850, giving a brief history- of previous tables and referring to the manuscript factor table for the fourth, fifth and Although sixth milUons presented to the Berlin Academy by A. L. Crelle. Gauss was confident this manuscript would be pubhshed, and hence urged Dase to undertake the seventh million, etc., the Academy found the manuDase died script to be so inaccurate that its publication was not ad\'isable. in 1861 lea\'ing the seventh million complete and remarkably accurate, the eighth nearly complete, and a large part of the factors for the ninth and tenth millions. The work was completed by Rosenberg, but ^vith numerous The table for the tenth million has not been printed the manuscript errors. to the Berlin Academy in 1878, but no trace of it was found presented was when Lehmer^- desired to compare it with his table of 1909. C. F. Gauss^- gave a table showing the number of primes in each thousand up to one million and in each ten thousand from one to three million, with a
;

comparison with the approximate formula jdx/log

x.

V. A. Lebesgue^^ discussed the formation of factor tables and gave that to 115500 constructed by Hoiiel. W. H. Oakes^ used a complicated apparatus consisting of three tables on six sheets of various sizes and nine perforated cards (cf. Committee, ^^ p. 39). W. B. Da\as^s considered numbers in the vicinity of 10^, and of 10^^ E. MeisseP^ computed the number of primes in the successive sets of 100 000 numbers to one million and concluded that Burckhardt's*^ table gives correctly the primes to one million.

by Kulik. Abh. Bohm. Gesell. Wiss., Prag, (5), 11, 1860, 24, footnote. A report on the manuscript was made by J. Petzval, Sitzungsberichte Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 53, 1866, II, 460. Cited by J. Perott, I'interm^iaire des math., 2, 1895, 40; 11, 1904, 103. "Primzahlen- u. Faktortafeln von 1 bis 251 647, Leipzig, 1862. Errata, Cunningham." 'Factoren-Tafeln fur alle Zahlcn der siebenten MilUon Hamburg, 1862; .der achten MilUon, 1863;. .der neuhten MilUon (erganzt von H. Rosenberg), 1865. ^Posthumous manuscript, Werke, 2, 1863, 435-447. Tables diverses pour la decomposition des nombres en leurs facteurs premiers, M6m. soc. sc. phys. et nat. de Bordeaux, 3, cah. 1, 1864, 1-37. Machine table for determining primes and the least factors of composite numbers up to 100 000, London, 1865. Jour.de Math., (2), 11, 1866, 188-190; Proc. London Math. Soc, 4, 1873, 416-7. Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 7, 1867, 77; 8, 1868, 30-1. Math. Annalen, 2, 1870, 63&-642. Cf. 3, p. 523; 21, 1883, p. 304; 25, 1885, p. 251.
Cited
.

Chap. XIII]

FACTOR TABLES, LiSTS OF PRIMES.

353

J. W. L. Glaisher" gave for the second and ninth millions the number of primes in each interval of 50000 and a comparison with lix' lix, where

lix

= jdx/log

X [more precise definition at the end of Ch. XVIII].

committee^^ consisting of Cayley, Stokes, Thompson, Smith, and Glaisher prepared the Report on Mathematical Tables, which includes (pp. 34-9) a list of factor and prime tables. J. W. L. Glaisher^^ described in detail the method used by his father^" and gave an account of the history of factor tables. Glaisher^^" enumerated the primes in the tables of Burckhardt and Dase. He^^" Glaisher^^^ tabulated long sets of consecutive composite numbers. enumerated the prime pairs (as 11, 13) in each successive thousand to 3 million and in the seventh, eighth, and ninth millions. E. Lucas^^'' wrote P(q) for the product of all the primes ^ q, where q If xP(g)l are both composite, xP{q)n,. ., is the largest prime < n. xP{q),. ., xP{q)-\-n give 2n+l composite numbers. Glaisher^^' enumerated the primes 4n4-l and the primes 4n+3 for intervals of 10000 in the kth milUon for k = l,2, 3, 7, 8, 9. James Glaisher'^ filled the gap between the tables by Burckhardt^^ and Dase". The introduction to the table for the fourth million gives a history Lehmer^^ praised the accuracy of of factor tables and their construction. Glaisher's table, finding in the sixth million a single error besides two mis.

prints.

Tuxen'^^ gave a process to construct tables of primes.

Groscurth and Gudila-Godlewksi, Moscow, 1881, gave factor tables. *V. Bouniakowsky'^^" gave an extension of the sieve of Eratosthenes. W. W. Johnson'^^'' repeated Glaisher's'^ remarks on the history of tables. P. Seelhoff^^ gave large primes /c-2"+l {k< 100) and composite cases. Simony'^^ gave the digits to base 2 of primes to 2^^ = 16384. L. Saint-Loup^^ gave a graphical exposition of Eratosthenes' sieve.

H.

Vollprecht'^^ discussed the construction of factor tables.

Cf. W. W. Johnson, Des Moines for 1872, 1873, trans., 19-21. Analyst, 2, 1875, 9-11. 68Report British Association for 1873, 1874, pp. 1-175. Continued in 1875, 305-336; French transl., Sphinx-Oedipe, 8, 1913, 50-60, 72-79; 9, 1914, 8-14. "Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc, 3, 1878, 99-138, 228-9. Extracts by W. W. Johnson, 69'/6id., 17-23, 47-56; Report British Assoc, 1877, 20 (sect.). Des Moines Analyst, 5, 1878, 7. s'^-Messenger Math., 7, 1877-8, 102-6, 171-6; French transl., Sphinx-Oedipe, 7, 1912, 161-8. ^^'^Ibid., 8, 1879, 28-33. 9*/6id., p. 81. C. Gill, Ladies' Diary, 1825, 36-7, had noted that xP(q)+j is composite for

"Report British Association

j = 2,...,q-l. BseReport British Assoc, 1878, 470-1; Proc. Roy. Soc. London, 29, 1879, 192-7. ^"Factor tables for the fourth, fifth and sixth millions, London, 1879, 1880, 1883. "Tidsskrift for Mat., (4), 5, 1881, 16-25. 'iMemoirs Imperial Acad. Science, St. Petersburg, 41, 1882, Suppl, No. 3, 32 pp. "^Annals of Math., 1, 1884-5, 15-23. Reprinted, Sphinx-Oedipe, 4, 1909, 95-6. "Zeitschrift Math. Phys., 31, 1886, 380. "Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 96, II, 1887, 191-286. ^^Comptes Rendus Paris, 107, 1888, 24; Ann. de I'^cole norm., (3), 7, 1890, 89-100.

"Ueber

die Herstellung

von Faktorentafehi,

Diss. Leipzig, 1891.

354

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap, xiii

C. A. Laisant'^^" would exhibit a factor table by use of shaded and unshaded squares on square-ruled paper without using numbers for entries. G. Speckmann'^'' made tri\aal remarks on the construction of a list of
primes. P. Valerio' arranged the odd numbers prime to 5 in four columns according to the endings 1, 3, 7, 9. From the first column cross out the first multiple 21 of 3, then the third following number 51, etc. Similarly for the other columns. Then use the primes 7, 11, etc., instead of 3. J. P. Gram" pubhshed the computation by N. P. Bertelsen of the
of primes to ten million in intervals of 50000 or less, which led to the detection of numerous errors in the tables of Burckhardt^^ and Dase." 9 in the first row, 10, 19 G. L. Bourgerel"^ gave a table with 0, 1, Then all multiples of a chosen in the second row (with 10 under 0), etc. number lie in straight lines forming a paralellogram lattice, with one branch through 0. For example, the multiples of 3 appear in the Une through 0, 12, 24, 36, ... the parallel through 3, 15, 27, ... the parallel 21, 33, 45, ... also

number

in a second set of parallels 3, 12, 21, 30; 6, 15, 24, 33, 42, 51, 60; etc. E. Suchanek" continued to 100 000 Simony's^^ table of primes to base 2.

D. von Sterneck^" counted the number of primes 100 n-|- 1 in each tenth of a million up to 9 million and noted the relatively small variation from onefortieth of the total number of primes in the interval. H. Vollprecht^^ discussed the determination of the number of primes by use of the primes < v^A. Cunningham and H. J. WoodalP^ discussed the problem to find all the primes in a given range and gave many successive primes >9 million. They^^a ^^^^^^ jj^y primes between 2241020.

<N

H. Schapira^^'' discussed algebraic operations equivalent to the sieve of Eratosthenes. *V. Di Girio, Alba, 1901, applied indeterminate analysis of the first degree to define a new sieve of Eratosthenes and to factoring. John Tennant^ wrote numbers to the base 900 and used auxiliary tables. A. Cunningham^" gave long lists of primes between 9-10^ and 10^^
serves to

Ph. Jolivald^ noted that a table of all factors of the first 2n numbers tell readily whether a number <4n+2 is prime or not.

^'"Assoc. frang., 1891, II, 165-8. 7**Archiv Math. Phys., (2), 11, 1892, 439-441. 'La revue scientifique de France, (3), 52, 1893, 764-5. "Acta Math., 17, 1893, 301-314. List of errors reproduced in Sphinx-Oedipe, 5, 1910, 49-51. ^*La revue scientifique de France, (4), 1, 1894, 411-2.

"Sitzunpsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 103, II a, 1894, 443-610. '"Anzeiger K. Akad. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 31, 1894, 2-4. Cf. Kronecker, p. 416 below. "Zeitschrift Math. Phys., 40,. 1895. 118-123. "Report British Assoc, 1901, 553; 1903, 561; Messenger Math., 31, 1901-2, 165; 34, 1904-5, 72, 184; 37, 1907-8, 6.5-83; 41, 1911, 1-16. s^^Report British Assoc, 1900, 646. 'Jahresber. d. Deutschen Math. Verein., 5, 1901, I, 69-72. "Quar. Jour. Math., 32, 1901, 322-342. *^Ibid., 35, 1903, 10-21; Mess. Math., 36, 1907, 145-174; 38, 1908, 81-104; 38, 1909, 145-175; 39, 1909, 33-63, 97-128; 40, 1910, 1-36; 45, 1915, 49-75; Proc London Math. Soc, 27, 1896, 327; 28, 1897, 377-9; 29, 1898, 381-438, 518; 34, 1902, 49. L'intermfidiaire des math., 11, 1904, 97-98.

Chap. XIII]

FaCTOK TaBLES, LiSTS OF PRIMES.

355

A. Cunningham^^ noted errata in various factor tables. *J. R. Akerlund^^" discussed the determination of primes by a machine. Gaston Tarry^^ would use an auxiliary table (as did Barlow in 1819) to tell by the addition of two entries (< |p) if a given number < iV is divisible by a chosen prime p. For = 10000, he used the base 6 = 100, and gave a table showing the numerically least residues of the numbers r<h and the multiples of b for each prime p<b. Then nh-\-r is divisible by p if the residues of nh and r are equal and of opposite sign. For A^ = 100 000, he used 6 = 60060 = 2-91-330 and wrote numbers in the form m6+330g+r, q<90, r<330; or, again, 6 = 20580. Ernest Lebon" used such tables with the base 30030 = 2-3-5-7-lM3, or its product by 17. Ernest Lebon,^^ J. Deschamps,^^ and C. A. Laisant^'''' discussed the con-

struction of factor tables.

C. Morehead^ extended the sieve of Eratosthenes to numbers The case a = 2, .) in any arithmetical progression. detail, with remarks on the construction of a table to serve as a factor table for numbers m-2''=t 1. L. L. Dines^^ treated the case a = 6, 6 = =fcl, and the factorization of numbers m-Q'^^l. D. N. Lehmer^^ gave a factor table to 10 million and listed the errata in the tables by Burckhardt, Glaisher, Dase, Dase and Rosenberg, and Kulik's tenth million, and gave references to other (shorter) lists of errata. E. B. Escott^^" listed 94 pairs of consecutive large numbers all of whose prime factors are small. L. Aubry^^ proved that a group of 30 consecutive odd numbers does not contain more than 15 primes or numbers all of whose prime factors exceed 7. Cunningham^^" listed the numbers of 5 digits with prime factors ^ 11
J.

ma^+6 (m = l, 2, 3,. 6= 1, is discussed in

85Messenger Math., 34, 1904-5, 24-31; 35, 1905-6, 24. ss^Nyt Tidsskrift for Mat., Kjobenhavn, 16A, 1905, 97-103.
8Bull. Soc.

Philomathique de Nancy, 1906-7, 39-41.

Paris, (9), 8, 1906, 174-6, 194-6; 9, 1907, 56-9. Sphinx-Oedipe, Assoc, Tablettes des Cotes, Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1906.

"Comptes Rendus Paris,

math.,
9,

frang. avanc. sc, 36, 1907, II, 32-42; 41, 1912, 38-43. 151, 1905, 78. Bull. Amer. Math. Soc, 13, 1906-7, 74.

L'enseignement

1907, 185.

Bull. Soc.

PhUomathique de

1908, 4-9, 66-83; (10), 2, 1910, 171-7. 49-55; 37, 1909, 33-6; 41, 1912, 44-53; 43, 1914, 29-35. Rend. Accad. Lincei, Rome, (5), Sphinx-Oedipe, 1908-9, 81, 97. BuU. Sc. Math. 15, 1906, I, 439; 26, 1917, I, 401-5. El6m., 12, 1907, 292-3. II Pitagora, Palermo, 13, 1906-7, 81-91 (table serving to factor numbers from 30030 to 510 510). Table de caract6ristiques relatives a le base 2310 des facteurs premiers d'un nombre inf^rieur k 30030, Paris, 1906, 32 pp. Comptes Rendus Paris, 159, 1914, 597-9; 160, 1915, 758-760; 162, 1916, 346-8; 163, 1916,259-261; 164, 1917, 482-4. *8Jomal de sciencias math., phys. e nat., acad. sc. Lisbona, (2), 7, 1906, 209-218. 89Bull. Soc. Philomathique de Paris, (9), 9, 1907, 112-128; 10, 1908, 10-41. s'^Assoc. frang., 41, 1912, 32-7. soAnnals of Math., (2), 10, 1908-9, 88-104. ^Ubid., pp. 105-115. s^Factor table for the first ten milhons, Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 105, 1909. '^''Quar. Jour. Math., 41, 1910, 160-7; I'interm^diaire des math., 11, 1904, 65; Math. Quest, Educ. Times, (2), 7, 1905, 81-5. "bSphinx-Oedipe, 6, 1911, 187-8; Problem of Lionnet, Nouv. Ann. Math., (3), 2, 1883, 310. '^'^Math. Quest. Educ. Times, (2), 21, 1912, 82-3.

Paris, (9), 8, 1906, 168, 270; (9), 10, Assoc, frang. avanc. sc, 36, 1907, II, 11-20,

356

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xni

E. Lebon'' stated that he constructed in 1911 a table of residues p, p' permitting the rapid factorization of numbers to 100 million, the manuscript being in the Bibliotheque de I'lnstitut. H. W. Stager^ gave theorems on numbers which contain no factors of the form p{kp-\-l), where k>0 and p is a prime, and listed all such numbers

< 12230.
listed the primes to ten million. A. G^rardin^^ discussed the finding of all primes between assigned limits by use of stencils for 3, 5, 7, 11,. .. He^^ described his manuscript of an auxiliary table permitting the factoring of numbers to 200 million. He^^" gave a five-page table serving to factor numbers of the second million. Cor14867 is an entr\' P such that A^ = 1 000 000+P responding to each prime If a value of P is not in the table, A^ is prime (the P's is diWsible by M. range up to 28719 and are not in their natural order). By a simple division one obtains the least odd number in any million which is divisible by the 14867. given prime C. Boulogne^^ made use of lists of residues modulis 30 and 300. H. E. Hansen^^ gave an impracticable method of forming a table of primes based on the fact that all composite numbers prime to 6 are products = 6xy='X+y of two numbers 6x 1, while such a product is QN=^ 1, where or Qxyx y. A table of values of these A^'s up to k serves to find the comTo apply this method to factor 6N=^ 1, seek an posite numbers up to 6A-. expression for A^ in one of the above three forms. N. AUiston^ described a sieve (a modification of that by Eratosthenes) to determine the primes 4n+l and the primes An l. H. W. Stager^"^ expressed each number < 12000 as a product of powers of primes, and for each odd prime factor gave the values >0 of A: for all divisors of the form p{kp-{-l). The table thus gives a list of numbers which include the numbers of Sylow subgroups of a group of order ^ 12000. In Ch. XVI are cited the tables of factors of a^+1 by Euler,^' Escott,^^ Cunningham^^ and WoodalP; those of a--\-k- (^* = 1, 9) of Gauss"; those l, 2/^2, y'=t. 1, x^zti/^, 2=tg, etc., of Cunningham.^^- ^"^ of ?/" Concern-

Lehmer'^

M^

M^

ing the sieve of Eratosthenes, see No\'iomagus-^ of Ch..I, Poretzkj^^ of Ch.

V, :MerUn"^ and de Polignac^*^"-^ of Ch. XVIII. Saint-Loup" of Ch. XI, Re>Tnond^^^ and Kempner^^^ of Ch. XIV, represented graphically the divisors of numbers, while Kulik^^ gave a graphical determination of primes.
L'interin6diaire des math., 19, 1912, 237. University of California Public, in Math.,
*LiHt of
1, 1912, No. 1, 1-26. prime numbers from 1 to 10,006,721. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 165, 1914. introduction gives data on the distribution of primes.

The

"Math. Gazette,

7,

1913-4, 192-3.

'Assoc, frang. avanc. sc, 42, 1913, 2-8; 43, 1914, 26-8. /bw/., 43, 1914, 17-26.

"^Sphinx-Oedipe, s^rie sp4ciale. No.

1,

Dec,

1913.

L'enseignement math., 17, 1915, 93-9. Cf. pp. 244-5 for remarks by G^rardin. """Math. Quest. Educat. Times, 28, 1915, 53. '"A Sylow factor table of the first twelve thousand numbers. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No.
151, 1916.

CHAPTER

XIV.
Two
Squares.

METHODS OF FACTORING.
Factoring by Method of Difference of

Fermat^ described his method as follows: "An odd number not a square can be expressed as the difference of two squares in as many ways as it is the product of two factors, and if the squares are relatively prime the But if the squares have a common divisor d, the given number factors are. is divisible by d and the factors by VrfGiven a number n, for example 2027651281, to find if it be prime or composite and the factors in the latter Extract the square root of n. I get r = 45029, with the remainder case. Subtracting the latter from 2r+l, I get 49619, which is not a 40440. square in view of the ending 19. Hence I add 90061 = 2+2r+l to it. Since the sum 139680 is not a square, as seen by the final digits, I again add to it the same number increased by 2, i. e., 90063, and I continue until the sum becomes a square. This does not happen until we reach 1040400, For by an inspection of the sums mentioned it is easy the square of 1020. to see that the final one is the only square (by their endings except for
499944). To find the factors of n, I subtract the first number added, 90061, from the last, 90081. To half the difference add 2. There results The sum of 12 and the root r is 45041. Adding and subtracting the 12. root 1020 of the final sum 1040400, we get 46061 and 44021, which are the two numbers nearest to r whose product is n. They are the only factors since they are primes. Instead of 11 additions, the ordinary method of factoring would require the division by all the numbers from 7 to 44021." Under Fermat,^^^ Ch. I, was cited Fermat's factorization of the number

100895598169 proposed to him by Mersenne in 1643.

to iV to make the sum a square. C. F. Kausler^ would add 1^, 2^, C. F. Kausler^ proceeded as follows to express 4m+l in the form p^ q^. = Q(2i3+l)+/3(|8+l). Then q is even, q = 2Q. Set p-q = 2^-\-l. Then Subtract from in turn the pronic numbers i8(/3+l), a table of which he gave on pp. 232-267, until we reach a difference divisible by 2/3+1. Ed. Collins,^ in factoring by expressing it as a difference of two squares, let g^ be the least odd or even square > A^, according as 1 or 3 (mod 4), = g^ r. If r is not a square, set r = h^ c, where h^ is the even and set = g^ or odd square just >r, according as r is even or odd, whence c = 4d, h^-\-4:d. By trial find integers x, y such that both g^-\-x and h^-\-y are squares, while x y = 4id. Then will be a difference of two squares.
. .

N=

of a letter of about 1643, Bull. Bibl. Storia Sc. Mat., 12, 1879, 715; Oeuvres de Fermat, 2, 1894, 256. At the time of his letter to Mersenne, Dec. 26, 1638, Oeuvres, 2, p. 177, he had no such method. "Euler's Algebra, Frankfort, 1796, III, 2. Anhang, 269-283. Cf. Kausler, De Cribro Eratos-

^Fragment

thenis. 1812.

Nova Acta Acad. Petrop.,

14,

ad annos 1797-8
6,

(1805), 268-289.

<BuU. Ac. Sc. St. Pdtersbourg,

1840, 84-88.

357

358

History of the Theory of Numbers.

Chap, xivi

method of Ferinat, eliminating certain squares by and others by the use of moduU. C. Henry^ stated that Landry's method is merely a perfection of the method given in the article "nombre premier" in the Dictionnaire des Math^matiques of de Montferrier. It is improbable that the latter invented the method (based on the fact that an odd prime is a difference of two squares in a single way), since it was given by Fermat. We F. Thaarup^ gave methods to limit the trials for x in x'^ y^ = n. may multiply n by f = a^ b^ and investigate nf = X" Y^, X = ax by,
F. Landr>'* used the
their endings

Y = bx ay.
based on the
C.
J.

We may

test small values of y, or

apply a mechanical test

last digit of n.

into general algebraic

Busk^ gave a method essentially that by Fermat. It was put form by W. H. H. Hudson.^ Let be the given

number, n" the next higher square.

Then
...,

N=^n'-ro={n+iy-r,=
where ri,
r^,... are
..

formed from

ro

by

2n+5, of two

Thus

r^ = ro+27?27i+??r.

successive additions of 2?i l, 2nH-3, If r^ is a square, iV is a difference

squares.

A.

Cunningham
is

{ibid., p.

559) discussed the conditions

under w^hich the method

practical, noting that the labor is prohibitive

except in favorable cases such as the examples chosen by Busk. = A~B'^ by use of the final two digits. J. D. Warner^*" would make A. Cunningham^^ gave the 22 sets of last two digits of perfect squares, as an aid to expressing a number as a difference of two squares, and described the method of Busk, which is facilitated by a table of squares. F. W. Lawrence^ ^ extended the method of Busk (practical only when the given odd number iV is a product of two nearly equal factors) to the case in which the ratio of the factors is approximately l/m, where I and If I and ??? are both odd, subtract from bnN in turn the are small integers. where o^ just exceeds ImN, and see if any remainder squares of a, a+1, If so, ImN = (a+ T)'^ 6^. is a perfect square (6") G. Wertheim^^ expressed in general form Fermat's method to factor = a~+r. and set an odd number ?n. Let a^ be the largest square = {a-{-l-\-n) If p=2a+l r is a square (n^), we eliminate r and get (a+1 n). If p is not a square, add to p enough terms of the arithmetic progression 2a +3, 2a+5, to give a square:

<m

p+(2a+3)-}-...H-(2a+2n-l)=s".
'Aux math^maticiens de toutes les parties du monde: communication sur la decomposition des nombres en leurs facteurs simples, Paris, 1867. Letter from Landry to C. Henry, Bull.
Bibl. Storia Sc. Mat.. 13, 1880, 469-70. Assoc, frang. av. sc, 1880, 201; Oeuvres de Fermat, 4, 1912, 208; Sphinx-Oedipe, 4, 1909, 3 Trimestre, 17-22. ^Tidsskrift for Mat., (4), 5, 1881, 77-85.

Nature, 39, 1889, 413-5. 'Nature, 39, 1889, p. 510. 'Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sc, 39, 1890, 54r-7. "Mess. Math., 20, 1890-1, 37-45. Cf. Meissner.i" 137-8. "/Wd., 24, 1894-5, 100. Zeit8chrift Math. Naturw. Unterricht, 27, 1896, 256-7.

Chap. XIV]

METHODS OF FACTORING.

359

= {a-\-ny-s^. The method is the more rapid the smaller the difference of the two factors. M. Neumann^^ proved that this process of adding terms leads finally to a square and hence to factors, one of which may be 1.
sum of the two factors of n by 2a and the by 2b, whence n = a^ 6^. Let q be the remainder obtained by dividing n by a chosen prime p, and write down the pairs of numbers < p such that the product of two of a pair is congruent to q modulo p. If or 3 p = 7, q = S, the pairs are 1 and 3, 2 and 5, 4 and 6, whence 2a=4, (mod 7). Using various primes p and their powers, we get limitations on a which together determine a. The work may be done with stencils. The method was used by Lawrence^^ to show that five large numbers are primes, including 10, 11 and 12 place factors of 3^^ 1, 10^^ 1, 10^^ 1, respectively. The same examples were treated by other methods by D. Biddle.^^ A. Cunningham^'^ remarked that in computing by Busk's method a k for which {s+kyN is a, square, we may use the method of Lawrence, just described, to limit greatly the number of possible forms of k. F. J. Vaes^^ expressed N in the form a^ b"^ by use of the square a^ just >A^ and then increasing a by 1, 2, ... and gave (pp. 501-8) an abbreviation of the method. He strongly recommended the method of remainders If is a factor oiG = h^ g^, and iig={G l)/2 has the remainder (p 425) p r when divided by p, then h={G+l)/2 must have the remainder r+1, so that p is a factor of 2r-\-l=G. For example, let G = 80047, whence
F.

Then 2an+n^-r = s^ and

W.

Lawrence^^ denoted the

difference

= 200H23 = 20M99+24 = 202-198+27,....

. . .

For

= 24,

27, 32,
gr

we

see that

2r+l

is

not a multiple of 201, 202,

until

we reach

P. F.
-{-2ak-{-b.

= 209-191 +p, p=104, 2p+ 1 = 209. Thus 209 divides G. Teilhet^^ wrote N = a^-b in the form (a+kY-P, where P = k^
Give to k successive values
.
.

(by additions to P), until 1, 2, square v^. To abbreviate consider the residues of P for small prime moduli. E. Lebon^ proceeded as had Teilhet^^ and then set /=a+A; y. Then
.

P becomes a

2kf={a-fy-b,
and we examine primes /< a to see if k is an integer. M. Kraitchik^^ would express a given odd number A ifx^ by use of various moduli p. Let A = r (mod p) and let Oi,
"Zeitschrift

in the
.
.
.

form

a be the

Math. Naturw.

Unfcerricht, 27, 1896, 493-5; 28, 1897, 248-251.

"Quar. Jour. Math., 28, 1896, 285-311.

French

transl.,

Sphinx-Oedipe,

5,

1910, 98-121, with 1910, 130-6.

an addition by Lawrence on g^ +1. isProc. Lond. Math. Soc, 28, 1897, 465-475.
"/bid., 69, 1898, 111. iProc. Sect. Sciences

French
cf.

transl.,

Sphinx-Oedipe,

5,

i^Math. Quest. Educat. Times, 71, 1899, 113-4;

93-99.

Akad. Wetenschappen Amsterdam, 4, 1902, 326-336, 425-436, 501-8 (EngUsh); Verslagen Ak. Wet., 10, 1901-2, 374-384, 474-486, 623-631 (Dutch). Cf. Sphinx-Oedipe, 1906-7, 49-50, 55. i^L'intermediaire des math., 12, 1905, 201-2. "Assoc, franc, av. sc, 40, 1911, 8-9. ^^Sphinx-Oedipe, Nancy, Mai, 1911, num^ro special, pp. 10-16.

360

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xiv

quadratic residues of p. Then r-\-x'^=ai (mod p). Thus a, r must be a^ the terms for which a^ r is not a quadratic residue. Reject from Oi, We get the possible residues of x modulo p. His method to facin the set. tor 0"=*= 1 is the same as Dickson's^^^ and is applied to show that the factor (273_|_237 4-i)/(5.239-9929) of 2"^+l is a prime in case it has no factor between 10500 and 108000. Kraitchik" extended the method of Lawrence. The F. J. Vaes^^ applied his^^ method to factor Mersenne's^ number. same was factored by various methods in L'lnterm^diaire des Math6maticiens, 19, 1912, 32-5. J. Petersen, ibid., 5, 1898, 214, noted that its product by 8 equals k^+k, where A: = 898423.
.

Method of Factoring by Sum of Two Squares.

Frenicle de Bessy^^ proposed to

Fermat that he
as

factor h given that

h = a^+b''-=c'+(f,

221 = 100+121 = 196+25.

In 1647, Mersenne^^ (of Ch. I) noted that a number is composite if it be of two squares in two ways. L. Euler^^ noted that iV is a prime if it is expressible as a sum of two is composite squares in a single way, while if iV = a^+5^ = c^+d^,

sum

{{a-cY+{h-d)'} {{a+cy+ih-d)']
4(6 -d)2

a number A'" = 4n+1 is expressible as the sum of For, if iV were in a single way, it is a prime. composite, then N={d^-{-b^){c^+d^) is the sum of the squares of ac^bd and is composite; If iV = a^+6^ = c^+d^, ad=f^bc, contrary to hypothesis. for if w^e set a = c-\-x, d = b-\-y, and assume* that the common value of
Euler^' proved, that,
if

two relatively prime squares

2cx-\-x^

and

2by-\-'if' is

of the

form

xyz,

we

get

2c = yz-x,

2b

= xz-y,

N = b'^+c^+xyz = \{x'^-]-y^){l+z^), N N

whence

x^-\-y^ or {x^+y^)/4: is a factor of N. To express iV as a sum of two to limit the squares in all possible ways, use is made of the final digit of x^ which are squares. squares x^ to be subtracted in seeking differences Several numerical examples of factoring are treated in full. Euler-^ gave abbreviations of the work of applying the preceding test. For example, if 4n+l=5m+2 = x^+!/^, then x and y are of the form
"Sphinx-Oedipe, 1912, 61-4. i^L'enseigncment math., 15, 1913, 333-4. "Oeuvres de Fermat, 2. 1894, 232, Aug. 2, 1641. "Letters to Goldbach, Feb. 16, 1745, May 6, 1747; Corresp. Math. Phys.
313, 416-9.

(ed.,

Fuss),

I,

1843,

"Novi Comm. Ac.

Petrop., 4, 1752-3, p. 3; Comm. Arith., 1, 1849, 165-173. *Euler gave a faultless proof in the margin of his posthimious paper, Tractatus, 570, Comm. Arith., 2, 573; Opera postuma, I, 1862, 73. We have {a+c)ia-c) = {b+d){d-b) =pqrs, a+c = pq,ac = rs, b+d = pr, db = qs [since, if pbe theg. c. d. of a+c, b+d, then g(ac) is divisible by r, whence ac = rs]. Hence a2+6^ = (p*+a^)(g'+r')/4. Novi Comm. Ac. Petrop., 13, 1768, 67; Comm. Arith., 1, 379.

Chap. XIV]

METHODS OF FaCTOKING.

361

5p 1. To express a number as x^+y^, subtract squares in turn and seek a remainder which is a square. N. Beguehn^^ proposed to find x such that 4pV+ 1 is a prime by excluding the values x making the sum composite. The latter is the case if
4pV+l=462+(2c+l)2,
Set X = q+b/p.
a;2

= ^!^.

Then b is expressed rationally in terms of c and the known = Taking l, he derived a tentative process for finding a prime, of the p. p form 4x^+1, which exceeds a given number a. L. Euler^ proved that 1000^+3^ is prime since not expressible as a sum of two squares another way. A. M. Legendre^"" factored numbers represented as a sum of two squares in two ways. J. P. Kulik's^"^ tables VIII and IX, relating to the ending of squares, serve to test if 4n+l is a sum of two squares and hence to test if it be prime
or composite.

Th. Harmuth^^ suggested testing

relatively prime,

a^-j-b^ for factors,

where a and

b are

by noting that

it is

divisible

and

for each

p = 13, 17, 29, 37, prime p = 4n+l. G. Wertheim^^ explained in full Euler's^'' method of factoring. = A^+B^ = C^+D'^ R. W. D. Christie and A. Cunningham^^ granted and showed how to find a,...,dso that N={a^+b^){c^-\-cP). Similarly, if = x^-\-Py'^ in two ways.
similar facts for

a= =t 1, 6= 2 (mod 5) there being p 1 sets of values of a, b

by
5
if

Factoring by Use of Binary Quadratic Forms.

ways

number is composite if it be expressible in two form/ = ax^+i(32/^. The product of two numbers of the form/ is of the form g = aPx^+y^; the product of a number of the form / by one of the form g is of the form /. If for m>2 a composite number mp is expressL. Euler^^ noted that a
in the

v^ /*

.fi'*^

ible in

a single

way

in the

form

/,

there exist an infinitude of composite

numbers mq expressible
A''

in a single

way by /.

He

called (34) a

number

idoneal (numerus idoneus) if, for a^ = N, every number representable hy f = ax^+^y^ (with ax relatively prime to ^y) is a prime, the square of a prime, the double of a prime or a power of 2, so that a number representable by / in a single way is a prime. It suffices to test N+y^<4N, y prime to N. He gave (39, p. 208) the 65 idoneal numbers 1, 2, ., 1848 less than 10000.
. .

Sc. BerUn, 1777, ann6e 1775, 300. soNova Acta Petrop., 10, 1792 (1778), 63; Comm. Arith., 2, 243-8. ^'^Theorie des nombres, ed. 3, i830, I, 310. Simplification by Vuibert, Jour, de math. 6\em.,
10, p. 42.

"Nouv. M^m. Acad.

3obTafebi der

Quadrat und Kubik Zahlen "Archiv Math. Phys., 67, 1882, 215-9.

Cf. I'interm^diaire des math., 1, 1894, 167, 245; 18, 1911, 256. ... bis hundert Tausend, Leipzig, 1848.

32Elemente der Zahlentheorie, 1887, 295-9.

"Math. Quest. Educat. Times,

"Nova Acta

(2), 11, 1907, 52-3, 65-7, 89-90. Petrop., 13, 1795-6 (1778), 14; Comm. Arith., 2, 198-214.

362

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xiv

Euler^* used the idoneal number 232 to find all values of a < 300 for which 232a- + 1 is a prime, by excluding the values of a for which 232a^-hl

= 232x~-\-y-,y>l.
Euler^^ noted that

N = a~ -\-\b- = x^ +\y^ imply

a=^x = \mp, nq;
y=^h = mq, np,

N = l(\nr+n'^){\p^-\-q^),
so that Xp^
his^'

+ g-, or its half or quarter, is a factor of A''. He gave (p. 227) former table of 65 idoneal numbers. Given one representation by If cur 4-/3?/", where a/3 is idoneal, he sought a second representation. A^ = 4n + 2 is idoneal, 4iV is idoneal. Euler^*^ called mx--\-ny- a congruent form if everj' number representable by it in a single way (with x, y relatively prime) is a prime, the square of a prime, the double of a prime, a power of 2, or the product of a prime by a Then also vinx~-\-y~ is a congruent form and conversely. factor of vin. The product mn is called an idoneal or congruent number. His table of 65 He stated rules for deducing idoneal numbers is reproduced (18, p. 253). He factored numbers idoneal numbers from given idoneal numbers. expressed in two ways by ax^+/3i/-, where a/S is idoneal, and noted that a composite number may be expressible in a single way in that form if a^ is not idoneal. Euler^^ proved that the first five squares are the only square idoneal numbers. C. F. Kausler^- proved Euler's theorem that a prime can be expressed in a single way in the form mx'^-\-ny'^ ii m, n are relatively prime. To find a prime v exceeding a given number, see whether 38a:- +5?/^ = v has a single set As the labor is smaller the of positive solutions x, y; or use 1848x"+?/^. larger the idoneal number 38-5 or 1848, it is an interesting question if there be idoneal numbers not in Euler's list of 65. Cf. Cunningham. ^^ Euler"*^ gave the 65 idoneal numbers n (with 44 a misprint for 45) such that a number representable in a single way by nx~-\-y'^ {x, y relatively prime) is a prime. By using n = 1848, he found primes exceeding 10 million. N. Fuss^ stated the principles due to Euler.^^ E. Waring^^ stated that a number is a prime if it be expressible in a single
way
in the form ar-\-mh^ and conversely. A. M. Legendre"*^ would express the number A to be factored, or one of its multiples kA in the form t~+air, where a is as small as possible and within the limits of his Tables III-YII of the linear forms of divisors of f^au^.
,

Nova Acta Petrop.,

/Wd., p. 11;

14,

Comm.

1797-8 (1778). 3; Arith., 2, 220-242.

Ck)mm. Arith., 2, 215-9. For X = 2, Opera postuma,

2,

I,

1862, 159.

"/Wd..

1794 (1778), 22; Comm. Arith., "/6wf., 15, ad annos 1799-1802 (1778), 29; "Ibid., 156-180.
12,

249-260.
Arith., 2, 261-2.

Comm.

"Nouv. M^m.
270-1.

Berlin,

ann6e 1776, 1779, 337;

letter to Beguelin,

May,

1778;

Comm.

Arith., 2,

**Ibid., 340-6 Medit. Algebr., ed. 3, 1782, 352. ^h6orie des nombres, 1798, pp. 313-320; ed. 2, 1808, pp. 287-292. Cf. Sphinx-Oedipe, 1906-7, 51. 1, 329-336.

German transl. by Maser,

Chap. XIV]

METHODS OF FACTORING.
divisors of

363

Then the

are included

converted into a continued fraction, let +/)/!) be a complete = p^ kAq^, quotient, and p/q the corresponding convergent. Then so that the divisors of A are divisors oi p^=f=D. C. F. Gauss'*^ stated that the 65 idoneal numbers n of Euler and no other numbers have the two properties that all classes of quadratic forms of determinant n are ambiguous and that any two forms in the same genus (Geschlecht) are both properly and improperly equivalent. Gauss^^ gave a method of factoring a number based on the determination of various small quadratic residues of M. Gauss^^ gave a second method of factoring based on the finding of by forms x^+D, where D is idoneal. representations of F. Minding^ gave an exposition of the method of Legendre.^^ P. L. Tchebychef^^ gave a rapid process to find many forms x^^ay^ which represent a given number A or a multiple of A. Then a table of the linear forms of the divisors of x^^ay^ serves to limit the possible factors
is

VS

among

these linear forms.

When

(VM

^D

of

A.

Tchebychef^^ gave theorems on the limits between which lie at least one set of integral solutions of x^ Dy^ = iV. If there are two sets of soluis composite. tions within the limits, There are given various tests for primality by use of quadratic forms.

C. F. Gauss^^ left posthumous tables to facilitate factoring by use of second method. F. Grube^^ criticized and completed certain of Euler's proofs relating to idoneal numbers, here called Euler numbers. While Gauss^^ said it is easy to prove Euler's*^ criterion for idoneal numbers, Grube could prove only the following modification: Let Q, be the set of numbers D+n^^4Z) in which n is prime to D. According as all or not all numbers of 12 are of the form q, 2q, q"^, 2^ {q a prime), is or is not an idoneal number. E. Lucas^^ proved that if p is a prime and A; is a positive integer, and p = x^+ky^, then pT^Xi^+ky^^ for values Xi, yi distinct from ^x, ^y. P. Seelhoff^^ made use of 170 determinants (including the 65 idoneal numbers of Euler and certain others of Legendre), such that every reduced form in the principal genus is of the type ax^-\-by^. To factor A^ seek among the numbers of which iV is a quadratic residue several values
his*^

<^Disq. Arith., 1801, Art. 303. "7btd., Arts. 329-332.

*mid., Arts. 333-4.

s^Anfangsgriinde der Hoheren Arith., 1832, 185-7. "Theorie der Congruenzen (in Russian), 1849; German transl. by H. Schapira, 1889, Ch. 8, pp. 281-292. "Jour, de Math., 16, 1851, 257-282; Oeuvres, 1, 73. Werke, 2, 1863, 508-9. "Zeitschrift Math. Phys., 19, 1874, 492-519. "Nouv. Corresp. Math., 4, 1878, 36. [Euler."] "Archiv Math Phys., (2), 2, 1885, 329; (2), 3, 1886, 325; Zeitschrift Math. Phys., 31, 1886, 166, 174, 306; Amer. Jour. Math., 7, 1885, 264; 8, 1886, 26-44.

364
for

History of the Theory of Numbers.

which

[Chap,

xiv

is

represent able

by

x^-\-my-.

For example,

if

iV = 31-2^*-f 1,

Eliminating 19-83 between the

first

two,

we

get

nN = w'^ 7f.

This with

In general, when elimination of common the third leads to factors of N. by the factors of the 77i's has led to representations of two multiples of unless it be prime. same form x~+ny^, we may factor H. Weber^^ computed the class invariants for the 65 determinants of Euler and remarked that there is no known proof of the fact found by

induction by Euler and Gauss that there are only 65 determinants such that classes belonging to the determinant are ambiguous and hence each genus has only one class. T. Pepin^^ developed the theory of Gauss'^^ posthumous tables and the means of deducing complete tables from the given abridged tables. Pepin^* showed how to abridge the calculations in using the auxiliary tables of Gauss in factoring a" 1, where a and n are primes. D. F. Seliwanoff^ noted that the factoring of numbers of the form t' Du- reduces to the solution of {D/x) = \, all solutions of which are easily found by use of six relations by Euler on these Jacobi symbols {D/x) E. Lucas" gave a clear proof of Euler's remark that a prime can not be expressed in two ways in the form Ax~-\-By-, if A, B are positive integers. S. Levanen^^ showed and illustrated by examples and tables how binary quadratic forms may be applied to factoring. G. B. ^Mathews*"^ gave an exposition of the subject. T. Pepin^ applied determinants 8n 3 for which each genus has three The paper is devoted mainly to the solution classes of quadratic forms. of X-+ (871+3)?/"" = 4A, where A is the number to be factored. had been tested and found T. Pepin^^ assumed that the given number Let Xx+1, Xy+1 be the two factors of N, to have no prime factor ^p.
all

p+N/p.

and each between p and N/p. The sum of the factors lies between Let xy = u, x+y=pz. Then {N l)/\ = Xxy+x+y gives

2VW

which special values are assigned to p. This equation yields a quadratic congruence for w" with respect to an arbitrary prime modulus, used as an excludant. The method applies mainly to numbers a^=^l. E. Cahen^^ used the linear divisors of x^ + Dy'^.
in
'"Math. Annalen, 33, 1889. 390-410. "Atti Accad. Pont. Nuovi Lincei, 48, 1889, 135-156. "Ibid., 49, 1890. 163-191. "Moscow Math. Soc, 15, 1891, 789; St. Petersburg Math. See, 12, 1899. 'Th6orie des nombres, 1891, 356-7. "^vereigt af finska Vetenskaps-Soc. forhandlingar, 34, 1892, 334-376. "Theory of Numbers, 1892, 261-271. French transl., Sphinx-Oedipe, 1907-8, 155-8, 161-70. "Memorie Accad. Pontif. Nuovi Lincei, 9, I, 1893, 46-76. Cf. Pepin," 332. ;6iV/., 17, 1900-1, 321-344; Atti, 54, 1901, 89-93. Cf. Meissner"*, 121-2. "filaments de la th^orie des nombres, 1900, 324-7. Sphinx-Oedipe, 1907-8, 149-155.

Chap. XIV]

METHODS OF FACTORING.
J.

365

A.

Cunningham" and
10"^

Cullen listed the 188 prime numbers x^+18482/^

of

between

and 101-10^, with x prime to 1848?/. A. Cunningham^ ^ noted that two representations

lead to factors of
that,

N under certain conditions.

by

ixx^-\-vy^

A. Cunningham^^ recalled that an idoneal number / has the property if an odd number A'' is expressible in only one way in the form = mx^-\-ny^, where mn = I, and mx^ is prime to ny^, then A" is a prime or the square of a prime. Euler's largest I is 1848. There is no larger I under 50000, a computation checked by J. Cullen. Cunningham noted on the proof-sheets of this history that this limit has been extended to 100 000. A. Cunningham^" noted conditions that an odd prime be expressible by f^qu" when q or q'l^ idoneal.

method of factoring. and applied Gauss' ^^'^^ two methods. P. Meyer^^ discussed Euler's theorem that, if n is idoneal, a number
F. N. Cole'^^ discussed Seelhoff's^^
Al. Laparewicz^^ described

representable only once

Euler^^'^^

by x^-\-ny'^

is

a prime.

R. BurgwedeF^ gave an exposition and completion of the method of

L. Valroff stated

and an exposition of the methods of Gauss.^^'*^ and A. Cunningham'^^" proved that (Dx'^ a^) (Dy"^ a^)
4:

= Dz^ a^ implies that one factor is composite unless x^ = y^ = when o = 1, D = 2, and in the remaining cases if the two factors are distinct and > 1.
A. Gerardin'^^ gave a method illustrated for We shall have a second such representation

N = a^ 5-29^, where a = 6326. N = (a-{-5xy 5y^

if
.

E=5x^+2ax+841=y^.
Use is made of various moduli ? = 4, 3, 7, 25, ... On square-ruled paper, mark x = 0, 1, 2, at the head of the columns. On the line for modulus m, shade the square under the heading x when x makes E a quadratic nonresidue of m. Then examine the column in which occurs no shaded square. Up to x^l5, these are x = (excluded), and x = 4, which gives A = 6346^ 5-227^ and the factor 99^ 5-2^. The same diagram serves for all numbers 1050 ff +671, our N being given by i7 = 38108. To apply the method to A = (2a;)*+1 = (4x^+1)^ 2(2x)^, seek a second representation N=(4x^ +2p + lY-2{2uy. The condition is {2p-\-l)x^+Mp-j-l)=u^, solutions 6^, 35^, ... of which are found for p = 1, 8, 9, Or we may choose x, say
.

X = 48, and find p = S, u = 198.

s^Brit. Assoc.

Reports, 1901, 552. The entry 10098201 "Proc. London Math. Soc, 33, 1900-1, 361. 976id., 34, 1901-2, 54.
"^Ibid., (2), 1, 1903, 134.

is

erroneous.

7iBuU. Amer. Math. Soc, 10, 1903-4, 134-7. "Prace mat. fiz., Warsaw, 16, 1905, 45-70 (PoUsh). ^'Beweis eines von Euler entdeckten Satzes, betreffend die Bestimmung von Primzahlen, Diss.,

Strassburg, 1906. '^Ueber die Eulerschen und Gausschen Methoden der Primzahlbestimnaung, Diss., Strassburg, 1910, 101 pp. '*Sphinx-Oedipe, 7, 1912, 60, 77-9. "Wiskundig Tijdschrift, 10, 1913, 52-62.

366

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xiv

cially those of the

G^rardin^ gave a note on his machine to factor large numbers, espeform 2x^ 1.

Factoring by Method of Final Digits.

of factoring N, not divisible limits factor table. For example, within the of a by or or To treat one of the in factors end 9,9. 1,1 3,7 its N=10a+l; let four cases, consider a factor lOx+3, the quotient being 102+7. Then z is Give to x the values 1, 2, ., and test the quotient of a 2 7x by lOx+3. He gave a a 9 for the factor 13, a 16 for 23, etc., by the factor table. lengthy extension^^ to di\'isors 100j+10/+gr. Again, to factor iV = 2a l, given a table extending to N/2, note that if 2xH-l is a divisor of N, it F. J. Studnicka^^ quoted the last di\'ides ax, which falls in the table.
2, 3, or 5,

Johann Tessanek^ gave a tedious method

when A^/10

is

result.

TT

N. Beguelin^ would factor iV = 4p+3 by considering the final digit of = (A'' 1 1)/4 and hence find the proper line in an auxihary table (pp. 291-2)

each line containing four fractional expressions. Proceed with each until we reach a fraction whose numerator is zero. Then its denominator is a
factor of A^.
is

Georg Simon KliigeP noted that a number, not divisible by 2, 3 or 5, form 30x+m (m = l, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29). Suppose 10007 = (30x+w)(30!/+n). Then {m, n) = (l, 17), (7, 11), (13, 29) or (19, 23). For m = 1, n = 17, we get 333-?/
of the

^=3o^Ti7'

^<^' y<^'

But X is not integral for y = 0, 1, 2, 3. Johann Andreas von Segner {ibid., 217-225) took two pages to prove that any number not divisible by 2 or 3 is of the form 6n='= 1 and noted that, given a table of the least prime factor of each 6n=tl, he could factor any number within the limits of the table! Sebastiano Canterzani^^ would factor 10^ + 1, by noting the last digits
possibilities for the digit
If one factor ends in 7, there are 10 preceding 7; if one ends in 1 or 9, there are five A. Niegemann^^" used the same method. cases; hence 20 cases in all. Anton Niegemann^ gave a method of computing a table of squares arranged according to the last two digits. Thus, if A76 = {l0x Qy, then
1,

or 3, 7 or 9, 9 of its factors.

\s30c. fran?. avanc. sc, 43, 1914, 26-8. Proc. Fifth Internat. Congress, II, 1913, 572-3; Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1912-3, 405. Abhandl. einer Privatgesellschaft in Bohmen, zur Aufnahme der Math., Geschichte, Prag, I,
. .

1775, 1-64.

"M.

Cantor, Geschichte Math., 4, 1908, 179. "Casopis, 14, 1885, 120 (Fortschr. der Math., 17, 1885, 125). "Nouv. Mdm. Ac. Berhn, ann^e 1777 (1779), 265-310. *Leipziger Magazin fiir reine u. angewandte Math, (eds., J. Bernoulli und Hindenburg), 1, 1787, 199-216. "Memorie dell' Istituto Xazionale Italiano, Classe di Fis. e Mat., Bologna, 2, 1810, II, 445-476. ""Entwickelung Theilbarkeit, Jahresber. Kath. Gymn. Kobi., 1847-8, 23. "Archiv Math. Phys., 45, 1866, 203-216
. .

^'11

Chap. XIV]

METHODS OF FACTORING.

367

whence 12a:+4 is divisible by 10, so that a: = 5(i 2. 4:, Then A=25d'^ 2Qd+Q. Thus if we delete the last two digits 7 6 of squares A7Q, we obtain numbers A whose values for d = l, 2, can be derived from the initial one 5 by successive additions of 49, 49+50, 49+2-50,
,
. .

A0 = 10x^ 12x

gave such results for every pair of possible endings of squares. A similar method is applied to any composite number. One case when the last two digits are m, 1 and Aml = (10a; 1)(10?/ 1). Then

He

is

A0 = 10xy y x m,
The discriminant
of

y+x+m = 10a,

must be be formed by successive additions. G. Speckmann^^ noted that the two factors of AT" = 2047 end in 1 and 7 Treating the first case, we see that, if a and b are the digits in or 3 and 9. tens place, 6+7a=4 (mod 10), so that the factors end in 01 and 47, or 11 and
of the last equation

A = 10axx'^mx a. a square. A table of values

for each a

may

77, etc.

G. Speckmann^^ wrote the given number prime to 3 in the form 9a +6 (6<9), so that the sum of its digits is =6 (mod 9). By use of a small auxiliary table we have the residues modulo 9 of the sums of the digits of every possible pair of factors. R. W. D. Christie^^ and D. Biddle^ made an extensive use of terminal
digits.

E. Barbette^ ^ noted that lOd+u has a divisor lOw 1 if and only d+?nw has that divisor. Set d-\-'mu = n(10m l), d = 10d'+u'. Then

if

mn = d'-\-x,

lOx = 'mu-\-n-\-u'.

Eliminating n, we get a quadratic for m. Its discriminant is a quadratic function of x which is to be made a square. Similarly for lOm 1, 10m 3. A. Gerardin^^" developed Barbette's^^ method. R. Rawson^^ found Fermat's^ factors of a number proposed by Mersenne by writing it to the base 100 and expressing it as (a- 10^ +23) (6 -10^ +3). J. Deschamps^^ would use the final digits and auxiliary tables. A. Gerardin^ would factor (prime to 2, 3, 5) by use of

iV=120n+i^=(120x+a)(120i/+6),
and a table showing, for each of the 32 values of K< 120, the 16 pairs o, b (each< 120) such that ab=K (mod 120). He factored Mersenne's number.^
Factoring by Continued Fractions or Fell Equations.

Franz von Schaffgotsch^"" would factor a by solving az^-^l

ssArchiv. Math. Phys., 14, "Archiv Math. Phys., (2), 12, 1894, 435. "Math. Quest. Educat. Times, 69, 1898, 99-104. Cf. Meissner,"^ 138-9.
'"/feid.,

= x^

(having

1896, 441-3.

87-88, 112-4; 71, 1899, 93-9; Mess. Math., 28, 1898-9, 120-149, 192 (correction). Cf. siMathesis, (2), 9, 1899, 241. Meissner,"8 137-8. "Sphinx-Oedipe, 1906-7, [1-2, 17, 33], 49-50, 54, 65-7, 77-8, 81-4; 1907-8, 33-5; 5, 1910, s^Math. Quest. Educat. Times, 71, 1899, 123-4. 145-7; 6, 1911, 157-8. "^BuU. See. Philomathique de Paris, (9), 10, 1908, 10-26. s'Assoc. frang., 38, 1909, 145-156; Sphinx-Oedipe, Nancy, 1908-9, 129-134, 145-9; 4, 1909, 3 Trimestre, 17-25. iAbh. Bohmischen Gesell. Wiss., Prag, 2, 1786, 140-7.

368
solutions
if

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xiv

Further,

a is not a square) and testing x" 1 for a factor in common with a. ay-\-l=x'^ does not hold for l<x<a 1, then a is a power of a prime and conversely [false if a = 10]. Marcker^*'^ noted that if there are 2n terms in the period of

and Q = 0, Q' = a, Q" = a'P' -Q',.

p_i 1, r
then the nth

^~Q'' p/_ r p
is

.,^

ptf
'

_ ^~Q"^ pf
is

or its half

a factor of A.

If

a prime, then the nth

x'^

Pis

2.

from a solution x of J. G. Birch^- derived a factor of continued fraction for x/{N x) is of the form
1

= Ny+l.

The

J_
1

J_

Go-

+01+02+

+a2+ai+ao'
.

ill

the continuant defined as the determinant with Oq, Oi,. ., a_i, On) On-i>- > Oi, Oo in the main diagonal, elements +1 just above this Then the continudiagonal, elements 1 just below, and zeros elsewhere. ant with the diagonal ao> > o_i is a factor of N.

and

is

W. W.

R. BalP^ appHed this method to a number of Mersenne.^ A. Cunningham^*^ noted that a set of solutions of ifDx^ = 1 gives at
7/"

sight factors of

+ l.
factoring
for
/c

M. V. Thielmann^o^ illustrated his method by The partial denominators in the continued fraction
12056.

= 36343817.
1, 1, 2, 1, 1,

\/^ are

term and pass to the ordinary fraction 7/12. Hence The least solution is x = 4, y = 2\. Using the part set (12x+7)^ = 12^i/+l. of the period preceding the middle term it = 2, we get
last

Drop the

Y^ = -^,
Hence
^"
ifc

P = l,

M=

2,
<

Q = iyM+2P = 6,

u = MQ =
n,

\2.

21m^ = 1

has the solution

= 55.

For a suitably chosen

= wV+2^n+21= (2g2n+^^ Uu^n+^-^X

the largest integer ^ Q/2. Here n = 502 and the factors of k are and 2-22n+3. + D. N. Lehmer^''^ noted that if jR = pg' is a product of two odd factors whose difference is <2y/R, so that Kp 9)^<V7^, then

where q
2-3"n

is

x'-Rf = \{V-q?
has the integral solutions x = (p+g')/2, y = \. Hence i(p g')^ is a denominator of a complete quotient in the expansion of y/R, as a continued fraction,
""Jour, fur Math., 20, 1840, 355-9. Cf. I'interm6diaire dea math., 20, 1913, 27-8. J^Mcsa. Math., 22, 1892-3. 52-5. 'o'/6id., p. 82-3. French transl., with Birch"^, Sphinx-Oedipe, 1913, 86-9. >"/6id., 35, 1905-6, 166-185; abat. in Proc. London Math. Soc. 3, 1905, xxii. '""Math. Annalen, 62, 1906, 401. IM Bull. Amer. Math. Soc, 13, 1906-7, 501-2. French transl., Sphinx-Oedipe, 6, 1911, 138-9.

Chap. XIV]

Methods of Factoring.

369

view of the theorem of Lagrange: If x^Ry'^=^D has relatively prime integral solutions x, y, where is a denominator of a com\/r, then plete quotient in the expansion of \/r as a continued fraction.
in

D<

Factoring by use of Various Moduli.

C. F. Gauss^^ gave a "method of exclusion," based on the use of various small moduli, to express a given number in a given form mx^+ny^.

number N may be obtained by comparing the solution x = (l){N) of 2''=1 (mod N) with the least positive solution x = a found by a direct process such Since 2" = NK+l, multiply the given N by the unknown as the following K, each expressed in the binary scale (base 2), add 1 and equate the result to The digits of K are found seriatim and very simply. 10. .0. H. J. WoodalP^^ expressed the number N to be factored in the form
:
.

V. Bouniakowsky^^^ noted that information as to the prime factors of a

^a_|_^6_^
.

+r, where

r< 1000,

while

a,

/3,

are small, but not necessarily

Hence the residues of N with respect to various moduli are readily found by tables of residues. F. Landry^^^ employed the method of exclusion by small moduli. D. Biddle^^^ investigated factors 2Ap + l by using moduli A^, 4A^. C. E. Bickmore, A. Cunningham and J. CuUen^^^ each treated the large factor of 10^^+1 by use of various moduli, and proved it is prime. J. Cullen"^" gave an effective graphical process to factor numbers by the use of various moduli; the numbers to be searched for in a diagram
distinct.

are

all

small.

Alfred Johnsen^^^ used Rt(p) to denote the numerically least residue of

p modulo

t.

Then, for every

p,

t,

k,

Hs a factor of divisible by t. In practice take k^ to be the nearest square to p, larger or smaller. For example, let p = 4699, k^ = 4624 = 68^ p-k'' = 75. Then
If
t

[Rmf+Ri(p-k')^Rt(p) (modO. the given number p, the left member will be

370

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xiv

iV [Bouniakowsky^^^].

K. P. Nordlund^^^ would use the exponent e to which 2 belongs modulo For A^ = 91, e = 12 is not a divisor of iV 1, so that A^ is composite, and we expect the factor 13. L. E. Dickson"^ found the factors of 56'1, 26'Hl, 34^^-}-l, 52^Hl by an expeditious method. For example, each factor of

is

=l(mod

14).

Let 6 =
A'+;i-i

(l

+ 14A;)(l + 14A'i).

Then
/:+A'i

+ 14A'A-i=4Ar,

= 4+14/1.

are the roots of a quadratic whose discriminant Q is of the Thus h and In. By use of various moduli which are powers of small in second degree of is limited step by step, until finally at most a half form h primes, the to be tested directly. h remain of dozen values
A-j

L. E. Dickson^ ^ gave further illustrations of the last method. J. Schatunovsky^^ reduced to a minimum the number of trials in

Gauss'^^

method of exclusion, taking the simplest case m = \. He gave on the linear forms of the factors of a"~H-D6^, which lead easily to theorems all its odd factors when D is an odd prime. H. C. Pocklington^^^ would use Fermat's theorem to tell whether A" is prime or composite. Choose an integer x and find the least positive residue But if it be unity, let p be a of x^"^ modulo A''; if p^l, A'' is composite. the largest) of A^ 1 and contained a times in it. prime factor (preferably r is divided when x"* by A', where 7n = (A' l)/p. If Find the remainder r If 6>1, we have a factor of A^. 1 and A^. Tt^I, let 6 be the g. c. d. of = But if r = 1, replace If 6 1, all prime factors of A^ are of the form Ap^ + l. m by mlq^ where q is any prime factor of m and proceed as before. D. Biddle^^^" made use of various small moduli. A. Gerardin^^^'' used various moduli to factor 77073877.
See papers 14, 15, 21, 22, 48, 65.

Factoring Into
G.

W. Kraft^" ^^^^^

^hat

Two Numbers 6nl. 6a+l = (6w+l)(6n+l) implies

_ am

^~6m + l'
Find which 7?? = 1, 2, 3, makes n an integer. Ed. BartP^ tested 6-186+5 for a prime factor less than 31, just less than its square root, by noting that 186, 185, 184, 183, 182 are not divisible
.

by

5, 11, 17, 23, 29,

respectively; while the last of 7, 13, 19

is

a factor.

'"Gotcborps Kunpcl. Vetenskaps. Hand!., (4), 1905, VII-VIII, pp. 21-4. Amer. Math. Monthly, 15, 1908, 217-222. "'Quar. Jour. Math., 40, 1909, 40-43. ""Der Grosste GemeinschaftUche Teller von Algebr. Zahlen zweiter Ordnung, Diss. Strassburg, Leipzig, 1912. >"Proc. Cambridge Phil. Sec, 18, 1914-5, 29-30. "'"Math. Quest. Educat. Times, (2), 25, 1914, 43-6. "'"L'enseignement math., 17, 1915, 244-5. '"Novi Comm. Ac. Petrop., 3, ad annos 1750-1, 117-8. ""Zur Theorie der Primzahlen, Progr. Mies, Pilsen, 1871.

Chap. XIV]

Methods of Factoring.

371
of factors of

Landry ^^^ treated the possible pairs 6n 1 and 6n' 1 Taking for example the case of the upper signs, we have
F.

N.

Qnn'+n-\-n' =
Set

- =
6

Qq-\-r.

n+n' = 6/i+r.

Then nn' = q h, whence

h=
-

qn'(rn')
-

6n'

+l

Give to n' values such that 6n'+l is a prime < ViV. K. P. Nordlund^25 treated Qp-l = {Qm+l){Qn-l) solved for m. D. Biddle^^^ applied the method to 6nl. Hansen,^^ of Ch. XIII, used this method.
Miscellaneous Methods of Factoring.
odd, set r = Bi, Bi

Matsunaga^^^ wrote the number to be factored in the form r^+R. For 2 = B2, Bg 2 = ^3, ... and perform the following

calculations

R = Q,B,+Au
Ai+K2' = Q2B2+A2,
A2-\-Ks' =
etc., until

K2'^^K,+4,

Q3Bs+As,

K2 = 2Q2-\-K2', K3 = 2Qs+Ks',

K3' = 7^2+8,

we reach A = 0; then Bn is a factor, If r is even, set r 1 = Bi and replace i? by jR + 1 in what precedes. J. H. Lambert ^^ used periodic decimals [see Lambert,^ Ch. VI]. Jean Bernoulli^^^ gave a method based on that of Lambert (Mem. de Math. Allemands, vol. 2). Let A=a^+b have the factors ax and a+x+y. Then x^ = ay xy b. Solve for a:. Thus 2/^+ 4a?/ 46 must be a square. Take y = l, 2, and use a table of squares. J. Gough^^^ gave a method to find the factors r, s of each number f^ c between (/ 1)^ and/^. For example, let/=3 and make a double row for each r = l,. ., /. In the upper row for r = l, insert 2/ 1,. .., 1, 0; in the /^. lower, (/ 1)^, In the upper row for r = 2, insert 1 (the remainder .,
.

=l

372

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xiv

2), 1+2, 1+2+2 under 1, 3, 5 of the first row for r = l; in insert 4 (the quotient), 4 1, 4 2. To factor/^ c, locate row, the lower the given c; thus, for c = 3, the factors are s = 6, headed by column the = = = Since c = 2 occurs only in the first row, 9 2 is prime. r 2. and s r 1 3, Joubin,^^^ J. P. Kulik,^^^ 0. V. Kielsen,i36 ^^d G. K. Winter^^e published papers not accessible to the author. E. Lucas gave methods of factoring and tests for primes (Ch. XVII). in the form S^-\-A, where D. Biddle^" wrote the proposed number S- is the largest square < A^. Write three rows of numbers, the first beginning with A, or A S if A >S; the second beginning with S (or S+1) and increasing by 1 the third beginning with S and decreasing by 1. Let A^, Then B, C be the nth elements in the respective rows.

on dmding/^ by

except that, when i4>C, we subtract C from An as often (say k times) 1+A:. WTien we as will leave a positive remainder, and then B = 5_i = BJJn- For example, if reach a value of n for which i4 = 0, we have iV = 589 = 13, the rows are 14 17 1 9 13

24H

24 24
It

25 23

26 22

28
21

29 20

31 19

(factors 31, 19).

may

prove best to start with 2N instead of with N. O. Meissner^^^ reviewed many methods of factoring. R. W. D. Christie^^^ gave an obscure method by use of "roots."
Christie"" noted that,
if

N = AB,
B = (46Ar+dHd)/2,
d=a-hc,

A = {4hN+d''-d)/i2b), whence d'' = {B-h Ay.

D. Biddle"^ gave a method of finding the factors of given those of AT+l. SetL = iV-l. Try to choose i^ and so that i(:iV/ = iV+ 1 and is a factor of N. so that 1 Since 2N={l-\-K) M-\-L M,we will have L-M=il+K)m, whence 2N={l+K){M+m). For iV=1829, A^+1

+Z

= 2-3-5-61. Take K = 30, He gave {ibid., p. 43) the the sum of r terms of

M = 61.

Then

m = 57,

M+w = 2-59, iV = 31-59.

is

theoretical test that

N = S^+A

composite

if

is

an integer

for

some value

of

r.

'*Sur lea facteura num6riques, Havre, 1831. >Abh. K. Bohm. Gesell. Wiss., 1, 1841 (2, 1842-3, 47, graphical determination of primes). "HDra et heel tals upplosning i factorer, Kjobenhavn, 1841. "Madras Jour. Lit. Sc, 1886-7, 13. "'Mesa. Math., 28, 1898-9, 116-20; Math. Quest. Educat. Timea, 70, 1899, 100, 122; 75, 1901,

48; extension, (2), 29, 1916, 43-6.

"Math. Naturw. Blatter, 3, 1906, 97, 117, 137. "'Math. Quest. Educat. Times, (2), 12, 1907, 90-1, 107-8.
"o/bid., (2), 13, 1908, 42-3, 62-3. "i/btd., (2), 14, 1908, 34. The process is well

adapted to factoring 2P-1,

(2), 23,

1913, 27-8.

Chap. XIV]

METHODS OF FACTORING.

373

E. Lebon^^^" would first test AT for prime factors P just < VN. Let the quotient and R the remainder on dividing by P. If Q and R have a common factor, it divides N) if not, is not divisible by any factor of Q or of R. = S'^+A = {S+u){S-v), wrote = iVi and D. Biddle^^^ considered obtained hke equations in letters with subscripts unity. Then treat

Q be

UiVi

= N2

similarly, etc.
2'''

is

A. Cunningham^^^ noted that the number of steps in Biddle's^^^ process = N, and developed the process. approximately the value of A; in treated the Lebon^^^ decomposition E. of forms
a:"a:^a;T
.
.

.1

(a>|8>7...)

^ 9 into two such forms, using a table of those forms of degrees with all coefficients positive which are not factorable. The base most used in the examples is x = 10. But bases 2 and 3 are considered. E. Barbette^^^ quoted from his^^^ text the theorem that any integer can be expressed in each of the four forms
of degrees

^4

where

^j:

simplified

implies

The resulting new methods of factoring are now by use of triangular and quadratic residues. The first formula N={xy){x-\ry+\)/2. In his text, he considered the sum

= x{x-\-l)/2.

iv=(2/+i)+(y+2)+ ..+{x-\)+x=^,-^y
.

Treating four types of numbers N, he proved that this equation has 1, 2 or more than 2 sets of integral solutions x, y, according as iV is a power of 2, an odd prime, or a composite number not a power of 2. He proved independently, but again by use of sums of consecutive integers, =u that every composite number not a power of 2 can be given the form* Solving for u, and (2y w+l)/2, where u and v are integers and v^u'^S. setting x = 2v-\-l, we get 2u = x+(x'^ 8Ny^^. Hence x'^SN = y^ is solvable in integers [evidently by a: = 2A'+l, y = 2Nl]. Finally, Nz=Ax is equivalent to (2a;+l)^ = 8A^2;+l. For four types of numbers N, the solutions of y^ = SNz-\-l are found and seen to involve at least two arbitrary
of consecutive integers.

constants.

A. Aubry^^^ reviewed various methods of factoring.

"wil Pitagora, Palermo, 14, 1907-8, 96-7. iMath. Quest. Educat. Times, (2), 19, 1911, 99-100;
22, 1912, 38-9; Educat. Times, 63, 1910, 500; Math. Quest, and Solutions, 2, 1916, 36-42. "/6id., (2), 20, 1911, 59-64; Educat. Times, 64, 1911, 135. i^BuU. soc. philomathique de Paris, (10), 2, 1910, 45-53; Sphinx-Oedipe, 1908-9, 81-3, 97-101 "^L'enseignement math., 13, 1911, 261-277. "^Les sommes de p-i&mes puissances distinctes ^gales k une p-ieme puissance, Paris, 1910, 20-76. = {x y)(x+y +1) /2 by setting x=v, y = vu. To *This follows from the former result not give a direct proof, take u to be the least odd factor > 1 of the composite number a power of 2; then q = /u can be given the form y (u 1)/2 by choice of y. If t;<M, then g<(+l)/2<u, so that q has no odd factor and 2 = 2''. But N='2^U is of the desired form if we take v^u/2'^N. "'Sphinx-Oedipe, num^ro sp6c., June, 1911, 1-27. Errata and addenda, num6ro 3p6c., Jan., L'enseignement math., 15, 1913, 202-231. 1912, 7-9, 14.

374
S. Bisman^"**

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xiv

noted that is composite if and only if there exist two such that A +2B and A-\-2BN divide 2{N-1) and (A''-1)A, respectively. But there is no convenient maximum for the smaller integer 2'^^ + l there are 16 cases. B. To find the factor 641 of A. G^rardin^^^ gave a report on methods of factoring. J. A. Gmeiner,^^ to factor a, prime to 6, determined b and e so that 9a = 166+e, 0^<16. Let cu^ be the largest square <6 and set b = oi^-\-p, Hence 9a = 16(co a:)(w+a;H-l)+r(a:), where cr = p CO.
integers A,

t(x)

= 16(7++16x(x+1).

Since t{x)=t{x 1)+S2x,

x = 0, 1, 2, prove that a
. .

largest

we may rapidly tabulate the values of r(x) for we reach the value zero, we have two factors of a. To is a prime, we need extend the table until co+x + l is the square <a. To modify the process, use 4a = 76 + .
.

If

A. Reymond^^^ used the graphs of y = x/n (n = l, 2, 3, 5, .)> marking on each the points with integral coordinates. He omitted y = x/4: since Since 17 is not the abscissa of an integral its integral points are ony = x/2. [Mobius^^" of Ch. XIII.] point on y = x/n for l<n< 17, 17 is a prime. A. J. Kempner^^^ found, by use of a figure perspective to Reymond's^^^ how to test the primality of numbers by means of the straight edge. D. Biddle and A. Cunningham^^^ factor a product A^ of two primes by = N-Ni+2, while each of Ni such that finding A^i<A^ and and A''2 is a product of two even factors, the two smaller factors differing by 2 and the two larger factors differing by 2.
. .

N2>N

N2-N

'"Mathesis, (4), 2, 1912, 58-60. "'Assoc. fraiiQ. avanc. sc, 41, 1912, 54-7. "oMonatshefte Math. Phys., 24, 1913, 3-26. "L'enseignement math., 18, 1916, 332-5. '"Amer. Math. Monthly, 24, 1917, 317-321. '"Math. Quest, and Solutions, 3, 1917, 21-23.

CHAPTER XV.
FERMAT NUMBERS
F = 2'"+l.

Fermat^ expressed his belief that every F^ is a prime, but admitted that he had no proof. Elsewhere^ he said that he regarded the theorem Later^ he impHed that it may be proved by "descent." as certain. It appears that Frenicle de Bessy confirmed this conjectured theorem of Fermat's. On several occasions Fermat^ requested Frenicle to divulge his proof,
promising important applications. In the last letter cited, Fermat raised the question if (2/0)^""+ 1 is always a prime except when divisible by an F. C. F. Gauss^ stated that Fermat affirmed (incorrectly) that the theorem The opposite view was expressed by P. Mansion^ and R. Baltzer.'^ is true. F. M. Mersenne^ stated that every F^ is a prime. Chr. Goldbach^ called Euler's attention to Fermat's conjecture that F is always prime, and remarked that no F^ has a factor < 100; no two F^ have a common factor. L. Euler^o found that ^5 = 2^2+1 = 641-6700417.
Euler^^ proved that
if

a and h are relatively prime, every factor of

2 or of the form 2"+^ A: a^ land noted that consequently any factor of F5 has the form 64fc l, k = 10 giving the factor 641. Euler^^" and N. Beguelin^^ used the binary scale to find the factor
is

+6^

641

= 1+2^+2^

of F5.

sides can be constructed C. F. Gauss^^ proved that a regular polygon of is a product of a power of 2 and distinct odd by ruler and compasses if primes each of the form F, and stated that the construction is impossible is not such a product. if This subject will be treated under Roots of Unity. Sebastiano Canterzani^^ treated twenty cases, each with subdivisions depending on the final digits of possible factors, to find the factor 641 of F^,

iQeuvres,

1894, p. 206, letter to Frenicle, Aug. (?) 1640; 2, 1894, p. 309, letter to Pascal, 1654 (Fermat asked Pascal to undertake a proof of the proposition, Pascal, III, 232; IV, 1819, 384); proposed to Brouncker and Wallis, June 1658, Oeuvres, 2, p. 404 (French transl., 3, p. 316). Cf. C. Henry, BuU. Bibl. Storia So. Mat. e Fis., 12, 1879,
2,

Aug.

29,

500-1, 716-7; on p. 717, 42 ... 1 should end with 7, ihid., 13, 1880, 470; A. Genocchi, Atti Ac. Sc. Torino, 15, 1879-80, 803. ^Oeuvres, 1, 1891, p. 131 (French transl., 3, 1896, p. 120). ^Oeuvres, 2, 433-4, letter to Carcavi, Aug., 1659. ^Oeuvres, 2, 208, 212, letters from Fermat to Frenicle and Mersenne, Oct. 18 and Dec. 25, 1640. ^Disq. Arith., Art. 365. Same view by Klugel, Math. Worterbuch, Cf. Werke, 2, 151, 159. 2, 1805, 211; 3, 1808, 896. Nouv. Corresp. Math., 5, 1879, 88, 122. 'Jour, fur Math., 87, 1879, 172. ^Novarum Physico-Mathematicarum, Paris, 1647, 181. ^Corresp. Math. Phys. (ed., Fuss), I, 1843, p. 10, letter of Dec. 1729; p. 20, May 22, 1730; p. 32, July 1730. "Comm. Ac. Petrop., 6, ad annos 1732-3 (1739), 103-7; Comm. Arith. Coll., 1, p. 2. "Novi Comm. Petrop., 1, 1747-8, p. 20 [9, 1762, p. 99); Comm. Arith. CoU., 1, p. 55 [p. 357]. ""Opera postuma, I, 1862, 169-171 (about 1770). "Nouv. Mem. Ac. Berlin, ann^e 1777, 1779, 239. "Disq. Arith., 1801, Arts. 335-366; German transl. by Maser, 1889, pp. 397-448, 630-652. "Mem. 1st. Naz. Italiano, Bologna, Mat., 2, II, 1810, 459-469.

375

376

History of the Theory of Numbers.

is

[Chap,

xv

and proved in the same lengthy dull manner that the quotient An anonymous writer^^ stated that
(1)

a prime.

2+1,

2-+1,

2-'+l,

22''+!,...

See Malvy.'^ all primes and are the only primes 2*+l. Joubin^^ suggested that these numbers (1) are possibly the ones really meant by Fermat/ evidently without having consulted all of Fermat's
are

statements. G. Eisenstein^' set the problem to prove that there

is

an

infinitude of

primes F. E. Lucas^^ stated that one could test the primality of F^ in 30 hours by each term being one less than the double of means of the series 3, 17, 577, the square of the preceding. Then F is a prime if 2""^ is the rank of the first term divisible by F, composite if no term is di\'isible by F. Finally, if a is the rank of the first term divisible by F, the prime divisors of F are of the form 2''g + l, where A; = a+1 [not A: = 2+^]. See Lucas." T. Pepin^^ stated that the method of Lucas^^ is not decisive when F divides a term of rank a<2''~^; for, if it does, we can conclude only that the prime di\'isors of F are of the form 2''"''^g'+l, so that we can not say whether or not F is prime if a +2 ^2""^. We may answer the question unambiguously by use of the new theorem: For n> 1, F is a prime if and only if it
.

divides

where k
take the

is

minimum

any quadratic non-residue of Fn, as 5 or residues modulo F of

2"-l
A/,
i^
)

10.

To apply

this test,

"^

'^

'

Proof was indicated by Lucas-^ of Ch. XVII, and by Morehead.^^ J. Pervouchine^ (or Pervusin) announced, November 1877, that

Fi2=0 (mod 114689 = 7-2^^+1).

E. Lucas^^ announced the same result two months later and proved that every prime factor of F is 1 (mod 2"'^^). Lucas^^ employed the series 6, 34, 1154, each term of which is 2 less than the square of the preceeding. Then F is a prime if the rank of the first term divisible by F^ is between 2""^ and 2" !, but composite if no term is di\'isible by F. Finally, if a is the rank of the first term divisible by F

"Annales de Math.

"M^moire
'Jour.
fiir

"omptes
5,

(ed. Gergonne), 19, 1828-9, 256. sur le3 facteurs numdriques, Havre, 1831, note at end. Math., 27, 1844, 87, Prob. 6. Rendus Paris, 85, 1877, 136-9.

'Comptea Rendus, 85, 1877, 329-331.

1910, 33-42.

Reprinted, with Lucas" and Landry," Sphinx-Oedipe,

"Bull. Ac. St. Pdtersbourg, (3), 24, 1878, 559 (presented by V. Bouniakowsky). Melanges math. ast. sc St. P^tersbourg, 5, 1874-81, 505. "Atti R. Accad. Sc. Torino, 13, 1877-8, 271 (Jan. 27, 1878). Cf. Nouv. Corresp. Math., 4, 1878, 284; 5, 1879, 88. See Lucas" of Ch. XVIL "Amer. Jour. Math., 1, 1878, 313.

Chap. XV]

FerMAT NUMBERS F=2^" + l.

377

if a<2''~\ the prime divisors of F are of the form* 2*^+1, where k = a-\-l [cf Lucas^^]. He noted (p. 238) that a necessary condition that F^ be a prime is that the residue modulo F^ of the term of rank 2" 1 in this He verified (p. 292) that F^ has the factor 641 and again series is zero. stated that 30 hours would suffice to test Fq. F. Proth^^ stated that, if A; = 2", 2^+1 is a prime if and only if it divides

and

m = 3^ ~ + 1
Uo = 0,

He^^ indicated a proof by use of the series of Lucas defined by w = 3if_i l and the facts that Up_i is divisible by the prime p, while m=^U2^lu2^-^. Cf. Lucas. ^^ E. Gelin^^ asked if the numbers (1) are all primes. Catalan^^ noted that the first four are. E. Lucas^^ noted that Proth's^^ theorem is the case A; = 3 of Pepin's. ^^ Pervouchine" announced, February 1878, that 7^23 lias the prime factor
.

Ui = l,

5.225+1

= 167772161.

W.

Simerka^^ gave a simple verification of the last result and the fact

(Pervouchine^o) that
F. Landry, ^^

7-2'Hl divides F^^. when of age 82 and after several months'

7^6

labor,

found that

= 274177-67280421310721,

the

first

factor being a prime.

He and Le
(cf.

Lasseur and G^rardin^^" each

proved that the last factor is a prime K. Broda^" sought a prime factor p

Lucas^^).

of

a^^+1 by considering

n = (a^2-l)(aHl)(a'''+a^''+a2^+a^''+l).
Multiply by i^ = (o^2_}_l)/p. Thusnw = (a^^-l)/p. But a^^^l (mod641). Since each factor of n is prime to p, we take a = 2 and see that 2^^+ 1 is divisible

by

641.

E. Lucas^^ stated that he had verified that F^ is composite by his^^ test, before Landry found the factors. P. Seelhoff^^ gave the factor 5-2^^+1 of F^,^ and commented on Beguelin.^^
*Lucas wrote
History.
fc

= 2"+^

in error, as noted

by R. D. Carmichael on the

proof-sheets of this

23Comptes Rendus Paris, 87, 1878, 374. Nouv. Corresp. Math., 4, 1878, 210-1;

5,

1879, 31.

MUd.,
^HUd.,

4,
5,

1878, 160. 1879, 137.

;

"Bull. Ac. St. P6tersbourg, (3), 25, 1879, 63 (presented by V. Bouniakowsky) Melanges math, astr. ac. St. P^tersbourg, 5, 1874-81, 519. Cf. Nouv. Corresp. Math., 4, 1878, 284-5; 5, 1879, 22. 28Casopi3, Prag, 8, 1879, 36, 187-8. F. J. Studnicka, iUd., 11, 1881, 137, "Comptes Rendus Paris, 91, 1880, 138; Bull. Bibl. Storia Sc. Mat., 13, 1880, 470; Nouv. Corresp. Math., 6, 1880, 417; Lea Mondes, (2), 52, 1880. Cf. Seelhoflf, Archiv Math. Phys., (2), 2, 1885, 329; Lucas, Amer. Jour. Math. 1, 1878, 292; R6cr6at. Math., 2, 1883, 235; I'intermddiaire des math., 16, 1909, 200. Sphinx-Oedipe, 5, 1910, 37-42. "Archiv Math. Phys., 68, 1882, 97. "Recreations Math., 2, 1883, 233-5. Lucas,"* 354-5. 2Zeitschr. Math. Phys., 31, 1886, 172-4, 380. For Ft, p. 329. French transl., Sphinx-Oedipe, 1912, 84-90.

378
J.

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xv

Hermes^^ indicated a test for composite F by Fermat's theorem. R. Lipschitz^ separated all integers into classes, the primes of one class being Fermat numbers F, and placed in a new light the question of the infinitude of primes F. E. I.ucas^^ stated the result of Proth,-^ but with a misprint [Cipolla^^]. H. Scheffler^^ stated that Legendre believed that every F is a prime(!), and obtained artificially the factor 641 of F5. He noted (p. 167) that

FF+,

.F_,

He repeated (pp. 173-8) his belief that the numbers (1) are all primes,

+2^"-2". = l+22"+22-2"+23-2''+ the test by Pepin/^ with k = 3, and (p. 178)

.

expressed

but had no proof for FieW. W. R. Ball" gave references and quoted known results. T. M. Pervouchine^^ checked his verification that F12 and F23 are composite by comparing the residues on di\'ision by 10^ 2. Mah'y^^ noted that the prime 2^+1 is not in the series (1). F. Klein^ stated that F7 is composite. Let F(x) A. Hurwitz"*^ gave a generalization of Proth's^^ theorem. denote an irreducible factor of degree 4>{n) of x" 1. Then if there exists an integer q such that Fp_i(g) is divisible by p, p is a prime. When

p = 2'-+l,Fp_i(x)^=x''"' + l. ^^ J. Hadamard'*- gave a very simple proof of the second remark by Lucas. A. Cunningham^^ found that Fn has the factor 319489-974849. A. E. \Yestern^ found that Fg has the factor 2^^-37 + 1, Fis the factor 2'-13 + l, the quotient of Fn by the known factor 2^'*-74-l has the factors 2^^-397+1 and 2^^-7-139 + l. He verified the primality of the factor 2^^-3-f 1 of F38, found by J. Cullen and A. Cunningham. He and A. Cunningham found that no more F have factors < 10^ and similar results.

-l)/2'"+^and m>\, a prime if and only if it divides 1 for k = ^2'"+^ He^^ pointed out the misprint in Lucas'^^ statement. Nazarevsky^^ proved Proth's-^ result by using the fact that 3 is a primitive root of a prime 2''+l.

m-2

M.

Cipolla^^ noted that,

if

is

a prime >(9"^

2'"g+ 1

is

3H

"Archiv Math. Phys., (2), 4, 1886, 214-5, footnote. "Jour, fur Math., 105, 1889, 152-6; 106, 1890, 27-29. "Th^orie des nombres, 1891, preface, xii.
Beitrage zur Zahlentheorie, 1891, 147, 151-2, 155 (bottom), 168. ^Math. Recreations and Problems, ed. 2, 1892, 26; ed. 4, 1905, 36-7; ed. 5, 1911, 39-40. "Math. Papers Chicago Congress of 1893, I, 1896, 277. "L'interm6diaire des math., 2, 1895, 41 (219). "Vortrage iiber aiisgewahlte FragenderElementar Geometric, 1895, 13; French transl., 1896, 26; English transl., "Famous Problems of Elementary Geometry," by Beman and Smith, 1897, 16.

"L'interm^diaire des math.,

/6u/., p. 114. "Report British

3,

1896, 214.

Assoc, 1899, 653-4. The misprint in the second factor has been corrected to agree with the true " value 2".7.17 1. ^Cunningham and Western, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc, (2), 1, 1903, 175; Educ. Times, 1903, 270. Periodico di Mat., 18, 1903, 331. "Also in Annali di Mat., (3), 9, 1904, 141. *'L'interm6diaire des math., 11, 1904. 215.

Chap. XV]

FeRMAT NUMBERS F = 2^" + l.

379

A. Cunningham^^" noted that 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 12 are primitive roots and He fac13, 15, 18, 21, 30 are quadratic residues of every prime F>5. tored F4' S+iFoFiF2Fz)\ Thorold Gosset^^ gave the two complex prime factors a 6i of the known real factors of composite F, n = 5, 6, 9, 11, 12, 18, 23, 36, 38. J. C. Morehead'*^ verified by use of the criterion of Pepin^^ with k = S that 7^7 is composite, a result stated by Klein.^ A. E. Western^" verified in the same way that Fy is composite. The work was done independently and found to agree with Morehead's. J. C. Morehead^^ found that Fy^ has the prime factor 2^^-5+1. A. Cunningham^^ considered hyper-even numbers

Eo, = 2",

E,,n = 2^0.

n,
. . .

E^+,, = 2^r,

n.

odd, the residues modulo of Er,o, -E'r, i,have a non-recurrent part and then a recurring cycle. A. Cunningham^^ gave tables of residues of Ei^ , E2, n, Er, 0, 3^" and 5^" for the n's forming the first cycle for each prime modulus < 100 and for A hyper-exponential number is like a hyper-even certain larger primes. number, but with base q in place of 2. He discussed the quadratic, quartic and octic residue character of a prime modulo F^, and of F modulo Fn+xCunningham and H. J. WoodalP^ gave material on possible factors of F^. A. Cunningham^^ noted that, for every F>5, 2Fn = t^ (Fn 2)u^ algebraically, and expressed F5 and Fq in two ways in each of the forms a^+6^ c^2d2. He^*^ noted that Fn^+E^^ is the algebraic product of n-\-2 factors, where ^n = 2^", and that M = (FH^^)/(F-fE) is divisible by Mn-r- If n m^2, Fi'^-\-FJ is composite. A. Cunningham^^ has considered the period of l/N to base 2, where is a product FmFm-i -Fm-r of Fermat numbers. J. C. Morehead and A. E. Western^^ verified by a very long computation that Fg is composite. Use was made of the test by Pepin^^ with A; = 3, which was proved to follow from the converse of Fermat's theorem. P. Bachmann^^ proved the tests by Pepin^^ and Lucas. ^^ A. Cunningham*^^ noted that every Fn>5 can be represented by 4 quadratic forms of determinants =^Gn, =*=2(r, where Gn = FoFi. .Fn-iBisman^'^^ (of Ch. XIV) separated 16 cases in finding the factor 641 of F^.

For

^^'^Math. Quest. Educ. Times, (2), 1, 1902, 108; 5, 1904, 71-2; 7, 1905, 72. "BuU. Amer. Math. Soc, 11, 1905, 543. "Mess. Math., 34, 1905, 153-4. "Proc. Lond. Math. Soc, (2), 3, 1905, xxi. "Bull. Amer. Math. Soc, 12, 1906, 449; Annals of Math., (2), 10, 1908-9, 99. French transl. ^^Report British Assoc. Adv. Sc, 1906, 485-6. Sphinx-Oedipe, Nancy, 1911, 49. "Proc London Math. Soc, (2), 5, 1907, 237-274. "Messenger of Math., 37, 1907-8, 65-83. 55Math. Quest. Educat. Times, (2), 12, 1907, 21-22, 28-31.

in

^HhU.,

(2), 14,

1908, 28; (2),

8,

1905, 35-6.

"Math. Gazette, 4, 1908, 263. "Bull. Amer. Math. Soc, 16, 1909,

1-6. French transl., Sphinx-Oedipe, 1911, 50-55. "Niedere Zahlentheorie, II, 1910, 93-95. '"Math. Quest. Educat. Times, (2), 20, 1911, 75, 97-98.

380

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xv

fully factored to date,

A. G^rardin" noted that F = (240j+97)(240!/+161) for all the F and specified x and y more exactly in special cases. C. Henrv'^'- gave references and quoted known results.

R. D. CannichaeP' gave a test for the primality of F equivalent to and a further generalization (p. 65) in the direction of Hurwitz's." R. C. Archibald" cited many of the papers hsted above and collected in a table the known factors of F with the exception of that given by Morehead." For a remark on F, see Cunningham^^ of Ch. VII.
Pepin's^^
"Sphinx-Oedipe, 7, 1912, 13. HDeuvres de Fermat, 4, 1912, 202-4. "Annals of Math., (2), 15, 1913-4, 67. 'Amer. Math. Monthly, 21. 1914. 247-251.

CHAPTER

XVI.

FACTORS OF a^^b\
Fermat^ stated that (2''+l)/3 has no factors other than 2kp+l if p is an odd prime. L. Euler^ noted that o*+46* has the factors a^=i=2ah+2b^. Euler^ discussed the numbers a for which a^ + 1 is divisible by a prime 4n+l=r^+s^. Let p/q be the convergent preceding r/s in the continued Thus every a is of the form (4n + 1 ) m fraction for r/s then ps qr==^l. k, where k = pr+qs. Euler^ gave the 161 integers a< 1500 for which a^ + 1 is a prime, and the cases a = 1, 2, 4, 6, 16, 20, 24, 34 for which a*+l is a prime. Euler^ proved that, if m is a prime and a, b are relatively prime, a factor of a"* 6"", not a divisor of a 6, is of the form kn-\-l. If p = A;n + 1 is a prime and a =p=^ pa, then a*' 1 is divisible by p. If of" bg"" is divisible by a prime p = 'mn-{-l, while/ and g are not both divisible by p, then a"" 6"" is divisible by p the converse is true if m and n are relatively prime. Euler^ proved the related theorems: For q an odd prime, any prime If a"" 1 is divisor of a^1, not a divisor of a 1, is of the form 2nq-\-l. divisible by the prime p = m7i+l, we can find integers x, y not divisible by p such that A = ax'* ?/" is divisible by p (since the quotient of a'"^""' 2/"*" by A is not divisible by p\i x,y are suitably chosen) Euler^ treated the problem to find all integers a for which a^ + 1 is divisible by a given prime 4n + 1 = p^ + ?^- If a^ + b^ is divisible by p'^-\-(f', there exist integers r, s such that a = pr+g's, 6 = psgr. We wish 6= ==1. Hence we take the convergent r/s preceding p/q in the continued fraction for p/q. Thus ps qr=^\, and our answer is a= {pr-\-qs). He listed all primes P = 4n+1<2000 expressed as p^+g^, and listed all the a's for which a^ + 1 is divisible by P. The table may be used to find all the divisors < a of a given number a^+1. He gave his^ table and tabulated the values a< 1500 for which {a'^-\-l)/k is a prime, for k=2, 5, 10. He tabulated all the
; ;

divisors of

a^+1

for

a^ 1500.

N. Beguelin^ stated that 2''+l has a trinary divisor 1+2^+2' only when n=10, 24, 32, although his examples (p. 249) contradict this statement. Euler^ gave a factor of 2"=^ 1 for various composite n's.
Bull. Bibl. St. Sc. Mat. e Fis., 12, 1879, 716. 205, letter to Frenicle, Aug. (?), 1640. (ed., Fuss), I, 1843, p. 145; letter to Goldbach, 1742. ^lUd., 242-3; letter to Goldbach, July 9, 1743.

iQeuvres,
''Corresp.

2,

Math. Phys.

mid., 588-9, Oct. 28, 1752. Published, Euler.^ ^Novi Comm. Petrop., 1, 1747-8, 20; Coram. Arith. ibid., 2, 530-5; Opera postuma, I, 1862, 33-35.

Coll.,

1,

Cf. Euleri^z of Ch.

57-61, and posthumous paper, VII and the topic

Quadratic Residues in Vol. III. Novi Comm. Petrop., 7, 1758-9 (1755), 49; Comm. Arith., 1, 269. ^Novi Comm. Petrop., 9, 1762-3, 99; Comm. Arith., 1, 358-369. French Oedipe, 8, 1913, 1-12, 21-26, 64. M6m. Ac. Berlin, annee 1777, 1779, 255. Cf. Ch. and Henry.i^ 'Posthumous paper, Comm. Arith., 2, 551; Opera postuma, I, 1862, 51.

transl.,

Sphinx-

XV

381

382

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xvi

Euler^" discussed the divisors of

Anton FelkeP" gave a

table,

numbers of the iorm.fa^+gb'^. incomplete as to a few entries, of the factors

ofa"-l,n = l,..., ll;a = 2,3,..., 12. A. M. Legendre^^ proved that every prime divisor of a"+l is either of the form 2nx-{-l or divides a"H-l where co is the quotient of n by an odd factor;
every prime divisor of a" ! is either of the form nx-\-l or divides a'^ l where co is a factor of n. For n odd, the divisors must occur in 0(0"=^ 1) = ?/'- a and are thus further limited by his tables III-XI of the linear forms of the divisors of <"au". C. F. Gauss^^ obtained by use of the quadratic reciprocity law the linear forms of the divisors of x" A. Gauss^'^ gave a table of 2452 numbers of the forms a^+1, a^+4, .,
. .

a^+81 and all <200.

[Euler^].

their

odd prime

factors p, for certain a's for

which the

p's are

Sophie Germain^^ noted that p'*+4g* has the factors p^=^2pq+2^ Taking p = l, q = 2\ we see that 2^'"''^+l has the two factors

22.+i2'+i

+ l.

F. Minding^^ gave a detailed discussion of the linear forms of the divisors He reproduced of x^ c, using the reciprocity law for the case of primes.

odd prime, every odd prime form 2pz-\-l or is a factor of a 1, and moreover is a divisor of x^ ay'^. Hence, for a = 2, it is of the form 2^2+1 and Every odd prime factor of a^^+^ + l is also of one of the forms 8w=tl. either of the form 2(2n+ 1)2+1 or a divisor of a+1 [cf. Legendre"]. V. A. Lebesgue^^ noted that the discussion of the linear forms of the divisors of z^D, where D is composite, is simplified by use of Jacobi's
factor of a''
1 is

(pp. 188-190) the discussion by Legendre.^^ P. L. Tchebychef^ noted that, if p is an

either of the

generalization (a/b) of Legendre's symbol.

6

= 0161+62,

Set a = ah+bi, C. G. Reuschle^' denoted (x"''-l)/(x''-l) by If a, 6 are relatively prime, 61 = 0262+63,. ...
(T^ i){X ^r)C L) {X

FM.

'^'^""nia(6-l-A)l+a;^ sVxjai(6i-l-A)| n = A=0 A=0

-

+ ... +a:^+^.+

-+^-2

Vx^'"-'n_i {a._i(6_i -1-A)}

+x^+- +^n-i.

9^'Opera postuma, I, 1862, 161-7 (about 1773). loAbhandl. d. Bohmischen Gesell. Wiss., Prag, 1, 1785, 165-170. 'Th6orie des nombres, 1798, pp. 207-213, 313-5; ed. 2, 1808, pp. 191-7, 286-8.
transl.

German

by Mascr,

p. 222.

"Disq. Arith., 1801, Arts. 147-150. Schering, pp. 499-502, described the table and its formation by 2, 1863, 477-495. the compo.sition of binary forms, e. g., (a^' l) { (a4-l)^4-l} = {a(o l)+l}* l. "Manuscript 9118 fonds frangais Bibl. Nat. Paris, p. 84. Cf. C. Henry, Assoc, frang. avanc. sc, 1880, 205; Oeuvres de Fermat, 4, 1912, 208. "Anfangsgrunde dor Hoheren Arith., 1832, 59-70. "Theorie der Congrucnzen, in Russian, 1849; in German, 1889; 49. "Jour, de Math., 15, 1850, 222-7. "Math. Abhandlung, Stuttgart, 1853, II, pp. 6-13.

"Werke,

Chap. XVI]

FACTORS OF

a" 6".

383
a*l, a^l,
a^^

Reuschle's^^ table
for

gives
for

many
. .

factors of a^=tl,
3, 5, 6, 7, 10.

a^lOO, and

of

a"-l

n^42, a = 2,

.-\-x-\-l has no prime divisor other Lebesgue^^" proved that x*^^+ and numbers of the form kp 1. than the prime p Jean Plana^^ gave S^^ l =4-6091g, S^^-l=2-59r, and stated that q But Lucas^^ noted that is a prime and that r has no factor < 52259.

= 523-5385997,

= 28537-20381027.
t

numbers 2m^l,

E. Kummer^^ proved that there is no prime factor, other than of the cyclotomic function

and

t being a prime 2e l. obtained from (a' l)/(a 1) by settinga+a~^ = E. Catalan^^ stated that, if n = a=Fl is odd, a"=Fl is divisible by n^, but not by nK Proof by Soons, Mathesis, (3), 2, 1902, 109. H. LeLasseur and A. Aurifeuille^^ noted that 2^"'''^ l has the factors 22n+i 2^^+1 1 [cf. Euler,2 Germain^^].
a:;,

S.

E. Lucas^^ proved that (2^+l)/(2^+l) is a prime and gave the factors of 30^^1, 2*^ 1. Theorems by Lucas on the factors of a" 6**, given in various papers in 1876-8, are cited in Ch. XVII.

Lucas^^ factored (2m)"'=tl for

Plana.20

m = 7,

10, 11, 12, 14, 15,

and corrected

Lucas^^ gave tables due to LeLasseur and Aurifeuille of functions

5!il!

x^y

(odd),

^^,
x^-i-y^

expressed in the form V^^pxyZ^, which is factorable if xy = ptP. Factors of x^-\-y^^ are given for various x's, y's. He gave LeLasseur's table of the proper divisors of 2" 1 for all odd values of n<100 except n = 61, 67, 71, 77, 79, 83, 85, 89, 93, 97; the proper divisors of 2"+l for n odd and <71 (except n = 61, 67) and for n = 73, 75, 81, 83, 99, 135; the proper divisors of 22^1 for 2A;^74 (except 64, 68) and for 2k = 7S, 82, 84, 86, 90, 94, 102, Lucas proved (pp. 790-4) that the proper divisors of 2^"+l are of 126, etc. (j2a6n_|_^2a67i ^^.^ q ^^^q form Sahnq-j-l; for n odd, l, those of the form 16ng -6"'''* l, those of a"''" those of a"^"+6"^'^ are of the form 4a6ng l if a6 = 4/i are of the form 4a6ng l if a6 = 4/i+3.

I'Math. Abhandlung

.Tabellen, Stuttgart, 1856.

Full

title in

Ch.

I.

"aComptes Rendus

Paris, 51, 1860, 11.

20Mem. Accad. Sc. Torino, (2), 20, 1863, 139-141. "Cf. Bachmann, Kreistheilung, Leipzig, 1872.
22Revue de I'lnstruct. publique en Belgique, 17, 1870, 137; Melanges Math., ed. 1, p. 40. 23Atti R. Ac. Sc. Torino, 8, 1871; 13, 1877-8, 279. Nouv. Corresp. Math., 4, 1878, 86, 98.
Cf. Lucas,25 p. 238; Lucas,^^ 784.

2^Nouv. Ann. Math., 25Amer. Jour. Math.,

(2), 14,
1,

1875, 523-5.

1878, 293. 26Bull. Bibl. Storia Sc. Mat. e Fis., 11, 1878, 783-798.

384

History of the Theory of Numbers.

factors of 2'"+! for

[Chap.

XVI

Lucas" gave the rM=4n+2^102 and

w =4n^60

and

for 72, 84; also for

for 110, 114, 126, 130, 138, 150, 210.

E.Catalan= noted that x^+2{q-r)x^-^q~ for x^ ^ (2r)2*+i has the rational The case r = q = \ gives LeLasseur's^^ formula. factors (2r)^*'*"^ =*= (2r)*"'"^ +5. 32'^+^3*+^ l. \, Again, 3'*+' + l has the factors ^^'^' S. R^alis-^'' deduced LeLasseur's'-^ formula and 24"+22"+l=n(22''

2"+l).
J. J. Sylvester'^^

considered the cyclotomic function

ypt{x)

obtained by

setting a
(1)

+ a"' =x

in the quotient
^"

by

a*""^ of

(a'-l)n(a'^''''''-l)

^.(a)=
Pi,-

n(a'^'-l).

(^

= P^'-

P"'"^'

, Pn are distinct primes. He stated that every di\'isor of i/'t(x) is of the form kt^ 1, with the exception that, if t = p\p=^l)/m, p is a divisor (but not p^). Conversely, every product of powers of primes of the form kt^l is a divisor of i/',(x). Proofs were given by T. Pepin, ibid., 526; E. Lucas added that Lucas, p. 855; Dedekind, p. 1205 (by use of ideals). 2^^''"''^ 2^''+3 1 and = = if and only if 1 are primes they divide </'p+i(x) p p and x = 3\/^, respectively. for x = A. Lefebure^ determined poljTiomipls having no prime factor other than First, let T = n\ where n is a is given. those of the form HT+1, where For A, B relatively prime integers, prime. /ln_ Dn

where

\/^

has, besides n,

no prime factor except those

of the

form Hn*+1, when

Second, let T = n'm^, where n, exact n'~Hh powers of integers. are distinct primes. The integral quotient of F^iu'", v'") by F(w, t') has only prime factors of the form Hn^m^ l if u, v are powers of relatively prime integers with the exponent w''~^n'~^ Similarly, if T is a product of powers

and

B are

of several primes.

U,
of

V are
2**

Lef^bure^^ discussed the decomposition into primes of powers whose exponents involve factors of R.

U^ V^, where

E. Lucas^- stated that if n and 2/1 1 are primes, then 2n l is a factor 1 or 2"+l according as n=3 or n=l (mod 4). If n and 4n l are l =.4^ + 165^ are primes, If n and Sn primes, 4n l is a factor of 2^''+l. then 8n + l is a factor of 22" 1 if B is odd, of 2-" 1 if 5 is even. Also ten theorems stating when Qn l=U.^+SM^, 12n + l=L^-\-12M^ or 24n l

+ +

= L'^-\-4SM^

are prime factors of 2'"'1 for certain

k's.

*'Sur la s^rie r^currente de Fermat, Rome, 1879, 9-10. Report by Cunningham.*' "Aesoc. fran^. avanc. sc, 9, 1880, 228. ^Nouv. Ann. Math., (2), 18, 1879, 500-9. "Comptes Rendus Paris, 90, 1880, 287, 345; Coll. Math. Papers, 3, 428. Incomplete in Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 40, 1884, 21. "Ann. 8C. 6cole norm, sup., (3), 1, 1884, 389-404; Comptea Rendus Paris, 98, 1884, 293, 413,

567, 613. ".\nn. BC. 6cole norm, sup., (3), 2, 1885, 113. "Assoc, franc, avanc. sc, 15, 1886, II, 101-2.

Chap. XVI]

FACTORS OF

a" 6".
If

385
p
is

A. S. Bang^^ discussed F<(a) defined

by

(1).

a prime,

F^i^{a)

has

~ 1 is prime to only prime factors ap*+l if c? = a^ p, but has the factor p (and not p^) if d is divisible by p. Bang^^ proved that, if a>l, t>2, Ft{a) has a prime factor a^+1 except forF6(2). L. Gianni^^ noted that if p is an odd prime dividing a 1 and p" divides aF \, then p""^ divides a 1. L. Kronecker^^ noted that, if F^iz) is the function whose roots are the <^(n) primitive nth roots of unity,

{x-yY^-^F^{^^=GAx,y')

He investigated the is an integral function involving only even powers of y. prime factors q of Gn{x, s) for s given. If q is prime to n and s, then q is congruent modulo n to Jacobi's symbol {s/q). The same result was stated
by Bauer.^^
J. J. Sylvester^^ called ^""

Sylvester^^ stated that, for 6

the mth Fermatian function an integer 9^1 or 1,

ft

of 6.

=?JZi

contains at least as many distinct prime divisors as contains divisors 1 = 0= when even, and ^ multiple of except a 2, 2, 6, in which two cases the number of prime divisors may be one less than in the general case. Sylvester^" called the above 6^ a reduced Fermatian of injdex m. lim = np", n not divisible by the odd prime p, 6^ is divisible by p", but not by p"'^^, if

>

1
of

is

divisible
is

by

p.

m, then dm

divisible

Sylvester^^" stated
p, r are primes, either p,
r,

m is odd and ^ 1 is divisible by each prime factor m and the quotient is prime to m. that P=l+p+ .+p''~^ is divisible by q, and r divides q 1 or r=q divides p l. li P=q^ and
If

by

if

R. W. Genese easily proved the j are primes, j is a divisor of qr. statement and W. S. Foster the second. T. Pepin^^ factored various a" 1, including a = 79, 67, 43, n = 5; a = 7, n = ll', a = S, 71 = 23; a = 5 or 7, w = 13 (certain ones not in the tables by Bickmore^^)
first

H.

Scheffler*^ discussed the factorization of 2'"+!

by writing
if

possible

factors to the base 2, as

had Beguelin.^
I

He noted

(p. 151) that,

m = 2"~\

1^2(2-+!'" =

(i+2")2{i_2m+(2m-l)2"-(2m-2)22"
o o(2m 2)n_|_o(2m l)n)

His formula (top p. 156), in to that of LeLasseur.^^

36Berlin Berichte, 1888, 417;

which

2^*"^

is

a misprint for 2^''"^

is

equivalent

sspgriodico di Mat., 2, 1887, 114. ^*Ibid., 130-137. 281-292. "jour, fiir Math., 131, 1906, 265-7. "Nature, 37, 1888, 152. ^Ubid., p. 418; CoU. Papers, 4, 1912, 628. "Comptes Rendus Paris, 106, 1888, 446; CoU. Papers, 4, 607. "Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 49, 1888, 54, 69. Atti Accad. Pont. Nuovi Lincei, 49, 1890, 163. Cf. Escott, Messenger Math., 33, 1903-4, 49. Beitrage zur Zahlentheorie, 1891, 147-178.

"Tidsskrift for Mat., (5), 4, 1886, 70-80.

Werke,

3, I,

386

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xvi

E. Lucas*^ gave algebraic factors of

K. Zsigmondy^ proved the existence of a prime dividing similar binomial with a lower exponent, exceptions apart
Birkhoff^-).
J.

a'^

h'^,

but no

(cf . Bang,^^-

W.

L. Glaisher*^ gave the

prime factors of p^ ( l)^?-^)/^ ^^^

(2*^

^^^^i

prime p<100. T. Pepin^^ proved that (31'-l)/30, (83'-l)/82,

+ l)/(3-83)

are

primes. A. A. Markoff'^^ investigated the greatest prime factor of n^+1. W. P. Workman^^ noted the factors of 3^*+Hl [due to Catalan^^] and 2^"* l, and stated that Lucas^^ (p. 326) gave erroneous factors of 2'^^+l. C. E. Bickmore*^ gave factors of a"-l for n^50, a = 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10,

11, 12.

proved that n" 1 is divisible by 4n+l if 47i+l is prime. A. Cunningham^ gave 43 primes exceeding 9 milUon which are factors of (x5l)/(xl), and factors of 3'+l, 3''-l, S^^+l, S'^^'+l, 5'^-l,
Several^^"

5^Hl, 5^'-l, S^^+l, 53^-1.

i. e.,

A. Cunningham^^ considered at length the factorization of Aurifeuillians, the algebraically irreducible factors of
n+l

{n,7?Y^+ {2n^fT,

(nix2)+ ( - \)~{n^'\?r

{n,n^

= n),

where n^ and x are relatively prime to ^2 and ?/, while n has no square factor, and is odd in the second case. Aurifeuille had found them to be expressible algebraically in the form P^ Q'^. There are given factors of 2"+! for n even and ^102, and for n = 110, 114, 126, 130, 138, 150, 210. A. Cunningham^^ factored numbers a"=*= 1 by use of tables, complete to = p 101, giving the lengths I of the periods of primes p and their powers < 10000 to various bases q, so that q^= 1 (mod p or p^). A. Cunningham and H. J. WoodalP^ gave factors of A^ = 2''10"l for x^30, a^ 10, and for further sets; also, for each prime p^3001, the least a and the least corresponding x for which p is a divisor of N. Bickmore (p. 95) gave the linear and quadratic forms of factors of A^. T. Pepin^ factored a^-1 for a = 37, 41, 79; also^^ 151^-1.
"Th^orie des nombres, 1891, 132, exs. 2-4. "Monatshefte Math. Phys., 3, 1892, 283. Details in Ch. VII, Zsigmondy." Quar. Jour. Math., 26, 1893, 47. *Memorie Accad. Pont. Nuovi Lincei, 9, I, 1893, 47-76. ^Comptea Rendus Paris, 120, 1895, 1032. "Messenger Math., 24, 1895, 67. "/6id., 25, 1896, 1-44; 26, 1897, 1-38; French transl., Sphinx-Oedipe, 7, 1912, 129-44, 155-9. "^Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 65, 1896, 78; (2), 8, 1905, 97. Proc. London Math. Soc., 28, 1897, 377, 379. "/bid., 29, 1898, 381-438. "Messenger Math., 29, 1899-1900, 145-179. The line of iV' = 532(p. 17) is incorrect. "Math. Quest. Educat. Times, 73, 1900, 83-94. [Some errors.] "Mem. Pont. Ac. Nuovi Lincei, 17, 1900, 321-344; errata, 18, 1901. Cf. Sphinx-Oedipe, 5, 1910, num6ro special, 1-9. Cf. Jahrbuch Fortschritte Math., on a = 37. *Atti Accad. Pont. Nuovi Lincei, 44, 1900-1, 89.

Chap. XVI]

FACTORS OF

a" ==5".

387

A. Cunningham^^ factored 5'* ! for n = 75, 105. 1 (mod t). L. Kronecker^^" proved that every divisor, prime to <, of (1) is H. S. Vandiver^'' noted that the proof applies to the homogeneous form Ft{a, b) of (1) if a, b are relatively prime. D. Biddle^^ gave a defective proof that 3-2^^+1 is a prime. The Math. Quest. Educational Times contains the factorizations of:

Vol. 68 (1898), p. 27, p. 112, 272o_i. 1012+4. Vol. 69 (1898), p. 61, 3824+1; p. 73, x^-1, x = 500, 2000; p. 117, x'+y^; p. 118, 10^^+33, 33.IOI8+I. Vol. 70 (1899), p. 32, p. 69, 242i''+l; p. 47, 3201^-1; p. 64, 2^2+1, 8i*+l, 20018+1; p. 72, 2014-1; p. 107, 9721^+1. Vol. 71 (1899), p. 63, x^^+^-l;p. 72, Vol. 66 (1897), p. 97, 2i55_i factor 3P.
p. 114,

x'-\-y\

(1900), p. 51, 3520+I; p. 96, 711-I; p. 104, p. 114, x'-\-y*. (1901), p. 27, a prime 2iq+l divides g^-1 if k = 2^-^; p. 86, rcio-5y. [Educ. Times, (1901), p. 37, 3^+y'; p. 90, 1792^+1; p. Ill, 7^5+1. (2), 54, 1901, 223, 260]. Vol. 2 (1902), p. 33, p. Ser. 2, Vol. 1 (1902), p. 46, 10082+1; p. 84, x'-\-fxy^. 53, iV4+l; p. 118, IP^+l. Vol. 3 (1903), p. 49, a'+b* (cf. 74, 1901, 44); p. 114, a+l, a = 60000. Vol. 6 (1904), p. 62. 9618+1. Vol. 7 (1905), p. 62, 20813-1; pp. 106-7, 2126+I. Vol. 8 (1905), p. 50, 9618+1; p. 64, 212^+1. Vol. 10 (1906), p. 36, 5418+I, 6^4+1. Vol. 12 (1907), p. 54, 6*2+1, 24^0+1. Vol. 13 (1908), p. 63, 106-7, S'*-\-2'\ Vol. 14 (1908), p. 17, 15018+1; p. 71, sextics; p. 96, 7^5+1.

Vol. 72 144010+1. Vol. 73 Vol. 74 Vol. 75

(1900), p. 61,

(Sny^-l

factor

24n+l

if

prime;

p. 86,

72210+1;

p. 117,

Vol. 15 (1909), p. 57, S''-\-2'*; p. 33, 3111+I, 12*5+1; p. 103, 282i+l, 44ii+l,

630+1.
Vol. 16 (1909), p. 21, 1924+1. Vol. 18 (1910), pp. 53-5, 102-3, x^-\-^y'; pp. 69-71, a:+27?/; p. 93, y^^-l. Vol. 23 (1913), p. 92, (x'^-Nx-^NY Vol. 19 (1911), p. 103, c(^-\-y' = z^-\-w\

-{-Nix^-Ny.
Vol. 24 (1913), pp. 61-2, x'^^^y^ y
x3''+3i5.

= 5,

7,

11, 13; pp. 71-2, a;i2+2, x'^-\-S\

^14+7^

Vol. 26 (1914), p. 23, x^^-{-l for fc = 6n+35^3^ p. 39, a;i2+6; p. 42, xl0-5^ a:22+llii, a;26-13i3. Vol. 27 (1915), pp. 65-6, 451^-1, 20''-l, fc^o+l for A; = 6, 8, 10; p. 83, x4+4y4 (when four factors). Vol. 28 (1915), p. 72, 503o+l. Vol.

29(1916),

New

p. 95, 9618+1. series, vol. 1 (1916), p. 86, rc2o+10i<', Vol. 2 (1916), p. 19, ajso-sis.

x28+14i4; pp. 94-5, x^'^-5^^,

x^'^+WK

Vol. 3 (1917), p. 16, x''-y''; p. 52,

xH-l.
is

of

E. B. Escott^^ gave many cases when 1+x^ primes or the double of such a product.
Proc. London Math. Soc, 34, 1901, 49. ^^''Vorlesungeu iiber Zahlentheorie, 1, 1901, 440-1. s6*Amer. Math. Monthly, 10, 1903, 171.

a product of two powers

"Messenger Math.,

31, 1901-2, 116 (error); 33, 1903-4, 126.

7,

"L'mterm^diaire des math.,

1900, 170.

388

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xvi

P. F. Teilhet*^ gave formulas factoring cases of l+ar^, as

(6H6+l)Hl = [(6+l)2-hl](6Hl),
4(c+ir+l
the last being (10, 1903, of two sums of two squares
is

I
the product

=[(c+2)H(c+l)^[(c+l)Hca 170) a case of the known formula for

(cf. 11,

1904, 50). Escott^ repeated Euler's^ remarks on the integers x for which \-\-:i^ He and Teilhet (11, 1904, 10, 203) noted di\'isible by a given prime.

that any common di\'isor of h and al di\'ides (a''='=l)/(a=fcl). G. Wertheim" collected the theorems on the divisors of a"'==l. G. D. Birkhoff and H. S. Vandiver^- employed relatively prime integers a, 6 (a>6) and defined a primitive divisor of F = a" 6" to be one relatively of n. They proved that, if n?^2, F has a prime to V^, for all di\'isors primitive divisor 7^ 1 except f orn = 6, a = 2, 6 = 1. L. E. Dickson^^'' noted that {p^ l){p^ l) has no factor=l (mod p^) if p is prime. A. Cunningham^^ gave high primes ?/" l, (t/^+1)/2, ?/^4-y+l.

H.

J.

Woodall^ gave factors

of

?/"

+ l.

J. W. L. Glaisher^^ factored 2^''=t2^+l for r^ll, in connection with the question of the similarity of the nth pedal triangle to a given triangle. L. E. Dickson^^ gave a new derivation of (1), found when F,(a) is divisible by pi or pi^, where pi is a prime factor of t, and proved that, if a is an integer >1, F,(a) has a prime factor not di\'iding 0*^ 1 (m<t) except in the cases f = 2, a = 2* 1, and t = Q, a = 2; whence a' 1 has a prime factor not dividing a"*l{m<t) except in those cases [cf. Birkhoff,^- CarmichaeP]. Dickson^ applied the last theorem to the theory of finite algebras and gave material on the factors of p" 1.

A. Cunningham^^ treated at length the factorization of i/"+l for 71 = 2, 4, 8, 16, and (?/^''+l)/(2/"+l) for n = 1, 2, 4, 8, by means of extensive tables He discussed also of solutions of the corresponding congruences modulo p.

x^+y", n = 4, 6, 8, 12. Cunningham^^'' factored \{x^ i^)/{x y)-\-iJL{x^+y^)/{x'^+y'^) pressing the fractions in the form P^ kxyQ"^, k= o, 6.
"L'intermediaire des math.,
9,

by

ex-

^oibid., 12, 1905, 38; cf. 11, 1904,

1902, 31&-8. 195-6.

"Anfangsgriinde der Zahlenlehre, 1902, 297-303, 314. "Annals of Math., 5, 1903-4, 173. Cf. Zsigmondy," Dickson."
Amer. Math. Monthly, 11, 1904, 197, 238; 15, 1908, 90-1. Quar. Jour. Math., 35, 1904, 10-21.
*Ibid., p. 95. **Ibid., 36,

1905, 156.

12, 1905, 86-89. 'Gottingen Nachrichten, 1905, 17-23. "Messenger Math., 35, 1905-6, 16&-185; 36, 1907, 145-174; 38, 1908-9, 81-104, 145-175; 39, 1909, 33-63, 97-128; 40, 1910-11, 1-36. Educat. Times, 60, 1907, 544; Math. Quest. Educat. Times, (2), 13, 1908, 95-98; (2), 14, 1908, 37-8, 52-3, 73^; (2), 15, 1909, 33-4, 103-4; (2), 17, 1910, 88, 99. Proc. London Math. Soc, 27, 1896, 98-111; (2), 9, 1910, 1-14. <Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 10, 1906, 58-9.

"Amer. Math. Monthly,

Chap. XVI]

FACTORS OF

a**=*=6''.

389

and E. B. Escott^^ discussed the divisibility of p^^* where d is a divisor of n, and d of d. R. D. CarmichaeF proved that if P^^R^" is divisible by 8a and we then Q/8 is an integer if and only if a is divisible set Q = {P''R'')/{a{P R) by the least integer e for which P^ R^ is divisible by each prime factor of a not dividing P R, and 5 is a divisor of Q. Proof for the case R = l had been given by E. B. Escott'^^ A. Cunningham^^ tabulated the factors of y^^^^l for ?/ = 2, 3, 5, 7, 12. K. J. Sanjana'^^ considered the factors of
L. E. Dickson
d(p"^'^

by

1),

Sanjana'^^" applied his

method

to prove the statement of

M. Kannan that

20^5-1=

11. 19-31-61-251421-3001-261451-64008001-3994611390415801

4199436993616201.
L. E. Dickson''^ factored w" 1 for various values of n. R. D. CarmichaeF^ employed the methods of Dickson^ ^ to obtain generalizations. Let n = lip/*, Let Q(a, /3) be the homogeneous form of Fn{a), where the p's are distinct primes, and let c be a divisor of n and a multiple

are relatively prime, the g. c. d. of 5 = a"^^' iS'*''^' and and at most one Qda, /3) contains the factor pi when d contains pi^; if pi>2 divides 5, at most one Qcio-, jS) contains pi, and no one of them contains pi^. If a, /3 are relatively prime and c = mpi"', where
of
pi'.

If a,

j3

Qc{a,

/3)

is 1

or pi

then QXcl, jS) is divisible by pi if and only if x = m, but not for 0<a;<m; in all other cases Q= 1 (mod m). If a, jS are relatively prime, QXo-, jS), and hence also a"^", has a prime factor not dividing a* j3'(s<c), except in the cases (i) c = 2, ^ = 1^ a = 2^-l; (ii) Q,(a, /3) =p = greatest prime factor of c, and a"^^=/3"/^

m>l

and

is

prime to

pi,

fjxj^x ^jj^Q^ p^) holds for

(modp);

(iii)a(a,/3)

= l.
is

E. Miot^^ noted that LeLasseur's^^ formula

/02fc+1^2\
2

the case
\

m=n= l

of

(f_JL) +^2^n(m+^-^2*+in
\

02t+1^2

Welsch (p. 213) stated that the latter is no more general than the case A: = 0, which follows from the known formula for the product of two sums of two
squares.

A. Cunningham^^ noted the decomposition into primes

2"+l = 3-43-617-683-78233-35532364099.
"L'interm^diaire des math., 1906, 87; 1908, 135; 18, 1911, 200. Cf. Dickson." '"Amer. Math. Monthly, 14, 1907, 8-9. 'i76id., 13, 1906, 155-6. "Report British Assoc, 78, 1908, 615-6. "Proc. Edinburgh Math. Soc, 26, 1908, 67-86; corrections, 28, 1909-10, viii. "aJour. Indian Math. Club, 1, 1909, 212. '^Messenger Math., 38, 1908, 14-32, and Dickson"*"' of Ch. XIV. '^Amer. Math. Monthly, 16, 1909, 153-9. 'L'interm6diaire des math., 17, 1910, 102. "Report British Assoc, for 1910, 529; Proc. London Math. Soc, (2), 8, 1910, xiii.

390

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xvi

x y=l,
if

A. Cunningham"^ discussed quasi-Mersenne numbers N'g = x^y^, with q a prime, tabulating every prime factor < 1000 for q<50, a:<20
if

q>o, a:<50

= 5, and

treated Aurifeuillians

{X''=^Y')/{X=^Y),

X=

^^,

Y = qy]\

H. C. Pocklington"^ proved that, if n is prime, (x" ?/'*)/(x ?/) is divisible only by numbers of the form 77m + 1 unless x y\s, divisible by n [Euler], and then is divisible only by n and numbers of the forms mn-\-\, n{inn-\-\). G. Fonten^* stated that, if p is a prime and x, y are relatively prime, each prime factor of {x^ y^)/{x y) is of the form A'p + 1, except for a factor p, occurring if x=y (mod p) and then only to the first power if p>2. G. Fonten^^^ considered the homogeneous form/t(x, y) derived from (1) by setting a = x/y. If p" is the highest power of a prime p dividing n.

The main theorem proved

the following: If x, y are relatively prime every prime divisor of /(x, y) is of the form kn+l, unless it is divisible by It has this factor p if p 1 is divisible the greatest prime factor (say p) of n. by n/p- and if x, y satisfy //pa=0 (mod p), the latter having for each y prime In parto p a number of roots x equal to the degree of the congruence. ticular, if n is a power of a prime p, every prime factor of / is of the form kn-\-l, with the exception of a divisor p occurring if x=y (mod p), and then
is

power if n5^2. G. van der Corput^^ considered the properties of the factors of the expression derived from a' +6' as (1) is derived from a' 1. A. G^rardin^ factored a^+6^ in four numerical cases and gave
to the first
J.

(a2+3iS2)H(4ai3)*=n{(3a2=fc2ai3+3/32)2-2(2a22a/3)2).

A. Cunningham^ tabulated factors of y'^^2, 2?/* 1. R. D. CarmichaeP^ treated at length the numerical factors of a"=tj8" and the homogeneous form Qnio-, /3) of (1), when a+^S and a/5 are relatively prime integers, while a, j8 may be irrational. A. G^rardin^S'^ factored xHl for x = 373, 404, 447, 508, 804, 929; investigated x'* -2 for x^ 50, y^-Sfory^ 75, Sv^ - 1 for y^ 25, 2w^ -Iforw^ 37, and gave ten methods of factoring numbers Xa^ 1.
L. Valroff^^'' factored 2x^-1 for 101^x^180, 8x^-1 for x<128. A. Gerardin^^*^ expressed 622833161 (a factor of 20^+ 1) as a sum of two squares in two ways to get its prime factors 2801 and 222361.
"Messenger Math., 41, 1911-12, 119-145. "Proc. Cambr. Phil. Soc, 16, 1911, 8. '"Nouv. Ann. Math., (4), 9, 1909, 384; proof,
"Ubid., (4), 12, 1912, 241-260.

(4), 10,

1910, 475; 13, 1913, 383-4.

8Nieuw Archicf voor Wiskunde, (2), 10, 1913, 357-361. "Wiskundig Tijdschrift, 10, 1913, 59. "Messenger Math., 43, 1913-4, 34-57. Annals of Math., (2), 15, 1913-4, 30-70.
w^Sphinx-Oedipe, 1912, 188-9; 1913, 34-44; 1914, 20, 23-8, 34-7, 48. o^^lbid., 1914, 5-6, 18-9, 28-30, 33, 37, 73. *^Ibid., 39. Stated by E. Fauquembergue, I'interm^diaire des math., 21, 1914, 45.

Chap. XVI]

FACTORS OF

a**

6".

391

A. Cunningham^Habulated factors of y^=^l,x'^=^y''", and gave an account

and manuscript tables of solutions of 2/"*='=l = (mod p^). Cunningham^^ tabulated factors of x^^^y"" for x^lQ and certain y's as high as 31 when x = 2 or 4, where x, y are relatively prime and x> 1, y> 1. Cunningham^^ noted that x-2''+l is composite for l<a;<233, x 9^ 14:1. A. Cunningham and H. J. WoodalP^ tabulated factors of 2'^^q and g.2*l for 5-^66, and tabulated values of q for which one of these four functions is divisible by a given prime p or power of p. They confirmed
of printed

that X.2'' cidentally

tables of

+ 1 is composite when 1< x< 233 except perhaps when x = 141

(p. 15),

In-

the factors of 2*"^^; 1 for

A;

^ 17 are given.

For factors of 2^ 1 and 10" 1, see Chapters I and VI. For factor numbers m.2^l, see Seelhoff^^ ^^^ Morehead^o of Ch. XIII; for m. 6^=1=1, Dines^^ For factors of several numbers d^ 1, see Lawrence^^, Biddle^^ and Kraitchik^i of Ch. XIV. For the form of factors of a'^+b" when k = 2^, see Euler" of Ch. XV. Various results in Ch. XVII relate to
factors of
a'*=t5'.

Factors of Trinomials.
Seven^^ primes p such that (p^ 1)^ has 4 or more factors px+l,x<p. List^^ of algebraically factorable trinomials x^+xy'^+y^, etc.

Factors" of 14^14^+1, 7^+2-7'+l, etc. Conditions that x^-\-Px'^-\-c^ be a product of 4 rational quadratic

factors.^^

Two^^ factors
For factors
of

of

x^-{-i4:m'^+Sm^+2)xY+y\
See papers 28,

Factors^"*^ of various trinomial expressions.

x'^+Qbx^+b^ see Dirichlet^ of Ch. XVII.

28a, 65, 89 above.

8Messenger Math., 45, 1915, 49-75. ^Ubid., 185-192.
ssProc. London Math. Soc, (2), 4, 1907, xviii; (2), 15, 1916-7, xxix. s^Messenger Math., 47, 1917, 1-38. Math. Quest. Educ. Times, (2), 10, 1906, 44. 5Math. Quest. Educat. Times, (2), 15, 1909, 82-3. Amer. Math. Monthly, 15, 1908, 67, 138. L'intermediaire des math., 15, 1908, 121. 9Math. Quest. Educ. Times, (2), 16, 1909, 39-41.

Ubid., 65-6.

64-5; (2), 22, 1912, 20-1. s^Sphinx-Oedipe, 6, 1911, 8-9. ""Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 72, 1900, 26-8; 74, 1901, 130-1; (2), 6, 1904, 97; 19, 1911, 85; Math. Quest, and Solutions, 3, 1917, 66; 4, 1917, 20, 1911, 25-6, 76-8; 22, 1912, 54-61. 13,39; 5, 1918, 38, 50-1.
8/6id., (2), 18, 1910,

CHAPTER
RECURRING

XVII.
Un, Vn.

SERIES; LUCAS*

Leonardo Pisano\ or Fibonacci, employed,

in 1202 (revised manuscript,

1228), the recurring series 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ... in a problem on the number of shall write Un for the nth term, and Un offspring of a pair of rabbits. derived by prefixing 0, 1 to the for the {n-\-l)th term of 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5,

We

former series. Albert Girard^ noted the law w+2 = ^<n+i+'Wn for these series. Robert Simson^ noted that this series is given by the successive convergents to the continued fraction for (\/5 l)/2. The square of any term is proved to differ from the product of the two adjacent terms by =*= 1. implies L. Euler^ noted that {a-\-\/b)'' =

Ak+Bk^

A, = h{{a-\-Vbr+ia-Vbr},
J. L.

B, = -~^{ia+Vbr-{a-Vby].

Lagrange^ noted that the residues of Ak and B^ with respect to any

periodic.

modulus are

Lagrange^ proved that if the prime p divides no number of the form fau^, then p divides a number of the form

{{t-huVar+'-it-uV^)^']/Va.
A.
of the

M.

Legendre' proved that,

if

form

r+sV^?

where

and

(f)^A^^ = l, then ((l>+\l/VAy l is are divisible by a prime w, not dividing

8=<o-lit(i) = +l,

=+litg) = -l.

C. F. Gauss* proved [Lagrange's^ result] that, if 6 is a quadratic nonresidue of the prime p, then Bp+i is divisible by p for every integral value of a. If e is a divisor of 1, then Be is divisible by p for e 1 values of a,

p+

being a factor of B^+i. G. L. Dirichlet^ proved that, if b is an integer not a square and x integer prime to b, and if U, V are polynomials in x, b such that

is

any

{x+Vbr=^u-\-vvb, then U and V have no common odd divisors. If n is an odd prime, no prime
of

which
it

is

a quadratic residue

is

2mn+l.
unless

No prime of which 6 is be of the form 2mn l.

a factor of V unless it be of the form a quadratic non-residue is a factor of V Lagrange^ had proved conversely that a

1857 (Liber Abbaci), 283-4. ^L'Arithm^tique de Simon Stevin de Bruges, par Albert Girard, Leyde, 1634, p. 677. Lea Oeuvres Math, de Simon Stevin, 1634, p. 169. 3Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, 48, I, 1753, 368-376; abridged edition, 10, 1809, 430-4. *Novi Comm. Acad. Petrop., 18, 1773, 185; Comm. Arith., 1, 554. ^Additions to Euler's Algebra, 2, 1774, 78-9, pp. 599-607. Euler, Opera Omnia, (1), 1, 619. Nouv. M^m. Ac. Berlin, ann^e 1775 (1777), 343; Oeuvres, 3, 782-3. 'TWorie des nombres, 1798, p. 457; ed. 2, 1808, p. 429; ed. 3, 1830, vol. 2, Art. 443, pp. 111-2. Disq. Arith., 1801, Art. 123. Deformishnearibus,Breslau,1827; Werke, 1,51. Cf Kronecker."
iScritti, I,
.

393

394

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xvn

prime of which 6 is a non-residue, and having the form 2mn 1, vdW di\'ide V. li b= n, where n is a prime 4m-\-3, no prime divides V unless it is of the form A-n=fc 1, and conversely. The divisors of U are discussed for the case n a power of 2; in particular, of U = x^+Qbx^-\-b^ when n = 4. J. P. M. Binet^ noted that the number of terms of a solution t', expressed
as a function of n, ences is
ro,
. .

.,

of the equation

t'+2

= i'+i+''i'n

in finite differ-

^(i^-'-(^)-*')This equals f/ as shown by taking each r to be unity. G. Lam6^^ used the series of Pisano^ to prove that the number of divisions necessary to find the g. c. d. of two integers by the usual process of division does not exceed five times the number of digits in the smaller integer. Lionnet^- added that the number of divisions does not exceed three times it when no remainder exceeds half the corresponding di\'isor. See also Serret, Traits d'Arithmetique; C. J. D. Hill, Acta Univ. Lundensis, 2, 1865, No. 1; E. Lucas, Nouv. Corresp. Math., 2, 1876, 202, 214; 4, 1878, 65, and Th^orie des Nombres, 1891, 335, Ex. 3; P. Bachmann, Niedere Zahlentheorie, 1902, 116-8; L. Grosschmid, Math.-Naturwiss. Blatter, 8, 1911, 125-7, for an elementary proof by induction; Math, es Phys. Lapok, 23, 1914, 5-9; R. D. Carmichael, Theory of Numbers, p. 24, Ex. 2. H. Siebeck^^ considered the recurring series defined by

for a, c relatively prime.

By

induction,

where

/3

or

1,

7=

(r

1)/2

or (r 2)/2, according as r

is

odd or even;

whence A^^
s

A"g are relatively

= (b/p)

is

by N^- If P and q are relatively prime, Np and prime and conversely. If p is a prime, 6 = a"+4c, and Legendre's symbol, then
is

divisible

Np=s,

Np.,=

(mod

p),

so that either Np+i or A"p_i is divisible by p. J. Dienger^^ considered the question of the
of Pisano with the of a given term.

same number

of digits

number of terms of the series and the problem to find the rank

A. Genocchi^^ took a and b to be relatively prime integers and proved that B is divisible by B and that the quotient Q has no odd divisor in
"Comptea Rendus
Paris, 17, 1843, 563.
"Ibid., 19, 1S44, 867-9.

Cf. Binet, pp. 937-9.

16, 1851, 120-4.

'*Compl^ment des 616ments d'arithm^tique, 1857, 39-42. "Jour, fur Math., 33, 1846, 71-6. "Archiv Math. Phys., "AnnaU di Mat., (2), 2, 1868-9, 256-267. Cf. Genocchi". ".

Chap. XVII]

Recueeing Seeies; Lucas'

Un, v^.

395

other than a divisor of n. If p is an odd divisor of B^^ and the least k for which B^ is divisible by p, then /i is a divisor of m. If p is an odd prime, Bp_i or Bp^i is divisible by p according as 6 is a quadratic This is used to residue or non-residue of p, whatever be the value of a. prove the existence of primes of the two forms n'2;l(n a prime >2) and the existence of an infinitude of primes of each of the forms mz^l [Ch XVIII] E. Lucas^^ stated without proof theorems on the series of Pisano.^ The sum of the first n terms equals C/+2 2; the sum of those terms taken with Also alternate signs equals ( l)"C/_i.
if

common with B^
h
is

_i -\-U

U2n,

UnUn+l ~

Un\ Un2 = U2n}

n'^U

n+1

~U

_i

C/

3+2'

We

have the symbolic formulas

where, after expansion, exponents are replaced by subscripts. From E. Catalan's Manuel des Candidats a I'Ecole Polytechnique, I, 1857, 86, he

quoted

Lucas^'^

employed the roots a,boix^ = x-\-l and

^
a
^
n
\

set
I

1.71

^2re

Un

form the series of Pisano with the terms 0, 1 prefixed, so that Uo=0, Ui = U2=l, U3 = 2. Since 5w^ z^^ = 4, u^ and Vn have no common If p is a prime ^2, 5, we have Up=l, Vp = l (mod factor other than 2. have the symbolic formulas We p).
u's

The

Given a law Un+k = -^oUn+p+ symbol f/* by ( C/) where

,

-i-ApUn of recurrence,

we can

replace the

(f){u)=Aou''+Aiu''-^+.

+Ap_^u+A p)

since U^+kp^ U''{({){U)}^, symbolically. E. Lucas^^ stated theorems on the series of Pisano.

We

have

2"\/5i/, = (l

+ V5r-(l-V5r,

^n+i

= l + (i) + (''2^)

+ ---

and and

his^^
Uq,

and by
Vn+2

symbolic formulas with u's in place of U^s. Up^ is divisible by Up their product if p, q are relatively prime. Set Vn = U2n/un.

Then

= Vn+l+Vn,
2,

Vin
1876, 74r-5.

= An-2,

y4+2

= ^Wl +2-

Nouv. Corresp. Math.,

^Ubid., 201-6.

"Comptes Rendus

Paris, 82, 1876, 165-7.

396
If

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xvii

1 in Pisano's series is divisible by the odd number A the term of rank ^ form 10^=*= 3 and if no term whose rank is a divisor of A 1 is divisible by .4 then A is a prime. If the term of rank A 1 is divisible by A = 10p=t 1 and if no term of rank a divisor of A 1 is divisible by A, then A is a prime. It is stated that A=2^^^ 1 is a prime since A = 10p 3 and u^ is never divisible by A for k = 2", except for n = 127. = 0, Lucas^^ employed the roots a, 6 of a quadratic equation x^

of the
,

Px+Q

where P,

are- relatively

prime integers.
Vn

Set
5

Un =

The
sine
(1) (2)

quotients of

6" r-' ao 5if V 1

a"

= a"+h'*,

= o 6.

and

by

2^"^^ are functions analogous to the

and

cosine.

It is stated that

U2n = UnVn,
2u^+ri = UmVn

V^-bW = '^Q',
"J^n^

+ UVm,
Q
or
5^,

" Itn-l^^n+l = Q'*"^

the theorems:

Not counting
(I)

divisors of

we have

Wpg is divisible

by

Up, u^,

and by

their

product

if

p, q are relatively

prime.

prime. the g. c. d. of m, n, then Ud is the g. c. d of u^, Un. (IV) For n odd, u^, is a divisor of x^ Qif'. By developing wp and fp in powers of Un and v, we get formulas analogous to those for sin nx and cos nx in terms of sin n and cos n, and thus get the law of apparition of primes in the recurring series of the it [stated explicitly in Lucas"*^], given by Fermat when 5 is rational and by Lagrange when 5 is irrational. The developments of uj' and v^^ as linear functions of are like the formulas of de Moivre and Bernoulli for sin^x and ""nj '^2n, cos^x in terms of sin kx, cos kx. Thus (V) If n is the rank of the first term u^ containing the prime factor p to the power X, then Uj^ is the first term divisible by p^"*"^ and not by p^"*"^; this is called the law of repetition of primes in the recurring series of w. (VI) If p is a prime 4g+l or 4g+3, the divisors of u^Ju^ are divisors of x^py^ or S^x^+pi/^, respectively. (VII) If Up^i is divisible by p, but no term of rank a divisor of p=*=l is
(II) Un, Vn are relatively

(III) If

is

p, then p is a prime. proved the theorems stated in the preceding paper. Theorems II and IV follow from (I2) and (22), while (20 shows that every factor common to w^^. and u^ divides Un and conversely. (VIII) If a and h are irrational, but real, t^p+i or Wp_i is divisible by the prime p, according as 6^ is a quadratic non-residue or residue of p (law of apparition of primes in the it's). If a and h are integers, Up^i is divisible by p. Hence the proper divisors of u^ are of the form /en +1 if 6 is rational,

divisible

by

Lucas^*^

/cn=*=l if 5 is irrational.

"Comptes Rendus Paris, 82, 1876, pp. 1303-5. "Sur la thdorie des nombres premiers, Atti R. Accad.

Sc.

Torino (Math.),

11,

1875-6, 928-937.

Chap. XVII]

RECURRING SERIES LuCAS'

;

Un, V^.

397

The law

of repetition of

primes follows from

where t = (p l)/2. Special cases of the law are due to Arndt,^^ p. 260, and Sancery,^^ each quoted in Ch. VII. Theorem VII, which follows from VIII, gives a test for the primality of 2" 1 which rests on the success of the operation, whereas Euler's test for 2^^ 1 was based on the failure of the operation. The work to prove that 2^^ 1 is prime is given, and it is stated that 2^'' 1 was tested and found composite, ^^ contrary to Mersenne. Finally, a^+Qy^ is shown to have an infinitude of prime divisors. A. Genocchi^^ noted that Lucas' w, y are analogous to his^^ 5, A^. [If we set a = a+\/b, ^ = a \/h, we have
a

Lucas^^ stated that, if 4m+3 is prime, p = 2*'"+^ 1 is prime if the first term of the series 3, 7, 47,. ., defined by r_,.i = r^ 2, which is divisible by p is of rank 4m+2; but p is composite if no one of the first 4m +2 terms Finally, if a is the rank of the first term divisible by p, is divisible by p. the divisors of p are of the form 2"A;=t:l, together with the divisors of x^ 2y^. There are analogous tests by recurring series for the primality of

3.24m+3_i^

2-3*+2i^

2-3*'"+^-l,

2-52'"+'

+ l.

Lucas^^ proposed as an exercise the determination of the last digit in the general term of the series of Pisano and for the series defined by w+2 = aUn+i-\-bUn', also the proof of VIII: If p is a prime,

(a-\-Vby-^-(a-Vby-'^
Up^lis

Vb

divisible
a^

which

6 is a quadratic residue of p, excepting values of a for 6 is divisible by p; and the corresponding result [of Lagrange^ and
if

by p

Gauss^] for Up+i. Moret-Blanc^^ gave a proof by use of the binomial theorem and omission of multiples of p. Lucas^^ wrote s for the sum of the nth powers of the roots of an equation whose coefficients are integers, the leading one being unity. Then Snp sJ' is an integral multiple of p. Take n = 1. Then Si = impHes It is stated that if Si = and if Sj, is divisible by p for k = p, Sp= (mod p) but not for k<p, then p is a prime.
.

*iA.

Cunningham, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc, 27, 1895-6, 54, remarked that, while primality is proved by Lucas' process by the success of the procedure, his verification that a number is composite is indirect and proved by the failure of the process and hence is liable to error.
R. Accad. Sc. Torino,
11, 1875-6, 924.

22Atti.

^Comptes Rendus

2*Nouv. Ann. ^mid., (2), 20, 1881, 258 [p. 263, for primality of 2"-l]. 28Assoc. frang. avanc. sc, 5, 1876, 61-67. Cf. Lucas^*.

Paris, 83, 1876, 1286-8. Math., (2), 15, 1876, 82.

[51?

398

History of the Theory of Numbers.

(Chap,

xvii

use of (1) and (2), theorems I-IV are proved. Theorem VIII is and VII is proved. Employing two diagrams and working to base 2, he showed that 2"^^ 1 is a prime. Lucas" considered a product m = p^i* ... of powers of primes, no one ^\=^^r>-l)/2 Set A = (a-6)^ (A/p)=0, ^^^^ ^^^ dividing Q.
stated,

By

,W=."-V-...[p-g)][.-(f)]
Then w<=0 (mod m)
for
f

=^(w).

The ranks n

of terms u^ divisible

by

are multiples of a certain divisor /z o{\p{m). This ii is the exponent to which a or 6 belongs modulo vi. The case 6 = 1 gives Euler's generalization of

Fermat's theorem. The primality that 2^^ 1 is a prime.

test^^ is

reproduced and applied to show

'

Lucas^^ considered the series of Pisano. Taking a, 6 = (l=tv5)/2, we According as n is odd or even the divisors of Ml =1*2 = 1, 1*3 = 2, etc. u-iJun are divisors of 5x^ 3?/^ or 5a:^+32/"; those of u^Ju2n are divisors of 5x^ 2zf or 5x^'-f-2?/^; those of v^Jvn are divisors of x^+Sy^ or x^ 3y^; those of V2n are divisors of x^+22/^ or x^ 2y^; those of u^JUn are divisors of x^+Sy^ or T' hy^. The law V of repetition of primes and theorem III are stated. The law VIII of apparition of primes now takes the following form: If p is a prime 10g=t 1, Wp_iis divisible by p if p is a prime lOg^ 3, i/p+i is divisible by p.

have

The

given and applied to show that 2^^^ 1 and is a table of prime factors of u^ for n^60. Finally, ^u^ju^ is expressible in the form x^ 'py^ or bx^+py"^ according as the prime p is of the form 45-+! or 40^+3. Lucas^^ considered the series defined by r+i = r^ 2,
test^^ for
2^^

the primality of are primes. There

is

A = 3or9 (mod 10), g=0 (mod 4) or A = 7, 9 (mod 10), g=l( mod 4); A=l, 7 (mod 10), g=2 (mod 4); or A=l, 3 (mod 10), q=S (mod 4). Then p = 2'A 1 is a prime if the rank of the first term divisible by p is 5
Let
or
if
;

a {a<q)
x^

is

the rank of the

first

term divisible by

p, the divisors of

p are

either of the form* 2aAk-{-l,

or of the forms of the divisors of x^ 2y^

and

2Ay'^. Corresponding tests are given for 2^A -\- 1 and S'^A 1. The part of the theorem of Pepin^'^ for testing the primaUty of a = 2^"+l follows from theorem VII with a = 5, 5 = 1, p = a; the second part follows from the reciprocity theorem and the form of a 1 For A=p, let the above rj become r. When p=7 or 9 (mod 10) and p is a prime, then 2p 1 is a prime if and only if r=0 (mod 2p 1). When p = 4g+3 is a prime, 2pH-l is a prime if and only if 2''=1 (mod 2p l).
first

When p = 4^-4- 3

is

a prime, 2p

1 is

a prime

if

and only

if

*'Comptes Rendus Paris, 84, 1877, 439-442. Corrected by Carmichael.*' "Bull. Bibl. Storia Sc. Mat. e Fis., 10, 1877, 129-170. Reprinted as " Recherches sur plusieura ouvrages de Leonard de Pise." Cf von Sterneck" of Ch. XIX. "Assoc, frang. avanc. sc, 6, 1877, 1.59-166. *Corrected to 2MA'=tl in Lucas"; see Lucas." '"KUomptes Rendus Paris, 85, 1877, 329-331. See Ch. XV, Pepin", Lucas,"' " Proth.^^
.

Chap. XVII]

RECURRING SERIES LuCAS'

;

W, V^.

399

:^{a+V2y-a-V2r}^o

(mod2p-i).

To_test the primality of p = 2^^^^ l, use x^ 4x-{-l=0 with the roots 2 Vs. Then if p is a prime, Wp+i is divisible by p. We use the residues defined by r+i = 2r^ 1. of the series 2, 7, 97, 2'^'""*"^ 1 is a prime if the rank of the first term^^ = Lucas^^ stated that p
. . .

of 3, 7, 47,

divisible

by p is between 2m and 4m +2.

To
r+i

test

P = 2^+^ - 1,

form the
ri
if
^

series

= l,

r2=-l,

rs=-7,

r,

= 17,...,

= 2r2-32"-';

is

is the least integer for which r^ is divisible by P, then P is a prime when I comprised between 2g and 4g+l, composite when ?>4g' + l. Lucas^^ expressed Un, v^ as polynomials in P and A = P^ 4Q = 5^, obtained various relations between them corresponding to relations between sine and

cosine; in particular,

Wn+2 P'^n+l

~ Q'^ni

'^n+2r

and formulas derived from them by replacing

generalizing those^^ for the series of Pisano.

^r'^n+r ~ Q ^n> uhy v; also symbolic

formulas

In the second paper, Un+i,

v^

are expressed as determinants of order

whose elements are Q, P, 2, 1, 0. U(n+i)r/unr, hoTCi whlch Is derfved

fraction
is

n There is given a continued fraction for (I2) and generalizations. The same

developed into a series of fractions.

is

Lucas^^ noted that u^r

divisible

by

Ur since

where

absent.

if n is even, f = J(n 1) if n is odd, the final factor being then Proof is given for (2i) and 2y^+ = ?;^y+AMw^. From these are derived new formulas by changing the sign of n and applying
^

= Jn 1

To show

that
[m, n\

is

integral,

apply

(2i)

repeatedly to get
2[m, n\

= [m l,

n]Vn+{m, n \]v^.

Finally,

x^-\-Llf

odd divisors of and x^I\'if' for A = l,. ., 30. By use of (I2), it is shown that the terms of odd rank in the series u^ are divisors of x^ Qif' the terms of even or odd rank in the series v^ are divisors of x^+A?/^ or x^-\-QAy^, respectively.
.

sums of squares of functions Un, v^ are found. Lucas^^ gave a table of the linear forms 4A+?' of the
;

3iMessenger Math.,

7,

1877-8, 186.

numeriques simplement p^riodiques, Nouv. Corresp. Math., 3, These and the following five papers were reproduced by Lucas.'* 1877, 369-376, 401-7. ^Hhid., 4, 1878, 1-8, continuation of preceding.
'^Sur la theorie des fonctions
^'lUd., pp. 33-40.

400

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xvii

Lucas^^ proved III

by use

of (2i)

and gave

Lucas^^ determined the quadratic forms of divisors of

i'2n

from

t;2n=Aw2+2Q",
In the
last,

V2n = vJ'-2Q\

take

Q = 2f, n = 2/1+1;
we have

thus

1^4^+2

factors

if

is

the double of a
(p. 86)

square.

As a

special case

the result

by H. LeLasseur

In the

first

Vi^+2 factors

when QA is of

expression for t'2n, take n=juH-l, A = 2/i^, Q==r^ff^; thus Similarly, v^^ factors if A = 2f. the form 2f.

Lucas" gave the formulas

developments of w^, t'/ as linear functions of Vkn, k = p, p 2, p i,. ., and complicated developments of wr, ^nrLucas^^ reproduced the preceding series of seven papers, added (p. 228) on the expression of 4Upr/ur as a quadratic form, a proof (p. 231) theorem a test for primality by use of the s^, and results on primes and perfect of his^^
.

numbers

cited elsewhere.

first kind (in which the roots a, h are Fermat's theorem and the analogue deduced relatively prime integers) and

Lucas^^ considered series w of the

it<=0

(mod m),

= 4>(m),

of Euler's generalization.

Proof

is

given of the

earlier theorems VII, VIII and (p. 300) of his" generalization of the EulerFermat theorem. The primality test^^ is stated (p. 305) and applied to

show that 2^^ 1 and 2^^ 1 are primes. p = 2'**+^ 1 is prime if and only if

It is stated

(page 309) that

3=2coS7r/22+i (mod

p),

after rationalizing with respect to the radicals in the value of the cosine.

The

primality tests^^ are given (page 310), with similar ones for 3'yl l, 2-5'A l. The tests^^ for the primaUty of 2p l are given (p. 314). The primality test^^ for 2'^'''^^ 1 is proved (pp. 315-6).

Lucas"*"

reproduced
in the

his^^ earlier results,

and

for

expressed

ypr/i'2r

form x^ 2pQV> and,

for

p = 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, p a prime ^31, expressed

Nouv. Corresp. Math., 4, 1878, 65-71. "Ihid., pp. 97-102. *Ubid., pp. 129-134, 225-8. Amer. Jour. Math., 1, 1878, 184-220. Errors noted by Carmichael." "Ibid., pp. 289-321. "Atti R. Accad. Sc. Torino, 13, 1877-8, 271-284.

Chap. XVII]

RECURRING SeRIES; LucAS'

form Ax^^pQ''y'^.
q
is

U, y.

401

Upr/Ur in the
p. 280.
it is

The proper

divisors of

shown that

even.

The prime factors of 3^^1 are given on 2^"+l are known to be of the form Snq-\-l; Thus for 2^^+l the first divisor to be tried is
I

first one is 114689; in each case the division is exact Ch. XV). The following is a generalization: If the product of two relatively prime integers a and h is of the form 4/i+l, the proper divisors A primality test for 2'^^+^-! isj of a^'^^^+b^"^'^ are of the form Sahnq+1. 2^"^^+^"+^ = 1 is a prime if and only if Finally, p given.
(cf.

641, for 2^^^+! the

(2"+V2^^)^+(2"-V2^H4)^ =
T. Pepin* ^ gave a test for the primality of g = 2" 1.

(mod
Let

p).

^1and form the

series Ui, U2y.
.

^2-1-52

(modg')
of
q).

.,

it_i

by use

u^+i=u^ 2 (mod
Then g is a prime if and only if u^-i that by Lucas^^ in the choice of Ui.
is

divisible

by

q.

This test

differs

from

E. Lucas"*^ reproduced his^^ test for the primality of 2^A test at the end of another paper,*" with similar tests for 2*'^+^ G. de Longchamps*^ noted that, if dk = Uk aUk-i,
d, = h''-\
d^d, =

1, etc., and the

1

and

2^^*'+^

+^-\

with the generalization

X

Jldj,.=d

= pi+. .+p^-x+l.
.

Take

pi

= p^; = p.

Hence
[Up
CLUp^i)

=Upxx+l
v's.

f^Upxx'

There

is

a corresponding theorem for the

considered the
g. c. d.

J. J. Sylvester**

of u^, u^+i

if

w^ = {2x - l)Ux-i

- {x-l)u^_2'

E. Gelin*^ stated and E. Cesaro*^ proved by use of ?7+p= UpUn+ C/p_iC/_i product of the means of four consecutive terms differs from the product of the extremes by 1 the fourth power of the middle term of five consecutive terms differs from the product of the other four terms by unity.
that, in the series of Pisano, the
;

Paris, 86, 1878, 307-310. The further results are cited in Ch. Bull. Bibl. Storia Sc. Mat. e Fis., 11, 1878, 783-798. Comptes Rendus, 90, 1880, 855-6, reprinted in Sphinx-Oedipe, 5, 1910, 60-1. Nouv. Corresp. Math., 4, 1878, 85; errata, p. 128. Comptes Rendus Paris, 88, 1879, 1297; Coll. Papers, 3, 252.

"Comptes Rendus

XVI.

Nouv. Corresp. Math.,

"Ibid., 423-4.

6,

1880, 384.

402

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xvii

Magnon,'*^ in reply to Lucas, proved that

Oj
Og

Oi
)
I

if

is

the

sum

of the squares of the

V5 first n 1 terms
1

of Pisano's series.

H. Brocard^^ studied the arithmetical properties of the U's defined by Un+i = Un-\-2U_i, Uo = l, Ui=3, in connection with the nth pedal triangle. E. Ces^ro^^ noted that if Un is the nth term of Pisano's series, then
(2C/+l)"-C/^'* = 0, symbolically. E. Lucas^" gave his^^ test for the primahty of
2'*^+^

!.

A. Genocchi" reproduced his^^ results. M. d'Ocagne^^ proved for Pisano's series that [Lucas^]

iu, = u^2-h
=0

2)(-iyii,=

(-l)X-i-l,

lim-^=(i^',
P=
(*p-i

The main problem

given numbers ao =

treated
a,

is

ap+i = h,

that to insert p terms ai, such that aj = a;_i+a,_2.

.

.,

ap between

two
is

The

solution

hUi-{-{

iyaUp+i.i
Up+i

Most

paper is devoted to the question of the negative terms in the series of a's.
of the

maximum number

of

E. Catalan^2apj.Q^3^ ^^^^ uji^Ur,-pU,+p=

series.

(-iy-'^^U\_i

for Pisano's

E. Lucas^^ stated, apropos of sums of squares, that

L. Kronecker^^ obtained Dirichlet's^ theorems by use of modular systems. Lucas^" proved that, if w=(a'' 5")/(a 6),

Wp_l U(p_i)n/Un
is

divisible by Up when p by Up when n = 2p+l.

is

a prime and n

is

odd and not

,
.

divisible

by

p,

and

L. Liebetruth^^ considered the series Pi = 1 P2 = x, P^ = ^Pn-i Pn-2) and proved any two consecutive terms are relatively prime, and
.
.

Pn = PxPn-X+l-Px-lPn-X
Taking n = 2X,
3X,
. .
.

(X<n).

we
is

see that

The

g. c. d. of P,,

Pj,

Px is a common factor of P2X, Psx, where d is the g. c. d. of ?n, n. Next,

'Nouv. Corresp. Math.,

'"Nouv. Corresp. Math., 6, 1880, 145-151. 6, 1880, 418-420. "/bid., 528; Nouv. Ann. Math., (3), 2, 1883, 192; (3), 3, 1884, 533. Jornal de Sc. Math. Astr., 6, 1885, 17.

0R6cr6ation8 mathdmatiques, 2, 1883, 230. "Coraptes Rendus Paris, 98, 1884, 411-3. "'Bull. Soc. Math. France, 14, 1885-6, 20-41. ^^M6m. soc. roy. sc. Li^ge, (2), 13, 1886, 319-21 ( = M61anges Math., II). "Mathesis, 7, 1887, 207; proofs, 9, 1889, 234-5. "Berlin Berichte, 1888, 417-423; Werke, 3, I, 281-292. Cf. Kronecker'" of Ch. XVI. ""Assoc. franQ. avanc. sc, 1888, II, 30. "Beitrag zur Zahlentheorie, Progr., Zerbst, 1888.

Chap. XVII]

Recuering Series; Lucas'

.

u^, y.

403

If

P1+P3+ +P2n-X=Pn\ P^=P^ (mod Px) then n=m (mod

P2 + -P4+
2X).

+P2n = PnPn+l.

Also,

P=x"-+ S
fc=i

(_i).

(n-fe-l)...(n-2fc) ^.,,_,_
1-2.
.

.A;

If

a/6

is

the nth convergent to i_j+^_...,

,

then

a+2

= ^^n+i~cf,

Hence a^^Pn if cti = 1 02 = a;. Sylvester stated and W. S. Foster^^" proved that if f{d) is a polynomial with integral coefficients and Ux+i=f{Uj^, Ui=f{0), and 5 is the g. c. d. of

= o+i.

r, s,

then Us is the g. c, d. of Ur, Ug. A. Schonfiies^ considered the numbers no =

n^ = n^_n^-i+ri^-2_
. . .

l,

Ui,..., n^ defined
(X

by

+(-1)^
is

= 0,

1,.

.)

and proved geometrically that

has a

if

n^-i is the least of these

numbers which
relation

common

factor with n^, then r

a divisor of
n^)

g+1, while a

'mni=mnr+i (mod
holds for every index
i.

L. Gegenbauer^^ gave a purely arithmetical proof of this theorem.

E. Lucas^^ gave an exposition of his theory, with an introduction to

recurring series. M. Frolov^^ used a table of quadratic residues of composite
factor Lucas'

numbers

to

results on the factors of w, ?;. E. Catalan^^ gave the first 43 terms of the series of Pisano, noted that Un divides U2y,+i, that Uzn is a sum of two squares, and treated the series

numbers v. D. F, Seliwanov^ proved Lucas'

Un = aun-i

+ w-2,

Ux

= a,

W2

= a^ +

Fontes^^" proved theorems stated by Lucas^^ (p. 127), and found in an elementary way the general term of Pisano's series, as given by Binet^^. E. Maillet^^'' proved that a necessary condition that every positive integer, exceeding a certain limit, shall equal (up to a limited number of units) the sum of the absolute values of a finite number of terms of a recurring series, satisfying an irreducible law of recurrence with integral coefficients, is that all the roots of the corresponding generating equation be roots
of unity.

the denominator F{x) of the generating modulo p, a prime, the residues modulo p of the terms of the recurring series repeat periodically, and the length of a period is at most p" 1 the proof is by use of Galois' generalization of Fermat's theorem. The case of a reducible F{x) is also treated.
that,
if

W. ManteP^ noted

fraction of a recurring series

is

irreducible

65<iMath. Quest. Educ. Times, 50, 1889, 54-5. ^Math. Annalen, 35, 1890, 537. "Denkschriften Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 57, 1890, 528. A pamphlet, pubhshed privately by 68Theorie des nombres, 1891, 299-336; 30; 127, ex. 1. Lucas in 1891, is cited in I'intermediaire des math., 5, 1898, 58. "Assoc, frang. avanc. sc, 21, 1892, 149. soMath. Soc. Moscow, 16, 1892, 469-482 (in Russian). "Mem. Acad. R. Belgique, 45, 1883; 52, 1893-4, 11-14. "''Assoc, frang. avanc. sc, 1896, II, 78-89 ""Assoc, frang. avanc. sc, 1894, II, 217-221. ^Nieuw Archief voor Wiskunde, Amsterdam, 1, 1895, 172-184.

404
R.
a+i

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xvii

a prime if and only if a^ 1 is di\'isible by 2m 1. The error of this test was pointed out by E. B. Escott.^ S. R^alis"" noted that two of A'' consecutive terms of 7, 13, 25, ., are di\'isible by iV if iV is a prime 6/^2 1. 3(n^H-n)+7, C. E. Bickmore^** discussed factors of w in the final series of Catalan^\ He^" and others gave known formulas and properties of Pisano's series. R. Perrin^ employed r = r_2 r_3, ro = 3, ^'l = 0, ?'2 = 2. Then v^ is This was verified to be not true when n is di\'isible by n if n is a prime. composite for a wide range of values of n. The same subject was considered by E. jMalo^ and E. B. Escott" who noted that Perrin's test is incomplete. SeveraP^" discussed the computation of Pisano's w for large n's. E. B. Escott"^ computed Sl/ti^. E. Landau^"' had evaluated Sl/wgA in terms of the sum of Lambert's^ series of Ch. X, and "Zl/uoh+i in relation to theta series. A. Tagiuri^^ employed the series Wi = l, U2 = l, Us = 2,... of Leonardo and the generalization Ui, U2,..., where t/= t/_i i[7_2, with Ui = a, U2 = b both arbitrary. Writing e for a^+ab h^, it is proved that
is
.
. .
.

W. D. Christie^ = 3a a_i, 27n l

stated that, for the recurring series defined

by

UJJ-Ur^.^U,^, =
{C/4.a+(

- 1)"- V^,+,_e.
an integer independent
u^ is a multiple of u^

l)*?7_j)/?7
It is

is

of a,
if

h,

n;

it
if

equals

r is a Wj+i+Wj-i. multiple of s. Tagiuri^^ obtained analogous results for the series defined by Vn = hVn-i If -\-lVn-2, and the particular series r obtained by taking ri = l, V2 = h. h and I are relatively prime, v^ is a multiple of v^ if and only if r is a multiple of s. Let ^{i\) be the number of terms of the series of f's which are ^ r, and

shown that

and only

prime to

it; if

h>l,

<i>(t',)

is

Euler's

(f>{i);

but,

if

= l,

<l>(r,)

=0(^)+0(^y2),

the last term being zero

=*(j'.)$(r;).

if i is

odd.

If i

and

j are relatively prime, $(y,y)

Tagiuri^" proved that, for his series of

v^p+i) are incongruent
If
/x
t'^.

is

not divisible

v's, the terms between v^p and modulo if h>l, and for /i = 1 except for Vkp+i=Vkp+2by k and e is the least solution of /-**=! (mod f*), then Vj.= v^ (mod if a:=Ai (mod 4A:e).
t';t)

If

/x

P=l

not divisible by k, and k is odd, and 1 is the least positive solution of Vk), then Vx=v^ (mod ft) if x=ij, (mod 2kei). A. Emmerich^^ proved that, in the series of Pisano,
is

(mod

"Nature, 56, 1897, 10. Math. Quest. Educat. Times, 3, 1903, 46; 4, 1903, 52 ""Math. Quest. Educat. Times, 66, 1897, 82-3; cf. 72, 1900, 40, 71. "*/6m/., 71, 1899,49-50. "/6ui., Ill; 4, 1903, 107-8; 9, 1906, 55-7. L'interm6diaire des math., 6, 1899, 76-7. *Ibid., 7, 1900, 281, 312. "L'interm^diaire des math., 8, 1901, 63-64.
'"/Wd., 7, 1900, 172-7. ^'>>Ibid., 9, 1902, 43-4. <^BuU. Soc. Math. France, 27, 1899, 198-300. 'Periodico di Mat., 16, 1901, 1-12. "Peridico di Mat., 97-114. "/bid., 17, 1902, 77-88, 119-127. "Mathesis, (3), 1, 1901, 98-9.

Chap. XVII]

Recuering Series; Lucas'

2),
. .

t/,

v^.

405
10),

Un+5=Un (mod

w+5=3w (mod

5),
.

^n+6o=Wn (mod
. .

alone are even, Uq, %, u^q, are multiples of 5. so that Uq, Us, Uq, Ug,. proved that two positive integers x, y, for which y^xyx^ Wasteels'^^ J.
equals +1 or 1, are consecutive terms of the series of Pisano. If 5x^4 These are converses of is a square, a; is a term of the series of Pisano. theorems by Lucas. ^^ G. Candido^^ treated Un, v^, by algebra and function- theory. E. B. Escott^^ proved the last result in Lucas' paper. ^ A. Arista'^^ expressed S"if it~^ in finite form. M. Cipolla'^^ gave extensive references and a collection of known formulas

and theorems on

His apphcation to binomial congruences is given w, v. under that topic. G. Candido^^ gave the necessary and sufficient conditions, involving the i/j, that a polynomial x has the factor x^ Px-\-Q, whose roots are a, b.

A. Laparewicz'^^ treated the factoring of 2'"='= 1 by Lucas' method.^^ E. B. Escott^^" showed the connection between Pisano's series and the puzzle to convert a square into a rectangle with one more (or fewer) units of area than the square. E. B. Escott^^ applied Lucas' theory to the case it = 2tt_i-f-w_2. L. E. Dickson'^^" proved that if Zj, is the sum of the kth powers of the roots of a"'-]-pid^~^+ +Pm = 0, where the p's are integers and pi = 0, then, in the series defined by Zx+m-\-piZx+m-i+ +PmZx = 0, Zt is divisible hy i\it is a prime. E. Landau^" proved theorems on the divisors of V^, Y^, where
. . .

{x^iT= VJx)^iYSx), i= \/^.

P.

Bachmann^^ treated at length recurring series. C. Ruggieri^^ used Pisano's series for w_ to solve for ^ and

r\

E. Zeuthen^^ proposed a problem on the series of Pisano. H. Mathieu^^ noted that in 1, 3, 8, ., x,i+i = 3a: a:_i, the expressions
.

a^n^n+i

Xn-iXn+i-\-l are squares. Valroff^^ stated in imperfect form

+ 1,

^
|

theorems

of Lucas.

A. Aubry^^ gave a

summary

of results

by Genocchi^^ and Lucas.

"Mathesis, (3), 2, 1902, 60-62. "Periodico di Mat., 17, 1902, 320-5; I'interm^diaire des math., 23, 1916, 175-6. T*L'mterm6diaire des math., 10, 1903, 288. "Giornale di Mat., 42, 1904, 186-196. "Rendiconto Ac. Sc. Fis. e Mat. Napoh, (3), 10, 1904, 135-150. "Periodico di Mat., 20, 1905, 281-285.
78oThe

"Wiadomosci Matematyczne, Warsaw, 11, 1907, 247-256 (Polish). Open Court, August, 1907. Reproduced by W. F. White, A Scrap-Book of Elementary Mathematics, Notes, Recreations, Essays, The Open Court Co., Chicago, 1908, 109-113. "OAmer. Math. Monthly, 15, 1908, 209. "L'interm6diaire des math., 15, 1908, 248-9.
soHandbuch. .Verteilung der Primzahlen, I, 1909, 442-5. s^pgrjodico di Mat., 25, 1910, 266-276. "Niedere Zahlentheorie, II, 1910, 55-96, 124. "Njrt Tidsskr. for Math., Kjobenhavn, A 22, 1911, 1-9. Solution by Fransen and Damm.
.

*L'interm6diaire des math., 18, 1911, 222; 19, 1912, 87-90; 23, 1916, 14 (generalizations). ^Ihid., 19, 1912, 145, 212, 285. "L'enseignement math., 15, 1913, 217-224

406

History of the Theory of Numbers.

series of Pisano,

[Chap,

xvii

R. Niewiadomski^^ noted that, for a

Uff^a=Ula-hi

or

-Uia-1 (rnodN),

according as the prime A^ = 10mlorlOw3. He showed how to compute rapidly distant terms of the series of Pisano and similar series, and factored

numerous terms.
L. Bastien^^
02,03,
. .

.,each

(mod

p).

employed a prime p and integer a^Kp and determined <p,bymeansof 0102= Q, 02+ 03-^, 0304 Q,a4+a5=-P, Then

a2.H-i^f^^^^^-^'' (modp), K,+,

= PK,-QK,_,.
divisor of

The types of series are found and enumerated. Every the form Xpl. Some of Lucas' results are given.
R.

Kp

is

of

D. CarmichaeP^ generalized

corrected several.

The
and

following

theorem:

If a-\-^
. .

aj3

many of Lucas'^^'^^ theorems and a generalization (p. 46) of Fermat's are integers and aj3 is prime to n = pC\ .pk'',
is
.

where

p\,
is

when X
(3)

.,Pk are distinct primes, the 1. c. m. of

Uy,

= {a^0^)/{a^)

is

divisible

by n

p;rMPi-(a,/3)pj
if

{i=i,...,k).

Here,
as

is is

an odd prime, the symbol

divisible

{a^Y

by

p, is

^)p denotes 0, +1 or 1, according a quadratic residue of p, or is a quadratic non(a,

residue of p; while (a, /3)2 denotes even, and 1 if aj8(a+j3) is odd.

+1
is

if a/3 is

even,
if

if
</>

a^
is

is

odd and

a-\-^ is

In particular,

numbers

(3),

w^=0(mod

n),

which

the product of the the corrected form of the theorem of

Lucas'". Relations have been noted between terms of recurring series defined by one of the equations
^n

+ W + l='W+2,

'W

+ Wn+2 = W+3,

y+i

+ t'_i = 4y,
.

^1=1,^2 = 3.

E. Malo^^ and Prompt^ ^ considered the residues with respect to a prime modulus 10m='=l of the series Uq, Ui, U2 = Uo-\-Ui,. ., ii = w_i+w_2. A. Boutin^^ noted relations between terms of Pisano's series. A. Agronomof^^ treated it = it_i+it_2+w_3. Boutin^^ and Malo^^ treated sums of terms of Pisano's series. A. Pellet^'' generalized Lucas' ^^ law of apparition of primes. A. G^rardin^^ proved theorems on the divisors of terms of Pisano's
series.
'L'interm6diaire des math., 20, 1913, 51, 53-6. "Sphinx-Oedipe, 7, 1912, 33-38, 145-155. "Annals of Math., (2), 15, 1913, 30-70. "Math. Quest. Educat. Times, 23, 1913, 55; 25, 1914, 89-91. "L'intermddiaire des math., 21, 1914, 86-8. "Ibid., 22, 1915, 31-6. "Mathesis, (4), 4, 1914, 125. "Mathesis, (4), 4, 1914, 126. "L'interm^diaire des math., 23, 1916, 42-3. L'intermediaire des math., 23, 1916, 64-7 "Nouv. Ann. Math., (4), 16, 1916, 361-7.

Chap. XVII]

ALGEBRAIC THEORY OF RECURRING SERIES.

1, 1, 2, 3,
. .

407

E. Piccioli^^ noted that in Pisano's series

.,

according as A; is odd or even. T. A. Pierce^ proved for the two functions HlZiil^aD of the roots ai of an equation with integral coefficients properties analogous to those of Lucas' Un, Vn.

Algebraic Theory of Recurring Series.

J.

D.

Cassini^

sum

of a given

and A. de Moivre^"^ treated series whose general term is number of preceding terms each multiplied by a constant.
series to solve algebraic equations.
J.

D. Bernoulli^^ used such recurring

Stirling^^

permitted variable multipUers. L. Euler^^ studied ordinary recurring series and their application to

solving equations.
J. L. Lagrange^^ made the subject depend on the integration of linear equations in finite differences, treating also recurring series with an additive term. The general term of such a series was found by V. Riccati.^ P. S. Laplace^"^ made systematic use of generating functions and applied recurring series to questions on probability. J. L. Lagrange^^ noted that if Ay^-\-Byi.^i-}is the .-\-Nyt+n = recurring relation and if A+Bt-{.+iVT = has distinct roots a, jS, ., the general term of the series is y^ = aa^+&/3'^+ For the case of multiple roots he stated a formula which G. F. Malfatti^^ proved to be erroneous; the latter gave a new process explained for 2, 3 or 4 equal roots. Lagrange^^ had noticed independently his error and now gave the general term of a recurring series in the case of multiple roots by a more direct process than that of Malfatti. Pietro Paoli^^^ investigated the sum of a recurring series.
. .

98Periodico di Mat., 31, 1916, 284-7.

s'Annals of Math., (2), 18, 1916, 53-64. ""Histoire acad. roy. sc. Paris, annee 1680, 309. "iPhil. Trans. London, 32, 1722, 176; Miscellanea analytica, 1730, 27, 107-8; Doctrine of chances, ed. 2, 1738, 220-9. i2Comm. Acad. Petrop., 3, ad annum 1728, 85-100. lO'Methodus differentialis, London, 1730, 1764. "^Introductio in analysin infinitorum, 1748, I, Chs. 4, 13, 17. Cf C. F. Degen, Det K. Danske Vidensk. Selskabs Afhand., 1, 1824, 135; Oversigt. .Forhand., 1818-9, 4. ii^Miscellanea Taurinensia, 1, 1759, Math., 33-42; Oeuvres, I, 23-36. "^Mem. present^s div. sav. Paris, 5, 1768, 153-174; Comm. Bonon., 5, 1767. Cf. M. Cantor, Geschichte Math., lY, 1908, 261. "^Mem. sav. etr. ac. sc. Paris, 6, annee 1771, 1774, p. 353; 7, annee 1773, 1776; Oeuvres, VIII, 5-24, 69-197. M6m. ac. roy. sc. Paris, ann^e, 1779, 1782, 207; Oeuvres, X, 1-89 (ann^e 1777, 99). "Nouv. Mem. Ac. Berlin, annle 1775, 1777, 183-272; Oeuvres, IV, 151. losMem. mat. fis. soc. Ital., 3, 1786-7, 571. ""Nouv. M6m. Ac. Sc. Berlin, ann^es 1792-3, 247; Oeuvres, V, 625-641 (p. 639 on the error). ">Mem. Acad. Mantova, 1, 1795, 121. See Partitions in Vol. Ill of this History.
.

408

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xvii

J. B. Fourier's"^" error in appl^dng recurring series to the solution of numerical equations was pointed out by R. Murphy.^^^'' P. Frisiani"^" applied recurring series to the solution of equations. E. Betti^^^'^ emploj'ed doubly recurring series to solve equations in two unknowns, by extending the method of Bernoulli. ^' W. Scheibner^^- considered a series with a three-term recursion formula, deduced the linear relation between any three terms, not necessarily consecutive, and applied his results to continued fractions and Gauss' h>TDergeometric series. D. Andr^^^^ deduced the generating equation of a recurring series F from that of a recurring series L' given a Unear homogeneous relation between the terms F, multiplied by constants and the terms C/, C/_i, ., multipUed by polynomials in n. D. Andr^^^^ considered a series Ui, U2, ., with
.

where
Ai"^ is

w, X are given functions of n, X being an integer a given function of k, n. It is proved that

C/

^n 1,

while

= 2
p=i

^(n, p)u

^(n, p) =i:AiyA[y ....,

all sets of

where the second summation extends over

k\-\-k2+

integral solutions of

=n-p,
is

ni

= ki+p,

n<

= A\+n<_i

(0</:<<Xn,).

Application

made

to eight special types of series.

of the series

D. Andr^"^ discussed the sums

n(/i+l)

whose general terms are

{n+p

1)'

{an+j3)

where w is the general term of any recurring series. G. de Longchamps"^" proved the first result by Lagrange^^^ and expressed y^ as a sj-mmetric function of the distinct roots a, /3, He"^* +A^L''_+/(n), where / is a polj^nomial of dereduced Un = AiU_i+
.

gree p, to the case f(n) by making a substitution ?7= F-f-Xon^+ -\-\p. C. A. Laisant^^^*" studied the ratios of consecutive terms of recurring series, in particular for Pisano's series.
.

'""Analyse des Equations, Paris, 1831. 'Phil. Mag., (3), 11, 1837, 38-40. "'^Effemeridi .\stronomiche di Milano, 1850, 3. "I'^Annali di Sc. Mat. Fis., 8, 1857, 48-61. "Berichte Gesell. Wiss. Leipzig (Math.), 16, 1864, 44-68. i"Bull. Soc. Math. France, 6, 1877-8, 166-170. "Aim. 8C. r^cole norm, sup., (2), 7, 1878, 375-408; 9, 1880, 209-226. Sc. Math., (2), 1, I, 1877, 350-5. "HIbmptes Rendus Paris, 86, 1878, 1017-9; 87, 1878, 973-5. '"^Assoc. frang., 9, 1880, 91-6. "*7&id., 1885, II, 94-100. "Bull. dea Sc. Math., (2), 5, I, 1881, 218-249.

Summary

in Bull, dea

Chap. XVII]

AlGEBEAIC ThEORY OF RECURRING SeRIES.

409

M.

d'Ocagne^^^ considered the recurring series Ui with

and with Uq,

with
Ui

.,

Up_i arbitrary; and the series u with the same law, but
.

{i

= 0,.

.,

p 2), Up_i

= l.

Then

Un=UoUn+p-i-\-{Ui-aiUo)Un+p-2+

C/p_i

" ^i f7p_2 -

-ap_iC/o)^n-

For each series he found the sum of any fixed number of consecutive terms and the Hmit of that sum. M. d'Ocagne^^^ treated Up+^ = Up^n-i+ +Un' He^^^ discussed the convergents to a periodic continued fraction by use of t = atW_i + ( l)*w_2,
L. Gegenbauer^^^" found the solution

Pm

of

gnPn = 2^UnPni+i/nPn-2,

where
applied p+i(x)

S. Pincherle^^^^
series.

= (a; aj(x i8)p(a;)

to developments in

E. Study "^^ showed how to express the general term of a recurring series sum of the general terms of simpler recurring series, exhibited explicitly the general term when n = 3, and applied the theory to bilinear forms. M. d'Ocagne^^^ considered a recurring series with the law of recurrence
as a
(^1,
. . .

Ap)

F+AiF_i+

-{-ApYnp^O

of order

p and generating equation

^{x)=x''+Aix''-'+
. .
.

+Ap-=0.

Set

Qi{x)=x'+A,x'-'+

+A

^{x)

= Yp_,+Q,{x)Yp-2+
=0,

+Qp-iix)Yo.

'^ (a;) =0 is a necessary and a law of recurrence of order p 1, viz., (Qi(a),. ., Qp_i(a)), and then the initial law of recurrence is said to be reducible to one of order p 1. M. d'Ocagne^^'' considered the series with the law of recurrence

The

existence of a

conomon root a

of $(x)

sufficient condition that the Y's satisfy also

.

U^n

^*0 '^ nl + a itt n2 "T

(l>iix)

Ct

PilU nPi

and generating equation

=x^' a\ of*~^

...

a*p.._i,

1883, 220-6; 3, 1884, 65-90; 9, 1890, 93-7; 11, 1892, 526-532 (5, BuU. Soc. Math. France, 12, 1883-4, 78-90 (case p = 2); 15, 1886-7, 143-4; 19, 1890-1, 37-9 (minor applications). Nieuw Archief voor Wiskunde, 17, 1890, 229-232 (applications to sin ma as function of sin a and cos a). "'Comptes Rendus Paris, 104, 1887, 419-420; errata, 534.

"Nouv. Ann. Math.,

(3), 2,

1886, 257-272).

"8/bid., 108, 1889, 499-501. "s^Sitzungsber Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 97, Ila, 1888, 82-89. "s^Atti R. Accad. Lincei, Rendiconti, 5, 1889, I, 8-12, 323-7. "8cMonatshefte Math. Phys., 2, 1891, 22-54. "'Bull. Soc. Math. France, 20, 1892, 121-2. "oComptes Rendus Paris, 115, 1892, 790-2; errata, 904.

410
such that, for
I

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap.

XVII

= 0, Uq=

= Wp_2 = 0, Up_i = 1 If U n+p-l =2W r^+p^-l' "^"""w+P^-l'

. .

4>o{x)

= </)i(x)-

</>(x)

'

-\-n^ = n. Application summed for all combinations of n's for which tzj + is made to the sum of a recurring series with a variable law of recurrence. M. d'Ocagne^-^ reproduced the last result, and gave a connected expo. . .

sition of his earlier results

and new

ones.

R. Perrin^" considered a recurring series U of order p ^ith the terms The general term of the A-th derived series of U is defined to be Uq,Ui,. ..
.

Un+1

Un+k

(*)_

Wn+2
'Un+2k

any term of the (p l)th derived ser ies is zero, the law of recurrence of If also any term of the given series U is reducible (to one of lower order) the (p 2)th derived series is zero, continue until we get a non- vanishing determinant; then its order is the minimum order of U. This criterion is only a more convenient form of that of d'Ocagne.^^^'^^^ E. ]Maillet^"-^ noted that a necessarj^ condition that a law of recurrence of order p be reducible to one of order pq is that ^(x) and ^{x) of d'Ocagne^^^ have q roots in common, the condition being also sufficient if $(x)=0 has only distinct roots. He found independently a criterion analogous to that of Perrin^-- and studied series with two laws of recurrence.
If
.

J.

Neuberg^^ considered w = aw_i+6u_2 and found the general term

treated

of the series of Pisano.

C. A. Laisant^^^ u,{f{u)]=Fik).
S.

the

case

constant

of d'Ocagne's^^^

Lattes^^^ treated Wn+p=/(Wn+p-i>-

>

^J where /

is

an analytic

function.
.Amsler^^^ discussed recurring series by partial fractions. E. Netto,^-"'' L. E. Dickson,^-"' A. Ranum,^-^ and T. Hayashi'-^ gave the general term of a recurring series. N. Traverso^^" gave the general term for Q= (n l)(Q_i+Q_2) and u= aUn-i+hu^_2. Traverso^^^ applied the theory of combinations with repetitions to express, as a function of p, the solution of Q, = p(Qm-i+Qm-2+ +Qm-n)

M.

'"Jour, de l'6cole polyt., 64, 1894, 151-224. i=Comptes Rendus Paris, 119, 1894, 990-3.

iM6m. Acad.

Sc. Toulouse, (9), 7, 1895, 179-180, 182-190; Assoc, fran?., 1895, III, 233 [report with miscellaneous Dioph. equations of order n, Vol. II); Nouv. Ann. Math., (3), 14, 1895, 152-7, 197-206. "*Mathesis, (2), 6, 1896, 88-92; Archive de mat., 1, 1896, 230. "*Bull. Soc. Math. France, 29, 1901, 145-9 i>Comptes Rendus Paris, 150, 1910, 1106-9. ""Nouv. Ann. Math., (4), 10, 1910, 90-5. "'"Monatshefte Math. Phys., 6, 1895, 285-290. ^"'-Amer. Math. Monthly, 10, 1903, 223-6. "'Bull. Amef. Math. Soc, 17, 1911, 457-461.

"/Wd., 18, 1912, 191-2. "oPeriodico di Mat., 29, 1913-4, 101-4; 145-160. "'Ibid., 31, 1915-6, 1-23, 49-70, 97-120, 145-163, 193-207

Chap. XVII]

ALGEBRAIC THEORY OF RECURRING SERIES.

411

F. Nicita^^^ found

the
&n

two

series

ai

= l,

many relations like 2aJ^ hn^= { !)'' between 02 = 2,.., an = 2(an+i n-i), &i = l, 62 = 3,...,

to the text by A. Vogt^^^ and to texts and papers on difference equations cited in Encyklopadie der Math. Wiss., I, 2, pp. 918, 935; Encyclopedie des Sc. Math., I, 4, 47-85. A. Weiss^^^ expressed the general term 4 of a recurring series of order T linearly in terms of tq, tg_i ^q-r+i, where q is an integer. W. A. Whitworth^^^ proved that, if Co+CiX+C2X^+ ... is a convergent recurring series of order r whose first 2r terms are given, its scale of relation and sum to infinity are the quotients of certain determinants. H. F. Scherk^^^ Started with any triangle ABC and on its sides constructed outwards squares BCED, ACFG, ABJH. Join the end points to form the hexagon DEFGHJ. Then construct squares on the three joining lines EF, GH, JD and again join the end points to form a new hexagon, etc.
,
.

= l(^n+l~-^n-l)j Reference may be made

If

tti,

hi, Ci

The nth term

are the lengths of the joining lines in the is found as usual.

iih. set,

a+i = 5a_i

a_3.

Sylvester^"

solved

Uj,= u^_i-\-{x

\){x 2)Ux_2'

A._ Tarn^^^ treated

recurring series connected with the approximations to \^2, Vs, Vs. V. SchlegeP^^ called the development of {1 xx^ x'')~'^ the (n l)th series of Lame; each coefficient is the sum of the n preceding. For n=2, the series is that of Pisano.

ment and golden

References on the connection between Pisano's series and leaf arrangesection (Kepler, Braun, etc.) have been collected by R. C. Archibald."^ Papers by C. F. Degen,^^^ A. F. Svanberg,^^^ and J. A. Vesz"^ were not
available for report.
"2Periodico di Mat., 32, 1917, 200-210, 226-36. ^'^Theorie der Zahlenreihen u. der Reihengleichung, Leipzig, 1911, 133 pp. "4Jour. fur Math., 38, 1849, 148-157.
"^Oxford, Cambridge and Dublin Mess. Math., 3, 1866, 117-121; Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 3, 1865, 100-1. i36Abh. Naturw. Vereine zu Bremen, 1, 1868, 225-236. i"Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 13, 1870, 50. 38Math. Quest, and Solutions, 1, 1916, 8-12. 139E1 Progreso Mat., 4, 1894, 171-4. ""Amer. Math. Monthly, 25, 1918, 232-8. i"M6m. Acad. Sc. St. Petersbourg, 1821-2, 71. i2Nova Acta R. Soc. Sc. UpsaUensis, 11, 1839, 1. iEIrtekez. a Math., Magyar Tudom. Ak. (Math. Memoirs Hungarian Ac. Sc), 3, 1875, No. 1.

CHAPTER

XVIII.

THEORY OF PRIME NUMBERS.

Existence of an Infinitude of Primes.

= 2-S-5. .p is Euclid^ noted that, if p were the greatest prime, and the product of all the primes ^p, then is not divisible by one of those primes and hence has a prime factor >p, thus involving a contra.

M+l

diction.

L. Euler^

deduced the theorem from the [invahd] equation

=in

s -=n(i--)
V

p/

being infinite and the right finite if there be only a finite Euler^ concluded from the same equation that "the of primes exceeds the number of squares." Euler^ modified Euclid's^ argument slightly. The number of integers and prime to is <t>(M) =2-4. (p 1), so that they include integers which are either primes >p or have prime factors >p. The theorem follows from Tchebychef's^^^ proof of Bertrand's postulate. L. Kronecker^ noted that we may rectify Euler's^ proof by using
the
left

member

number number

of primes.

<M

2 -^=nfl-i)
where p ranges over all primes p's, the product would remain

'

(s>l).

were only a finite number of approaches unity, while the sum increases indefinitely. He also gave the proof a form leading to an interval from m to n within which there exists a new prime however great
.

>1

If there

finite

when

is

taken.

R. Jaensch repeated Euler's- argument, also ignoring convergency. E. Kummer'^ gave essentially Euler's'* argument. 2" J. Perott^ noted that, if pi,. ., p are the primes ^N, there are integers which are not divisible by a square, and
.

^N

2">iVHence there

"-mx'-^i^'^'-iyimany
primes.

exist infinitely

L. Gegenbauer^" proved the theorem

by means

of 2"ii*n~*.

lElementa, IX, 20; Opera (ed., Heiberg), 2, 1884, 388-91. ^Introductio in analysin infinitorum, 1, Ch. 15, Lausanne, 1748, p. 235; French transl. J. B. Labey, 1, 218. 'Comm. Acad. Petrop., 9, 1737, 172-4.
Coll., 2, 518, Nos. 134-6; Opera Postuma, 'Vorlesungen uber Zahlentheorie, I, 1901, 269-273, Lectures of 1875-6. *Die Schwierigeren Probl. Zahlentheorie, Progr. Rastenburg, 1876, 2. 'Monatsber. Ak. Wiss. Berlin fiir 1878, 1879, 777-8.

by

^Posthumous paper. Coram. Arith.

I,

1862, 18.

sBull. sc.

math,

et astr., (2), 5, 1881,

I,

183-4.
95, II, 1887, 94-6; 97, Ila, 1888, 374-7.

8Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss.

Wien (Math.),

413

414
J.
if

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xviii

M=
.

Q\,-

Perott' applied the theory of commutative groups to show that, ) Qn are primes, there exist at least n 1 primes between g and
Qn'

qi-

T. J. Stieltjes^ expressed the product product AB of two factors in any way. 2, p, there exists a prime >p.
.
.

of the primes 2, 3, ., p as a Since A-{-B is not divisible by

. .

the existence of an infinitude of primes by use of his Hacks^^) for the number of integers not divisible formula (Ch. XI, by a square. C. 0. Boije af Gennas^^ showed how to find a prime exceeding the nth primep>2. Take P = 2'''3'''. Pn*^, each ^^,^1. Express P as a product Since Q is divisible of relatively prime factors 5, P/8, where Q = P/88>l. by no prime ^ p, it is a product of powers of primes qi'^pn+2. Take 5 so Then Q is a prime. that Q< (p+2)l Axel Thue^^ proved that, if (l+n)*<2", there exist at least k-{-l
J.

Hacks" proved

^m

primes <2''.
of the inverses of the primes ^p is, for hence the numerator contains at least one prime >p. He attributed to Hacks a proof by means of 11(1 l/p-)~^ = 2s~^ = TT^/G the product would be rational if there were only a finite number of primes, whereas tt is irrational. E. Cahen^^ proved the ''identity of Euler" used by Kjonecker.^ Stormer-^^ gave a proof. A. Le\'y^^ took a product P of k of the first n primes Pi,. ., p and is either prime or has the product Q of the remaining n k. Then a prime factor >p; like\\'ise for P Q. If p is a prime such that p+2 is composite, there exist at least n primes >p, but ^l+PiP2When PnJ.

Braun^'" noted that the

fraction

sum
;

p^ 5, an irreducible
;

>1

P+Q

is
.
.

db

Pi

'"

Pn

reduced to a simple fraction, the numerator has no factor in common with He considered (pp. 242-4) the primes .p; hence there is a prime >PnPi defiiied by a;(x 1) 1 for consecutive integers x.
A. Auric^^ assumed that pi,
of integers
. . .

pk give

all

the primes.

Then the number

<

71

=npi'

is

which

is

small in comparison with n, whence k increases indefinitely with n.

Amer. Jour. Math., 11, 1888, 9&-138; 13, 1891, 235-308, especially 303-5. "Annales fac. sc. de Toulouse, 4, 1890, 14, final paper. "Acta Math., 14, 1890-1, 335. 'Hifversigt K. Sv. Vetenskaps-Akad. Forhand., Stockholm, .50, 1893, 469-471. "Archiv for Math, og Xatur., Kristiania, 19, 1897, No. 4, 1-5. '*^Das Fortschreitungsgesetz der Primzahlen durch eine transcendente Gleichung exakt dargestellt, WLss. Beilage Jahresbericht, Gymn., Trier, 1899, 96 pp. "filaments de la th^orie des nombres, 1900, 319-322. "Bull, de Math. l6mentaires, 15, 1909-10, 33-34, 80-82.
"L'interm^diaire des math., 22, 1915, 252.

Chap. XVIII]

INFINITUDE OF PrIMES.

415

G. M^trod^'^ noted that the sum of the products n 1 at a time of the n prunes > 1 is either a prime or is divisible by a prime greater than the He also repeated Euler's^ proof. nth.
first

Infinitude of Primes in a General Arithmetical Progression.

L. Euler^'' stated that an arithmetical progression with the first term unity contains an infinitude of primes. A. M. Legendre^^ claimed a proof that there is an infinitude of primes 2mx+ii if 2m and /x are relatively prime. Legendre^^ noted that the theorem would follow from the following lemma: Given any two relatively prime integers A, C, and any set of k odd primes d,\,. ., co [not divisors of A], and denoting the zth. odd prime by 7r^^\ then among tt'*"^' consecutive terms of the progression A C, 2A C, there occurs at least one divisible by no one of the primes 3A C,. Although Legendre supposed he had proved this lemma, it is 6,. ., CO.
.

false [Dupr^28j^

many
proof

G. L. Dirichlet^^ gave the first proof that mz-\-n represents infinitely primes if m and n are relatively prime. The difficult point in the
is

the fact that

n=i

where x(^) =0 if ^j ^ have a common factor > 1, while, in the contrary case, xin) is a real character different from the chief character of the group of the classes of residues prime to k modulo k. This point Dirichlet proved by use of the classes of binary quadratic forms.
Dirichlet^'* extended the theorem to complex integers. E. Heine^^ proved "without higher calculus" Dirichlet's result

VJ? p[jHW^''^{b+2ay+'>~^

}'= a

A. Desboves^^ discussed the error in Legendre's^^ proof.

L. Durand^^ gave a false proof. A. Dupre^^ showed that the lemma of Legendre^" is false and gave The mean number of terms, 61) the following theorem to replace it:

(p.

"L'intermediaire des math., 24, 1917, 39-40. ^oOpusc. analytica, 2, 1785 (1775), 241; Comm. Arith., 2, 116-126. 2iMem. ac. sc. Paris, ann^e 1785, 1788, 552. 22Theorie des nombres, ed. 2, 1808, p. 404; ed. 3, 1830, II, p. 76; Maser, 2, p. 77. 23Bericht Ak. Wiss. Berlin, 1837, 108-110; Abhand. Ak. Wiss. Berlin, Jahrgang 1837, 1839, Math., 45-71; Werke, 1, 1889, 307-12, 313-42. French transl., Jour, de Math., 4, 1839, 393-422. Jour, fiir Math., 19, 1839, 368-9; Werke, 1, 460-1. Zahlentheorie, 132, 1863; ed. 2, 1871; 3, 1879; 4, 1894 (p. 625, for a simplification by Dedekind). z^Abhand. Ak. Wiss. BerUn, Jahrgang 1841, 1843, Math., 141-161; Werke, 1, 509-532. French transl., Jour, de Math., 9, 1844, 245-269. 2Jour. fiir Math., 31, 1846, 133-5.
26Nouv. Ann. Math., 14, 1855, 281.
^Ubid., 1856, 296.

^^Examen d'une proposition de Legendre,

Paris, 1859.

Comptes Rendus

Paris, 48, 1859, 487.

416
.

History of the Theory of Numbers.

iChap.

xviii

prime to ^,X,. ., co, contained in tt**"^^ consecutive terms of the progression .. ., (?= (3-l)(5-l) is ^p-'Q7r"'-''-2, where P = 3-5-7-ll J. J. Sylvester-^ gave a proof. V. I. Berton^^" found h such that between x and xh occur at least 2g primes each of one of the 2g linear forms 2py+ri, where ri, ., r2g are the integers < 2p and prime to 2p. C. ]Moreau^ noted the error in Legendre's-- proof. L. Kronecker^ (pp. 442-92) gave in lectures, 1886-7, the following extension* of Dirichlet's theorem (in lectures, 1875-6, for the case m a is any given integer, we can find a greater integer v such that, prime): If if 7u, r are any two relatively prime integers, there exists at least one prime Moreover of the form h7?i+r in the interval from /x to (p. 11, pp. 465-6). (pp. 478-9), there is the same mean density of primes in each of the <l){m) progressions mh-\-ri, where the r, are the integers <?n and prime to m. I. Zignago^^ gave an elementary proof. H. Scheffler^^ devoted 31 pages to a re\nsion of Legendre's insufficient proof and gave a process to determine all primes under a given limit. G. Speckmann^^ failed in an attempt to prove the theorem. P. Bachmann^^ gave an exposition of Dirichlet's^^ proof. Ch. de la Vallee-Poussin^^ obtained without computations, by use of the theorj' of functions of a complex variable, a proof of the difficult point in Dirichlet's^^ proof. He^ proved that the sum of the logarithms of the primes hk-\-l^x equals x/4>{k) asymptotically and concluded readily that the number of primes hk+l'^x equals, asjonptotically,
.
. . .
.

jjl

^'

4>

{x)

log X

F. Mertens^^ proved the existence of an infinitude of primes in an arithmetical progression by elementarj^ methods not using the quadratic reciprocity theorem or the number of classes of primitive binary quadratic forms. He supplemented the theorem by showing how to find a constant c such that between x and ex there lies at least one prime of the progression for every x^l [cf. Kronecker,^ pp. 480-96].
"Proc. London Math. Soc, 2, 1908, 712-3.
4,

1871, 7; Messenger Math., (2),

1,

1872, 143-4; Coll.

Math. Papers,

""Comptes Rendus

Paris, 74, 1872, 1390.

">Nouv. Ann. Math., (2), 12, 1873, 323-4. Also, A. Piltz, Diss., Jena, 1884. Improvements in the exposition were made by the editor, Hensel (cf. p. 508). Annan di Mat., (2), 21, 1893, 47-55. **Beleuchtung u. Beweis eines Satzes aus Legendre's Zahlentheorie [H, 1830, 76], Leipzig, 1893. "Archiv Math. Phys., (2), 12, 1894, 439-441. Cf. (2), 15, 1897, 326-8. "Die analytische Zahlentheorie, 1894, 51, 74-88. **M6ra. couronnes. .acad. roy. sc. Belgique, 53, 1895-6, No. 6, 24-9. *Annales de la soc. sc. de Bru.xeUes, 20, 1896, II, 281-361. Cf. 183-256, 361-397; 21, 1897, I, 1-13, 60-72; II, 251-368. "Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 106, 1897, II a, 254-286. Parts published earlier, ibid., 104, 1895, II a, 1093-1121, 1158-1166; Jour, fiir Math., 78, 1874, 46-62; 117, 1897, 169-184.
.

Chap. XVIII]

INFINITUDE OF PRIMES.

417

still simpler than his" earlier one, of the point in Dirichlet's-^ proof. The proof is very elementary, involving computations of finite sums. F. Mertens^^ gave a simplification of Dirichlet's^ proof of his generalization to complex primes. H. Teege^ proved the difficult point in Dirichlet's^^ proof. E. Landau'*^ proved that the number of prime ideals of norm ^ a: of an algebraic field equals the integral-logarithm Li(x) asymptotically. By specialization to the fields defined by 1 or 3? we derive theorems'*^ on the number of primes 4:k^l or 6A;=fcl ^x. L. E. Dickson^^ asked if aifi+bi {i = l,. ., m) represent an infinitude of primes, noting necessary conditions. sets of

F. Mertens^^ gave a proof,

difficult

if

H. Weber^^ proved Dirichlet's^^ theorem on complex primes. E. Landau^^ simplified the proofs by de la Vallee-Poussin^^ and Mertens.^* E. Landau*^'^^ simplified Dirichlet's^^ proof. Landau^^ proved that, k, I are relatively prime, the number of primes ky-\-l^x is

primes ^R, approximately N/c{)(n) occur in the progressions nx-\-a, a<n and prime to n, and gave a table showing the degree of approximation when R = 10^ or 5-10^, with n even and < 1928. Within these limits there are fewer primes nx-\-l than primes nx+a, a>l.
of

where 7 is a constant depending on A. Cunningham*^ noted that,

k.

For
the

see Pfeiffer^ of Ch.

X.

Infinitude of Primes Represented by a Quadratic Form.

G. L. Dirichlet^^ gave in sketch a proof that every properly primitive quadratic form {a, h, c), a, 26, c with no common factor, represents an infinitude of primes. Dirichlet^^ announced the extension that among the primes represented by {a, b, c), an infinitude are representable by any given linear form Mx-\-N, are such that the linear with M, relatively prime, provided a, h, c, M, and quadratic forms can represent the same number.

8Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss.

"/bid., 517-556.

"Mitt. Math. *iMath. Amialen, 56, 1903, 665-670.

Wien (Math.), 108, 1899, II a, 32-37. Polish transl. in Prace mat. fiz., 11, 1900, 194-222. GeseU. Hamburg, 4, 1901, 1-11.
112, 1903, II a, 502-6.

*?Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), "Messenger Math., 33, 1904, 155.

"Jour, fur Math., 129, 1905, 35-62. Cf. p. 48. Sitzungsber. Akad. Berlin, 1906, 314-320.

Rend.

"Handbuch

26, 1908, 297. .Verteilung der Primzahlen, I, 1909, 422-35. "Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 117, 1908, Ila, 1095-1107. "Proc. London Math. Soc, (2), 10, 1911, 249-253. "Bericht Ak. Wiss. Berhn, 1840, 49-52; Werke, 1, 497-502. Extract in Jour, fiir Math., 21, 1840, 98-100. "^Comptes Rendus Paris, 10, 1840, 285-8; Jour, de Math., 5, 1840, 72-4; Werke, 1, 619-623.

Circ.

Mat. Palermo,
.

418

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xviii

H. Weber^^ and E. Schering^^ completed Dirichlet's^^ proof of his first theorem. A. Meyer^^ completed Dirichlet's^^ proof of his extended theorem. F. Mertens^" gave an elementary proof of Dirichlet's^^ extended theorem. Ch. de la Vall^e-Poussin^^ proved that the number of primes ^ x representable by a properly primitive definite positive or indefinite^^ irreducible binary' quadratic form is asjTnptotic to gx/\ogx, where ^ is a constant; and the same for primes belonging also to a linear form compatible with the character of the quadratic form. L. Kronecker^ (pp. 494-5) stated a theorem on factorable forms in several variables which represent an infinitude of primes.
i

Elementary Proofs of the Existence of an Infinitude of Primes mz+l, FOR Any Given m.
V. A. Lebesgue^^ gave a proof for the case m a prime, using the fact +y"'~^ has besides the possible factor only prime that x^~^ x"'~~y+ 1. like method apphes^^ to 2mz l. factors 2km J. A. Serret^^ gave an incomplete proof for any m. F. Landry^^ gave a proof like Lebesgue's.^ If ^ is the largest prime
. .
.

2km-\-l and if x is the product of all of them, a:'"+l is divisible by no one Since (x'"+l)/(x+l) has no prime divisor not of the form of them. 2km+l, there exists at least one >d. A. Genocchi^^ proved the existence of an infinitude of primes mz^ 1 and n'2l for n a prime by use of the rational and irrational parts of

(a+Vb)'-

L. Kronecker^ (pp. 440-2) gave in lectures, 1875-6, a proof for the case a prime; the simple extension in the text to any m was added by Hensel. E. Lucas gave a proof by use of his w (Lucas,^^ p. 291, of Ch. XYII). A. Lefebure^ of Ch. XVI stated that the theorem follows from his L. Kraus^^ gave a proof.

results.

A. S. Bang"'' and Sylvester^ proved

it

by use

of cyclotomic functions.

K. Zsigmondy"^ of Ch. VII gave a proof. Birkhoff and Vandiver^^ ^f q^ ^VI.

Also, E.

Wendt,'^ and

^Math. Annalen, 20, 1882, 301-329. Elliptische Functionen (= Algebra, III), ed. 2, 1908, 613-6. 8Werke, 2, 1909, 357-365, 431-2. "Jour, fur Math., 103, 1888, 98-117. Exposition by Bachmaim,< pp. 272-307. oSitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 104, 1895, Ila, 1093-1153, 1158. Simplification, ibid., 109, 1900, Ila, 415-480. "Cf. E. Landau, Jahresber. D. Math. Verein., 24, 1915, 250-278. "Jour, de Math., 8, 1843, 51, note. Exercices d'analyse num^rique, 1859, 91. ''.Jour. de Math., (2), 7, 1862, 417. Jour. de Math., 17, 1852, 186-9. 'Deuxidme mdmoire but la thdorie des nombres, Paris, 1853, 3. "AnnaU di mat., (2), 2, 1868-9, 256-7. Cf. .Genocchi==- " of Ch. XVII. Casopis Math, a Fys., 15, 1886, 61-2. Cf. Fortschritte, 1886, 134-5. ^Tidsskrift for Math., (5), 4, 1886, 70-80, 130-7. See Bang". ", Ch. XVI. "Jour, fiir Math., 115, 1895, 85.

Chap. XVIII]

INFINITUDE OF PRIMES.

419

>n

N. V. Bervi^^ proved that the ratio of the number of integers cm+1 not and not a product of two integers of that form to the number of all

primes not >n has the limit unity for n= oo H. C. Pocklington^^ proved that, if n is any integer, there is an infinitude of primes mn+1, an infinitude not of this form if n>2, and an infinitude not of the forms mnl if n = 5 or n>6. E. Cahen^^ proved the theorem for m an odd prime. J. G. van der Corput'^^ proved the theorem.

Elementary Proofs op the Existence of an Infinitude of Primes

Special Arithmetical Progressions.
J.

in

A. Serret^^ for the common difference 8 or 12, and for lOx+9. V. A. Lebesgue for 4nl, Sn+k (/c = l, 3, 5, 7). Lebesgue^^ for the same and 2'"n+l, Qn 1. Also, by use of infinite series, for the common difference 8 or 12. E. Lucas2 f<3j. 5n-\-2, 8n+7. J. J. Sylvester^^ for the difference 8 or 12 and^ for p^x 1, p a prime. A. S. Bang^^ for the differences 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 18, 20, 24, 30, 42, 60. E. Lucas^^ for 4n=i=l, 6n 1, Sn+5. R. D. von Sterneck" for an 1. K. Th. Vahlen^^ for mz-\-l by use of Gauss' periods of roots of unity. is any integer and p a prime such that p 1 is divisible by a higher Also, if power of 2 than <^(m) is, while A; is a root of km 1^ 1 (mod p), the linear form mpx+km-^-l represents an infinitude of primes; known special cases

are

mx+1
J. J.

and 2px l.

Iwanow^^ for the difference 8 or 12. E. Cahen^^ (pp. 318-9) for 4a; 1, 6x 1, 8a:+5. K. HenseP (pp. 438-9, M. Bauer^ for an 1. 508) for the same forms. E. Landau^^ (pp. 436-46) for /cnl. I. Schur^^ proved that if f= 1 (mod k) and if one knows a prime '>(f>(k)/2 of the form kz+l, there exists an infinitude of primes kz+l; for example,
2z-\-2''-^=i=l,

Smz-\-2m+l,

Smz+4m-\-l,

8m2+6m+l,

where m is any odd number not divisible by a square. K. Hensep2 f^j. 4^i^ 6nl, 8n-l, 8n=t3, 12n-l, lOn-1.
"Mat. Sbornik (Math. Soc. Moscow), 18, 1896, 519. "Proc. Cambr. Phil. Soc, 16, 1911, 9-10. '^Nouv. Ann. Math., (4), 11, 1911, 70-2. ^^Nieuw Archief voor Wiskunde, (2), 10, 1913, 357-361 (Dutch). 8Nouv. Ann. Math., 15, 1856, 130, 236. "Exercices d'analyse num^rique, 1859, 91-5, 103-4, 145-6. s^Amer. Jour. Math., 1, 1878, 309. saQomptes Rendus Paris, 106, 1888, 1278-81, 1385-6. s^Assoc. frang. av. sc, 17, 1888, II, 118-120. s^Nyt Tidsskrift for Math., Kjobenhavn, 1891, 2B, 73-82. s^Theorie des nombres, 1891, 353-4. "Monatshefte Math. Phys., 7, 1896, 46. 8'Schriften phys.-okon. Gesell. Konigsberg, 38, 1897, 47. "Math. Soc. St. Petersburg, 1899, 53-8 (Russian). '"Jour, fur Math., 131, 1906, 265-7; transl. of Math. 6s Phys. Lapok, 14, 1905, 313. 9iSitzungsber. BerUn Math. Gesell., 11, 1912, 40-50, with Archiv M. P. 92Zahlentheorie, 1913, 304-5.

420

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xvin

R. D. CannichaeP for p*n 1 (p an odd prime) and 2*-3m 1. M. Bauer's^ paper was not available for report.

Polynomials Representing Numerous Primes.

Chr. Goldbach^^" noted that a polynomial fix) cannot represent primes
exclusively, since the constant
in

term would be
that,
if

unit}'-,

whereas

it

is

f{p)

/(x+p).
L. Euler^"^ proved this

by noting
is
is

/()

=A,f(nA-\-a)
.

is

divisible

by A.
Euler^- noted that x^
Euler^"^ noted that
a:-

t+41
+2:+ 17

a prime for a: = 1, a prime for x = 0,

. .

.
.

40.
.

1,

.,

15 and [error]

a prime for x = 0, 1, ., 15. A. M. Legendre^^ noted that x^+a:+41 is a prime for x = 0, 1,. ., 39, that 2x^+29 is a prime for x = 0, 1, ., 28, and gave a method of finding [Replacing x by x+1 in Euler's^- function, we get such functions. X-+X+41.] If j8^-|-2(a+i3)x 13x^ is a square only when x=0, and a and j3 are relatively prime, then a^+2aj3+14/3- is a prime or double a prime. He gave many such results. Chabert^"^" stated that 37i^-f 3n+l represents many primes for n small. G. 01tramare^^ noted that x^+ax+6 has no prime divisor ^/z and hence is a prime when <fjr, if a^4b is a quadratic non-residue of each of The function x^+ax+(a^+163)/4 is suitable to the primes 2, 3, ., ix. Taking x = 0, a=ii/v, he stated that u^+lQSv^ represent a series of primes. or its quotient by 4 gives more than 100 primes between 40 and 1763. H. LeLasseur^"^ verified that, for a prime A between 41 and 54000, 2. x^+x+A does not represent primes exclusively for x = 0, 1,. ., E. B. Escott^"" noted that x"+x+41 gives primes not only forx = 0, 1, 40. Hence, replacing x by x 40, 39, but also^*^^ for x= 1, 2, we get x^ 79x + 1601, a prime for x = 0, 1, ., 79. Several such functions
16;

x'^+x+41

is

are given.
Escott^"^ examined values of A much exceeding 54000 in x^+x+A without finding a suitable A>41. Legendre's^*^ first seven formulas for primes give composite numbers for a = 2, the eighth for a = 3, etc. Escott

foundthatx^+x^+17isaprimeforx= 14, 13, replace x by x 10; we get a cubic which is a prime

.

.,

+10.

Inx^ x^ 17
1,
. . .

for x

= 0,

24.

"Annals of Math., (2), 15, 1913, 63-5. ^Archiv Math. Phvs., (3), 25, 1916, 131^. ""Corresp. Math. Phys. (ed., Fuss), I, 1843, 595, letter to Euler, Nov. 18, 1752. 'oiNovi Comm. Acad. Petrop., 9, 1762-3, 99; Comm. Arith., 1, 357. i^M^m. de Berlin, ann^e 1772, 36; Comm. Arith., 1, 584. "'K)pera postuma, I, 1862, 185. In Pascal's Repertorium Hoheren Math., German transl. by Schepp, 1900, 1, 518, it is stated incorrectly to be a prime for the first 17 values of x; Ukewise by Legendre, Th^orie des nombres, 1798, 10; i808, 11. iMTh^oric des nombres, 1798, 10, 304-312; ed. 2, 1808, 11, 279-285; ed. 3, 1830, I, 248-255; German transl. by Maser, I, 322-9. '<<'Nouv. Ann. Math., 3, 1844, 250. i^M^m. rinat. Nat. Genevois, 5, 1857, No. 2, 7 pp. "Nouv. Corresp. Math., 5, 1879, 371; quoted in rinterm^diaire des math., 5, 1898, 114-5. '"L'intermddiaire des math., 6, 1899, 10-11. "The same 40 primes as for x=0, ., 39, as noted by G. Lemaire, ibid., 16, 1909, p. 197. '"/Wd., 17, 1910, 271.
. .

Chap. XVIII]

GoLDBACH's THEOREM.

421

E. Miot^i^ stated that x^- 2999a; +2248541 is a prime for 1460^0;^ 1539. G. Frobenius"^ proved that the value of x^+xy+py^ is a prime if <p^, that of 2x^+py^ (y odd) if <p(2p+l), that of x'^+2py^ (x odd) if <p(p-\-2), and noted cases in which an indefinite form x^-\-xyqy^ is a prime. Levy^^ examined x^x 1. He"^ considered f{x) = ax^-{-ahx-{-c, where Giving to x the values 0, 1, 2, a, h, c are integers, 0^a<4. ., we get a set of integers such that, for every n exceeding a certain value, f{n) is either prime or admits a prime factor which divides a number f(p), where p<n. For example, if for f{x) =a;^ a:+41 we grant that /(O), /(I), /(2), /(3) and /(4) are primes, we can conclude that f{x) is prime for x^^O. Likewise when 41 is replaced by 11 or 17. Again, 2a;^ 2a:+19 and 3x^ 3a; +23 give successions of 18 and 22 primes respectively. Bouniakowsky^^ of Ch. XI considered polynomials which represent an infinitude of primes. Braun^^" proved that there exists no quotient of two polynomials such that the greatest integer contained in its numerical value is a prime for all integral values > A; of the variable.
. .

Goldbach's Empirical Theorem: Every Even Integer

is

a Sum of

Two

Primes.

Chr. Goldbach^^ conjectured that every number which is a sum of two primes is a sum of as many primes including unity as one wishes (up to N), and that every number >2 is a sum of three primes. L. Euler^^^ remarked that the first conjecture can be confirmed from an observation previously communicated to him by Goldbach that every even number is a sum of two primes. Euler expressed his belief in the last statement, though he could not prove it. From it would follow that, if n is even, n, n 2, n 4:,. are the sums of two primes and hence n a sum of
. .

primes. R. Descartes^^^ stated that every even number is a sum of 1, 2 or 3 primes. E. Waring^^^ stated Goldbach's theorem and added that every odd number is either a prime or is a suiri of three primes. L. Euler^^^ stated without profbf that every number of the form 4n+2 is a sum of two primes each of the form 4A;+1, and verified this for 4n+2
3, 4, 5,
. .

^110.
"OL'intermediaire des math., 19, 1912, 36. [From X2+X+41 by setting X=x-1500.] "iSitz. Ak. Wiss. Berlin, 1912, 966-980. Extract in Sphinx-Oedipe, "^Bull. Soc. Math. France, 1911, Comptes Rendus des Seances.
9,

1914, 6-7.

i^oCorresp.

Math. Phys.

(ed.,

P.

H. Fuss),

1,

1843, p. 127

and footnote;

letter to Euler,

June

7,

1742.
i"/&id., p. 135; letter to

Goldbach, June 30, 1742.

Cited by G. Enestrom, Bull. Bibl. Storia Sc.

Mat.

e Fis., 18, 1885, 468.

^^'Posthumous manuscript, Oeuvres, 10, 298. The theorem was ascribed to Waring i23Meditationes Algebraicae, 1770, 217; ed. 3, 1782, 379. by O. Terquem, Nouv. Ann. Math., 18, 1859, Bull. Bibl. Hist., p. 2; by E. Catalan, Bull. Bibl. Storia Sc. Mat. e Fis., 18, 1885, 467; and by Lucas, Th^orie des Nombres, 1891, 353. i2^Acta Acad. Petrop., 4, II, 1780 (1775), 38; Comm. Arith. Coll., 2, 1849, 135.

422

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xviii

A. Desboves^^^ verified that every even number between 2 and 10000 is a of two primes in at least two ways; while, if the even number is the double of an odd number, it is simultaneously a sum of two piimes of the form 4n+l and also a sum of two primes of the form 4n 1. J. J. Sylvester^ ^^ stated that the number of ways of expressing a very large even number n as a sum of two primes is approximately the ratio of the square of the number of primes < n to n, and hence bears a finite ratio to the quotient of n by the square of the natural logarithm of n. [Cf. Stackel"^]. F. J. E. Lionnet^-' designated by x the number of ways 2a can be expressed as a sum of two odd primes, by y the number of ways 2a can be expressed as a sum of two distinct odd composite numbers, by z the number He proved that of odd primes <2a, and by q the largest integer ^a/2. q^x = y-\-z and argued that it is very probable that there are values of n

sum

for

which q = y-\-z, whence a: = 0. N. V. Bougaief ^^^" noted that, if M{n) denotes the number of ways n can be expressed as a simi of two primes, and if Oi denotes the ith. prime >1,
S(n-3^.)ilf(n-^.)=0.
G. Cantor^^^ verified Goldbach's theorem up to 1000. His table gives number of decompositions of each even number < 1000 as a sum of two primes and lists the smaller prime. V. Aubry^29 verified the theorem from 1002 to 2000. R. Haussner^^ verified the law up to 10000 and announced results observed by a study of his^" tables up to 5000. His table I (pp. 25-178) gives the number v of decompositions of every even n up to 3000 as a sum x-\-y oi two primes and the values oi x (x^y), as in the table by Cantor. His table II (pp. 181-191) gives v for 2<n<5000; this table and further computations enable him to state that Goldbach's theorem is true for which n< 10000. Let P(2p+1) be the number of all odd primes 1, 3, 5,
the
.

are ^2p+l, and set ^(2p+l)=P(2p+l)-2P(2p-l)+P(2p-3),

P(-l)=P(-3)=0.
of

Then
{x^y)

the
is

number

of decompositions of _i

2n into a sum

two primes

x,

S P(2n-2p-l)^(2p+l).
If e

=1

or

according as n
/

is

a prime or not,
2

= iSP(2n-2p-l)^(2p+l)+^1

iNouv. Ann. Math.,

i"Proc.

14, 1855, 293.

4, 1871-3, 4-6; CoU. M. Papers, 2, 709-711. >"Nouv. Ann. Math., (2), 18, 1879, 356. Cf. Assoc, frang. av. ec, 1894, ""KDomptes Rendus Paris, 100, 1885, 1124.

London Math. Soc,

I,

p. 96.

"'Assoc, fran?. av. sc, 1894, 117-134; rinterm^diaire des math., 2, 1895, 179. "L'interm6diaire des math., 3, 1896, 75; 4, 1897, 60; 10, 1903, 61 (errata, p. 166, p. 283). "Jahresbericht Deutschen Math.-Verein., 5, 1896, 62-66. Verhandlungen Gesell. Deutscher Naturforscher u. Aerzte, 1896, II, 8. "Nova Acta Acad. Caes. Leop.-Carolinae, 72, 1899, 1-214.

Chap. XVIII]

GoLDBACh's THEOREM.

423

Table III gives the values of P and ^ for each odd number 2p+l<5000. P. StackeP^^ noted that Lionnet's^" argument is not conclusive, and designated by G2r, the number of all decompositions of 2n as a sum of two primes (counting p+g and g+p as two different decompositions). If Pk is the number of all odd primes from 1 to k,

G2y'^ = {l^x^f = {l-x^Y(%P,^^,:^''A\

all

where p ranges over

2n

the odd primes.

Approximations to

G^2n

for

large

in terms of Euler's 0-function are

[P(2n- V2n) -P{-V2^)f

n
<t>{2n)

0(2n)

n-y/2n

written for P^ for convenience in printing. Lack of agreeis noted; cf. Landau. ^^^ It is stated that the truth of Goldbach's theorem is made very probable [but not proved^^^]. Sylvester^^^" stated that any even integer 2n is a sum of two primes, one > n/2 and the other < 3n/2, whence it is possible to find two primes whose difference is less than any given number and whose sum is twice that number. F. J. Studnicka^^* discussed Sylvester's statement. Sylvester^^**" stated that, if is even and X, co are the 6 primes > \N and <fA^ (excluding ^A^" if it be prime), the number of ways of composing [by addition] with two of these primes is the coefficient of x^ in

where P{k)

is

ment with Sylvester ^2^

(l^+-+T^)Vr(.-l)rmn= log^ n0(n)

n^

(rfe2).
is

E. Landau^^^ noted that Stackel's approximation to G

and showed that S^=i(t has the true approximation ^x^/\o^x. By a longer analysis, he proved that if we use Stackel's (SJ to form the sum, we do not
obtain a result of the correct order of magnitude.
L. Ripert^^^

examined certain large even numbers.

E. Maillet^" proved that every even number ^350000 (or 10^ or 9-10) is, in default by at most 6 (or 8 or 14), the sum of two primes. A. Cunningham^^^ verified Goldbach's theorem for all numbers up to 200 million which are of the forms
(4-3)", (4-5)",

210^

2'(2"=f1),

a-2",

2a",

(2a)^

2(2^=Fa),
i'

for a

= 1,

3, 5, 7, 9, 11.

He

reduced the formula of Haussner for

to a

form

more convenient

for computation.

"'Encyclop6die des sc. math., I, 17, p. 339, top. "2G6ttingen Nachrichten, 1896, 292-9. i33aNature, 55, 1896-7, 196, 269. "Casopis, Prag, 26, 1897, 207-8. "40Educ. Times, Jan. 1897. Proof by J. Hammond, Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 26, 1914, 100. "^Gottingen Nachrichten, 1900, 177-186. "L'interm6diaire des math., 10, 1903, 67, 74, 166 (errors, p. 168). "Messenger Math., 36, 1906, 17-30. "/6id., 12, 1905, 107-9.

f
424
J. Merlin^^'

History of the Theory of Numbers.

considered the operation

[Chap,

xviii

A (6,

a) of effacing

series of integers all the

numbers

ax-\-b.

The

effect of carrying
.

the two sets of operations A{ri, pi), ^(r,-, p,), A{r'i, pi), is the nth prime > 1, is equivalent to constructing a crib of Eratosthenes up to p. It is stated that in every interval of length vp^ log p there is at It is said to follow least one number not effaced, if v is independent of n. that, for a sufficiently large, there exist two primes having the sum 2a. Under specified assumptions, there exist an infinitude of n's for which
p

from the natural out one of i = 2,. ., n, where

Pn+i-Pn = 2.

M.

Vecchi^* wrote Pn for the nth

if

the same order same order in

> p^+i + 1
/I

called p^ and p/,+ of a sum of two primes of the [K0+1)] ways if and only if there exist </> numbers not and not representable in any of the forms

odd prime and

is

p^h>Ph+a-

Then 2n> 132

Gi+Sx,

bi+5x,...,

li+PmX

(i=l,

2),

where p^+i
.
. .

is

the least prime p for which p'^-\-p> 2n, and the

known terms a.,

are the residues with respect to the odd prime occurring as coefficient of x.

*G. Giovannelli, Sul teorema di Goldbach, Atri, 1913.

Theorems Analogous to Goldbach's.

Chr. Goldbach ^^^ stated empirically that every odd number is of the form p-\-2a^, where p is a prime and a is an integer ^ 0. L. Euler^^^ verified Euler^24 verified for m = 8iV+3^ 187 that m is the sum this up to 2500. of an odd square and the double of a prime 4n+l. ^"^^ announced the empirical theorem that every prime J. L. Lagrange 4n 1 is a sum of a prime 4?n + l and the double of a prime 4/i + l. A. de Polignac^^^ conjectured that every even number is the difference His verification up of two consecutive primes in an infinitude of ways. to 3 million that every odd number is the sum of a prime and a power of 2 was later "^^ admitted to be in error for 959. M. A. Stern^^^ and his students found that 53-109 = 5777 and 13-641 = 5993 are neither of the form p-\-2a^ and verified that up to 9000 there are no further exceptions to Goldbach's^'*^ assertion. Also, 17, 137, 227, 977, 1187 and 1493 are the only primes <9000 not of the form p+26^ 6>0. Thus all odd numbers <9000, which are not of the form 6n+5, are of the form p+26^. E. Lemoine^^'' stated empirically that every odd number >3 is a sum of a prime p and the double of a prime tt, and is also of the forms p 2Tr and 27r' p'.
'"Comptes Rendus
Paris, 153, 1911, 516-8. Bull. des. sc. math., (2), 39, I, 1915, 121-136. In a prefatory note, J. Hadamard noted that, while the proof has a lacuna, it is suggestive. ""Atti Reale Accad. Lincei, Rendiconti, (5), 22, II, 1913, 654-9. '"Corresp. Math. Phys. (ed.. Fuss), 1, 1843, 595; letter to Euler, Nov. 18, 1752. /W<i., p. 596, 606; Dec. 16, 1752. "'Nouv. M6ni. Ac. Berlin, ann6e 1775, 1777, 356; Oeuvres, 3, 795. "8Nouv. Ann. Math., 8, 1849, 428 (14, 1855, 118). ''Comptes Rendus Paris, 29, 1849, 400, 738-9. "Nouv. Ann. Math., 15, 1856, 23. ""L'interm^diaire des math., 1, 1894, 179; 3, 1896, 151

Chap. XVIII]

PRIMES IN ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION.

425

H. Brocard^^^ gave an incorrect argument by use of Bertrand's postulate that there exists a prime between any two consecutive triangular numbers. G. de Rocquigny^^^ remarked that it seems true that every multiple of 6 is the difference of two primes of the form 6n+l. Brocard^^^ verified this property for a wide range of values. L. Kronecker^^^ remarked that an unnamed writer'^^ had stated empirically that every even number can be expressed in an infinitude of ways as the difference of two primes. Taking 2 as the number, we conclude that

< sum of a prime and a power, every odd one except 1549 is such a sum. E. Maillet^^^ commented on de Polignac's conjecture that every even number is the difference of two primes. E. Maillet^" proved that every odd number < 60000 (or 9-10^) is, in default by at most 8 (or 14), the sum of a prime and the double of a prime.
Primes in Arithmetical Progression.
E. Waring^^^ stated that
in arithmetical progression,
if

there exist an infinitude of pairs of primes differing by 2. L. Ripert^^^ verified that every even number 10000 is a

three primes (the first of which is not 3) are the common difference d is divisible by 6,

except for the series 1, 2, 3 and 1, 3, 5. For 5 primes, the first of which is not 5, d is divisible by 30; for 7 primes, the first not 7, d is divisible by 2-3-5-7; for 11 primes, the first not 11, d is divisible by 2-3-5-7-11; and similarly for any prime number of primes in arithmetical progression, a property easily proved. Hence by continually adding d to a prime, we reach a number divisible by 3, 5, ... unless d is divisible by 3, 5, ^^"^ proved that if 3 primes, no one being 3, are in arithJ. L. Lagrange metical progression, the difference d is divisible by 6; for 5 primes, no one being 5, d is divisible by 30. He stated that for 7 primes, d is divisible by 2-3-5'7, unless the first one is 7, and then there are not more than 7 consecutive prime terms in a progression whose difference is not divisible by 2-3 -5 -7. E. Mathieu^^^ proved Waring's statement. M. Cantor^ ^ proved that if P = 2-3. .p is the product of all the primes up to the prime p, there is no arithmetical progression of p primes, no one of which is p, unless the common difference is divisible by P. He conjectured that three successive primes are not in arithmetical progression unless
,
. . . .

one of them is 3. A. Guibert^^ gave a short proof of the theorem stated thus: Let Pi,...,Pn be primes ^ 1 in arithmetical progression, where n is odd and >3. Then no prime >1 and ^n is a Pi. If n is a prime and is a pi, then i = l.
i"L'intermediaire des math., 4, 1897, 159. Criticism by E. Landau, 20, 1913, 153. is^/feid., 5, 1898, 268. i^L'intermediaire des math., 6, 1899, 144. i64Vorlesungen iiber Zahlentheorie, 1, 1901, 68. i"/6td., 12, 1905, 108. iL'interm6diaire des math., 10, 1903, 217-8. i*Meditationes Algebraicae, 1770; ed. 3, 1782, 379. ^"Ibid., 13, 1906, 9. iNouv. M6m. Ac. Berlin, ann^e 1771, 1773, 134-7. "Nouv. Ann. Math., 19, 1860, 384-5. "sZeitschrift Math. Phys., 6, 1861, 340-3. "Jour. de Math., (2), 7, 1862, 414-6.

1
426
History of the Theory of Numbers.
difference is divisible
series.

[Chap,

xviii

The common

by each prime ^n, and by n

itself if

is

a prime not in the

H. Brocard^^^" gave several sets of five consecutive odd integers, four of which are primes. Lionnet^^^** had asked if the number of such sets is unlimited.

G. Lemaire^^ noted that 7+30n and 107+30/1 (n = 0, 1,. ., 5) are all 150/1 and 47+210m (n = 0, primes; also 7 ., 6). E. B. Escott^^^ found conditions that a+210M (n = 0, 1,. ., 9) be all primes and noted that the conditions are satisfied if a = 199. De\'ignot^" noted the primes 47+210, 71+2310?i (n = 0, 1,. ., 6). A. Martin^^^ gave numerous sets of primes in arithmetical progression.
.

Tests for Primality.

The fact that n is a prime if and only if it divides 1 + (n 1) was noted by Leibniz/ Lagrange, ^^ Genty,-^ Lebesgue,^^ and Catalan/^^ cited in Chapter III, where was discussed the converse of Fermat's theorem in furnishing a primality test. Tests by Lucas, etc., were noted in Ch. XVII. Further
!

tests have been noted under Cipolla^" and^'^ Cole^" of Ch. I, Sardi"^ of Ch. Ill, Lambert^ of Ch. VI, Zsigmondv"^ of Ch. VII, Gegenbauer^o- 2 ^f Ch. X, Jolivald^ of Ch. XIII, Euler,^^^ Tchebychef,"^ Schaffgotsch^""^ and See also the Biddle^^^ of Ch. XIV, Hurwitz" and CipoUa^^ of Ch. XV. papers by von Koch,^^^ Hayashi,^^' ^ Andreoli,^"^ and Petrovitch^ of the

next section.

= 4:m-\-l which L. Euler^^^ gave a test for the primality of a number ends with 3 or 7. Let R be the remainder on subtracting from 2N the next To R add 100(n 1), 100(n 3), smaller square (5n)- which ends with 5. 100(n 5), .... If among R and these sums there occurs a single square, But if no square occurs or if iV is a prime or is divisible by this square. = 637, two or more squares occur, A^ is composite. For example, if (5n)2 = 1225, R = 49; among 49, 649, 1049, 1249 occurs only the square 49; hence A^ is a prime or is di\asible by 49 [A = 49- 13]. W. L. Kraft^"^ noted that Qin + 1 is a prime if m is of neither of the forms Qxy=^{x+y); 6?m 1 is a prime if m9^6xy+x y. A. S. de Montferrier^'^ noted that an odd number A is a prime if and 3)/2. only if A-\-k' is not a square for A: = 1, 2, ., (A AI. A. Stern^^ noted that n is a prime if and only if it occurs n 1 times in the (n l)th set, where the first set is 1, 2, 1; the second set, formed by inserting between any two terms of the first set their sum, is 1, 3, 2, 3, 1 etc.

"'"Xouv. Ann. Math., (3), 15, 1896, 389-90. ""L'intcrraddiaire des math., 16, 1909, 194-5. "'Ibid., 17, 1910, 285-6.

i696Nouv. Ann. Math., (3),

1,

1882, 336.

"*Jbid., 4.5-6. ^"School Science and Mathematics, 13, 1913, 793-7, '"*Doubt as to the suflBciency of Cole's test has been expressed, Proc. London Math. Soc, (2). i"Opera postuma, I, 188-9 (about 1778). 16, 1917- 8. "\ova Acta Acad. Petrop., 12, 1801, hist., p. 76, mem., p. 217. "Corresp. Math. Phys. (ed., Quetelet), 5, 1829, 94-6.

""Jour,

fiir

Math., 55, 1858, 202.

Chap. XVIII]

Tests FOR Primality.

427

L. Gegenbauer^^^ noted that

4n+l

is

a prime

if

L
for every
test

4i/

J"L

4?/

odd y, 1<?/^ V4n+1, and gave two similar tests for 4n+3. D. Gambioli^^^ and O. Meissner^^^ discussed the impracticabiUty of the

by the converse

J.

of Wilson's theorem. Hacks^^^ gave the characteristic relations for primes p:

K. Zsigmondy^^^ noted that a number is a prime if and only if not form aia2+i3i/32, where the a's and j3's are positive integers such that ai+a2=7/3i 1S2. An odd number C is a prime if and only if
expressible in the
C-\-k^ is not a square for k

= 0,

1,.

.,

[(C-9)/6].

R. D. von Sterneck^^^" gave several criteria for the (s + l)th prime by use of partitions into elements formed from the first s primes. H. Laurent^^^* noted that
equals or 1 according as z is composite or prime. Fontebasso^^ noted that A^ is a prime if not divisible by one of the

primes

2, 3, ., p, where iV/p<p+4. H. Laurent ^^^ proved that if we divide

.

Fnix)

= n\l -a:0(l -x^^)

3

(1 -x^""^'-'')

=1

the remainder is or n"~^ according as n is composite or prime. If we take a: to be an imaginary root of a;" = 1, Fn{x) becomes or n"~^ in the respective cases. Helge von Koch^^^ used infinite series to test whether or not a number is a power of a prime. Ph. Jolivald^^^ noted that, since every odd composite number is the difference of two triangular numbers, an odd number iV is a prime if and only if there is no odd square, with a root ^ (2iV 9)/3, which increased by 8A^ gives a square. l, then 2A;+1 is S. Minetola^^" noted that, if kn is divisible by 2n composite. We may terminate the examination when we reach a prime

by

(x"

l)/(a: 1),

2n+l

for

which {k-n)/{2n+l)^n.

A. Bindoni^^^ added that

isiSitzungsber. Ak. Wiss.

we may

stop with a prime giving (kn)

Wien

(Math.), 99, Ila, 1890, 389.

is^Periodico di Mat., 13, 1898, 208-212.

'"Math. Naturw. Blatter, 3, 1906, 100 >8*Acta Mathematica, 17, 1893, 205. ""Monatsh. Math. Phys., 5, 1894, 123-8. "S'^Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 105, Ila, 1896, 877-882. iss^Comptes Rendus Paris, 126, 1898, 809-810. "^guppj^ Periodico di Mat., 1899, 53. i"Nouv. Ann. Math., (3), 18, 1899, 234-241.
"sOfversigt Veten.-Akad. Forhand., 57, 1900, 789-794 (French). "9L'interm4diaire des math., 9, 1902, 96; 10, 1903, 20. ""11 Boll. Matematica Giorn. Sc.-Didat., Bologna, 6, 1907, 100-4.

i"/6td., 165-6.

428
-^

History of the Theory of Numbers.

a
is

[Ch.u'.

xviii

(2n+l)^n+2a 1, where
F. Stasi^^- noted that iV
.

the difiference between 2/1+1 and the next

if

greater prime.
is

a prime

N/p<p-\-2a and a 2, 3, ., p, where prime just >p.

.

is

not divisible by one of the primes the difference between p and the

E. Zondadari^^^ noted that

Sin-TTX

TTX

(7rx)^(l x^)^n=2W sin irx/n

is

zero

when j =

A. Chiari'^"* theorem. H. C. PockHngton^^^ employed single valued functions (}>(x), rp(x), vanishing for all positive integers a: (as = i/' = sin ttx), and real, finite and not Then, for the gamma function F, zero for all other positive values of x.

prime) and not otherwise. cited known tests for primes, as the converse of Wilson's

p (pa

^.(,)+^.(iIM)
if and only if x is a prime [Wigert^^^"]. E. B. Escott^^^ stated that if we choose ai, a:^ in the expansion of of x^", x^"~^,

is

zero

a, b so

that the coeflBicients

(x"+aix'*-^+...+aj2(x+5)
the remaining coefficients, other than the first and last, l is a prime. if and only if 2/i J. de Barinaga^^^ concluded from Wilson's theorem that if (P 1)! is +(P-1) =P(P-l)/2, the remainder is P-1 when P divided by 1+2+ is a prime, but is zero when P is composite (not excluding P = 4 as in the converse of Wilson's theorem). Hence on increasing by unity the least positive residues ?^0 obtained on di\'iding 1-2. .x by 1+2+ +x, for x= 1, 2,
are
all zero,

then

all

are divisible

by

2?i

+l
. .

3,

we obtain

the successive odd primes

3, 5, ...

M. Vecchi^^ noted that, if x^ 1, A^>2 is a prime if and only if it be of the form 2^' tt, where tt is the product of all odd primes ^p, p being the largest odd primed [\/iV], and where tt' is a product of powers of primes >p with exponents ^0. Again, A^> 121 is a prime if and only if of the form tt where y^l. Vecchi^^^ gave the simpler test: A^>5 is a prime if and only ii a^=N, a+j8 = 7r, for a, /3 relatively prime, where tt is the product of all the odd

2V

primes ^[VA'']G. Rados^^^ noted that p

is

a prime

if

and only

if

{2!3!

(p

2)!

(p-l)!j4=i(modp).
CarmichaeP^ gave several
iIl Boll.

tests

analogous to those by Lucas.

Matiraatica Giorn. Sc.-Didat., Bologna, 6, 1907. 120-1. i^Il Pitagora, Palermo, 17, 1910-11, 31-33. "'Rend. Accad. Lined, (5), 19, 1910, 1, 319-324. "*Proc. Cambr. Phil. Soc., 16, 1911, 12. L'interm6diaire des math., 19, 1912, 241-2. "'Revista de la Sociedad Mat. Espanola, 2, 1912, 17-21. "Periodico di Mat., 29, 1913, 126-8. "Math. 6s Term^s firtesito, 34, 1916, 62-70"

Chap. XVIII]

NUMBER OF

PRIMES.
Limits.
.

429

Number of Primes Between Assigned

Formula
(5) of

Legendre in Ch.

= Vn, the mimber of primes prime) than

are the primes V implies that if 0, X, ^ n and > Vn is one less (if unity be counted a
.

statements or proofs of this result have been given by C. J. Hargreave,^^* E. de Jonquieres,206 R. Lipschitz,207 j. j. Sylvester,^^^ E. Catalan,^^^ F. Rogel,^^ J. Hammond^^^ with a modification, H. W. Curjel,^^^" S. Johnsen,^^^

and

L. Kronecker.^^^
if

E. MeisseP^'* proved that

unity)

d{m)

is

the

number

of primes (including

^m and
1

if

*(P.-

. .

p."")

= ( - 1)-+

+""

("+"^+- +)!
,

rill.

.n-f

.$(l)^[f]+<i.(2)e[f]

+ ...+*Wflg].
.

integers

E. MeisseP^^ wrote $(m, n) for Legendre's formula for the number of ^ m which are divisible by no one of the first n primes pi = 2, p.
.
.

Then
<l>(m,

n)

=^{m, n 1)

.p^-,
l> (

x
,

n1

Let^(m)be the number of primes ^m. Setn+fx = d{\/m),n==d{^^/m). Then

e{m)=^{m, n)+n(M+l)+
which

^^^~'^^

-l- i d(^^),

= ^-10^, A; = 1/2, 1, 10. is used to compute Birri) for MeisseP^^ applied his last formula to find ^(10^). Lionnet^^^'' stated that the number of primes between

and 2 A

is

<B{A). N. V. Bougaief2i7 obtained from Q{n) +^(n/2) +^(V3) +

inversion (Ch.
^(^)

=S[n/p], by

=49 -^4^] +4J^] - -45] +4Je] -<^c] +

a, h,.
.

XIX),

where

range over

all

primes.

Dub. Phil. Mag., (4), 8, 1854, 118-122. ^o^Comptes Rendus Paris, 95, 1882, 1144, 1343; 96, 1883, 231. ^oUbid., 95, 1882, 1344-6; 96, 1883, 58-61, 114-5, 327-9. 2<>876id., 96, 1883, 463-5; Coll. Math. Papers, 4, p. 88. 29Mem. Soc. Roy. Sc. de Liege, (2), 12, 1885, 119; Melanges Math., 1868, 133-5. ^iiMessenger Math., 20, 1890-1, 182. JioArchiv Math. Phys., (2), 7, 1889, 381-8. 2"Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 67, 1897, 27. "2Nyt Tidsskrift for Mat., Kjobenhavn, 15 A, 1904, 41^. "ujour. fur Math., 48, 1854, 310-4. 2"Vorlesungen uber Zahlentheorie, I, 1901, 301-4. 2i5Math. Ann., 2, 1870, 636-642. Outline in Mathews' Theory of Numbers, 273-8, and in G. Wertheim's Elemente der Zahlentheorie, 1887, 20-25.
26Lond. Ed.

Corrections, 21, 1883, 304. 1871, 523-5. 2i6aNouv. Ann. Math., 1872, 190. Cf. Landau, (4), 1, 1901, 281-2. Mat. Sbomik (Math. Soc. Moscow), 6, 1872-3, 21'Bull. sc. math, astr., 10, 1, 1876, 16.
2i676id., 3,

I,

180.

430

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap.

XVIII

P. de Mond^sir-^^ wrote Np for the number of multiples of the prime p Then the number of primes 2.V and divisible by no prime < p. which are

<

<2.V

is

N1iNp-\-n-\-l, where n

is

the

number

of primes

<y/2N.

Also,

N,

.p\

Lapj

LahpA

'

where

By this modification of Legendre's are the primes <p. a, h,. formula, he computed the number 78490 of primes under one million. *L. Lorenz-^^ discussed the number of primes under a given limit. Paolo Paci"'' proved that the number of integers ^n divisible by a
.

prime <\/ri

is

where

r, s,.

there are n

range over all the primes 2, 3, p less than \/n. Thus N-\-H primes from 1 to n. The approximate value of is
. .

</>(2-3...p)"
y

rs Vs"^'J }

y '\S

2-3... p

K. E. Hoffmann--^ denoted by N the number of primes <m, by X the number of distinct prime factors of tw, by ^i the number of composite integers <m and prime to m. Evidently N = 4>{M) ii-\-\. To find A'' it suffices
to determine
ix.

To

that end he would count the products that the

<mhy
is

twos,

by

threes, etc. (with repetitions) of the primes not dividing

J. P.

Gram-" proved

number

of

powers

of

m. primes ^n

[Cf. Bougaief.^^^]

Of the two proofs, one

is

by inversion from

is

E. Cesaro^^ considered the number x of primes ^qn and >n, where a fixed prime. Let coi, co, be the primes ^ n other than 1 and q.
. . .

Let5*^n<g*+\

Then

Let

Ir,,

be the number of the

[qn/{o3i

.co,)]

which give the remainder

when

divided

by

q.

Set

= 'Ljlj,,. Then x=(k+l)q-{k + 2)-U + t2-h+

t,

..

"'Assoc, frang. av. sc, 6, 1877, 77-92. Nouv. Corresp. Math., 6, 1880, 256. Tidsskr. for Math., Kjobenhavn, (4), 2, 1878, 1-3. ""Sul numero de numeri primi inferiori ad un dato numero, Parma, 1879, 10 pp. "Archiv Math. Phys., 64, 1879, 333-6. K. Danake Vidensk. Selskabs. Skrifter, (6), 2, 1881-6, 183-288; r6sum6 in French, 289-308. See pp. 220-8, 296-8. M6m. Soc. Sc. Li^e, (2), 10,1883, 287-8.

Chap. XVIII]

NuMBER OF PRIMES.

431

E. Catalan^^'* obtained the preceding results for the case g = 2; then ti is number of odd quotients [2n/(8], (2 the number of odd quotients [2n/{^y)], where I3,y,. are the primes >2 and ^n. L. Gegenbauer225 gave eight formulas, (29)-(36), of the type of Legendre's, a special case of one being
the
. .
.

([^])/^(^)

= 1+L,(n),

SM^^^ t\

where x ranges over the integers divisible by no prime > Vn, while fi(x) is Merten's function (Ch. XIX) and Lh{n) is the sum of the kth. powers of all primes >\/n but Sn. The case A; = is Legendre's formula. The case
A;

=l

is

Sylvester's^"^

E. MeisseP^^ computed the number of primes < 10^ Gegenbauer-^*^" gave compUcated expressions for d{n), one a generalization of Bougaief's.^^'^

A. Lugli^" wrote 4>{n, i) for the number of integers ^n which are divisby no one of the first i primes Pi = 2, p2 = 3, If is the number of primes S -y/n and if s is the least integer such that
ible
. . .

2;

the

number

\l/{n)

of primes

^n, excluding

1, is

proved to satisfy

This method of computing \l/{n) is claimed to be simpler than that by Legendre or Meissel. J. J. van Laar^"" found the number of primes < 30030 by use of the primes <1760. C. Hossfeld^^^ gave a direct proof of
^{gVi-

Pn=^r,n)==g{pi-l).

.(p-l)$(r,

n),

the case of the upper signs being due to Meissel. ^^^ F. Rogel"^^ gave a modification and extension of Meissel's^^^ formula. H. Scheffler^^'' discussed the number of primes between p and q. J. J. Sylvester^^^ stated that the number of primes >n and <2n is

a
ii

ab

abc

a,h,.

are the primes

^ \/2n

and

Hx

denotes x

when
II,

its

fractional part

224Mem. Soc. Sc. Lidge, M6m. No. 1. 225Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 89, II, 1884, 841-850; 95, 22Math. Annalen, 25, 1885, 251-7. ""ositzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 94, II, 1886, 903-10. '"Giornale di Mat., 26, 1888, 86-95. 227aNieuw Archief voor Wisk., 16, 1889, 209-214.

1887, 291-6.

Math. Phys., 35, 1890, 382-i. 22Math. Annalen, 36, 1890, 304-315. "iLucas, Th^orie des nombres, 1891, 411-2. Times, 57, 1892, 113.
=28Zeitschrift

^'OBeitrage zur Zahlentheorie, 1891, 187.

Proof by H.

W.

Curjel,

Math. Quest. Educ.

432
is

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xviii

1/2, but the nearest integer to x in the contrary case. gave a proof and generalization.

L. Gegenbauer^^^*

Sylvester-^ ^'' noted that,

if

din)

is

the
.

pi

. .

Pi

be the primes

\/x,

and

gi,

,gy

number of primes ^u, and if those between \/x and x, then

xd(x/p)-m^'/q)= {e{Vx)\\
if

H. W. Curjel'-^^" noted that the number of primes >p and <p- is ^p ., p^ multiples of p is a prime ^5. We have only to delete from 1, 2,
. . .

2, 3, 5,

.
.

or p.

L. Gegenbauer-^- considered the integers x divisible

of the

by no square and

formed which are of one of the forms 4s +1 and 4s +2, formed of an even number of primes and those in which x is formed of an odd number; denote the difference of the counts by a. He stated that the interv^al from m + 1 to n (limits included) contains a 1 more primes than the inter\'al from tz+I to 2n. He gave (pp. 89-93) an expression for the sum of the values taken by an arbitrary- function g(x) when x ranges over the primes among the first n terms of an arithmetical i)rogression; in particular, he enumerated the primes ^n of the form 4s +1 or 4s 1. = 10000 by use of F. Graefe-^^ would find the number of primes tables showing for each prime p, 5'^p^\/m, the values of n for which 6n+l or 6nH-5 is divisible by p. P. Bachmann-^ quoted de Jonquieres,^^ Lipschitz,-^ Sylvester,2^ and

odd primes ^m, when

n^w^\/2n. Of

the numbers [2/x] count those in which x is

<m

Ces^ro."^

H. von Koch235 wrote f{x)

= (a:-l)(a:-2)
p{x)= 2
,,

(x-n),
(fxvSn),

0(a:)=njl-^j,
X=2L

fix)
;.:;;,..,.,

t..^=2{x-IJLv)f'{t^v)

I
according as x
.

and proved

that, for positive integers

x^n,

d(x)

=1

or

is

prime or composite. The number of primes .+^(m). is ^(1)+. A. Baranowski-^^ noted the formula, simpler than Meissel's,^^^
xP{n)=<l>[n,

^m^n

^(v^)]H-^(v^) -1

for

S. Wigert^^^^
1

computing the number \f/(n) of primes ^n. noted that the number of primes

<n
o
I

is

TT^ 2TnJ

Cf'{x)dx
I

./

where /(x)

.,

2 =smVx+sm-7r
,

/ i+r(x) \
),

f{x)

"'"Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 60, 1893, 47. "i^Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 56, 1892, 67-8.
"'olbid., 58, 1893, 127.

"^Monatshefte Math. Phys.,

'"Zeitschrift

4,

1893, 98.

Math. Phys.,

39, 1894, 38-50.

<Die Analytische Zahlentheorie, 1894, 322-5.

"*Comptes Rendus Paris, 118, 1894, 850-3. "Bull. Int. Ac. Sc. Cracovie, 1894, 280-1 (German).
(2), 8,

Cf.

Rozpraw'y Akad. Umiej., Cracovie,

1895, 192-219.

'"''Ofversigt

K. Vetensk. Ak. Forhand., Stockhohn,

52, 1895, 341-7.

Chap. XVIII]

NuMBER OF

PRIMES.

433

since the only real zeros of f{x) are the primes. The integration extends over a closed contour enclosing the segment of the a;-axis from 1 to n and

narrow enough to

cofitain

no complex zero

of /(x).

T. Levi-Civita^^^^ gave an analytic formula, involving definite integrals and infinite series, for the number of primes between a and /3. L. Gegenbauer^" gave formulas, similar to that by von Koch,^"^ for the number of primes 4s 1 or 6s 1 which are ^n. A. P. Minin^^'^'' wrote ^{y)=0 or 1 according as y is composite or prime;

*^

e{n-l) = [n-2] + [n-b] + [n-7]+

for all composite integers x.

.-^^P{x-\)[n-x],

summed
primes

Gegenbauer^"'' proved that Sylvester's^^^ expression for the number of and <2n equals S)u(x)[m/a:+l/2], where x takes those integral values S 2n which are products of primes S y/2n. F. RogeP^^ gave a recursion formula for the number of primes ^m. T. Hayashi^^^ wrote Rf/q for the remainder obtained on dividing / by q. By Laurent's^^'^ result, RFn{x)/{x'' l)rf'~^ = or 1 according as n is composite or prime. Hence the sum of the jth powers of the primes between

>n

.andHs

_j,;__FM__
nt.(a:"-l)n"-^-2'
If

which becomes the number of primes for j = 0. of unity, Wilson's theorem shows that
n-l

is

a primitive nth root

Sa^"^ = norO
;

(m = (n-l)! + l),
1)

according as n is prime or composite. Hence ^x^"~^^7(a:" according as n is prime or composite. Thus

^2a;("-i)y(a;'-l)
n=s is

=1

or

it

the number of primes between s and t. Hayashi^^" reproduced the second of his two preceding results the form

'

and gave

^ \ cos

(mn)d r''cos md\dd

J"^^"^

l-2r''cosng+r^'

=^"

"

'

according as n is prime or not, and gave a direct proof. J. V. Pexider^^^ investigated the number \l/{x) of primes

^ x.

Write

4g=G]-[^]'

^"-[f]-

"&Atti R. Accad. Lincei, Rendiconti, (5), 4, 1895, I, 303-9. "'Monatshefte Math. Phys., 7, 1896, 73. 2"aBull. Math. Soc. Moscow, 9, 1898, No. 2; Fortschritte, 1898, 165.

2376Monatshefte Math. Phys., 10, 1899, 370-3. 238Archiv Math. Phys., (2), 17, 1900, 225-237. 9Jour. of the Phys. School in Tokio, 9, 1900; reprinted in Abhand. Gesch. Math. Wiss., 28, 1900, 72-5. ^oArchiv Math. Phys., (3), 1, 1901, 246-251. 2Mitt. Naturforsch. Gesell. Bern, 1906, 82-91.

434

History of the Theory of Numbers.

integers

[Chap.

XVIII

Hence the number of a-1, a-2,. ., 2, is

.

^x
[x/a]

which are
a-1

divisible

by

a,

but not by

(7=s n(i-3,).
k=ln=2

primes ^x and >v = [\/^] is [x]-l-2Z20-,. Let The number primes the ^ \/a- Let p^ be the greatest prime ^ v. Then Pi,. ., Pa be
^(a:), of
.

<,(,)+i=M_[|]_jTn{i-A[^]},
from which follows Legendre's formula.
Minetola-^- obtained a formula to compute the number of primes not presupposing a knowledge of any primes >2, by considfor which ering the sets of positive integers n, n',.
S.

^K = 2k + l,
(2n

+ l)(2n' + l)^K,

(2n

+ l)(2n' + l)(2n" + l)^i^,.

..

F. RogeP^^ started with Legendre's formula for the number A{z) of primes ^z, introduced the remainders t\t\, and wrote i?(z) for the sum He obtained relations between values of the of these partial remainders. ^'s and ^'s for various arguments z, and treated sums of such values. For

arbitrary x's (p. 1815),

Pn+l-l
p=i

primes p between 1 and the nth prime p. By special choice of the x^s, we get formulas involving Euler's ^-function (p. 1818), and the number or sum of the divisors of an integer. See RogeP^ of Ch. XL G. Andreoli^^ noted that, if x is real, and F is the gamma function,

summed

for the

^(x)
is

= sin

2(r(a:)

+ l)7r

sinVx
of

zero

if

and only

if a: is

a prime.
1

Hence the number

r'' ^'{x)dx
.

primes

<n

is

2TnX

^ix)
asymptotically.

The sum of the A:th powers of the primes <n is given M. Petrovitch^"*^ used a real function d{x, u), like
a cos 27ra;+6 cos 2Tru a h,

which is zero for every pair of integers x, u, and not if a: or w Let$(x) be the function obtained from d{x, u) by taking

is

fractional.

u=\\+nx)]/x.
Thus y=^{x)
cuts the a:-axis in points whose abscissas are the primes.

"=Giornale di Mat., 47, 1909, 305-320. Sitzung8ber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 121, 1912, Ila, 1785-1824; 122, 1913, II "^Rendiconti Accad. Lincei, (5), 21, II, 1912, 404-7. Wigert.'''*''

a,

669-700.

*Nouv. Ann. Math.,

(4), 13,

1913, 406-10.

Chap. XVIII]

BeRTRAND's POSTULATE.

435

E. Landau^''^ indicated errors in rintermediaire des math^maticiens on the approximate number of primes ax+h<N. *M. Kossler-^^ discussed the relation between Wilson's theorem and the

number

of primes between two limits. See Cesaro^^ of Ch. V, Gegenbauer^^ ^f qj^ ^I, and papers 62-81 of Ch. XIII.

Bertrand's Postulate.
Bertrand^" verified for numbers 6 000 000 that for any integer there exists at least one prime between n 2 and n/2. P. L. Tchebychef^" obtained Hmits for the sum d{z) of the natural logarithms of all primes ^z and deduced Bertrand's postulate that, for x>3, there exists a prime between x and 2x 2. His investigation shows
J.

<

n>6

there exists a number ^ such that for every x^^ there one prime between x and (l + e)x. A. Desboves,^^^ assuming an unproved theorem of Legendre's,^^ concluded the existence of at least two primes between any number >6 and its double, also between the squares of two consecutive primes; also at least p primes between 2n and 2n k for p and k given and n sufficiently large, and hence between a sufficiently large number and its square. F. Proth^^^ claimed to prove Bertrand's postulate. J. J. Sylvester264 reduced Tchebychef's e to 0.16688. L. Oppermann-^^ stated the unproved theorem that if n>l there exists at least one prime between n{n l) and n^, and also between n^ and n(n+l), giving a report on the distribution of primes. E. C. Catalan^^^ proved that Bertrand's postulate is equivalent to

that for every

e> 1/5

exists at least

>a''/5^..7^^

n\ n\

where
noted

a,

tt

denote the primes

if

S n,

while a

is

the

number

of

odd integers
.

among

[2n/a], [2n/a^],..., h the

(p. 31)

number among

[2n/^], [2n//3^],.

..

He

the postulate is applied to 6 1 and 6+1, we see the existence between 26 and 46 of at least one even number equal to the sum of two primes. J. J. Sylvester^" reduced Tchebychef's e to 0.092; D. von Sterneck^^^ to 0.142. that
24L'intermediaire des math., 20, 1913, 179; 15, 1908, 148; 16, 1909, 20-1. 2"Casopis, Prag, 44, 1915, 38-42. ^^ojour. de I'ecole roy. polyt., cah. 30, tome 17, 1845, 129. 2"M^m. Ac. Sc. St. Petersbourg, 7, 1854 (1850), 17-33, 27; Oeuvres, 1, 49-70, 63. Jour, de Math., 17, 1852, 366-390, 381. Cf. Serret, Cours d'algebre sup^rieure, ed. 2, 2, 1854, 587; ed. 6, 2, 1910, 226. 262NOUV. Ami. Math., 14, 1855, 281-295. 2"Nouv. Corresp. Math., 4, 1878, 236-240.

2^Amer. Jour. Math., 4, 1881, 230. Videnskabs Selsk. Forh., 1882, 169. M6m. Soc. R. Sc. Liege, (2), 15, 1888 ( = M61anges Math., Ill), 108-110. 26'Messenger Math., (2), 21, 1891-2, 120. 268Sitzungsb. Akad. Wiss. Wien, 109, 1900, II a, 1137-58.
2660versigt

436

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xvill

T. J. Stieltjes stated and E. Cahen'^^^ proved that we may take e to be any positive number however small, since d{z) is asjTnptotic^^^" to z. H. Brocard"" stated that at least four primes lie between the squares He remarked that this and of two consecutive primes, the first being >3. the similar theorem by Desboves-^- can apparently be deduced from Ber^^^ trand's postulate; but this was denied by E. Landau. E. ^laillet^^- proved there is at least one prime between two consecutive squares <9-10^ or two consecutive triangular numbers ^9-10^. E. Landau"*^ (pp. 89-92) proved Bertrand's postulate and hence the existence of a prime between x (excl.) and 2x (incl.) for every x^l. A. Bonolis-"^ proved that, if x>13 is a number of p digits and a is the least integer >x/{lO{p-{-l)], there exist at least a primes between x and If x>l3 is a number of [-|x 2], which implies Bertrand's postulate. greatest integer and is the <x/(3p digits /3 3), there are fewer than p to from [-|x primes a: 2]. ^ Miscellaneous Results on Primes.

H. F. Scherk^^*^ stated the empirical theorems: Every prime of odd rank (the nth prime 1, 2, 3, 5, being of rank n) can be composed by addition and subtraction of all the smaller primes, each taken once; thus
. . .

13

= 1+2-3-5+7+11 = -1+2+3+5-7+11.
even rank can be composed similarly, except that the next doubled; thus

Every prime
earlier

of
is

prime
17

= 1+2-3-5+7-11+2-13= -1-2+3-5+7-11+2-13.
.
.

and

Marcker^^^ noted that, if a, 6, are the primes between if p is their product, all the primes from A to A^ are given by
.

and

K^?+
for g

+^>+)'
less

and each but once if each numerator is positive and

0. Terquem"^- noted that the primes included in the arithmetical progressions

<rr
q^,

are the

q^-\-2q,

than its denominator. odd numbers not up to n^, 5^+4g,

.

n 1. H. J. S. Smith-^^ gave a theoretical method of finding the primes between the xth prime P^ and P'^x+i, given the first x primes. C. de Polignac^^^" considered the primes ^x in a progression Km-\-h.

= 3,

5,

.,

""Comptes Rendus

Paris, 116, 1893, 490; These, 1894, 45; Ann. ficole Normale, ""L'intermddiaire des math., 11, 1904, 149.
''/bMf., 20, 1913, 177.

(3), 11,

1894.

"'/6trf., 12, 1905, 110-3. *"Atti Ac. Sc. Torino, 47, 1911-12, 576-585. "ojour. fur Math., 10, 1833, 201. "'/twi., 20, 1840, 350. "'Nouv. Ann. Math., 5, 1846, 609. 8Proc. Ashmolean Soc, 3, 1857, 128-131; Coll. ""K>)mptes Rendus Paris, 54, 1862, 158-9.

Math. Papers,

1,

37.

Chap. XVIII]

MISCELLANEOUS RESULTS ON PRIMES.

if 2, 3, ., r, s, t, u are the primes no others) <u^ are given by
. . .

437
in natural

E. Dormoy^^^ noted that,

order, all primes (and
2-3.
.

.stm-\-Dtat-\-tCtD,a,+tsCtC,Drar-\-\-tsr.
.

.7-5C,C,Cr.

.C,D,as+ts.

.5'3C,Cs.

.C3,

where

and

Ct is found from the quotients obtained in finding the g. c. d. of t 2-3 .. .rs by a rule which if applied to four quotients a, h, c, d consists in

= ^C^=i=l, forming in turn 1, p = cZc+l, p&-|-^, {ph+d)a+p = Ct. Further, or according being sign as there the is an odd or an even number of +
operations in the g. c. d. process. C. de Polignac^^^" wrote p for the nth prime and discussed the expressibility of all numbers, under a specified limit and divisible by no one of ., pn-i, in the form pi,
. .

{P2,P3,--->Pn-hPn)

+ {p3,P4,is

,PnPl)+.

+ (Pl,

Pn-l)

For example, every number < 53 and form 3 "2^. J. J. Sylvester^^^ proved that if m is prime to i and not less than n, the product (m+i)(m+2i) (w+m) is divisible by some prime >n. A. A. Markow^^*^ found a fragment in a manuscript by Tchebychef aiding him to prove the latter's result that if // is the greatest prime divisor of (1+2^) (1+4^) .(1+4A^^), then fx/N increases without limit with
where
(a, 6, ...
)

denotes

a^b^ ....

divisible

by

neither 2 nor 3

of the

Hermite, Cours, ed. 4, 1891, 197). J. Iwanow-^^ generalized the preceding theorem as follows: If fx is the 1^). greatest prime divisor of (A .(A+L^), then fi/L increases without limit with L. C. Stormer^^^ concluded the existence of an infinitude of primes from Tchebychef's^^^resultandusedthelattertoprovethat2'(i l)(t 2) .(in) is neither real nor purely imaginary if n is any integer 5^ 3, and i = \/ 1. E. Landau^' (pp. 559-564) discussed the topics in the last three papers. Braun^^" proved that the (n+l)th prime is the only root Xt^I oi
(cf.

where

is

ai = 2, 02, are the first n primes. C. Isenkrahe^^^ expressed a prime in terms of the preceding primes. R. Le Vavasseur^^ noted that all primes between p and p\+i, where p the nth prime, are given by Sjii qiWiPJpi (mod P,J, where Pn = PiP2
.

Pn and

WiPJpi=l (mod

p,).

"^Comptes Rendus Paris, 63, 1866, 178-181. Rendus Paris, 104, 1887, 1688-90. Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 285Messenger Math., 21, 1891-2, 1-19, 192.
284<Comptes
286Bull.

56, 1892, 25.

Acad. Sc.

St. Petersbourg, 3, 1895, 55-8.

5.

^^Ubid., 361-6.

"sArchiv Math, og Natur., Kristiania, 24, 1901-2, No. 289Math. Annalen, 53, 1900, 42. 290M6m. Ac. Sc. Toulouse, (10), 3, 1903, 36-8.

438

History of the Theory of Numbers.

.

[Chap,

xviii

0. !Meissner^^^ stated that, if n+1 successive integers m,. ., are we can not in general find another set mi,. ., mi-\-n containing a prime 7ni-\-v corresponding to every prime m+v of the first set. But for n = 2, it is supposed true that there exist an infinitude of prime pairs. G. H. Hardy ^^^ noted that the largest prime dividing a positive integer x is
given,
.

m+n

m lim lim
r=oo
TO=oo

Hm

i:[l-{cos{{v\yir/x]n

n = oo v=0

C. F. Gauss,^^^ in a manuscript of 1796, stated empirically that the T2ix) of integers ^x which are products of two distinct primes, is approximately x log log x/log x. E. Landau^^^ proved this result and the generalization

number

7r,(x)

=
{v

a^qoglogx) "-^
^

l)\

log

^"-2' ''-^i-1 x(log log x) " ^\

a;

log X

irXx) is the number of integers ^ x which are products of v distinct primes; also related formulas for ir^x). Several writers-^^ gave numerous examples of a sum of consecutive primes equal to an exact power. E. Landau^^^ proved that the probability that a number of n digits be a prime, when n increases indefinitely, is asymptotically equal to l/(n log 10). J. Barinaga^^^ expressed the sum of the first n primes as a product of distinct primes for n = 3, 7, 9, 11, 12, 16, 22, 27, 28, and asked if there is a general law. Coblyn^^^ noted as to prime pairs that, when 4(6p 2)! is divided by 36p2 1, the remainder is 6p S if 6p 1 and 6p-i-l are both primes, zero if both are composite, 2(6p+l) if only Qp 1 is prime, and Qp 1 if only 6p4-l is prime. J. Hammond^^^ gave formulas connecting the number of odd primes <2n, and the number of partitions of 2n into two distinct prunes or into

where

two relatively prime composite numbers. V. Brun^^*^ proved that, however great a is, there exist a successive composite numbers of the form l-\-u^. There exist a successive primes no two of which differ by 2. He determined a superior limit for the number of
primes

<x

of

a given

class.

"Archiv Math. Phys., 9, 1905, 97. '^^MessenRer Math., 35, 1906, 145. "Cf. F. Klein, Nachrichten Ge.sell. Wiss. Gottingen, 1911, 26-32. '^Ibid., 361-381; Handbuch. .der Primzahlen, I, 1909, 205-211; Bull. Soc. Math. France, 28,
.

1900, 25-38.

""L'interm^diaire des math., 18, 1911, 85-6.

^*^Ibid., 20,

1913, 180.

"'L'intermddiaire des math., 20, 1913, 218. "Soc. Math, de France, C. R. des Stances, 1913, 55. Proo. London Math. Soc, (2), 15, 1916-7, Records of Meetings, Feb. 1916, xxvii. """Nyt Tidsskrift for Matematik, B, 27, 1916, 45-58.

Chap. XVIII]

ASYMPTOTIC DiSTKIBUTION OF PRIMES.

Diatomic Series.

439

A. de Polignac^^ crossed out the multiples of 2 and 3 from the series of natural numbers and obtained the "table 02":
(0)
1

(2)

(3)

(4)

(6)

(8)

(9)

(10)

11....

of terms in the successive sets of consecutive deleted numbers are 1,3,1,3,1,..., which form the "diatomic series of 3." Similarly, after deleting the multiples of the first n primes, we get a table a and the diatomic series of the nth prime P. That series is periodic and the terms after 1 of the period are symmetrically distributed (two terms equidistant from the ends are equal), while the middle term is 3. Let 7r denote the product of the primes 2, 3, P^Then the number of terms in the period is The sum of the terms in the period is x 0(7r) and hence is the 0(7r). number of integers <7r which are divisible by one or more primes ^PnAs applications he stated that there exists a prime between P and P^, also between o" and a""^\ He^^ stated that the middle terms other than 3 of a
.
. .

The numbers

2"* 1, diatomic series tend as n increases to become 1, 3, 7, 15, J. Deschamps^^ noted that, after suppressing from the series of natural numbers the multiples of the successive primes 2, 3, p, the numbers left form a periodic series of period 2-3 and similar theorems. Like p remarks had been made previously by H. J. S. Smith.^^
.

Asymptotic Distribution of Primes.

P. L. Tchebychef's^^^ investigation shows that for x sufficiently large

the

number
X.

7r(a;)

of primes

^a;

is

between 0-921Q and 1-106Q, where

if

Q = a:/log
unity.

He^^^ proved that the limit,

existent, of 7r(x)/Q for

x=

00

is

J. J. Sylvester^^^

obtained by the same methods the limits 0-95Q

and 1-05Q.
use of the function f (s) =2"zfn~* of Riemann, J. Hadamard^^^ la Vallee-Poussin^^^ independently proved that the sum of the natural logarithms of all primes ^x equals x asymptotically. Hence follows the fundamental theorem that -wix) is asymptotic to Q, i. e.,

By

and Ch. de

lim

t:{x)

^ =1.
log
a:

'*Recherches nouvelles sur les nombres premiers, Paris, 1851, 28 pp. Abstract in Comptes Rendus Paris, 29, 1849, 397-401, 738-9; same in Nouv. Ann. Math., 8, 1849, 423-9. Jour, de Math., 19, 1854, 305-333. Nouv. Ann. Math., 10, 1851, 308-12. 8"Bull. Soc. Philomathique de Paris, (9), 9, 1907, 102-112 3Proc. Ashmolean Soc, 3, 1857, 128-131; Coll. Math. Papers, 1, 36. 3"M6m. Ac. Sc. St. P^tersbourg, 6, 1851, 146; Jour, de Math., 17, 1852, 348; Oeuvres, 1, 34. "6BuU. Soc. Math, de France, 24, 1896, 199-220. "Annales de la Soc. Sc. de Bruxelles, 20, II, 1896, 183-256.

440

History of the Theory of Numbers.

is

[Chap.

XVIII

Now Q

asjinptotic to the "integral logarithm of x":

4=0

V/0

log

Jl+i log u/

so that the latter is asymptotic to irix). De la Vall^e-Poussin^^' proved that Lix represents t{x) more exactly than x/log x and its remaining approximations , x a: .{m l)]x
.
^
, ,

log X

log^x

log'"a:

The historj^ of this extensive subject is adequately presented in the luminous and exhaustive text by E. Landau,"*^ in which is given (pp. 908961) a complete list of references. The reader may consult the article by J. Hadamard,'^^ the extensive report by G. Torelli,^^^ the summaries by Landau,^^ also G. H. Hardy and J. E. Littlewood,^^^ and the recent papers 42-44 of Chapter XIX.
"'M^m. Couronn^s Acad. Roy. Belgique, 59, "^Encyclopedic des sc. math., tome I, vol. 3,
"Utti R. Accad.
213-9.
Sc. Fis. Mat.,

1889, 1-74.

pp. 310-345.
Zeitschrift, 1, 1918, 1-24,

XapoU, (2), 11, 1902, No. 1, 222 pp. ^oProc. Fifth Internat. Congress, Cambridge, 1, 1913, 93-108. Math.
Acta Math., 41, 1917, 119-196.

CHAPTER

XIX.

INVERSION OF FUNCTIONS; MOBIUS' FUNCTION fi(n); NUMERICAL INTEGRALS AND DERIVATIVES.

Inversion; Function
fx{n).

A. F. Mobius^ defined the function /.i(n) to be zero if n is divisible by a square >1, but to be ( 1)'^ if n is a product of k distinct primes >1, while ^i(l) = 1. He employed the function in the reversion of series:

Fix)

= S '-^ imphes
s=l
"

fix)

=S
s=l

fxis)

-^'
"

His results were expressed in more general form by Glaisher^^ and cited in Chapter X. See also E. Meissel,^ who^ noted that

R. Dedekind"* proved that,

divisors of m, then
(2)

if

F{m) =2/(d), where d ranges over

all

the

/w=.w-z.o+..e)-..(^) +
.

where the summations extend over all the combinations 1, 2, 3, ... at a time of the distinct prime factors a, b,. ., k oi m. The proof follows from a distribution of all the factors of m into two sets S and T. Put all the divisors
of

m into set S] all divisors of m/a into set T, all of m/b into

T, etc.

all divi-

sors of m/iab) into S, all of m/iac) into S, etc.; all of m/{abc) into T, etc.

Then, with the exception

set

as in the set T.

of itself, every divisor of occurs as often in the In particular, for Euler's 0(m), 20(d), whence

m=

For another example, see Dedekind''^

n/(d) implies

of

Ch. VIII.

Similarly,

F(w) =

F(m)
/() =

UF

g)

H^Mi-:)J. Liouville^

for

stated simultaneously with Dedekind the inversion theorem sums and made the same appHcation to ({)im). Liouville^ stated the theorem for sums as a problem.

iJour.

He wrote a for /x(n). fiir Math., 9, 1832, 105; Werke, 4, 591. Hbid., 48, 1854, 301-316. 'Observationes quaedam in theoria numerorum, Berlin, 1850, pp. 3-6.
6Jour.

*Jour.

Math., 54, 1857, pp. 21, 25. de Math^matiques, (2), 2, 1857, 110-2. Nouv. Ann. Math., 16, 1857, 181-2.
fiir

441

442

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap.

XIX

B. Merry' gave a proof by noting that, if d is any divisor of m, and if q prime factors of m occur to the same power in c? as in ???, then f{d) occurs once in F{m), q times in ZF{m/a), q{q l)/2 times in 'LFim/ab), etc.
of the

Thus the

coefficient of f{d) in (2) is

but is unity ii q = 0,i. e.,ii d = m. This proof is only another stating Dedekind's proof. R. Dedekind^ gave another form and proof of his theorems. Let
if

> 0,

way

of
I

m(l--)(l-T
where
vi

(-i)(-i)
1

=2j/i-2j/2,
I

ranges over the positive terms of the expanded product and V2 over the negative terms. A simple proof shows that, if v is any di\'isor of m, there are as many terms vi di\'isible by v as terms V2 divisible by v.

<m

Thus
i:f{v)=F{m),
imply, respectively,

Uf{p)=F{m)

fim) =2F(.,) -2F(^2),

Liou\'ille^ wTote F(n) =Tif{n/D''),

Km) -^^y
where

D ranges over those di\4sors

of

n = a"}/ ...

for

which D" divides

f{n)

Then =F{n) -XFin/a") +lF{n/a''b'') -....

n.
(2) in

E. Laguerre^ expressed
(3)

the form

/(m)=2M(|)F(d),
of

where d ranges over the divisors

n=l

m.

Let
n=l

2/(n)T^=SF(n)x^ LX
let

whence F{m) ='Zf(d). For m^Up", where the p's are distinct primes, f{m) =n/(p), and/(p") =p''-np-l). Then F{m) =njl+/(p) + +f{p''-')] =Up'' = m.
. .

The hypotheses

This discussion 4>. / deduces l,(t){d)=m from the usual expression of type (3) for <j){m), rather than the reverse as claimed. N. V. Bougaief^ proved (1). F. Mertens" defined /x(n) and noted that 2/x(d)=0 if n>l, where d ranges over the divisors of n.
are satisfied
if

is

Euler's function

'Nouv. Ann. Math.

16, 1857, 434.

8Dirichlet's Zahlentheorie,

mit Zusatzen von Dedekind, 1863, 138; ed.

2,

1871, p. 356; ed. 4,

1894, p. 360. '"Jour, de Math., (2), 8, 1863, 349. BuU. Soc. Math. France, 1, 1872-3, 77-81. '"Mat. Sbomik (Math. Soc. Moscow), 6, 1872-3, 179. "Jour, fur Math., 77, 1874, 289; 78, 1874, 53.

Cf. Sterneck."

Chap. XIX]

Inversion; Function

fj>{n).

443

special case.

E. Cesaro^^ proved formulas, quoted in Ch. X, which include (3) as a His erroneous evaluation of the mean of /x(n) is cited there. Cesaro^^ reproduced the general formula just cited and extended it to

three pairs of functions:

S/i(d)i^i(^) =l^f2(d)F,(^ =S/3(rf)/^3(^),

FM

=S/2(rf)/3

(^)
h(ri)-\-k{n)

F, =2/3/1,

Fs =2/^2.

where, in each, d ranges over the divisors of n.

Cesaro^^ noted that,
if

= 1 and
Kin)=k(p)kiq)...,

H{n)=h{p)Hq)...,
where
p, q,.
.

are the prime factors of n, then

Hin)

=i:fjiid)K{d),

Kin) =Xfx{d)H{d).
is

For h{n)=k{n) = 1/2, then H{n)=K{n) divisors, without square factors, of n.

is

the reciprocal of the

number

of

or

Cesaro^^ treated the inversion of series. Let Q{x) = 1 or 0, according as x is not in a given set Q, of integers. Let Q{x)Q,{y) =U(xy). Let i{x) be
j8.

functions such that {e^(x)} =^(x) for every pair of indices a,

Then

F{x)=Xh{o,)fleM],
where
co

ranges over

all

the numbers of

Q,,

implies that

fix)=i:H{c^)F{eM},
the sum Xh{d)H{n/d), for d ranging over the divisors of n, equals 1 or according as n = 1 orn> 1. Cf Mobius\ N. V. Bougaief^^ considered the function v{x) with the value log p if x is a power of a prime p, the value in all other cases. Then, if d ranges over the divisors of n, St'(d) =log n implies 2ju(d) log d= v{n). H. F. Baker^'^ gave a generalization of the inversion formula, the statement of which will be clearer after the consideration of one of his applications of it. Let fli,. ., a be distinct primes and S any set of positive integers. For k-^n, let F{ai,. ., a^) denote the set of all the numbers in S which are divisible by each of the primes a^t+i, o,k+2,- , cin, so that aj =*S. For A; = 0, write F{0) for F, so that i^(0) consists of the F(ai, of S which are divisible by ai,. ., a. Returning to the general numbers
if
.
.
. .

F{ai,.

.,

ttk),

we

divide

it

into sub-sets.
.

divisible
divisible
i^Mem.

by no one of ai, by ai, but by no one

soc. roy. sc.

.,

a^

of 02,

Those of its numbers which are form the sub-set /(ai, ., %) Those ... ak, form the sub-set /(a2, Os, dk).

de Liege,

(2), 10, 1883,

No.

6, pp. 26, 47, 56-8.

I'Giornale di Mat., 23, 1885, 168 (175). Cf. 1-13 for a "/bid., 25, 1887, 14-19.

type of inversion formulas.

315-320;

di Mat., (2), 13, 1885, 339; 14, 1886-7, 141-158. isComptes Rendus Paris, 106, 1888, 652-3. Cf. Cesaro, ihid., 1340-3; Cesa,ro,i2 pp.

"AnnaU

Bougaief, Mat. Sbornik (Math. Soc. Moscow), 13, 1886-8, 757-77; 14, 1888-90, 1-44, 169-201; 18, 1896, 1-54; Kronecker3 (p. 276); Berger"'' (pp. 106-115); Gegenbauer^^ of all on -Ln^d) log d. Ch. "Proc. London Math. Soc, 21, 1889-90, 30-32.

XI

444
Those
/(oa,.
.

History of the Theory of Numbers.

di\'isible
.,

[Chap,

xix

by

Oi

and

02,

but by no one

of 03, ...
.

a J.

Finally, those divisible

by

fli.

.,

O;.

a^, form the sub-set form the sub-set desig,

nated /(O).
F{ai,a-2,
. .

Thus
.,

Ok) =/(ai, Oo,

a^)

+2/(a2,
7

as,

Oa)

+|/(a3,

^4,

a^t)

+ ...-f2/(a,)H-/(0),
where S indicates that the summation extends over
Oi,.
. .

all

combinations of

flr

taken*

/c

at a time.
. .
.

by

set or function /(oi, a^t), uniquely determined their order, define F by the foregoing independently of and we Oi, Qk, formula, then we have the inverse formula
,
. .

WTien we have any such

,
.

/(oi, 02,

a)

=F(ai,

03, ...

aj -2/^(a2,
n-l

03, ...

aj +2/^(03,
'

04,

,aj

-...+(-ir-^SF(aO + (-irF(0),
where S now indicates that the summation extends over
r

all

the combina-

The proof is just like that by fli,. ., a taken n r at a time. B. Merry for Dedekind's formula. To give an example, let n = 2, ai = 2, 02 = 3, S = S, 4, 6, 8. Then F{ai) = 3, 6;/(oi)=3, /(0)=6; F(a2)=4, 6, 8; /(o2)=4, 8. Thus
tions of
.

F(oi,O2)-/^(o0-F(o2)+F(0)=5-(3,6)-(4,6,8)+6=0=/(oi,O2).
A. Berger^^'' called /i conjugate to /a
if

2/i id)f2{d)

=1

f or

=1

f or

A:>

when d ranges over the

divisors of k.

Let g{mn)=g{m)g{n), ^(1)

= 1.

Write h{k)=Zf{d)Md)g{8), where d8 = k. Dedekind's inversion formula is a special

/2(n)=M(w).

Then
case.

fik)=2f.2{d)g{d)h(8). For, if /i(n) l, then

K. Zsigmondy^^ stated that

where
ranges over
.

if,

for every positive integer

r,

?f{r;)=F{r),
c
all
.

positive integers ni,

.,

n^,

combinations of powers ^r of the relatively prime while r,. denotes the greatest integer ^r/c, then
n
n,n
. .

/(r)=F(r)-2F(r)+SF(r0-...,
where the summation indices n, n' ,. rip taken 1,2,... at a time. ni, D. von Sterneck^^ noted that, R. l^B{d) =^{n) implies that
.

range over the combinations of

if

d ranges over the divisors of n

Taking m=l,. ., n and of order n, whence

.

solving,

we

get Q{n) expressed as a determinant

if

n = pi'.

.p/"

^(n)=,A(^)-S,A(di)+2:V'W----+(-l)VR), and d^ is derived from n by reducing p exponents by unity.

n.

*Here and in the statement of the theorem occur confusing misprints for k and ""Nova Acta Regiae Soc. Sc. Upsaliensis, (3), 14, 1891, No. 2, 46, 104. "Jour, fur Math., Ill, 1893, 346. Apphed in Ch. V, Zsigmondy." "Monatshefte Math. Phys., 4, 1893, 53-6.

Chap. XIX]

Inversion; Function

fx{n).

445

P.

Bachmann^ proved that f{n) ='Zlz^F{kn) implies that

F(l)

S
n=l

ii{n)f{n).
<J>(Z),

Write

X = [x/n\.
[x]=

Taking F{n) =X, nX,

whence /(n) = T{X),

no-(X),

D{X),

respectively,

we obtain

Lipschitz's^ (Ch.

X) formulas:
*[a:]=2/x(??)i)

iJi{n)T\-\=2fji{n)na

ti

[Q

Let F{n) be zero if n is not a divisor of P and write x{/{P/n) for /^(n). Hence if d divides P, f{d)=7:4^{P/kd) implies iA(P) =Sm(^)/(^), where A; ranges over the divisors of P/d, and d over those of P. D. von Sterneck^^ considered a function f(n) with the properties: (ii) the g. c. d. of /(m) and/(n) isf{d) if rf is the g. c. d. of m and n; (i) /(I) = 1 (iii) for primes p, other than specified ones, one of the numbers /(pl) is
;

by p; (iv) the g. c. d. oi f{pn)/f{n) and /(n) divides p. Then if L{n) is the 1. c. m. of the values of / for all the divisors <n of n, F{n) =f{n) i-L{n) is an integer which can be given the form
divisible

Fin)

^\PrpJ

^\p,PiPkVl)'

W
m=

n=Jlpi

\pmpk}'"

four properties hold for the function defined by the recursion formula /(n) =a/(n l)+i3/(n 2), where a and jS are relatively prime, with the initial conditions /(I) = 1 /(2) = a. For a = 2x,p = b x^, we have^^
,

The

(x+Vbr-ix-VbT
2\/b

discussed by Lucas-^ of Ch. XVII, and his test for The case primality holds for the present generalization. The four properties hold also for

a = j3 = l was

Kn) =
if a,

aJ'-lf

h are relatively

not dividing a, b or a b. K. Zsigmondy-^ gave a generalized inversion formula. n^. Set multiple of the relatively prime integers ni,
. .
.

prime ;^^ then fip

l) is divisible

by p

if

is

a prime

Let A^ be any

where d ranges over those divisors

^m

oi

N which

are products of powers

2"Die Analytische Zahlentheorie, 1894, 310. "Monatshefte Math. Phys., 7, 1896, 37, 342. 22DirichIet, Werke, 1, 47-62. See Dirichlet,^ Ch.

XVII.

wZsigmondy, Monatshefte Math. Phys.,

^Ibid., 7, 1896, 190-3.

3,

1892, 265.

446
of
rii,
. .
.

History of the Theory of Numbers.

,

[Chap,

xix

7J,.

no one

of

^i,

Then, if a ranges over those divisors d which are divisible by v^', chosen from nj, n^,
.

I
The
than
left

member
V,'

equals F{m, N,
. . .

e)

constructed for the numbers other

s'

Vi,...,

of the set ni,

e)

/z^.

For
e)

= s, we have
^n^

f(m, N,

=F(m, N,
series in

-Si^([f]' ^'

The

latter
rii,

becomes the
.

Bachmann^ when m=cD,

N = 0,

= 1,

while

n2,

are primes.

F. Mertens^^ considered (7(n) =ju(l)H-/i(2)

+M(n) and proved that

l.o)[f]=.g)+.(l)+.. .+.-..(.).
<rin)

= 2a{g) - X n{rMs) f^l LrsJ s=i

r.

= [V^].
and /x(n) forn< 10000,

By means of a table
it is

(pp. 781-830) of the values of a{n) verified that \(7{n)\< \/n for 1< 10000.

n<

D. von Sterneck^^ verified the last result up to 500 000, and for 16 larger values under 5 million. A. Berger" noted that, if g{m)g{n)=g{mn), ^(1) = 1,
i:n{d)gid)=U{l-gip)]
(n>l),
divisors of n.
If

where d ranges over all divisors Xg{m) is absolutely convergent,

of n,

p over the prime

sM%W=n{i-^(p)),
where p ranges over all primes. D. von Sterneck^^ noted that,
if

6ix)

^1

for every x

and

if

|j.w|<^6-H|/(.)-/[g-/[=]-/[g|.
In particular, |2iu(/c)|<8+?z/9. D. F. Seliwanov'-^ gave Dedekind's formula with appHcation to H. von Koch^^" defined n{k) by use of infinite determinants.
<t>{n).

"Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.), 106, II a, 1897, 761-830. Ibid., 835-1024; 110, Ila, 1901, 1053-1102; 121, Ila, 1912, 1083-96; Proc. Fifth Intern. gress Math., 1912, I, 341-3.

Con-

"Ofversigt Vctenskap.s-Akad. Forhand., Stockholm, 55, 1898, 579-618. "Monatshcfte Math. Phys., 9, 1898, 43-5. "Math. Soc. St. Paersbourg, 1899, 120. ""Ofversigt K. Vetensk.-Akad. Forhand., Stockholm, 57, 1900, 659-68.

Chap. XIX]

INVERSION) FUNCTION

fx{n).

447

E. B. EUiott^^ of Ch. V gave a generalization of fx{n). L. Kronecker^" defined the function p{n, k) of the g. c. d. (n, k) of n, k if (n, A;)>1, and proved for any function /(n, k) of to be 1 if (n, A:) = 1,
(n, k)

the identity

S
k=l

p{n, k)f{n, k)

=X S
d

[x{d)fin, kd),
left

k=\

where d ranges over the divisors

the values oif{n, k) ior

of n.

The

member

is

thus the

sum

of

k<n and prime to n.

kd)
,

Set

Fin,

rf)

= S f(n,
k=i

$(n, d)

"s p (^, k)fin, kd) / k=i \tt

Thus when d ranges over the

Fin,
1)

divisors of n,
d),

=S$(n,
d

*(n,

1)
is

=2M(d)F(n,

d)

are consequences of each other.

The same

true (p. 274) for

/i(n)=S/(d)^(^),
if

fin) =i:ixid)gid)h{^,

Application is made (p. 335) to mean values. E. M. L^meray^^ gave a generalized inversion theorem. Let i/'2(a, symmetrical in a, b and such that the function ^3 defined by
girs) =gir)gis).
\f/sia, b,

b)

be

c)=\l/2{a,-ip2ib, c)\

is

symmetrical in

a, b, c.

Then
b, c,

the function

\pM,
will

d) =\l/3[a, b, yPiic, d)}

.
. .

be symmetrical in
\l/2ia,

a, b, c,

d and similarly for t^fc(ai,

0;^)

For example,

b)=aVl-\-b^+bVT+c^,

^3 = a&c+SaVl+6Vl+c2.

li di,.

Let v=^iy, u) be the solution of y=yp2i'^j ^) for ^- The theorem states that, = pgV. and if Fim) be defined by .,dk are the divisors of
.

Fim)=Mfid,),...Jidj:)],

we have

inversely /(m)

=Q(G, H), where

G=4.w,.),.g),... ,.(-!-),...},

^=4K?)-(f)'-<^)'-;}
where
time.
ix

is

the

number

of combinations of the distinct

prime factors
1, 3, 5,

q,... of

m taken 0, 2, 4, ...

at a time,

and

the

number taken

p, ... at a

L. Gegenbauer^^ defined ^lix) to be +1 if a: is a unit of the field Rii) of complex integers or a product of an even number of distinct primes of
soVorlesungen iiber Zahlentheorie, I, 1901, 246-257. His is /i(n). 31N0UV. Ann. Math., (4), 1, 1901, 163-7. 32Verslag. Wiss. Ak. Wetenschappen, Amsterdam, 10, 1901-2, 195-207 (German.) transl. in Proc. Sect. Sc. Ak. Wet., 4, 1902, 169-181.

English

448
R{i),

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xix

if x is di\'isible by the square of a a product of an odd number, denote complete set of residues ?^0 of complex a prime of R{i). Let [771] Then the sum of the values of fix) for all complex integers modulo m. to given prime a one n, which are in [m], equals integers x relatively ranges over all divisors of where d n in [m], and x ranges 2jLi(c?)2/(d'x), This for the case of real is due, numbers, to Nazimov^" of over {rn/d}. Chapter V. Again, 2/i((i) = l or according as norm n is 1 or >1. Also 2/(d) =F(7?) miplies Xfi{d)F(n/d) =f{n). J. C. Kluyver^ employed Kronecker's^" identity for special functions / and obtained known results like if

2
where
ief's^^

cos

=/x(n),

2sin

= n

e^^''\

v ranges over the integers <Ji and prime to n, while y{n) is Bougafunction p{n). P. Fatou^ noted that Merten's a{n) does not oscillate between finite E. Landau^^ proved that it is at most of the order of ne', where limits.

and

Landau^ noted that Furlan" made a false use of analysis Landau's on Merten's^^ (r(n). 0. Meissner^^" emploj-ed primes p,, q,. For n=Up'i set Z(n)=nei''> and Z2{n) = Z\Z{n)\. Then Z{?i) = n only if n is Up.^i or 16 or Hjp'iqii. Next, Z2(n)=n in these three cases and when the exponents e, in n are We have [1/Z{n)]=fx'^{n). distinct primes; otherwise, Z2(n)<n. R. HackeP^ extended the method of von Sterneck^^ and obtained various closer approximations, one^^ being
n.

= aVlog

ideal theory to obtain a result of

xe{k)

<^+io2+|2/g]-2/[g|, 26

where a

= l, 6, 10, 14, 105; 6 = 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 385, 1001. Kusnetzov-^^ gave an analytic expression for ;u(n). gave many formulas involving n{n). K. Knopp^^ of Ch. A. Fleck''"" generahzed n{m)=iJLi{m) by setting
W.

M*(m)=n(-l)'(f), \a,/
,=1

m=Upr.
,=1

Using the zeta function

i:Hk{d)=fXk-i{m),
dim

(12) of

Ch. X, and ^^ of Fleck^-^ of Ch. V, we have

.
.

r^\

V S
fn

=l

^k-\{m) =f(s) ^

* ^t(m)

-,
^

<t)k{m)

(m\ =^ Xdfik+A-T)dm

m=l

\"/

"Verslag. Wiss. Ak. Wetenschappen, 9, 1906, 408-14.

Rend. Circ. Mat. Palermo, 26, 1908, "Monatshefte Math. Phys., 18, 1907, 235-240. "Math. Xaturw. Blatter, 4, 1907, 85-6.
"SitzunKsber. Ak. Wiss.
'Sylvester,

Amsterdam, 15, 1906, 423-9. Proc. Sect. Sc. Ak. Wet., "Acta Math., 30, 1906, 392. "Rend. Circ. Mat. Palermo, 23, 1907, 367-373250.

Wien (Math.),

118, 1909, II a, 1019-34.

Messenger Math., (2), 21, 1891-2, 113-120. Mat. Sbomik (Math. Soc. Moscow), 27, 1910, 335-9. 'wSitzungsber. Berlin Math. GeseU., 15, 1915, 3-8.

Chap. XIX]

NUMERICAL INTEGRALS AND DERIVATIVES.

449

and other results on sums involving /i(n) play an important role in the theory of the asymptotic distribution of primes. In accord with the plan of not entering into details on that topic (Ch. XVIII), the reader is referred for the former topic to the history and exposition by E. Landau,^^ and to the subsequent papers by A. Axer,^^ E. Landau/3 and J. F. Steffensen.^'' Proofs of (2) or (3) are given in the following texts
Kreistheilung, 1872, 8-11; Die Elemente der Zahlentheorie, 1892, 40-4; Grundlehren der Neueren Zahlentheorie, 1907, 26-9. T. J. Stieltjes, Theorie des nombres, Ann. fac. Toulouse, 4, 1890, 21. Borel and Drach, Introd. theorie des nombres, 1895, 24-6. E. Cahen, ;Sl6ments de la theorie des nombres, 1900, 346-350. E. Landau," 577-9.
P.

The theorem Sn=iM(^)A =

Bachmann, Die Lehre von der

Numerical Integrals and Derivatives.

N. V. Bougaief^^ (Bugaiev) called F{n) the numerical integral of /(n) if F(m) =2/(5), summed for all the divisors 5 of m, and called /(n) the numerical derivative function of F{n), denoted by DF(n) symbolically.
Granting that there
is,

for every n, the

development

F{n)

= a,[n]+a2y^j '^^Hjj +

where
F{k)

the largest integer ^x, then a^ is the numerical derivative of He developed [n'^% [n'% etc. N. V. Bougaief,^^ after amplifying the preceding remarks, proved that
[x] is

-F{k-1).

S
d6=n

e{8)x{d) =yp{n),

d(n)d(m) =d{nm)

imply

Writing D~^d{d) for

'29(d),

summed

for the divisors

d^

of n,

we have

D'^2x{md)=^2xi^)D''d{d),
for

any

integer
.

/x,

positive or negative.

There are formulas

like

"Handbuch. .Verteilung der Primzahlen, II, 1909, 567-637, 676-96, 901-2. Prace mat. fiz., Warsaw, 21, 1910, 65-95; Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien (Math.),
II a, 1253-98.

120, 1911,

Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien. (Math.), 120, 1911, Ila, 973-88; Rend. Circ. Mat. Palermo, 34, 1912, 121-31. "Analytiske Studier. ., Diss., Kjobenhavn, 1912, 148 pp. Fortschritte, 43, 262-3. Extract in Acta Math., 37, 1914, 75-112.
.

*^ Journal de la Soc. Philomatique de Moscou, 5, 1871. **Theory of numerical derivatives, Moscow, 1870-3, 222 pp. Extracts from Mat. Sbomik (Math. Soc. Moscow), 5, I, 1870-2, 1-63; 6, 1872-3, I, 133-180, 199-254, 309-360 (reviewed in BuU. Sc. Math. Astr., 3, 1872, 200-2; 5, 1873, 296-8; 6, 1874, 314-6). R^8um6 by Bougaief, BuU. Sc. Math. Astr., 10, I, 1876, 13-32.

450

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xix

u=

L"J

ld(^fj^e(x^ (mod

2),

20^^) -2d(j^d{^n) (mod

3),

where 6{n) is the number of primes a^n. Other special results were cited under 155, Ch. V; 6, Ch. XI; 217, Ch. XVIIL E. Ces^ro^^" treated 2/(5) in connection with median and asymptotic
formulas. Bougaief^^ treated numerical integrals, noting formulas like

liP'"'
where ^(n)
is

the

number

of

prime factors

a, b,.

of

n = a6^

2
'^i"

rPid)

= 2
d\i

\l/(d)+

2
dr

rPia'd)

= 2
d\i

yp{ad)+

yp{d).

dL^

Bougaief^^ gave a large

number

of formulas of the type

2V^(d)[^] =2V(rf)+2"*/^V(^)+Sf'/^V(rf)+

.,

where, on the left, d ranges over all the di\isors of m; while, on the right, d ranges over those divisors of m which do not exceed n, [n/2], ., respectively. Bougaief^ gave the relation
.

Xd(Vd)=^U^2'n):
d\n

\P

where p ranges over all primes ^ -y/n, and ^^(t??, n) is the sum of the kth. powers of all di\'isors of n, so that ^o is their number, and ^(0 is the

^m

number

of primes ^t.
is

L. Gegenbauer^'^ noted that the preceding result

a case of

S,(d).(JJ/(X)=J/(X){2,W.(3},
where
dx ranges

over the divisors

^X

of n.

Special cases are

Y%(<f) =yUa'. n),

where
|p

^d%{(^)^^2a%{l,
powers
of the di\'isors

n),

{m, n)

is

the

sum

of the pth

^m of n.

^Giornale di Mat.,

2.5,

"Mat. Sbornik (Math.

18S7, 1-13. Soc. Moscow), 14, 1888-90, 169-197; 16, 1891, 169-197 (Russian).

"Ibid., 17, 1893-5, 720-59.

"Comptes Rendus

Paris, 119, 1894, 1259.

6,

oMonatshefte Math. Phys.,

1895, 208.

Chap. XIX]

NUMERICAL INTEGRALS AND DERIVATIVES.

an arbitrary function
\p,

451

Bougaief^"" noted that, for

<*

M=l

n= l

M=l n=l

u = ln=l

N. V. Bervi" treated numerical integrals extended over solutions of indeterminate equations, in particular for n = a-\-h{x-{-y)-\-cxy, h^ = b+ac. Bougaief^" considered definite numerical integrals, viz., sums over all divisors, between a and b, oi n. He expressed sums of [x], the greatest integer ^x, as sums of values of f (n, m), viz., the number of divisors ^n Also sums of ^s expressed as ^i{l)+^i{2)-\of m. where .-{-^i{n), of is the number the divisors of which n are ith. powers. fi(n) 1. 1. Cistiakov^^" (Tschistiakow) treated the second numerical derivative. Bougaief^^^ gave 13 general formulas on numerical integrals. Bougaief^^ gave a method of transforming a sum taken over 1, 2, ., n into a sum taken over all the divisors of n. He obtains various identities
. . .

between functions. D. J. M. Shelly, ^^ using

distinct primes a,h,.

.,

called

^'=K^^)
the derivative of iV
of fractions

= a^b^ ....

Similar definitions are given for derivatives

j8,
. .
.

and

for the case of fractional exponents a,

The primes

are the only integers

whose derivatives are unity.

ec^Comptes Rendus Paris, 120, 1895, 432-4. iMat. Sbornik (Math. Soc. Moscow), 18, 1896, 519; 19, 1897, 182. ^mid., 18, 1896, 1-54 (Russian); see Jahrb. Fortschritte Math., 27, 1896,
2o/6id., 20, 1899, 595; see Fortschritte, 1899, 194.
^^^Ibid.,

p. 158.

549-595.

Two

of the formulas are given in Fortschritte, 1899, 194.

/6id., 21, 1900, 335, 499; see Fortschritte, 31, 1900, 197. "Asociaci6n espanola, Granada, 1911, 1-12.

CHAPTER XX.
PROPERTIES OF THE DIGITS OF NUMBERS.
John HilP noted that 139854276=118262 is formed of the nine digits permuted and believed erroneously that it is the only such square. N. BrownelP" found 169 and 961 as the squares whose three digits are in reverse order and whose roots are composed of the same digits in reverse
greatest digit in the roots
is also the least in the squares, while the one-third of the greatest in the squares and one-half of the digit in the tens place. W. Saint^'' proved that every odd number not divisible by 5 is a divisor

order.

The

least digit in the roots

is

[by a proof holding only for prime also to 3]. For, let 1 ... 1 (to digits) have the quotient q and remainder r when divided by D. This remainder r must recur if the number of digits 1 be increased sufficiently. Hence let 1...1 (to digits) give the
11
.

of a

number

.1 oi

D^N digits
D

D+d

and quotient Q when divided by D. By subtraction, D{Q q) = 1. .10. .0 (with d units followed by D zeros). Hence if 1. .1 (to d digits) were not divisible by every odd number ^ D and prime to 5 [and to .0 (with D zeros) would be 3], there would be a remainder R; then RO. divisible by an odd number prime to 5 [and to 3], which is impossible. P. Barlow^" stated, and several gave inadequate proofs, that no square has all its digits alike. He^'^ stated and proved that 111111111^=1 2345678987654321 is the largest square such that if unity be subtracted from each of its digits and again from each digit of the remainder, etc., all zeros being suppressed, each remainder is a square. Denote (10^ 1)/(10 1) by [k]. Then |^(x+l)p has x digits and exceeds [x] by 10{|(a: l)p. Since zeros are suppressed we have a square as remainder, and the process can
remainder
.

be repeated. It is stated that therefore the property holds only for V, IV, IIP, .... composed of three digits Several^* found that 135 is the only number in arithmetical progression such that the digits will be reversed if 132 times the middle digit be added to N. W. Saint found the least integral square ending with the greatest number of equal digits. The possible final digits are 1, 4, 5, 6, 9. Any square is Hence the final digit is 4. If the square termiof the form 4n or 4n+l. nated with more than three 4's, its quotient by 4 would be a square ending with two I's, just proved to be impossible. Of the numbers ending with

^'^

Theory and Practice, ed. 4, London, 1727, 322. iThe Gentleman's Diary, or Math. Repository, London, 1767; Davis' ed., 2, 1814, 123. ifcJour. Nat. Phil. Chem. Arts (ed., Nicholson), London, 24, 1809, 124-6. I'^The Gentleman's Diary, or Math. Repository, London, 1810, 38-9, Quest. 952.
^Arithmetic, both ia

39-40, Quset. 953. 1811, 33-4, Quest. 960. I/Ladies' Diary, 1810-11, Quest., 1218; Leybourn's
^^Ibid., 1810,
^^Ibid.,

M.

Quest. L. D.,

4,

1817,

139^1.
453

454
three
4's,

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap.

XX

digits of

the least is 1444. J. Davey discussed only numbers of 3 or 4 which the last 2 or 3 are equal, respectively. Several^" found that the squares 169 and 961 are composed of the same digits in reverse order, have roots of two digits in reverse order, while the sum of the digits in each square equals the square of the sum of the digits in each root; finally, the sum of the digits in each root equals the

square of their difference.

An anonymous writer^ proposed the problem to find a number n given the product of n by the number obtained from n by writing its digits in reverse order [Laisant*^]. P. T^denat^ considered the problem to find a number of n digits whose square ends with the same n digits in the same order. If a is such a number of n 1 digits, so that a^ = 10'*~^64-a, we can find a digit A to annex at the a of n digits. Squaring the left of a to obtain a desired number 10"~^A

latter,

we obtain the condition

x = 2"p
2/

{2a

l)A= b (mod
x2
y^

10).

J. F.

Frangais^ noted the solutions

= 5"5 + l, = 5r = 2"s + l,

= 10"p5+a:, = lO"rs-\-y,

in

which the resulting condition 2"p 5"^ = 1 or 5"r 2"s= 1 is to be satisfied. Special solutions are given by n = 1, p = 3; n = 2, p = 19; n = 3, p = 47; n = 4, p = 586; etc., to n = 7. Then J. D. Gergonne^ generalized the problem to base B.
x(rc-l)=5"t/.

Let p, q be relatively prime and set jB" = pq. Then x = pt, x l=qu, or vice versa. The condition pt qu = l is solved for t, u. When B = 10, n = 20,
the least

is

81199.

writers^ stated and proved by use of the decimal fraction for 1/n that every number divides a number of the form 9 ... 90 ... 0. A. L. Crelle^ proved the generalization Every number divides a number
:

Anonymous

obtained by repeating any given set of digits and affixing a certain number of
zeros, as 23.. .230.. .0.

Several^" found a square

whose root has two

digits, their

quotient beinte-

ing equal to their difference.

ger,

By x/y=xy, x=i/+l + l/(2/ 1), an

Thus the squares are 24^ or 42^. The^^ three digits of a number are in geometrical progression; the product of the sum of their cubes by the cube of their sum is 1663129; if the number obtained by reversing the digit be divided by the middle digit, the
whence y=2, x=4t.
^ffLadies' Diary, 1811-12, Quest. 12.31;

Leybourn,

I.

c, 153-4.

Annales de Math, (ed., Gergonne), 3, 1812-3, 384. *Ibid., 5, 1814-5, 309-321. Problem proposed on p. 220. *Ibid., 321-2. ^Ibid., 322-7. *Ibid., 19, 1828-9, 256; 20, 1829-30, 304-5. Ubid., 20, 1829-30, 349-3.52; Jour, fiir Math., 5, 1830, 296. ^"Ladies' Diary, 1820, 36, Quest. 1347. 'I'Ibid., 1822, 33, Quest. 1374.

Chap.

XX]

PROPERTIES OF THE DiGITS OF NXJMBERS.

455

quotient is 46|. By the last condition, the middle digit must be 3, since not a higher multiple of 3. Hence the number is 931. To find a synunetrical number abcba of five digits whose square exhibits all ten digits, W. Rutherford^" noted that the square is divisible by 9 since the sum of the digits is divisible by 9. Hence the sum of the digits of the number is divisible by 3. Also a ^ 3. Taking c = a-{-b, c=S,he got 35853. J. Sampson noted also the answers 84648, 97779, J. A. Grunert^ proved by use of Euler's generahzation of Fermat's the.0. ---^ 90 orem that^ every number divides 9 Drot^" asked for the values of x for which N"" has the same final k digits as N, when ^ = 1, 2 or 3. J. Bertrand^'' discussed the numbers of digits of certain numbers. A. G. Emsmann^ treated a number 6 of n digits to base 10 equal to the product of the sum of its digits by a, and such that if another number of n digits be subtracted from b the remainder shall equal the number obtained by writing the digits of b in reverse order. J. Booth^ noted that a number of six digits formed by repeating any set
. . . .
.

of three digits is divisible

.

= 11111111 + 9^ = 8.9.111111+... 8.9M 2222222 + ...+7.8^2+8^ 98 = + + + (12-1-0)9-1, 987 = (123-12-l)9-3, 9876 = (1234-123-13)9-6. written to base r, then C. M. Ingleby^^ added the digits of a number added the digits of this sum, etc., finally obtaining a number, designated SN, of a single digit; and proved that S{MN)=S{SM-SN). P. W. Flood^^" proved that 64 is the only square the sum of whose digits less unity and product plus unity are squares. G. Cantor^^ employed any distinct positive integers a, 6, ... considered the system of integers in which a occurs a times, b occurs b times, etc., and called a system simple if every number can be expressed in a single way in the form aa+/36+ .. A system is ., where a = 0, 1,. ., a; /3 = 0, 1, ., 6; simple if and only if each basal number k divides the next one I and if k
8.1111111

by 7, 11, 13 [since by 1001]. Bianchi^^" various numerical relations like 10^ noted G.

occurs k = (l/k) 1 times. G. Barillari^^ noted that, if 10 belongs to the exponent modulo b, the number P = a/3 Xa/3 ... X ... obtained by repeating h times (/i > 1) any set of n digits, is divisible by 6 if 6 is prime to 10^-1 and if nh is a multiple

'^Ladies' Diary, 1835, 38, Quest. 1576. 8Jour. fur Math., 5, 1830, 185-6.

^'^Nouv. Ann. Math., 4 1845, 637-44; 5, 1846, 25. For references to tables of powers, 13, 1854, 424-5. oblbid., 8, 1849, 354. "Abhandlung liber eine Aufgabe aus der Zahlentheorie, Progr. Frankfurt, 1850, 36 pp. loProc. Roy. Soc. London, 7, 1854-5, 42-3.

^""Proprieta e rapporti de' numeri interi e composti coUe cifre semplici Modena, 1856. , Same in Mem. di Mat. e di Fis. Soc. Ital. Sc, Modena, (2), 1, 1862, 1-36, 207.
.

"Oxford, Cambr. and DubUn Messenger Math., "''Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 7, 1867, 30.
"Zeitschrift

3,

1866, 30-31.

Math. Phys.,

14, 1869, 121-8.

"Giomale

di Mat., 9, 1871, 125-135.

456
of

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap.

XX

w, but 10" 1, P

P
is

is

not divisible by h

if

nh

is

not a multiple of m.

If h divides
is

divisible

by

when

= b, but not divisible

by

when h

not a

multiple of

b.

A. MoreP* proved that the numbers ending with 12, 38, 62 or 88 are the only ones whose squares end with two equal digits. H. Hoskins^^'* found the sum of the 117852 numbers of 7 digits which can be formed with the digits 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. J. Plateau^^ noted that every odd number not ending with 5 has a multiple of the form 11... 1 [Saint^^. P. Mansion^^ proved the theorem of Plateau.
J.

W.

L. Glaisher^^

deduced

Crelle's^

theorem from Plateau's.^^

C. A. Laisant^^ treated a problem^ on reversing digits. G. R. Perkins^^" and A. Martin^^ stated that all powers of numbers ending with 12890625 end with the same digits. E. Catalan^" noted that the g. c. d. of two numbers of the form 1 ... 1 of n and n' digits is of Uke form and has A digits, where A is the g. c. d. of n

and

n'.

Lloyd Tanner,^"" generalizing Martin's^^ question, found how many oin digits to the base r end with the same digits as their squares, numbers If r" is the product of q powers of primes, there are i. e., N^N = Kr''. 2^ 2 values of N. and with n digits to the He^^^ found numbers to and iV to base r such that the numbers formed by prefixing have a given ratio. J. Plateau^ ^ proposed the problem to find two numbers whose product has all its digits alike. Angenot noted that

6^-1'
give a solution for base
b.

6-1

Catalan^^ noted that Euler's theorem

6-1
for

nm

n prime to 6, furnishes a solution n, m. Lloyd Tanner" stated and Laisant proved that 87109376 and 12890625 are the only numbers of 8 digits whose squares end with the same 8 digits.
"Nouv. Ann. Math., (2), 10, 1871, 44-6, 187-8. i^Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 15, 1871, 89-91. "BuU. Acad. Roy. de Belgique, (2), 16, 1863, 62; 28, "Nouv. Corresp. Math., 1, 1874-5, 8-12; Mathesis,

1874, 468-476. 3, 1883, 196-7.

Bull. Bibl. Storia Sc.

Mat., 10, 1877, 476-7. "Messenger Math., 5, 1875-6, 3-5. **M6m. 80C. sc. phys. et nat. de Bordeaux, (2), 1, 1876, 403-11. iMath. Miscellany, Flushing, N. Y., 2, 1839, 92. "Math. Quest. Educat. Times, 26, 1876, 28.

oM6m. Society

Sc. Li^ge, (2), 6, 1877,

No.

4.

"^Messenger Math., 7, 1877-8, 63-4. Cases r^ 12, Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 28, 1878, 32-4. Jo'-Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 29, 1878, 94-5. Nouv. Corresp. Math., 4, 1878, 61-63. /Wd., 5, 1879, 217; 6, 1880, 43.

Chap.

XX]

PROPERTIES OF THE DiGITS OF NuMBERS.

1, 8, 17, 18,

457

Moret-Blanc^^ proved that

to the

26,

27 are the only numbers equal

sum

of the digits of their cubes.

C. Berdelle^^" considered the last n digits of numbers, in particular of 5*. E. Cesaro^^ noted that the sum of the pth powers of ten consecutive integers ends with 5 unless p is a multiple of 4, when it ends with 3. F. de Rocquigny^^ noted that if a number of n digits equals the sum of the 2" 1 products of its digits taken 1, 2, ., n at a time, its final n 1 digits
. .

are

all 9.

E. Cesaro^ considered the period of the digits of rank n in powers of 5. Lists^" have been given of squares formed by the nine digits > 0, or the ten digits, not repeated. 0. Kessler^^ gave a table of divisors of numbers formed by repeating a given set of digits a small number of times. T. C. Simmons"" noted that, if the sum of the digits of n is 10, that of 2n is 11 unless each digit of n is <5 or two are 5. For 4 digits the numbers of each type are counted.
J. S.

Mackay^^ treated the

last subject.

E. Lemoine^^ considered numbers like A = 8607004053 such that, if a is the number derived by reversing the digits of A, the sum A+a = 12111011121
reverses into
If
itself.

M. d'Ocagne^ considered the sum a{N) of the digits of the first N integers. iVp = ap-10^+ +ai-10+ao and d = ap-10^-l, then (7{N,) =(T{d) + {N,., + l)a^+a{N,.,). aid) = 10'-'-5a^{a,-l+9p),
. . .

Hence
^(iVp)=|ao(ao+l)

+ ia,{lO'-^-5(ai-l+97;)+iV,_i + lj.

of digits in 1,. ., AT is (p+l)(iV+l)-(10^+'-l)/9. See the next paper. M. d'Ocagne^^ noted that, in writing down the natural numbers 1, .,N, is composed of n digits, the total number of digits written is where
. .

The number

n(iV+l)

In, where 1 = 1

1 (to
is

digits).
if

E. Barbier^i" asked

what

the W^^%h. digit written

the series of

natural numbers be written down.

23Nouv. Ann. Math.,
(2), 18,

1879, 329; proposed

by

Laisant, 17, 1878, 480.

23aAssoc. franQ., 8, 1879, 176-9.

\
N

24Nouv. Corresp. Math.,

s^Les

6,

1880, 519; Mathesis, 1888, 103.

Mondes,

53, 1880, 410-2.

26NOUV. Corresp. Math., 4, 1878, 387; Nouv. Ann. Math., (3), 2, 1883, 144, 287; 1884, 160. 8"Math. Magazine, 1, 1882-4; 69-70; I'intermediaire des math., 4, 1897, 168; 14, 1907, 135; Sphinx-Oedipe, 1908-9, 35; 5, 1910, 64; Educ. Times, March, 1905. Math. Quest. Educ.

Times, 52, 1890, 61;

"Zeitschrift

(2), 8,

1905, 83-6 (with history).

Math. Phys.,

28, 1883, 60-64.

"Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 41, 1884, 28-9, 64-5. "Proc. Edinburgh Math. Soc, 4, 1885-6, 55-56. "Nouv. Ann. Math., (3), 4, 1885, 150-1. ^ojornal de so. math, e ast., 7, 1886, 117-128. "/bid., 8, 1887, 101-3; Comptes Rendus Paris, 106, 1888, 190.

""Comptes Rendus

Paris, 105, 1887, 795, 1238.

458

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xx

L. Gegenbauer^^'' proved generalizations of Cantor's^- theorems, allowing negative coefficients. Given the distinct positive integers ai, a2, ., every positive integer is representable in a single way as a linear homogeneous with integral coefficients if each a^ is di\isible by a^-i function of ai, a2, and the quotient equals the number of permissible values of the coefficients of the smaller of the two. R. S. .Aiyar and G. G. Storr^^*" found the number p of integers the sum of whose digits (each >0) is n, by use of Pn= p_i+ +p_9. E. Strauss''^ proved that, if ai, ao, are any integers > 1, every positive rational or irrational number < 1 can be written in the form
. . . . .
. .

f1

r...

(ai<ai, a2<a2,

),

the a's being integers, and in a single way except in the case in which all the a beginning with a certain one, have their maximum values, when also a finite representation exists. E. Lucas^ noted that the only numbers having the same final ten digits as their squares are those ending with ten zeros, nine zeros followed by 1, 8212890625 and 1787109376. He gave (ex. 4) the possible final nine digits* of numbers whose squares end with 224406889. He gave (p. 45, exs. 2, 3) all the numbers of ten digits to base 6 or 12 whose squares end with the same ten digits. Similar special problems were proposed by Escott and Palmstrom in Tlntermediaire des Mathematiciens, 1896, 1897. J. Kraus^ discussed the relations between the digits of a number expressed to two different bases. A. Cunningham**" called an agreeable number of the mth order and nth degree in the r-ary scale if the m digits at the right of 'N are the same as the m digits at the right of A^" when each is expressed to base r; and tabulated all agreeable numbers to the fifth order and in some cases to the tenth. A number of digits is completely agreeable if the agreement of with its nth power extends throughout its digits, the condition being (mod r'"). E. H. Johnson^'' noted that, if a and r \ are relatively prime and aa. a (to r 1 digits to base r) is divided by r 1 there appear in the quotient all the digits 1, 2, ., r 1 except one, which can be found by dividing the sum of its digits by r 1. = 123. .n, written to base n+1, be C. A. Laisant^" stated that, if multiplied by any integer <n and prime to n, the product has the digits

m
,

A"=A

of

A permuted.
Wien (Math.), 95, 1887, II, 618-27. 'x^Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 47, 1887, 64. *Acta Math., 11, 1887-8, 13-18. 'Th6orie des nombres, 1891, p. 38. Cf. Math. Quest. Educ. Times, (2), 6, 1904, 71-2. *Same by Kraitchik, Sphinx-Oedipe, 6, 1911, 141. "Zeitschr. Math. Phys., 37, 1892, 321-339; 39, 1894, 11-37. *'British Assoc. Report, 1893, 699. * Annals of Math., 8, 1893^, 160-2. *L'interm6diaire des math., 1894, 236; 1895, 262. Proof by "Nauticus," Mathesis, (2), 5, 1895, 37-42.
^"'Sitzungsber. Ak. Wiss.

Chap.

XX]

PROPERTIES OF THE DiGITS OF NUMBERS.

459

Tables of primes to the base 2 are cited under Suchanek^" of Ch. XIII. There is a eollection^^'^ of eleven problems relating to digits. To find^*' the number <90 which a person has in mind, ask him to annex a declared digit and to tell the remainder on division by 3, etc. T. Hayashi^^ gave relations between numbers to the base r:
123.

{r-l}-(r-l)+r = l .1 (to r digits), {r-ljjr-2) ...321-(r-l)-l = {r-2} jr-2)

. . .
.

(to r digits).

Several

writers^*^

proved that
. .

123.

{r-l}-(r-2)+r-l = {r-l}

.321.

T. Hayashi" noted that if A = 10+r(10)Hr2(10)^+ ... be multiplied or divided by any number, the digits of each period of A are permuted cyclically. and p (as 37 and 3) such that A. L. Andreini^^" found pairs of numbers by all multiples ^ (J5 l)p of p are composed of p equal the products of digits to the base 12, whose sum equals the multiplier. P. de Sanctis^^ gave theorems on the product of the significant digits of, or the sum of, all numbers of n digits to a general base, or the numbers beginning with given digits or with certain digits fixed, or those of other

5^

types.

A. Palmstrom^^ treated the problem to find all numbers with the same n digits as their squares. Two such numbers ending in 5 and 6, respectively, have the sum 10"+ 1. If the problem is solved for n digits, the (n+l)th digit can be found by recursion formulae. There is a unique
final

solution

s.

if the final digit (0, 1, 5 or 6) is given. A. Hauke^ discussed obscurely x'^^x (mod s'') for x with r digits to base = 2, while r and s are arbitrary, there are 2" solutions, v being the If

number
4, 5.

of distinct prime factors of s. G. Valentin and A. Palmstrom^^ discussed x'^^x (mod

10"), for k

= 2,

3,

G. Wertheim^^ determined the numbers with seven or fewer digits whose squares end with the same digits as the numbers, and treated simple problems about numbers of three digits with prescribed endings when written to

two

bases.
.
.
.

"'iSammlung der Aufgaben Zeitschr. Math. Naturw. Unterricht, 1898, 35-6. ^Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 6.3, 1895, 92-3. Jour. of the Physics School in Tokio, 5, 1896, 153-6, 266-7; Abhand. Geschichte der Math. Wiss., 28, 1910, 18-20. Jour. of the Physics School in Tokio, 5, 1896, 82, 99-103; Abhand., 16-18. "Ibid., 6, 1897, 148-9; Abhand., 21. "oPeriodico di Mat., 14, 1898-9, 243-8. 8Atti Accad. Pont. Nuovi Lincei, 52, 1899, 58-62; 53, 1900, 57-66; 54, 1901, 18-28; Memorie Accad. Pont. Nuovi Lincei, 19, 1902, 283-300; 26, 1908, 97-107; 27, 1909, 9-23; 28, 1910, 17-31.
''Skrifter

udgivne af Videnskabs, Kristiania, 1900, No. "Archiv Math. Phys., (2), 17, 1900, 156-9.

3,

16 pp.

^iForhandlinger Videnskabs, Kristiania, 1900-1, 3-9, 9-13. ^^Anfangsgninde der Zahlenlehre, 1902, 151-3.

460

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xx

sums

C. L. Bouton^ discussed the game nim by means of congruences between of digits of numbers to base 2.

= ai. .a of n^3 digits and numbers a,^. .a H. Piccioli^^" employed by an even and odd number of transpositions aj obtained from and Qj^
. .

N N

aj^, a = laj^ Then 2o,, W^^ a number of n digits to base R has r fixed digits, including the first, and the sum of these r is = a (mod R l), the number of ways of choosing the remaining digits so that the resulting number shall be divisible by R l is the number of integers of n r or fewer digits whose sum is = a (mod R l) and hence is A^'+l or N, according as a=0 or a>0, where N= (/2"~'' 1)

of digits.

G. Metcalfe^^'' noted that 19 and 28 are the only integers which exceed by unity 9 times the integral parts of their cube roots. A. Tagiuri^ proved that every number prime to the base g divides a

number
If"^"

1 ... 1

A, B,
its

C have

to base g (generalization of Plateau's^^ theorem) becomes 2, 3, 4 digits respectively and

versmg

digits,

= C,

we can form any assigned number of sets, assigned number of consecutive integers, such that with any including each the digits of the ^th power of any one of these integers we can form an is any given infinitude of different qth. powers, provided q<m, where

= 37, then P. F. Teilhet^^ proved that

A A' on re2A-1 = A', SB-2A + 10=B', 4C-B-\-l + [B/10] B= 329, C= 2118.

and

integer.

numbers of five digits such that form a permutation of 0, 1,. ., 9 and such that the sum of the two numbers is 93951. A. Cunningham^^'' found cases of a number expressible to two bases by a He^^" noted that all 10 digits or single digit repeated three or more times. 10101010101010101 or of 1 .1 (to 9 digits), square of all >0 occur in the on reversing its digits. unaltered each square being He^^*^ and T. Wiggins expressed each integer ^ 140 by use of four nines,
L. E. Dickson^*" determined all pairs of
their ten digits
.
.

as 13 =
j45c

9+ V9+9/9,

allowing also

.9

= 1, V9) and
(
!,

the exponent

V9, and

cited a like table using four fours.

^= I (mod q), 1 ... 1 (with W^^ the square of a number n 10''+1 n has the same property.
Annals

q^ digits to

of r digits

base r) is divisible by q"". ends with those r digits, then Also, {n iy ends with the same r digits

of Math., (2), 3, 1901-2, 35-9. GeneraUzed by E. H. Moore, 11, 1910, 93-4. ^^'Nouv. Ann. Math., (4), 2, 1902, 46-7. "''Math. Quest. Educ. Times, (2), 1, 1902, 119-120. *'^Ibid, 63-4. "Periodico di Mat., 18, 1903, 45. *<Math. Quest. Educ. Times, (2), 5, 1904, 82-3. **L'interm6diaire dea math., il, 1904, 14-6. ""Amer. Math. Monthly, 12, 1905, 94-5. "''Math. Quest. Educ. Times, (2), 8, 1905, 78. <iMath. Quest. Educ. Times, 7, 1905, 43-46. *^Ibid, 10, 1906, 20. 7Wd., 7, 1905, 49-50. *^flbid., 7, 1905, 60-61.

Chap.

XX]

PROPERTIES OF THE DiGITS OF NXH^BERS.

461

as

71

Wn
of

If the cube of a number n of r digits ends with those r digits, has the same property. P. Ziihlke^ proved the three theorems of Palmstrom^^ and gave all solu-

1.

tions of

p = 3,. ., 12. M. Koppe^^ noted that by prefixing a

x^^x (mod
10)

10^) for

digit to a solution 0, 1, 5 or 6

10^), then for 10^, etc. We can pass from a solution with n digits for 10" to solutions with 2n digits

x^=x (mod

we

get solutions of a;^=a;

(mod

treated also x^=x (mod 10"). G. Calvitti^^ treated the problem: Given a number A, a set C of 7 digits, and a number p prime to the base g, to find the least number x of times the set C must be repeated at the right of A to give a number (mod p).
for 10^".

He

Nx=A

The

condition

is

G{NiNo)=0 (mod

p),

where

o^"^

iVi iVo=0, any x is a solution. If not, the least value X of a: makes G=0 (mod p/p), where p is the g. c. d. of Ni Nq and p. Then X is the 1. c. m. of Xi, X;t, where X^ is the least root of G=0 (mod Pi), if p/p is the product of pi, Hence the problem reduces Pk, relatively prime in pairs. Write (a)^ for (a^ l)/(a 1). It is to the case of a power of a prime p. shown that the least root of (a)j.= (mod p'') is mp^~\ where m is the least root of (a)^=0 (mod p), and p' is the highest power of p dividing (a)^. Given any set C of digits and any number p prime to the base g, there exist an infinitude of numbers C .C divisible by p. A. G^rardin^^'' added 220 to the sum of its digits, repeated the operation 18 times and obtained 418; 9 such operations on 284 gave 418. A. Boutin stated that if a and b lead finally to the same number, neither a nor 6 is divisible by 3, or both are divisible by 3 and not by 9, or both are diviIf
. .

sible

by

9.

E. Malo^^ considered periodicity properties of

5'

and a

in

= 10'"A.p+ap

(ap<10^

k=n-2'^-^+p,

0^p^2"'-^-l)

and solved

Cesaro's^^ three problems on the digits of powers of 5. A. L. Andreini^ noted that the squares of A and B end with the same p digits if and only if the smaller of r+s and u-\-v equals p, where

iH-J5 = a-2'^-5",
Sitz. Berlin

A-B=^-T-5''
(3), 8,

Math.

Gesell., 4, 1905,

10-11 (Suppl., Archiv Math. Phys.,

1905).

(Suppl., Archiv, (3), 11, 1907.) "Ibid., 5, 1906, 74-8. "Periodico di Mat., 21, 1906, 130-142.

""Sphinx-Oedipe, 1, 1906, 19, 47-8. Cf. I'interm^d. math., 22, 1915, 134, 215. *'Sur certaines propri6t6s arith. du tableau des puissances de 5, Sphinx-Oedipe, 1906-7, 97-107; reprinted, Nancy, 1907, 13 pp., and in Nouv. Ann. Math., (4), 7, 1907, 419-431.
"II Pitagora, Palermo, 14, 1907-8, 39-^7.

462

History of the Theory of Numbers.

Janichen^"'* stated that,
if

[Chap,

xx

W.

the base p and

is

if qp{x) denotes the sum of the digits of x to a prime divisor of n, then, for as in Ch. XIX,
/j,

s.W,.6) = 0.
E. N. Barisien^"'" noted that the sum of with p distinct digits f^O, of sum s, is
s(p
all

numbers

of

digits

formed

+ 1)"-Mp(10"-^-1)/9 + (p + 1)10"-^).

A. G^rardin^"'' listed all the 124 squares formed of 7 distinct digits. Several writers^^ treated the problem to find four consecutive numbers .1 (to a digits) is divisible l, c = a+2, d = a-\-3, such that (a)i = ll a^ 6 = a 3c+l, 26 (d), 4d+l. by by a by by 1, (c)i 1, (6)i A. Cunningham and E. B. Escott^- treated the problems to find integers whose squares end with the same n digits or all with n given digits; to find

numbers having common

the digits cyclically, as

factors with the

numbers obtained by permuting

925

259 = 7-37,

592

= 16-37,

= 25-37.

E. N. Barisien^^ noted that the squares of 625, 9376, 8212890625 end with the same digits, respectively. R. Vercellin^^ treated the same topic. E. Nannei^^ discussed a problem by E. N. Barisien: Take a number of
six digits, reverse the digits

and subtract;

to the difference

add the number

.

with

its digits

reversed;
to find

we obtain one

The problem

which numbers of these 13, and to generalize to n digits. Several writers^^ examined numbers of 6 digits which become divisible by 7 after a suitable permutation of the digits also^^ couples of numbers, as 18 and 36, 36 and 54, whose g. c. d. 18 is the sum of their digits. E. N. Barisien^^ gave ten squares not changed by reversing the digits, as676 = 26^ A. Witting^^ noted that, besides the evident ones 11 and 22, the only numbers of two digits whose squares are derived from the squares of the numbers with the digits interchanged by reversing the digits are 12 and 13. Similarly for the squares of 102 and 201, etc. Also,
is
;

1099989. 9900, of six digits leads to a particular one

of 13
0,
.
.

numbers

102-402

= 201 -204,

213-936 = 312-639,

213-624 = 312-426.

respectively, such that

others.
"^Archiv Math. Phys.,

of I, m, n digits, A. Cunningham^" treated three numbers L, M, = LM, and A^ has all the digits of L and and no

Proof by G. Szego, 24, 1916, 85-6. (3), 13, 1908, 361. 'ocSphinx-Oedipc, 1907-8, 84-86. For p = n. Math. Quest. Educ. Times, 72, 1900, 126-8. tx^/bid., 1908-9, 84-5. "L'intermddiaire des math., 16, 1909, 219; 17, 1910, 71, 203, 228, 286 [136]. "Math. Quest. Educat. Times, (2), 1.5, 1909, 27-8, 93-4. "Suppl.alPeriodicodiMat., 13, 1909,20-21. "Suppl.alPeriodicodiMat., 14, 1910-11, 17-20. "/bid., 13, 1909, 84-88. ^L'interm6diaire des math., 17, 1910, 122, 214-6, 233-5. "Ibid., 170,261-4; 18, 1911,207. "Mathesis, (3), 10, 1910, 65. "Zeitschrift Math.-Naturw. Unterricht, 41, 1910, 45-50. "Math. Quest. Educat. Times, (2), 18, 1910, 23-24.

Chap.

XX]

PROPERTIES OF THE DiGITS OF NUMBERS.

463

D. Biddle^ applied congruences to find numbers like 15 and 93 whose product 1395 has the same digits as the factors. P. Cattaneo^^ considered numbers Q (and C) whose square (cube) ends with the same digits as the number itself. No Q>\ ends with 1. No two All Q's < 10^* are Q's with the same number of digits end with 5 or with 6. Any Q found. A single C of n digits ends with 4 or 6. Any Q is a is a C. If A?" is a Q with n digits and if 2N 1 has n digits, it is a C. M. Thie,^^" using all nine digits >0, found numbers of 2, 3 or 4 digits with properties like 12483 = 5796. Pairs^^*^ of cubes 3^ 6^ and 375^ 387^ whose sums of digits are squares,

32

and 61
T. C. Lewis^^ discussed changes in the digits of a number to base r not

affecting its divisibiUty

by

p.

1,.

Numbers^'* B and 5" having the same sum of digits. Pairs^^ of primes like 23-89 = 29-83. Cases<^ like 7-9403 = 65821 and 3-1458 = 6-0729, where ., 9 occur without repetition. jy-pn+i ending" with the same digits as A^.

the

digits 0,

Numbers^^ like 512 = (5+l+2)^ 47045881000000 = (47+4+58+81)^ AlP numbers like 2-5-27 = M8-15, 2+5+27 = 1 + 15 + 18. Number^ divisible by the same number reversed. Number^^ an exact power of the sum of its digits; two numbers each an exact power of the sum of the digits of the other. Solve'^^ KN-{-P = N', N' derived from N by reversing the digits. Symmetrical numbers (ibid., p. 195). F. Stasi^^ proved that, if a, h are given integers and a has m digits, we can find a multiple of b of the form
10''(a-10'"'+a-10"^^'-^^+
.

+a),

p^O.

Taking
case

prime to a and to

10,

we

see that b divides 10""'+ ...

+1.

The

m= 1

gives the result of Plateau. ^^

Cunningham'^^" and others wrote iVi for the sum of A^ and its digits to base r, iV2 for the sum of A^i and its digits, etc., and found when N^ is
divisible

by

(2), 19, 1911, 60-2. 2Periodico di Mat., 26, 1911, 203-7. fi^^Nouv. Ann. Math., (4), 11, 1911, 46. 62''Sphinx-Oedipe, 6, 1911, 62.

"Math. Quest. Educ. Times,

Cf. (2), 17, 1900, 44.

"Messenger Math., 41, 1911-12, 185-192. 6*L'intermMiaire des math., 18, 1911, 90-91; 19, 1912, 267-8. ^Ubid., 1911, 121, 239. /6id., 19, 1912, 26-7, 187. "Ibid., 50-1, 274-9. ^^Ibid., 77-8, 97.
9/6id., 125,
''"Ibid.,

211.

128.

''Ibid.,

137-9, 202; 20, 1913, 80-81.

"76id., 221.

"II Boll. Matematica Gior. Sc.-Didat., 11, 1912, 233-5. 73Math. Quest. Educ. Times, (2), 21, 1912, 52-3.

464

History of the Theory of Numbers.

[Chap,

xx

A. Cunningham"^ listed 63 symmetrical numbers aoaia2aiao each a product of two symmetrical numbers of 3 digits, and all numbers n^, r2< 10000, and all n'\ n\ n^, n^\ 7i<1000, ending with 2, 7, 8, symmetrical with respect to 2 or 3 digits, as 618' = 236029032. Pairs'^ of numbers whose 1. c. m. equals the product of the digits. Pairs'^ of biquadrates, cubes and squares having the same digits. *P. de Sanctis'^ noted a property of numbers to the base h^+1. L. von Schrutka^^ noted that 15, 18, 45 in 7-15 = 105, 6-18 = 108 and 9-45 = 405 are the only numbers of two digits which by the insertion of
zero

ie^'

become

multiples.

of n digits to the base k whose rth G. Andreoli^^ considered numbers powers end with the same ?i digits as N. Each decomposition of k into two relatively prime factors gives at most two such N's. If the base is a power of a prime, there is no number > 1 whose square ends with the same
digits.

Welsch^ discussed the final digits of pth powers. H. Brocard^ ^ discussed various powers of a number with the same
of digits.

sum

of

A. Agronomof^ wrote N for the number obtained by reversing the digits N to base 10 and gave several long formulas for 2ji
J

j.

The^-'' only case in which N^N"^ is a square for two digits is 65- 56^=33". There is ^o case for three digits. to base 10 such that the number R. Burg^ found the numbers digits multiple reversing its is a kN of A^, in particular for obtained by

A:

= 9,

4.

E. Lemoine^ asked a question on sjinmetrical numbers to base b. H. Sebban^^ noted that 2025 is the only square of four digits which yields a square 3136 when each digit is increased by unity. Similarly, 25 is the only one of two digits. R. Goormaghtigh^^ noted that this property of the squares of 5, 6 and 45, 56 is a special case of A^B"^ !. .1 (to 2p digits), where A = 5. .56, 5 = 4. .45 (to p digits). Again, the factorizations 11111=41-271, 1111111 = 239-4649 yield the answers 115^, 156^ and 2205^, 2444^.
. .
.

"L'interm^diaire des math., 20, 1913, 42-44.

^^Ibid., 80. '*Ibid., 124,

262, 283-4.

I
Lincei, 66, 1912-3, 43-5.

"Atti Accad.

Romana Nuovi

"Archiv Math. Phys.,

"Giomale

(3), 22, 1914, 365-6. di Mat., 52, 1914, 53-7.

'"L'interm^diaire des math., 21, 1914, 23^, 58. "/6id., 22, 1915, 110-1. Objections by MaUlet, 23, 1916, 10-12. "Suppl. al Periodico di Mat., 19, 1915, 17-23.

"''Sphinx-Oedipe, 9, 1914, 42. "Sitzungsber. Berhn Math. Gesell., 15, 1915, 8-18. "Nouv. Ann. Math., (4), 17, 1917, 234. "L'intermddiaire des math., 24, 1917, 31-2. /Wd., 96. Cf. H. Brocard, 25, 1918, 35-8, 112-3.

Chap.

XX]

PROPERTIES OF THE DiGITS OF NUMBERS.

465 any

SeveraP^" gave
base.

9'w!+n+l=

.1 for

n^9, with

generalization to

E. J. Moulton^^ found the number of positive integers with r+1 digits fewer than p of which are unity (or zero). L. O'Shaughnessy^^ found the number of positive integers < 10* which contain the digit 9 exactly r times. Books^^ on mathematical recreations may be consulted. F. A. Halliday^^ considered numbers formed by annexing the digits (A+B^, as for 81= (8 1)1 Set of B to the right of A, such that Then A{W-1)= iA+B)(A-}-B-l), so that it is a question of the factors of lO'' 1. *J. J. Osana^^ discussed numbers of two and three digits. E. Gelin^^ listed 450 problems, many being on digits.

N=

N=A-W+B.

*^"L'intermediaire des math.,

2.5,

1918, 44-5.

"Amer. Math. Monthly,

8/6id., 25, 1918, 27,

24, 1917, 340-1.

*^E. Lucas,

W.

F. White,

Arithmetique amusante, 1895. E. Fourrey, Recreations Arithmetiques, 1899. Scrap-Book of Elem. Math., etc.

90Math. Quest, and Solutions,

3, 1917, 70-3. siRevista Soc. Mat. Espafiola, 5, 1916, 156-160. 92Mathesis, (2), 6, 1896, Suppl. of 34 pp.

AUTHOR INDEX.
The numbers refer to pages. Those in parenthesis relate to cross-references, brackets refer to editors or translators. The other numbers refer to actual reports.
Those
in

Ch.
Algafd, 39 Alcuin, 4 Alkalacadi, 40

I.

Perfect, Multiply Perfect, and Amicable Numbers.

De Longchamps, 22 De Neuveghse, 15
Desboves, 23, 37
Descartes,
12,
(21, 25)

Haas, 48 Halcke, 41

Hammond, 30
Hankel, [4] Hansch, 17 Harris, 16 Hebrews, 3
(18, 19)

Allemanno, 39 Ankin, 5 Anonymous, 47 Aristotle, 38

Astius,
[3]

33,

34-36,

40-42

(37, 46)

De Slane, [39] De Tovmes, [8]

Dickson, 30-32, 49, 50

Aubry,

31, 33

Dombart,

[4]

Augustinus, 4 Azulai, 39
Bachet, 10

Dupuis, 48

Heilbronner, 18 Heinlin, 14 Henischiib, 10

Henry,
El Madschritt, 39 El Magritl, 39 Enestrom, 46
Ens, 11 (16, 19) Escott, 50 EucHd, 3 Euler, 17-19, 41-46 (12, 14, 16, 22-28, 31, 47-50)

[10, 12, 36, 40]

HiU, 16 [20] HiUer, [3]

Bachmann, 33
Baeza, 9

Hoche,

[3]

BaU,

12,

32

Ben Kalonymos, 39 Ben Korrah, 5, 39

Bezdi^ek, 32, 48

Hrotsvitha, 5 Hudelot, 25 Hultsch, 32

Bickmore, 28
Boethius, 4 (5-7, 11) Bourlet, 28 (29) BoviUus, 7 (6, 10, 32) Bradwardin, 6 Brassinne, [12, 36] Brocki, 11 Bronckhorst, 8 Broscius, 11, 13, 36 (41) Bulhaldo, [3] Bungus, 9, 40 (10-15)
Capella, 11

Himrath, 43 Button, [16, 18, Huygens, [14]

lamblichus,

19, 36, 47]

Faber Stapulensis, 6 [5] Fauquembergue, 27, 30-32

(28, 29) Feliciano, 7

Fermat,

12, 33, 34, 36, 37,

40

(18) Ferrari, 33

Ibn Ibn Ibn Ibn Ibn

4, 38 Albanna, 40 el-Hasan, 39

(15, 32)

Ezra, 5 KJialdoun, 39

Motot, 5

Isidorus, 4

Cardan, 8, 40 (11, 14) Carmichael, 29, 37, 38 (35) Carvallo, 22, 24 (26)
Catalan, 22, 24, 26, 27, 32, 48
(28, 49)

Fibonacci (see Leonardo) Fitz-Patrick, 27, 33, 48 [28] Fontana, 20 (17) Font^s, 32 [9] Forcadel, 9 Frenicle, 12, 14, 35 (13, 19,
28, 31)

Jacob, 39 Jordanus, 5

Jumeau

(6, 7) (see St. Croix)

Fried lein,
Frizzo, (4)

[4]
[8]

Kastner, 16 Kiseljak, 33 Klugel, 47

Kraft, 17-19, 41, 50 (8, 9, 20, 46, 47) Kraitchik, 22, 25, 47 (32)

Cataldi, 10 (7)

Fuss, 46 [15, 18]

Cesaro, 26 Chevrel, 27, 48

Christie, 27

Genaille, 27

Kummer,

[21]

Chuquet, 6, 40 Ciamberlini, 29 Cipolla, 29, 33 Cole, 29 (13, 22,

25, 27, 32)

Cunningham,
31, 37,

27, 28, 29, 30,

G^rardin, 29-32, 48-50 (21) Gerhardt, [6] Ginsburg, [5, 39] Giraud, 33 Goldbach, 15 GosseUn, [9]

Landen, 18 (41) Landry, 21-23 (25)

Lantz, 11 Lax, 7
Lazzarini, 29

48

(21, 32)

Gough, 47
Goulard, 28 Graevius, [11] Griison, 20, 47 (16) Giideman, [5]

Curtze,

[6]

De De

Backer,
la

[11]
8,

Roche,

40

Lebesgue, 20 (23) Ijcfevre (see Faber) Legendre, 36, 47 (27, 35) Lehmer, 37 (36) Leibniz, 15

467

468
Le Lasseur,
48)
(21,

Author Index
23-25, 28,

Oughtred

[11]

St. Croix,

34
[5,

Ozanam, 15-17, 36, 41(19, 20)

Paciuolo, 6, (10, 19) Paganini, 47 (49) Pauli, 15

Leonardo Pisano, 5
Leuneschlos, 14

Steinschneider, Stern, 25 (19)

Stifel,8,

39]

40(11,

17, 41)

Leurechon, 11 Lcybourn, 15, 41

Libri, [10]

[16, 18, 47]

Liebnecht, 16 Lionnet, 23 (19) LiouviUe, (19) Lucas, 14, 15, 22-25, 27, 28,

Peacock, 50 Peletier, 8 Pellet, 25

Pepin, 23, 28, 47
Perrott, 48
Pervnisin, 25

Stone, 41 Struve, 20, 47 Studni^ka, 28

Stuj'vaert, 28

Suter, [39] Sylvester, 26, 27 (19, 31)

37,40(12,

17,

19, 21,

29-

32, 35, 36, 48)

Philiatrus, 15

Philo, 3

Magnin,

[5]

Pistelli, [4]

Tacquet, 14 Tannery, 28 Tarry, 30 TartagUa, 9, 40

Tassius, 15

(11, 17)

Mahnke,

[15]

Maier, 17 (20) Malcolm, 16

Mandey,

[14]

Plana, 21 (17, 22, 24, 29) Poggendorff, [11] Postello, 9 Poulet, 50

Taylor, 20, 50

Tchebychef, 47
Tennulius, 15
[4]

Mansion, 24, 26 Manuscript, 6 Marre, [6] Martinus, 7 Maser, [36, 47] Mason, 32, 38 Maupin, [7] Maurolycus, 9 (20) McDonnell, 32 Meissner, 49 Mersenne, 12, 13, 33, 35, 36,
40, 41 (14, 15, 18, 20, 22,

Powers, 30, 32 (22) Prestet, 15 Pudlowski, 12 Puteanus, 11 (14) Putnam, 30 Pythagoreans, 4, 5, 38

Terquem, 20 Thabit (see Ben Korrah) Theon of Smyrna, 3

Turcaninov, 29 Turtschaninov, 29
Unicornus, 10

Ramesam, 31 Ramus, 9
Recorde, 9, 33 Regius, 7 Reuschle, 21 (24, 31) Ricalde, 32 Rubin, [3] Rudio, 45
Ruffus, 7
Saverien, 19

Vaes, 33 Valentin, 25
Valla, 6

25, 27, 28, 31, 32)

Van Etten, 11 Van Schooten, 14, 41 Von Graffenried, 10

Wantzel, 20 (17) Waring, 46 Wertheim, 33 [10] Westerberg, 20 Westlund, 37, 38 WiUibaldus, 11 WiUichius, 8

(42, 47)

Migne, [4] Montucla, 19 (16, 36) Moret-Blanc, 23 Munyos, 4

Schonero,

[9]

Nachshon, 39 Nassd, 32 Neomagus, 8 Nicomachus, 3 (4) Niewiadomski, 32 Nocco, 21 (26) Novarese, 25 (26) Noviomagus, 8

Schooten

(see

Van)

Schubert, 32 Schwenter, 11, 40, 50

Seelhoflf, 25,

48 (29)

Sempilius, 11 Semple, 11
Servais, 26 (25)

Winsheim, 18 (17) Woepcke, [5, 39]

Wolf, 16 (17) Woodall, 30 (28, 32)

Spoletanus, 7

Young,

[3]

Ch.

II.

Formulas for the Number and Sum of Divisors, Problems of Fermat AND Wallis.
Chalde, 52

Bang, 56
BernouUi, 55 Blaikie, 58 Brocard, 57 Brouncker, 54

Fauquembergue, 57
Fermat, 53, 54, 56 (57) Fontend, 52 Frenicle, 53, 55 (56)
Genocchi, 57 G^rardin, 57, 58 Gerono, 56

Cunningham, 58
Deidier, 52

De Montmort,
Escott, 54 Euler, 54

52

Descartes, 52, 53

Cantor, 53 Cardan, 51
Castillionei, 51

Author Index
Hain, 52 Halcke, 58 Henry, [53, 54, 56] H^v^lius, 54 Hoppe, 51
Kersey, 51 Kraft, 53 Kronecker, 54

469
Rudio, 54
Stifel,

Mersenne, 51, 53 Minin, 52 Moreau, 57 Moret-Blanc, 57

51

Newton, 51

(53)

Vacca, 57 Van Schooten, 51, 55

Wallis, 51, 53-56

Ozanam, 56
Peano, 53

Landau, 57
Lionnet, 52, 58 Lucas, 55-58

Plato, 51
Prestet, 52

Pujo, 52

Waring, 52, 54, 55 Wertheim, 54 Winsheim, 51 Wolff, 54

Ch.

III.

Fermat's and Wilson's Theorems, Generalizations and Converses; Symmetric Functions of 1, 2,..., p-1 Modulo p.
Cunningham, 94
67, 70,

Allardice, 96

Anton, 75

Anonymous,
Arevalo, 83

92

Arndt, 71, 72 (77, 81, 82) Arnoux, 81, 94

Aubry, 81, 101 Axer, 86

(71, 103)

D'Alembert, 63 Daniels, 78 Dedekind, [74] De la Hire, 60 Del Beccaro, 79 De Paoli, 67 (79, 82)

Graves, 73 Gruber, 87 Grunert, 66-68, 71, 72 (65,

73, 81)

Harris, 81

D'Escamard, 81
Desmarest, 73 Dickson, 80, 85, 89 Dirichlet, 66, 74 (65, 68, 71,
73, 77, 80, 81, 84)

Hayashi, 93 Heal, 77 Heather, 72

Hensel, 91, 101

Bachmann,

72, 81, 82, 95 (78)

Banachiewicz, 94 Bauer, 88, 89 Beaufort, 62 Beaujeux, 75 Binet, 67 Birkenmajer, 96

Blissard, 74

Horner, 66, 69
82)
lllgner,

(68, 71, 73, 74,

D'Ocagne, 79, 98 Donaldson, 82 Diu-ege, 73

83

Irwin, 103 Ivory, 65 (66-69, 71, 74)

Jacobi, 90 (91)

Borel and Drach, 85, 87 (89) Bossut, [63] Bottari, 83 Bouniakowsky, 67, 73, 92, 95
(89, 93)

Earnshaw, 70 Eisenstein, 95
Epstein, (86) Escott, 93, 94, 103 Euler, 60-65, 92 (66, 67, 69, 72-74, 76, 77, 81-83)
Fergola, 96 (97, 98) Fermat, 59 (60, 94) Ferrers, 79, 99

Janssen van Raay, 101 Jeans, 93 (59, 91) Jolivald, 93 Jorcke, 76

Brennecke, 69, 73 (80) Bricard, 81 (75, 82)

Kantor, 84
Klugel, [67]

Cahen, 80, 103 Candido, 80 Cantor, 62 Capelli, 80, 89

Caraffa, 69

Fontebasso, 74 Franel, 93 Frattini, 84

Frost, 96 (100)

Koenigs, 85 Korselt, 93 Kossett, 93 Kraft, 60 Kronecker, 80, 88

Lacroix, 65, [63] Lagi-ange, 62 (59, 64, 73, 74,
97, 99) Laisant, 75 (76, 78)

Carmichael, 82, 94 (78, 86,

95) Carre, 60 Catalan, 71, 77, 98
Garibaldi, 77

Gauss, 60, 65, 84 (67, 69, 71,

72, 74, 75, 82, 83, 101)

Cauchy,

67, 69, 70,

95 (86)

Cayley, 76 (75, 83) Cesaro, 98 Chinese, 59, 91 CipoUa, 93, 94 Concina, 101 Cordone, 85
Crelle, 68, 70, 71, (72)

Gegenbauer, 86, 93, 99 Genese, 78 Genty, 64 Gerhardt, [59] Glaisher, 99, 100 (102, 103) Goldbach, 92 Gorini, 70 Grandi, 85

Lambert, 61, 92
Laplace, 63 (67, 73, 82) Lebesgue, 74, 96 Legendre, 64 (80) Leibniz, 59, 60, 91 (65, 70, 94) Leudesdorf, 96

LeVavasseur, 88

470
Levi, 79, 93 Libri, 69 (101)

Author Index
Perott, 80, 88, 99 (75) Petersen, 75 (76, 80, 81)
Petr, 81
Piccioli,

Lindsay, 82 Lionnet, 71, 98 Lista, 73 Lottner, 73 Lucas, 77, 78, 85, 92, 99 (81,
82, 86, 93, 94)

Stern, 74 Sylvester, 69, 73, 96, 98 (79, 81, 97)

84
Talbot, 74

MacMahon,
Mahnke,
59,

78, 85,

86

94 (91) Maillct, 78, 85 Malo. 88, 93 Mansion, 76 Maser, [65] Mason, 102 Meissner, 102 (101)

Picquet, 85 Pincherle, 80 Plana, 74 Pocklington, 82 Poinsot, 71, 95 (72, 76, 101) Pollock, 73 Poselger, 66

Prompt, 81, 83
Proth, 92 Prouhet, 72 Putnam, 102

65 Tchebychef, 73 (77, 100) Terquem, 71 Thaarup, 92 Thue, 79, 82 ToepUtz, 74 Torelli, 97 (98) Tschistjakov, 82
Tarrj',

Unferdinger, (75)

Rawson, 99
Ricalde, 93 Rieke, 96 Rogel, 87
Sardi, 74, 97 Sarrus, 92

Vacca, 59
Valentiner, 96

Meyer, 101 Midy, 69

MUler, 81 Minding, 68 (71, 77) Minetola, (66) MitcheU, 98, (86, 87) Monteiro, 100 Moore, 87 (88, 89) Moreau, 80 (67, 81, 86) Morehead, 94 Moret-Blanc, 98
Nicholson,'81, 101 Nielsen, 62, 89, 96, 99, 102,

V%i,

86 Vandiver, 89, 93 Verhulst, 66

Sauer, 89
Scarpis, 81, 82 Schaflfgotsch, 64 (65)

Von Schaewen, 76 Von Staudt, 95 Von Stemeck, 80

Waring, 62, 64, 95 (81) Weber, 80 Welsch, 95 Wertheim, 77, 101 Western, 94 Westlund, 86, 100 Weyr, 85 Wildschiitz-Jessen, 84 Wilson, 62 (59) Wolstenhohne, 96 (99, 103)
ZeUer, 76 Zsigmondy, 93

Schapira, 93 Schering, 76 (80, 81) Scherk, 90, 91 Schlomilch, 73 Schmidt, 79

103 (87) ' Niewenplowski, 96

Schonemann,
Schubert, 64

69,

84

Osbom,

96,

99

Ottinger, 75

Peano,
Pellet,

[59]

85

Schuh, 83 Schumacher, 83 Serret, 73, 84, 96 (100) Sharp, 96 Sibirani, 100 Steiner, 90 (91)

Ch. IV. Residue of

Abel, 105

{vP-'^

l)/p Modulo

p.

Aladow, 107

Friedmann, 110 Frobenius, 110 (HI)

Gegenbauer, 106 G^rardin, 112 Glaisher, 108, 109 Grave, 110 (111)
Hertzer, 110
Jacobi, 105 (111)

Nielsen, 112

Palmstrom, 108
Panizza, 106 Plana, 106 (109, 112) Pleskot, 109 Pollak, 108 Proth, 106 (111)

Bachmann,

109, 111

Baker, 110 Bastien, 111 Beeger, 111 Brocard, 111

Stem, 106 (109)

Sylvester, 105 (106-110)

Cunningham, 107,110

Janssen van Raay, 110

De

Romilly, 108 Desmarest, 105 (106)

Eisenstein, 105 (106) Euler, 112 (106)

Lerch, 109, 110 (112) Lucas, 106

Tamarkine, 110
Tarry, 111 Thibault, (105)

Fauquembergue, 111

Meissner, 111, 112 (106, 110) Meyer, 107 Mirimanoff, 107, 110 (109, 111)

Vandiver, 112 (111) Verkaart, 111

Wieferich, 110 (111)

Author Index
Ch. V. Euler's ^-Function, Generalizations, Farey Series.
Airy, 157 Alasia, 119
Elliott,

471

135

Anonymous, 158
Arndt, 116, 118 (140) Arnoux, 151 Axer, 138 (157)

Euler, 113, 114 (115-118, 122, 138, 146)

Lerch, 136 Leudesdorf, 145 LiouviUe, 120, 142 (127, 144)

Lipschitz, (140) Lucas, 125, 131, 142, 147, 157, 158 (123, 126, 137)

Bachmann,

124, 132, 147, 158

Bauer, 134 Berger, 131 BernoulU, 140 Betti, 120 Binet, 141 (142, 146) Blind, 142, 148 Bonse, 137 (132) Borel and Drach, 120, 133 Bougaief, 142 (145) Brennecke, 141 (143) Brocot, 156 Busche, 130, 137, 155, 158

Farey, 156 Fekete, 137 Fleck, 139 Flitcon, 155 Fontebasso, 122 (120)

MacMahon,
Made, 158
122, 145,
(142,

131

Gauss,

114

(116-118,
129,

Maillet, 134 (132, 137, 138) Mansion, 123, 124, 128 (127)

133, 142, 147) Gegenbauer, 122, 146, 149, 151,

Mathews, 120 Mennesson, 143

Merrifield, 156

152

150, 155) Glaisher, 146, 148, 157 (150,

Mertens, 122 (126, 127, 132,

154)

Metrod, 155
Miller, 137, 138, 155

158)

Cahen, 140, 155, 158

Cantor, 125 (122, 149) Carlini, 136, 150, 153 Carmichael, 137, 155 Catalan, 116, 124, 130, 143
(117, 118)

Goldschmidt, 132, 147 Goodwyn, 156 Goormaghtigh, 140 Grunert, 117 (134) Guilmin, 119 (118)

Minding, 116 (118) Minin, 133, 155 (140) Minine, 124, 143, 144, 157
(145)

MitcheU, 125

Moreau, 131, 134 (136)

Halphen, 126, 156 (132)
Moret-Blanc, 122, 144

Hammond,
(133)

131, 139, 140, 149

Cauchy, 116, 140, 156

Cayley, 121 127-130, 143-145, Ces^ro, 148-150 (126, 138, 140, 153,
157) Chrystal, 120 Cistiakov, 151

Hancock, 139
Haros, 156 Harris, 143 Hensel, 135, 139 Hermes, 158 Herzer, 156 Horta, 119 Hrabak, 156 Humbert, 158 Hurwitz, 158
Jablonski, 131, 151 Jensen, 130 Jordan, 147 (123, 132)

Nasimof, 145 (146) Nazimov (Nasimof) Nielsen, 146 Nordlund, 137

Occhipinti, 136

Composto, 138
Concina, 131 Cordone, 155
Crelle,

Oltramare, 142 Orlandi, 138 Orlando, 137

Pepin, 122 (151) Perott, 126 (127, 131) Pichler, 134 (137) Poinsot, 117 (114) Poretzky, 130 Postula, 143 Prouhet, 118, 140 (131, 150) Pullich, 157

115, 121,

117, 132,

140 (118,
137, 139,

119,

141, 143)

Crone, 125

Cunningham, 140
Curjel, 126

Da

Silva, 119, 141

Kaplan, 134 Klein, 158

Davis, 132

Knopp,

(140)

Dedekind, 120, 123 (140) Del Beccaro, 146 De Rocquigny, 124, 143 Desmarest, 116 De Vries, 134 Dirichlet, 119, 122 (121, 126,
127, 130, 132-134, 136, 150,

Kronecker, 135 (155) Kuyver, 139

Laguerre, 122 (129, 133, 152) Landau, 134, 136, 138 (132) Landry, 119 Landsberg, 136 Lebesgue, 118, 121 Legendre, 114 (116, 118, 121,
132, 143, 145)

Radicke, 125 Ranum, 137 Ratat, 140 Remak, 138 (132) Rogel, 126, 133, 134 (140)
Sanderson, 155 Sang, 157 Scar pis, 139

152, 154)

D'Ocagne, 157
Druckenmiiller, 116
Eisenstein, 156

Schatunowsky, 132 (134)

Lehmer, 153 (157)

Schemmel, 147
Sierpinski, 158

Le

Paige, 124

472'
Smith, 122 (123,
128, 130, 136)
124, 127,

Author Index
Tanner, 131 Tchebychef, 119 (132) Thacker, 140 (123, 142, 144147)

Walla, 126

Sommer, 137
Steggall, 132 (118)

Weber, 123, 133, 150 Wevr, 151

Wolfskehl, 134 (132, 138)
Zerr, 140

Stem, 156 (157)

Stor>',

Tschistiakow, 151

148 Stouvencl, 156

Sturm, 120
Suzuki, 137
Sylvester, 121, 124, 126, 133, 157 (115, 129, 132, 154,

155)

Vahlen, 133, 158 (157) Vdlyi, 150 Van der Corput, 139 Von Ettingshausen, 115 (121) Von Schrutka, 158 Von Sterneck, 151 (153)

Zsigmondy,
146, 155)

132,

152

(145,

Ch. VI. Periodic Decimal Fractions; Factors of 10"1

Adams, 179
Akerlund, 176 Albanna, 159 Anonymous, 163 Arndt, 179
Filippov, 177, 179

Lucas, 159, 171, 172, 175, 177

(176)

Fujimaki, 176

Lugh, 172
Gauss, 161 (167, 170) Genese, 173 Genocchi, 165 (160) G^rardin, 177 (161, 165) Ghezzi, 178
Glaisher, 162, 166, 168, 170,

Mahnke, 159
Maillet, 178

Bachmann,

174, 176

Barillari, (167)

Beaujeux, 167 (171) Bella\-itis, 170 Bennett, 177 Bernoulli 160 (159, 161, 166) Bertram, 165 (168) Bettini, 175 Bickmore, 175 (176, 179) Biddle, 176 Bork, 174 (165)

171 (173, 175)

Mansion, 169 Maver, 173, 174 Mever, 167 (176) Midy, 163 (164, 166)
Mignosi, 177 Miller, 176 Morck, 179 Morel, 167 Moret-Blanc, 168 Muir, 168, 169 Murer, 175

Goodwyn,

161, 162 (170)

Gosset, 177

Hartmarm, 168
Hausted, 170 Heal, 173 Heime, 166
Hertzer, 176, 177 (165)

Bouniakowsky, 171 Bredow, 163 Brocard, 165, 172, 174 <159)

Broda, 169, 172 Brogtrop, 170 Burckhardt, 161
173, 177)

Hoppe, 179 Howarth, 179 Hudson, 166 (167)

Ibn-el-Banna, 159
Jackson, 177 Jenkins, 179 Johnson, 172
Kessler, 172, 174 (161, 176)

Nordlund, 176
Oberreit, 161

OUver, 166
(168,

172,

Carra de Vaux, 159 Catalan, 164

Cicioni, 177

Clarke, 160
Collins, 166

Pasternak, 178 PeUet, 167 Perkins, 163 (176) Pokorny, 166 Poselger, 162 Prouhet, 164
Reuschle, 165, 169 (172, 174, 176) Reyer, 165 Rej-nolds, 175 Rieke, 173 Robertson, 159 (160)

Contejean, 173 Cullen, 176 (179)

Kraitchik, 179 Kraus, 174

Kronecker, 176
175-177,
169, 172,
Lafitte, 164 Lagrange, 179

Cunningham,
179
174)
(161,

168, 165,

Laisant, 167, 171, 173

Coninck, 168 Desmarest, 165 (168,

177)

De

Lambert,
170,
[161]

159

(160,

168)

Sachs, 175

Law, 161
Lawrence, 175 Lebesgue, 167 Lehmann, 167 Leibniz, 159 LeLasseur, 172 Leman, 179 Levanen, 179
Lichtenecker, 178 Lionnet, 167 Loof, 165, 171, 172, 175 (168)

Sahnon, 168
Sanio, 167 Sardi, 167 (175) Schlomilch, 171 (172) Schroder, 168 Schroter, 161

Dickson, 174 Dienger, 179 Druckenmiiller, 163

El-M&ridini, 159 Escott, 176 Eulor, 160 (165)

Farey, 162 Felkel, 161

Schuh, 177 Seelhoff, 160 Sensenig, 169 Shanks, 168, 170 (161, 165,
169, 176)

Author Index
Sornin, 164
Telosius, 179

473
Welsch, 179 Wertheim, 161 Westerberg, 163 Wiley, 179 Workman, 176 (168) Wucherer, 161

Stammer, 166
178 Sturm, 166
Stasi,
Suffield, 166

Thibault, 164 (168)

Van den Broeck, 172 Van Henekeler, 165

WaUis, 159 (160)
Weixer, 179

Tagiuri, 176

Young, 165

Ch. VII. Primitive Roots, Binomial Congruences.

Alagna, 217 (218) Alasia, 190 (210) AUegret, 190 Amici, 197, 216, 217 Anonymous, 204 Arndt, 187, 188, 208,
(193)

Desmarest, 188, 189, 210

(214) Dickstein, 210, 215 Dirichlet, 185, 191, 211 (198,

Kraitchik, 202 Krediet, 203

214)

Kronecker, 192, 198 KuUk, 189 Kunerth, 213

Lacroix, 183 [208]

209

Dittmar, 212 Dupain, 192

Epstein, 200 Erlerus, 186, 208 (196) Euler, 181, 204, 205 (222)

Arnoux, 199, 218

Bachmann,
Barillari,

194, 199, 218

192 (193) Barinaga, 203 Bellavitis, 193 Bennett, 195 Berger, 214 (215) Besant, 217 Bhdscara, 204 Bindoni, 199 Bougaief, 213

Foghni, 199 Fontene, 201 Forsyth, 193 Frattini, 193 Fregier, 183 Friedmann, 219 Frolov, 196
Gauss, 182, 194, 195, 207 (183-185, 187, 188, 193.
194, 197, 198, 209, 210, 213,

Ladrasch, 212 Lagrange, 181, 205 (182, 206, 207, 214, 216) Laisant, 193 Lambert, 181 Landau, 201 Landry, 190 Laplace, 208
Lazzarini, (222) Lebesgue, 184, 188-192, 208,

211 (196, 204) Legendre, 182, 205-207 (185,

187, 188, 194,

Bouniakowsky, 191, 192, 212

(204)

208,

213-

Brennecke, (208) Bukaty, 212 (210) Burckhardt, (185, 201) Buttel, 190

215, 219, 222) Leibniz, 215

Libri,

208
194,

214) Gazzaniga, 213

Lucas,

213

(198,

200,

202, 203, 218)

Maillet, 202

Cahen, 198
Calvitti, (204)

Carmichael, 200, 202

Cauchy, 184, 186, 187, 209

(188,

190,

194,

195,

198,

200, 212, 213)

Gegenbauer, 194, 196, 215 G6rardin, 222 Goldberg, 192 Gorgas, 211 Grave, 201 Grigoriev, 199 Grosschmid, 221

Mann, 215
Marcolongo, 214 Maser, [182, 206, 207] Massarini, 188 Mathews, 195, 215 Matsunaga, 204 Maximoff, 222 Mayer, 216 Meissner, 219 Mertens, 198 (192) Meyer, 211 Miller, 198, 201, 203 Minding, 185 Moreau, 198 Murphy, 186

Cayley, 191 Chabanel, 202 Christie, 199 CipoUa, 200, 218-221 Colebrooke, [204] Concina, 222 Contejean, 194 Creak, 222 Crelle, 185, 209 (186, 188, 190, 208) Cunningham, 198-204, 217222 (185, 189, 190, 213)
Daniels, 194

Hacken, 194 Hanegraeff, 210 Heime, 191 Hill, 192

Hofmann, 193
Houel, 191 Hurwitz, (203)
Ivory, 184 (190)
Jacobi,

185

(188,

190-192,

Nordlund, 200
Oltramare, 189, 190 (191) Ostrogradsky, 185 (186, 188)
Pepin, 197, 213

198, 201, 203, 211)

Japanese, 204
Keferstein, 194

Da Silva, 190, 210 De Jonquieres, 197

Demeczky, 201

Korkine, 201 (203, 221)

474
Perott, 194, 196, 197 Picou, 218

Author Index
Scheffler, 190,

194

Pocklington, 222 Poinsot, 183, 184, 187, 208,

Schering, (208) Schuh, 202 (221)

Tamarkine, 219 Tchebychef, 188

Schumacher, 202
Schwartz, 194 214 Serret, 194, 214 Smith, 191, 210 207)
Seelhoff,

(185, 195, 196, 198, 207) Thiele, 212

191,

209 (190,

194,

199,

207,

Tonelli, 215, 216 (217, 218)

208) Posse, 201, 202, 203, 221 Prouhet, 188 (194, 208)

Traub, 192
(184,

190,

Vab-off,

222

Von

Schrutka, 202, 221

Rados, 222
Reuschle, 190, 213 (200, 204) Richelot, 185 (194) Rochette, 188

Speckmann, 216, 217

Stankewitsch, 213
Stasi, 221

Stern, 184, 208 (187, 194, 199,

Wcrtheim, 194, 196, 197, 199, 214 (201, 202) Woodall, 203 (202) Wronski, 210 (211, 212, 215,
218)

Sancery, 193, 213 (194, 195) Schapira, 188

203) Studni6ka, 215 Szily, 194

Zsigmondy, 195, 197, 216

Ch. VIII. Higher Congbuences.

Abel, 259
Alasia,

224
250, 251, 254 (255) 250, 251

Amoux,

Gauss, 223, 233 (235, 238, 240, 256) Gegenbauer, 226-229, 231 Genocchi, 258
Giudice, (259) Grotzsch, 261 Grunert, 224

Neikirk, 251

Oltramare, 253 (254)

Pellet, 243, 245,

246

Bachmann,
Bellavitis,

Pepin, 244
PiccioU, 261
Pierce, 262

Bauer, 249, 251

244

Biase, 260

Guldberg, 248, 250

Borel and Drach, 247

Bunickij, 260

Poinsot, 224 (259)

Hathaway, 259
Hayashi, 256 Hensel, 226, 249 Hermite, 225 Hurwitz, 231, 259 (232, 233)

Rados,
(225)

226,

233,

261,

262

Bunitzky, 260 Bussey, 251

Cailler, 255,

Raussnitz, 226

256

Carey, 249

Sanderson,^252 Satunovskij, 231

Scarpis, 252

Cauchy, 223, 225, 238, 252, 258 (243) Ch&telet, 262 Christie, 262 Cipolla, 232 Cordone, 247, 254, 259 Creak, 262 CreUe, 223 (224) Cunningham, 262

Iwanow, 254
Jacobi, 235 Jenkins, 259

Schonemann, 225, 236, 238,

239 (251) 243 Schwacha, 233
Schiitz,

Jordan, 243, 244, 261 (252)

Serret,

239,

241,

244,

258

Damm, 247, 254 Da Silva, 224

Dedekind, 240, 245 (242) Demeczky, 228 Dickson, 232, 248-250, 252, 254, 256 (244, 249) Dina, 246

Kantor, 255, 262 Konig, 225 (226, 229) Krediet, 261 Kronecker, 226, 249,
(228, 229, 251)

(233, 245, 246, 248, 256)

260

Kiihne, 232

Smith, 241, 259 Snopek, 229 Stephan, 232 Stickelberger, 249 (251) Sylvester, 259 (245)
Tarry, 252 Tchebychef, 225 Tihanyi, 262

Earnshaw, 223 Eisenstein, 239 Epstoen, 250 (249) Escott, 256 Euler, 223 (259)
Fermat, 257 (260) Frattini, 259, 261
Galois,

Lagrange, 223 Landau, 261 Lebesgue, 224, 235, 258 (245) Legendre, 223, 257 Lerch, (227, 228) Le Vavasseur, 248 Libri, 224 (225, 258) Lipschitz, 260 (257)

VonSterneck, 255, 260, 261

(262)

Voronoi, 251, 253 (255)

235 (232, 243, 247, 252)

239,

242,

Maser, [223, 233, 235] Mathieu, 241 (248) Miller, 251 Mirimanoff, 255 Mitchell, 246 Moore, 247

Weber, 247 Wertheim, 260 WoodaU, 262 Woronoj, 253, 254 Wronski, 257
Zsigmondy, 230, 247

Author Index
Coefficients. Ch. IX. Divisibility of Factorials, Multinomial
Adams, 278
Andr6, 263, 265-6 Anonymous, 275 Anton, 263, 271 Arlvalo, 278 Arndt, 276 (277)
Gerhardt, [269]
Glaisher, 268, 273-4

475

Mathews, 272-3
Mertens, 273 MUler, 269 Morley, 273

Gmeiner, 267 Greatheed, 269 Grosschmid, 274 Guerin, 275

Hayashi, 274 Heine, 267 Hensel, 263 Hermite, 266,
269, 274)
Jacobi, 275 (276)

Neuberg, 263, 266 Nielsen, 274, 278

Oltramare, 277

Babbage, 270

Bachmann,

266, 274

Bauer, 268 Beaujeux, 277 Beeger, 278 Bernoulli (268) Bertram, 263 Birkeland, 269

Ouspensky, 276

271-2

(267,

Pascal, 269
Pessuti, 269

Janichen, 265 Jenkins, 269, 271

Petersen, 272 Pincherle, 267

Bouniakowsky, 276-7 Bourguet, 266

Carmichael, 264, 276, 278 Catalan, 265-7, 271-2 Cauchy, 265 Cayley, 269, 270
Cesltro, 266,

Ram, 274
Kapferer, 274
Rogel, 267, 272
Schlomilch, 272

Kempner, 263
Korkine, 276
KJronecker, 276 Kummer, 270 (272-3)

Schonbaum, 269 Schonemann, 265

Segar, 269 (270)

272

Child, 278

Cunningham, 265, 274

De De Jonquieres, 270 De Polignac, 266, 269 De Presle, 267

Brun, 263
Dickson, 273 (272)
Dirichlet,

275 (276)

ElUott, 270
Fleck, 274-5

Lagrange, 275 Laisant, 277 Landau, 267-9 Lebesgue, 269 Legendre, 263 (264) Leibniz, 269 (270) Lerch, 276 Libri, 270 Li^nard, 266 Lionnet, 269 Liouville, 276 Lucas, 266, 271-2, 275 (274, 278)

Sharp, 272
Stern, 270
Stickelberger, 263

Stridsberg, 264, 269

Studnicka, 270 Szego, 265

Szily,

273

Tanner, 267
Teixeira, 267, 277

Thue, 267

Van den

Fonten6, 274
Franel, 276

MacMahon, 268
MaiUet, 265, 268 Maitra, 269 Malo, 276 Marks, 278 Mason, 278

Broeck, 272 Vandiver, 276 Vecchi, 277

Gauss, 269 Gegenbauer, 267, 272 Genocchi, 271 Genty, 263

Waring, 275 WeiU, 266 (267-8) Wolstenhohne, 271-2 (275) WoodaU, 272

Ch. X. Sum and

Ahlborn, 291 Andreievsky, 288

Number of

Divisors.
Dirichlet, 281-2, 301 (284r-5, 289, 291, 298-9, 305, 307,

Burhenne, 283 Busche, 306, 308, 314, 319

(315, 323)

314-5, 318, 322, 325)

Bachmann,

279,

315,

321,

323 (281, 291, 319) BeU, 323, 325 Berger, 291, 312, 317 (292, 295 299) Bougaief, 303, 315 (301, 312,
316, 325)

Cantor, 291 Catalan, 289-291, 302, 306 (292, 295) Ces^ro, 290-4, 302, 306, 308 298-9, 312, 315, (295, 320)

Egorov, 312
Elliott, (318)

Euler,

279

(284,

290,

303,

312, 317-8, 321, 323)

Cunningham, 325

Bouniakowsky, 283, 284, 287

(281, 286, 302)

De

Vries,

317

Fekete, 321 Fergola, (302) Franel, 317-8

476
Gauss, 308 Gegenbauer, 298-9, 301-5, 307-8, 316 (288, 315, 318, 325)
Giulini,

Author Index
Lambert, 280 (306, 323) Landau, 294, 305, 317-8, 321-4 Lebesgue, 284
Legendre, 281 Lerch, 307, 313, 316 (314-5, 317) Lionnet, 288 LiouviUe, 284-8 (291-4, 2989, 312-3, 321, 323) Lipschitz, 291-2, 298, 302 (299, 307, 313, 315) Lucas, 291, 312
Meissel, 284 (299, 314, 317-

Radicke, 291

Ramanujan, 323-5
Roberts, 303 Rogel, 316, 325

319

Runge, 302
Sardi, 288

Glaisher,
318,

289-292, 294-6, 300, 303-4, 308-310, 312,

320,

322 (280, 302,

Schroder, 314, 319, 321 (315)

Sierpinski, 320 Smith, 289 (296) Sokolov, 312 Steffensen, 323 Stern, 281, 303 (321)
Stieltjes,

321)

Gram,

295, 308 (291)

Gronwall, 322

Hacks, 306-7 (303, 322) Halphen, 289, 290 (294-5,

309, 312)

292

Strnad, 307

Hammond,

311 (325)

Hansen, 319 Hardy, 325 (319) Hemming, 284 Hermite, 292, 295, 297, 306
(304-5, 315) Jacobi, 281-2 (283, 288, 290, 295. 300-1, 313, 317-8)

8, 322) Meissner, 320 Mellin, 319 Mertens, 289 (294, 315) Minetola, 322 Minin, 313

Traub, 287
Vahlen, 313 Van der Corput, 323-4 Von Mangoldt, 294 Von Sterneck, 317 Voronoi, 318-9 (322, 325)

Mobius, 296
Nachtikal, 316
Pexider, 320
Pfeiffer,

Knopp,

321, 323

Waring, 280 (303) Wigert, 320, 323, 325

ZeUer,
291,

Kronecker, 297, 318

Laisant, 308

305 (322)
295,

PUtz, 291 (317, 322, 325) Plana, (281)

313

(299,

303, 312, 321)

Ch. XI. Miscellaneous Theorems on Divisibility, Greatest Divisor, Least Common Multiple.
Anonymous, 327
Avery, 332 Axer, 331

Common

Bachmann, 335
Barinaga, 336
Berger, 328 Binet, (332) Birkeland, 331
Borel, 334 (333)

Gegenbauer, 336 Gelin, 335 Grolous, 328 Guzel, 331

328-330,

333,

Rogel, 331 Ross, 336

Rothe, 332
Saint-Loup, 330
Sierpinski, 335

Hacks, 330, 333 Hammond, 333 Hensel, 334 (333)

Klein, 334

Stern, 335
Stieltjes,
Stifel,

333 327

Bougaief, 327 (328, 330) Bouniakowsky, 332 Brown, 336

Sylvester, 327, 333, 336

Kluyver, 335 Kronecker, 334 (336)

Terquem,

[327]

Ces^o, 328, 333 (336)

Darbi, 335 Dedekind, 334 De Jough, 335

Lam6, (332) Landau, 328, 331

Lebesgue, 332 (335)
Lecat, 336 Lucas, 333

der Corput, 332 Vandiver, 331 Verhagen, 336 Verson, 332

Van

De

la

Valine

Poussin,

330
Mertens, 334-5
Mitchell, 336

(331) De Polignac, 336

Weitbrecht, 332
Wijthoff, 336

Dickson, 331 Dienger, 327 Dintzl, 335

Dirichlet, 327,

Moschietti, 332

WUlaert, 336

Neuberg, 333 335 (328-331)

Pichler,

Yanney, 335
Zeller,

Dupr^, (332)

335

328

Author Index
Ch. XII. Criteria for Divisibility by a Given Number.
Dostor, 340

477

La

Paglia, 346

^Alkarkhi, 337 HpAnonymous, 339, 344

K ^

Drach, 345 Dupain, 339

Elefanti, 344

Lebesgue, 344 Lebon, (346)

Lenth6ric, 346 Lenzi, 345 Leonardo Pisano, 337

Anton, 345 Apianus, 337 Argardh, 338 Avicenna, 337 Ayza, 346
Badoureau, 345 Barlow, (346) Belohldvek, 342 Biase, 343 Biddle, 345 Bindoni, 343 Borgen, 342 Bougaief, 340 (342) Bougon, 341 Bouniakowsky, 344 Breton, 341 Broda, 345 Brooks, 345 Bruzzone, 344 Burgess, 345 Battel, 344
345 Cantor, [337] Carra de Vaux, 337 Castelvetri, 338 Catalan, 340 Cattaneo, 346 Cazes, 345 Cesaro, 345 Chiari, 344 Christie, 341, 345 Chuquet, 337 Church, 345 Cicero, 346 Collins, 345 Conti, 345 Crelle, 339 Csada, 346 Cunningham, 345
Calvitti,

EUiott, 339

Evans, 345
Fazio, 345 Filippov, 346
Flohr, 344
Folie,

Levanen, 341
Lichtenecker, 346
Liljevalch, 338 (340)

Lindman, 344
Loir, 341-2,

345

339 Fontebasso, 346 Fontes, 341-2 (337) Forcadel, 337

Gale, 346 GeUn, 343, 345 Gerardin, 345

Loria, 343

Lubin, 345

Gergonne, 338 (345) Ghezzi, 345 Gorini, 344 Greenfield, 345 Greenstreet, 345 Grunert, 344
Haas, 345

Malengreau, 343 Mantel, 340 Mariantoni, 345 Marre, [337] Mason, 344 Meissner, 343 Mennesson, 345 MiceU, 346 MoUer, 340 Morale, 345-6
Nannei, 344 Nasso, 345

Harmuth,
Heal, 342

(346)

Niegemann, 339, 344 Niewenglowski, 345

Noel, 341

Heilmann, 341 Herter, 338 (344) Hill, 338 Hippolytos, 337 Hocevar, 340 Holten, 340 Hommel, 340
Ibn Albanna, 337 Ibn Mtisa Alchwarizmi, 337 Ibn Sina, 337 Ingleby, 345 lodi, 346
Jenkins, 345 Jorcke, 345 Joubin, 346

Oskamp, 340
Otto, 340
Paciuolo, 337
Paoletti,

346

Pascal, 337 (338, 342j 344-5) Perisco, 346 Perrin, 341 Pick, 345 Pietzker, 345

Pinaud, 344

Plakhowo, 342 Polpi, 346

Recorde, 337 Reyer, 344
Riess,

D'Alembert, 338 (344) Da Ponte Horta, 345 De Fontenelle, 338 De Lapparent, 344 Delboeuf 340 De Montferrier, 344 Dickstein, 341, 345 Dietrichkeit, 341 Dietz, 344 Dodgson, 342 Dorr, 345 Dorsten, 345
,

342
[337]

Karwowski, 344 Kraft, 338 Krahl, 346 Kroupa, 346 Kylla, 346
Lagrange, 338 Lalbaletrier, 345 La Marca, 346 Lange, 345

Ripert, 343

Romm,

Sanvitali,
Schlegel,

338 340 (345)

Schobbens, 341 Schroder, 346 Schuh, 344

Sibt el-MAridini, 337

Speckmann, 345

478
StoufF,

Author Index
345
Transon, 339 Tucker, 341

Stujrvaert, 344

Sylvester, 342

Szenic, 345

Unferdinger, 345
Tagiuri, 343

Walenn, 345 Wertheim, 345 Widmann, 337 Wilbraham, 339 Wronski, 344

Tarry, (346)

Valerio, 342

Young, 344
Zbikowski, 339
Zeipel,

Terquem, 344 Tiberi, 346 TirelU, 346

Van Langeraad, 344

Vincenot, 344
Volterrani, 346

339

Zuccagni, 345

Ch. XIII. Factor Tables, Lists of Primes.

Akerlund, 355

356 Anjema, 348 Aratus, 347 Aubry, 355

Alliston,

Gauss, 350, 352 (356) G6rardin, 356 Gill, 353 Glaisher, 350, 353 (355) Goldberg, 352

Lionnet, 355 Lucas, 353

Gram, 354
Barlow, 351 (355) Beguelin, 349 Bernhardy, 347
Bernoulli, 349 [350]

Marci, 349 Marre, [347] Maseres, 350

Meissel, 352 (350) MerUn, (356)

Groscurth, 353
Griison, 350

Gudila-Godlewski, 353 Guyot, 351

Mobius, 351 Morehead, 355

Berteken, 354 Bertrand, 349 Boethius, 347 Boulogne, 356

Bouniakowsky, 353
Bourgerel, 354

Hansen, 356 Hantschl, 351 Harris, 348 Hindenburg, 349

Hinkley, 351 (347) Horsley, 347 Houel, 351-2
Hiilsse, [350]

Neumann, 350
Nicomachus, 347 Noviomagus, (356)
Oakes, 352
Oberreit, 349

Brancker, 347 (348, 350) Burckhardt, 350 (352-5)

Ozanam, 349
FeU, [347] Perott, 352
Petzval, 352
Pigri,

Camerarius, 347 Cataldi, 347 Cayley, 353 Chernac, 350 (351) Colombier, 351 CreUe, 351-2

Hutton, 351

Ibn Albannd, 347

Jager, 348

348

Poetius, 348

Poretzky, (356)

Cunningham, 354-5 (350-2,

356)

Johnson, 353
Jolivald,

354

Rahn

(Rhonius), 347

Rallier des

Ourmes, 348
(356)

Rees, 351

D'Alembert, 349 Dase, 352 (353-5) Davis, 352

Kastner, 350

Kempner,
Kliigel,

Reymond,

(356)

348

De

Polignac, (356)

Deschamps, 355 Desfaviaae, 350

Kohler, 351 Krause, 350 Kronecker, (354)

Kriiger,

Rosenberg, 352 (355) Rosenthal, 349

Saint-Loup, 353 (356) Salomon, 351 Schaffgotsch, 349 Schallen, 351 Schapira, 354 Schenmarck, 350 Schwenter, 348 Seelhoff, 353 Simony, 353 (354) SneU, 350 Speckmann, 354 Stager, 356 Struve, 350 Suchanek, 354

De
Di

Traytorens, 348 (350)

Girio,

348

354 Dines, 355 Dodson, 348 Du Tour, 348

Eratosthenes, 347 (348, 3536)

KuUk, 351 (355-6)

Laisant, 354-5

Escott, 355 (356) Euler, 349 (356)

Felkel, 349,

350

Lambert, 348, 350 (349) Landry, 351 Lebesgue, 352 Lebon, 355-6 Lehmer, 352-3, 355-6 Leonardo Pisano, 347 Libri, 347 Lidonne, 350

Author Index
Tarry, 355

479
Wallis, 348 (347) Wertheim, [347] WilUgs (Willich), 348 Wolf, 348 WoodaU, 354 (356)

Van

Tennant, 354 Tessanek, 349 Tuxen, 353

Valerio, 354

Schooten, 347 Vega, 350 VoUprecht, 353^ Von Stamford, 349 Von Sterneck, 354

Ch. XIV. Methods of Factoring.

Aubry, 373 (369)
Ball,

368 370

Gmeiner, 374 Gough, 371 Grube, 363

Mobius, (374)

Barbette, 367, 373

Bartl,

Beguelin, 361, 366

Bernoulli, 371

Bickmore, 369
Biddle, 359, 367, 369-374 Birch, 368

Hansen, (371) Harmuth, 361 Henry, 358 Hudson, 358

Johnsen, 369 Joubin, 372
Kausler, 357, 362

Neimaann, 359 Niegemann, 366 Nordlund, 370-1 (369)

Pepin, 364 Petersen, 360

Pockhngton, 370

Bisman, 374 Bouniakowsky, 369 (370) Burgwedel, 365 Busk, 358 (359)

Rawson, 367

Reymond, 374
Schaffgotsch, 367

Kempner, 374
Kielsen, 372

Cahen, 364
Canterzani, 366 Cantor, [366]
Christie, 361, 367,

372

Klugel, 366 Kraft, 370 &aitchik, 359, 360 KuUk, 361, 372

Schatunovsky, 370 Seelhoff, 363 (365) SeUwanoff, 364 Speckmann, 367 Studnicka, 366
Tchebychef, 363 Teilhet, 359 Tessanek, 366 Thaarup, 358 Thiehnann, 368
Vaes, 359, 360
Vah-off,

Cole, 365
Collins,

357

Cullen, 365, 369

Cunningham,

358-9, 361, 365, 368-9, 373-4 (362)

De De

Bessy

(see Frenicle)

Montferrier, 358

Deschamps, 367 Dickson, 370 (360)

Euler, 360-2 (363-5)

Lagrange, 369 Lambert, 371 Landry, 358, 369, 371 Laparewicz, 365 Lawrence, 358-360 Lebon, 359, 373 Legendre, 361-2 (363) Lehmer, 368 Levanen, 364 Lucas, 363-4 (372)

365

Von

Segner, 366 Vuibert, 361

Fermat, 357 (358, 367) Frenicle, 360 Fuss, 362

Gauss, 363, 369 (364-5, 370) GIrardin, 365-7, 370, 374

Marcker, 368 Mathews, 364 Matsunaga, 371 Meissner, 372 (358, 364, 367) Mersenne, 357, 360 (367-8) Meyer, 365 Minding, 363

Waring, 362 Warner, 358 Weber, 364 Wertheim, 358, 361 Winter, 372 WoodaU, 369

Ch. XV. Fermat Numbers Fn = 22^^-1-1.

Anonjmaous, 376 Archibald, 380
Carmichael, 377, 380 Catalan, 377
Cipolla,

378

Gauss, 375 Gelin, 377 Genocchi, 375

G^rardin, 377, 380

Bachmann, 379
378 Baltzer, 375 Beguelin, 375 (377) Bisman, 379 Broda, 377
Ball,

Cullen, 378

Cunningham, 378-380
Eisentein, 376

Goldbach, 375 Gosset, 379

Euler, 375

Hadamard, 378
Henry, 375, 380 Hermes, 378 Hurwitz, 378 (380)

Canterzani, 375

Fermat, 375 (376) Frenicle, 375

480
Joubin, 376
Klein, 378 (379) Klugel, 375

Author Index
Malvy, 378 (376) Mansion, 375 Mersenne, 375 Morehead, 376, 379
Nazarevsky, 378
Pepin, 376 (377-380) Perv'ouchine, 376-8 Pervusln, 376
Proth, 377 (378)
Scheffler,

Seelhoff,

Landry, 376-7 Legendre, (378) Le Lasseur, 377 Lipschitz, 378 Lucas, 376-8 (379)

378 377 Simerka, 377 Studnidka, 377

Western, 378-9 Woodall, 379

Ch. XVI. Factors of a"b".

AurifeuiUe, 383 (386)

Gauss, 382 Genese, 385

Bang, 385 (386) Bauer, 385 Beguelin, 381 (385) Bickmore, 386 (385) Biddle, 387 (391) Birkhoff, 388 (386)
Carmichael, 389, 390 (388) Catalan, 383-4 (386) Cunningham, 386-391 (384)

390 Germain, 382 (383) Gianni, 385 Glaisher, 386, 388

Gt5rardin,

Pepin, 384-6 Plana, 383 Pocklington, 390

Realis,

384

Reuschle, 382-3

Henry, 382

Sanjana, 389
Scheffler,

385

Schering, 382

Kannan, 389
Kraitchik, (391) Kronecker, 385, 387

Seelhoff, (391)

Soons, 383
Sylvester, 384-5

Dedekind, 384 Dickson, 388-9

Dines, (391) Dirichlet, (391)
Escott, 385, 387-9 Euler, 381-2 (383,

Kummer, 383
Lawrence, (391) Lebesgue, 382-3 Lef^bure, 384 Legendre, 382 Le Lasseur, 383 (384-5, 389) Lucas, 383^, 386
Markoff, 386 Minding, 382 Miot, 389

Tchebychef, 382 Teilhet, 388

Vah-off,

390

Van

388,

der Corput, 390 Vandiver, 387-8

390-1)

Welsch, 389

Fauquembergue, 390 Felkel, 382

Fermat, 381 Fontene, 390 Foster, 385

Wertheim, 388

WoodaU, 386, 388, 391 Workman, 386

Zsigmondy, 386 (388)

Morehead, (391)

Ch. XVII. Recurring Series; Lucas'

Agronomof, 406 Amsler, 410 Andr6, 408
Archibald, 411
Arista, 405

u, v.

Braun, 411 Brocard, 402

Candido, 405 Cantor, [407] Carmichael, 394, 406 (398,
400)
Cassini, 407

Arndt, (397)

Aubry, 405

Degen, 407, 411 De Longchamps, 401, 408 De Moivre, 407 Dickson, 405, 410 Dienger, 394 Dirichlet, 393 (402) D'Ocagne, 402, 409, 410

Bachmann,

394, 405 Bastien, 406 Bernoulli, 407 (408)

Catalan, 395, 402-3 (404) Ces^ro, 401-2

Christie, 404

Emmerich, 404
Escott, 404-5 Euler, 393, 407 (397-8, 400)

408 Bickmore, 404 Binet, 394 (403) Boutin, 406

Betti,

CipoUa, 405

Cunningham, 397

Damm,

405

Fermat, (396) Fibonacci (see Leonardo) Fontte, 403

Author Index
Foster, 403

481
Riccati, 407 Ruggieri, 405

Fourier, 408

Fransen, 405
Frisiani,

Liebetruth, 402 Lionnet, 394 Lucas, 394-403 (405-6)

408

Frolov, 403
Galois, (403) Gauss, 393 (397) Gegenbauer, 403, 409 Gelin, 401

Magnon, 402
Maillet, 403, 410 Malfatti, 407

Sancery, (397) Scheibner, 408 Scherk, 411 Schlegel, 411

Schonflies, 403

Genocchi, 394, 397, 402 (405) G^rardin, 406 Girard, 393 Grosschmid, 394

Malo, 404, 406 Mantel, 403 Mathieu, 405 Mersenne, (397) Moret-Blanc, 397 Murphy, 408
Netto, 410

Seliwanov, 403
Serret,

394
'

Siebeck, 394

Simson, 393
Stirling,

407

Study, 409 Svanberg, 411

Sylvester, 401, 403, 411

Hayashi, 410 HiU, 394

Kepler, (411)

Neuberg, 410 Nicita, 411 Niewiadomski, 406

PaoU, 407 PeUet, 406
Pepin, 398, 401
Perrin, 404, 410
Piccioli,

Tagiuri, 404

Kronecker, 402 (393)

Tarn, 411 Traverso, 410

Valroff,

Lagrange, 393, 407 (396-7,

408) Laisant, 408, 410

405

LamI, 394 Landau, 404r-5

Laparewicz, 405 Laplace, 407 Lattes, 410 Legendre, 393 Le Lasseur, 400

407

V^sz, 411 Vogt, 411 Von Sterneck, (398)

Pierce, 407

Pincherle, 409

Prompt, 406
Proth, (398)

Wasteels, 405 Weiss, 411

White, 405 Whitworth, 411

Zeuthen, 405

Leonardo Pisano, 393

411)

(394r-

Ranum, 410 R6aUs, 404

Ch. XVIII. Theory of Prime Numbers.

Andreoli, 434

Aubry, 422 Auric, 414

Cantor, 422, 425 Carmichael, 420, 428 Catalan, 421, 429, 431, 435
(426)

Descartes, 421

Bachmann,

416, 418, 432

Bang, 418-9 Baranowski, 432 Barinaga, 428, 438 Bauer, 419, 420 Berton, 416 Bertrand, 435 (413, 425, 436) Bervi, 419
Biddle, (426)

Cesaro, 430 (432, 435) Chabert, 420

Chiari, 428

CipoUa, (426) Coblyn, 438

Cole, (426)

Deschamps, 439 Devignot, 426 Dickson, 417 Dirichlet, 415, 417 Dormoy, 437 Dupr6, 415 Durand, 415
Enestrom, [421]

(416, 418)

Cunningham, 417, 423

Curjel, 429, 431-2

Eratosthenes, (424) Escott, 420, 426, 428

EucUd, 413
Dedekind, 415
Euler, 413, 415, 420-1, 424,

Bindoni, 427
Birkhoflf,

418 Boije af Gennas, 414 Bonolis, 436 Bougaief, 422, 429 (430-1) Bouniakowsky, 421 Braun, 414, 421, 437 Brocard, 425-6, 436 Brun, 438

De De De De De De

Jonqui^res, 429 (432) la Vallee Poussin, 416,

426
Fontebasso, 427 Frobenius, 421

418, 439-440 (417)

Monddsir, 430 Montferrier, 426

A.,

DePohgnac,
(425)

424,

439

Cahen, 414, 419, 436

Pohgnac, C, 436-7 Rocquigny, 425 Desboves, 415, 422, 435 (436)

Gambioli, 427 Gauss, 438 Gegenbauer, 413, 427, 431-3 (426, 435) Genocchi, 418

482
Genty, (426) Giovannelli, 424 Goldbach, 420-1, 424
Graefe, 432

Author Index
Legendre, 415, 420, 429, (416, 430-1, 434-5)
Leibniz, (426) Le Lasseur, 420

Ripert, 423, 425 Rogel, 429, 431, 433-4

Sardi, (426) Schaffgotsch, (426)

Gram, 430
Guibert, 425

Hacks, 414, 427

Hadamard,

Hammond,

424, 439, 440 423, 429, 438

Lemaire, 420, 426 Lemoine, 424 Le Vavasseur, 437 Levi-Civita, 433 L<5vy, 414, 421 Lionnet, 422, 426, 429 (423)
Lipschitz, 429 (432)

Hardy, 438, 440

Hargreave, 429 Haussner, 422 (423) Hayashi, 433 Heiberg, [413] Heine, 415 Hensel, 416, 418-9 Hermite, 437 Hoffmann, 430 Hossfeld, 431 Hurwitz, (426)
Isenkrahe, 437 Iwanow, 419, 437

Littlewood, 440 Lorenz, 430 Lucas, 418-9, 421 (426, 428)

431 Schepp, [420] Schering, 418 Scherk, 436 Schur, 419 Serret, 418-9, 435 Smith, 436, 439
Scheffler, 416,

Speckmann, 416
Stackel, 423 (422)
Stasi,

LugU, 431
MaiUet, 423, 425, 436 Marcker, 436 Markow, 437 Martin, 426 Mathews, 429 Mathieu, 425 Meissel, 429, 431 (432) Meissner, 427, 438 Merlin, 424 Mertens 416-8 M6trod, 415 Meyer, 418 Minetola, 427, 434 Minin, 433 Miot, 421 Moreau, 416
418,

428

426 436 Stormer, 437 (414) Studni6ka, 423

Stern, 424,
Stieltjes, 414,

Sylvester, 416, 418-9, 422-3,

429, 431-2, 435, 437, 439

(433)

Jaensch, 413 Johnsen, 429

Jolivald,

427 (426)

Tchebychef, 413, 435, 437, 439 (426) Teege, 417 Terquem, 421, 436 Thue, 414 Torelli, 440
Vahlen, 419 Van der Corput, 419 Vandiver, 418 Van Laar, 431 Vecchi, 424, 428

Klein, 438 Kossler, 435 Kraft, 426

Kraus, 418 Kronecker, 413, 425, 429 (414) Kummer, 413

416,

Oltramare, 420 Oppermann, 435

Paci, 430

Pascal, 420

Von Koch, 427, 432 (433) Von Sterneck, 419, 427, 435
Warmg,
421, 425 Weber, 417-8 Wendt, 418 Wertheim, 429 Wigert, 432 (428, 434)

Labey, [413] Lagrange, 424-5 (426) Lambert, (426) Landau, 417-9, 423, 43.5-8, 440 Landry, 418 Laurent, 427 (433) Lebesgue, 418-9 (426) Lef^bure, 418

Perott, 413-4

Petrovitch, 434
Pexider, 433
425,
Piltz,

416

Pocklington, 419, 428 Proth, 435

Rados, 428 Riemann, 439

Zignago, 416 Zondadari, 428

Zsigmondy, 418, 427 (426)

Ch. XIX.
Axer, 449

Inversion of Functions; Mobius' Function n{n); Integrals and Derivatives.

CeslLro, 443,

Numerical

450

Gegenbauer, 447, 450 (443)

Glaisher, (441)

Cistiakov, 451

Bachmann, 445-6, 449

Baker, 443
Berger, 444, 446 (443) Bervi, 451

Dedekind, 441-2 (444, 446)

Dirichlet, (445)

Hackel, 448

Kluyver, 448
Elliott,

Borel and Drach, 449 Bougaief (Bugaiev), 442-3,

447

Knopp,

(448)

449-451 (448)

Fatou, 448
Fleck, 448

Kronecker, 447 (443, 448) Kusnetzov, 448

Laguerre, 442

Cahen, 449

Furlan, 448

Author Index
Landau, 448-9 L^meray, 447 Liouville, 441-2 Lipschitz, 445 Lucas, 445
Meissel, 441

483
Stieltjes,

Mertens, 442, 446 (448) Mobius, 441 (443)

449

Tschistiakow, 451

Nazimov, (448)
Seliwanov, 446 SheUy, 451
Steffensen, 449

Von Koch, 446 Von Sterneck, 444-6

448)

(442,

Meissner, 448

Merry, 442 (444)

Zsigmondy, 444-5.

Ch.
Agronomof, 464 Aiyar, 458
Andreini, 459, 461 Andreoli, 464

XX. Properties of the

Fourrey, 465 Fran^ais, 454

Digits of Numbers.
Moret-BIanc, 457 Moulton, 465

Anonymous,
Barbier, 457

454, 458

455 462 Barlow, 453 BerdeU^, 457 Bertrand, 455 Bianchi, 455 Biddle, 463 Booth, 455
Barillari,

Barisien,

Gegenbauer, 458 Gelin, 465 G^rardin, 461-2 Gergonne, 454 Glaisher, 456 Goormaghtigh, 464 Gnmert, 455

Nannei, 462
Osana, 465 O'Shaughnessy, 465

Pahnstrom, 458-9 (461) Perkins, 456 PiccioU, 460 Plateau, 456 (460, 463)
Rutherford, 455
Saint, 453 (456)

Boutin, 461

HaUiday, 465 Hauke, 459 Hayashi, 459 HiU, 453 Hoskins, 456
Ingleby, 455

Bouton, 460 Brocard, 464 Brownell, 453 Burg, 464

Calvitti, 461

Sampson, 455 Sebban, 464 Simmons, 457

463 458 Strauss, 458 Suchanek, (459) Szego, 462
Stasi,

Storr,

Janichen, 462 Johnson, 458

Kessler, 457

Cantor, 455 (458) Catalan, 456 Cattaneo, 463 Cesaro, 457 (461)
Crelle,

Koppe, 461 Ki-aitchik, 458

Kraus, 458
Laisant, 456-8 (454) Lemoine, 457, 464 Lewis, 463

Tagiuri, 460

454 (456)
458, 460, 462-4

Cunningham,

Tanner, 456 Tedenat, 454 Teilhet, 460 Thi6, 463

Valentin, 459 VerceUin, 462 Von Schrutka, 464

Davey, 454 De Rocquigny, 457 De Sanctis, 459, 464 Dickson, 460 D'Ocagne, 457
Drot, 455

Lucas, 458, 465

Mackay, 457
Maillet, 464

Emsmann, 455
Escott, 458, 462

Flood, 455

Malo, 461 Mansion, 456 Martin, 456 Metcalfe, 460 Moore, 460 Morel, 456

Welsch, 464 Wertheim, 459 White, 465 Wiggins, 460

Witting, 462
Ziihlke,

461

SUBJECT INDEX.
Abundant, 31-3
3, 7, 11, 14, 15,

20,

Agreeable, 38, 458 Algebraic numbers, 86, 221, 245, 251, 322, 379, 417,

Combinations, 77, 90-1, 106, 261, 281, 303, 410 Complementary fractions, 156 Congeneres, 39

Digits,

sum of, 263-4, 266, 272, 337-8, 342-3, 367, 455,

457-8, 461-4 Diminute, 3, 4

Congruence
,
,

(see binomial)

447-8
Aliquot parts, 3, 50-8 Amantes, 39 Amiable, 38, 41 Amicable, 5, 38-50 of higher order, 49, 50
triple,

cubic, 252-6, 262 higher, 223-61

identical, 73.

Equivalent fractions, 135

87-9

EucUdean number, 28
Euler's
constant, 122, 134, 136. 281-3, 289, 294, 31724, 328-30
criterion, 67,

involving 275-8, 428

,

factorials,

-,

irreducible, 84,

234-

50

52
,

205

Anatomiae numeronmi, 348

Approximation,
114-5, 158, 281-3, 318, 330-1, 352, 354, 411, 422-3, 430, 448 (see asymptotic, mean)
in cycles, 269

quartic,

254-5, 259,

generalization of Fer-

Arrangement

Arithmetical progression, 100-1, 114, 131, 336, (see prime) Associated numbers, 64-6, 73 Asj-mptotic, 119, 122, 126-7, 129-132, 134-6, 138, 144, 154-5, 214-5, 289, 291, 294, 301-2, 305-6, 308, 317-325, 328, 333, 416-9, 434-6, 438-440, 450 (see approximation, mean)
Aurifeuillian, 386,

260 Congruent form, 362 fractions, 258-9 series, 259 Conjugate functions, 444 Consecutive numbers, 147, 332, 353, 355, 373, 457 (see
product)

mat's theorem, 60-89, 398, 400 numbers, 363

0-function, 82, 85, 113-58, 182, 285-6, 293, 312, 333-6, 404, 434, 441-2, 446
110,
,

gener-

Continued

fractions,

138,

alized

by Schemmel, 147
Jordan,

158, 210, 363, 367-8, 381, 393, 399, 403, 408-9

Crib (see sieve) Criteria for given divisor, 337 Cyclotomic function, 199, 245, 378, 383-5, 387-90, 418

132, 147, 252, Exc^dant, 3

123,

298-9

Excess E of divisors 4m-|-l over divisors 4m-|-3, 281,

289, 293, 295-6, 300-1, 308,

318-9

390

Decimal
Base, 178, 182, 186, 199, 273, 338, 340-1, 354-5, 369, 373, 375, 379, 385, 398, 454, 456, 458-460, 463^
(see digits, periodic)

(see periodic)

Defective, 3 Deficient, 3

Determinant, 77, 87, 97, 137,

149, 150-1, 226, 228, 231, 233, 261, 288, 295, 321,

even 317-8 Exclusion method, 207, 36970 Exponent, 61, 112, 163, 169,
of
divisors, 290-1,

odd

over

Befreundete, 38 Belongs (see exponent)

181-204, 240, 242-3, 246, 257, 259, 260 (see Haupt) to which 10 belongs,

336, 368, 399, 410-1, 444,

446
100,

159-204, 339, 341-2

Bemoullian
6,

numbers,

=c (modm),
130, 136

155, 261

2 belongs, 111, 181, 190-1, 193, 198, 200, 203, 369-70

109, 110, 112, 140-1,

145-

of Smith, 122-4, 127-

220, 274, 278, 309, 311 Bernoulli's function, 268, 325

Diatomic

series,

439

Bertrand's

postulate,

132,

Differences of order m,
74, 78, 79,

62i,

Factor tables, 347 (see graphical)

413, 425, 435-6 Bilinear form, 409

204

two primes,
424-5
squares, 357
Digits, 81, 343, 353-4, 358, 360, 366, 438, 453-65 of perfect number, 7,
10, 17,

Factorial, 62-3, 77,

263-78

Binomial

coefficients, 59, 62,

67, 77, 91, 97, 99,

266-278

Factoring, 13, 25, 241, 248, 252, 357 (see graphical, criteria, sieve)
,

congruence, 92-5, 105, 175, 177, 204-222, 388, 391

,

number

of

ways

of,

identical, 78,

52, 109, 282, 285, 298, 331

82, 87-9,

94-5

Factors of 10" 1, 159-179

Casting out nines, 337-346 Characters, 201, 415 Circular permutations, 75, 78, 81, 131, 136
(484)

20
in
feet)

2''-l

(see per-

multiples, 164-5, 170, 174, 176-7,

permuted

a^^b",
381-91

258,

458-9

Subject Index
Farey series, 155-8 Fermatian function, 385 Fermat's numbers 22 +1, 94,
140, 199, 375, 398, 401

485
Modular
251, 402

Hyper-exponential 379

number,

system,

88,

249,

theorem, 59-89, 179

12,

17,

18,
of,

converse

91-5

generaliza-

Idoneal (idoneus), 361-5 Imperfectly amicable, 50 Index, 85, 182-3, 185, 188, 190-4, 197-204, 211, 240, 244-5, 249, 251 Indian, 337
Indicator, 118, 131, 155, 186,
194,

Mosaic, 212 Multinomial

coefficient,

59,

266-78 Multiply perfect, 33

Nim

(game), 460

406 (see Galois) Finite algebra, 388

tion, 84-9,

200

Nombres associes, 50 Norm, 236, 252, 322 Normal order, 325

differences, 250, 394,

407
field, 247, 250 Flachen Zahlen, 4 Frequency of a divisor, 126

6 Integral logarithm, 353, 417,

Indivisibilis,

Nmnber

440
Invariant, 89, 232-3, 260, 364 Inversion, 84, 120, 127, 129, 132-3. 135, 140, 145, 150, 153, 234, 296, 429, 430,

of divisors, 51, 54, 135-6, 142, 279-325, 328, 443, 451 integers divisible

by nth power, 327-32

solutions
of
. .

Galois

field,

232, 247, 250

ui

ujk

= n,

125, 149,291,

imaginary, 233-55 Galois' generalization of Fermat's theorem, 235, 240, 246-7, 249, 250, 252, 403

441-8
Irreducible function, 234-252 fraction, 126, 129,
133, 138, 155-8; 162, 175

298, 308, 312, 317, 324

n = x'^y^,
318 Numerical integrals and derivatives, 152, 449 Order modulo m, 138 of root, 189
Partial fraction, 73, 135, 161,
198, 410 Partition, 279, 290, 292, 303,

Wilson's theorem, 240, 246-7,

Kerne, 334

252
Gaussien, 194 Graphical factoring, 351, 3534, 356, 365, 369, 372,

Korper Zahlen, 4
Kronecker's plane, 155
Lattice, 173

374

representation of divisors, 330, 351,

354
divisor,

Greatest
139,

common
150,

147,

332-6,

394,

252, 401-3,

328,
447,

Leaf arrangement, 411 Least common multiple, 82, 328, 332-6, 445, 464 residue, 341-2,344,369 Legendre-Jacobi symbol, 109, 210,219,249,251,255,260,
276, 288, 300, 308, 330, 364, 382, 385, 394, 398

312, 427, 438

Patrone, 349

456, 462 (see determinant

of Smith)
di\asor, 329, 331 integer in, 89, 119, 121-2, 126, 130, 132, 138,

144,

153,

158,

263,

282,

297-9, 302-3, 319, 427, 429-432, 450-1 Goldbach's theorem and anal293,
295, ogues, 421-5

Linear differential form, 248, 250 forms of divisors, 160, 362-4, 370, 382, 386, 390, 399
function, 117-8, 134,

Pedal triangle, 86, 388, 402 Pell equation, 56, 367-8, 393 Pentagonal number, 279, 292, 312 Perfect number, 3-33, 38 of second kind, 58 Period, 133, 182, 202, 207
Periodic fraction, 75-6, 82, 92, 159-179, 193, 202, 339341, 371, 379, 386, 454 Pei-mutations, 78-80, 131, 136 Plateau's theorem, 456, 460,

204-5
nimabers, 4 Lucas' un, vn, 218, 395, 418 Lucassian, 27

Golden

section, 411

Ground forms, 268

Groups, 78, 80-1, 84-5, 131,
137, 152,

463
Pluperfect, 33

155,

177,

194,

196-8, 201, 203, 216, 221, 248, 251, 268, 287, 332, 356, 414-5 Haupt-exponent, 190, 200, 203

Mangelhaft, 3 Matrix, 137, 226, 228, 233 Maximum divisor, 332

Plus quam-perfectus, 3 Polygon, cm-viUnear, 85

inscribed curve, 85, 150
,

in

cubic

Mean,

Hexagon, 9, 411 Highest prime power 263, 272

nomial, 334

281, 291-4, 301-2, 305, 312, 318, 320, 328-331, 333, 335, 447 (see asymptotic)

in m.\,

Mediation, 156

regular, 71, 75, 133, 139, 193, 375 Polynomial, divisors of, 384,

Mersenne number, 31
a poly-

393^
in X divisible

Mobius' (Merten's) function

M(n), 86, 122, 127-9, 144-5,

by

m for

Highly composite number, l323

History, 32, 342, 353
84,

157,

200,

3,

148-9, 150-1, 265, 289, 322329, 335, 431, 441-9, 462 gener-

336 Primary function, 240 Prime functions (see irreduevery

x, 87, 89,

cible)

Hyper-even number, 379

alized,

135-6

pairs, 353, 425,

438

486
Primes
,

Subject Index
6n=fcl, 7

(see differ-

ence, highest)

asymptotic distribu-

tion of, 439, 449 density of, 329, 416 in arith. progression.
,

185, 189, 190, 196-8, 202, 210, 213-4, 218, 221, 231, 240, 245-6, 253-5, 275, 277, 360, 363, 365, 373, 382, 393, 395-6, 403

Symbols, Ein), 281; Er{n), 296; F{a, N), M; Fr, 375;

H{m), Hm, 264; Jkin), 147; Mg, 31; nin), 441; 0,305; Pm, 33; <^(n), 61, 113;
(pkin),

425
-,

Quasi-Mersenne number, 390 Quotient (a'")-l)/m, 102,

10.5-112

140;

qu,

105,

109;

infinity of,

413

s^in), 48; s, 95; 5, ,, 96; a(n), 53, 279, 446; akin),

[{}^l)\
arith. progressions, 85, 395,

+ l]/p,

109,

rin),T{n),279; n(n),291;
d(n),429; f/,u,393; ?(), 292; [x], 115, 276; /n, 42; *before author, not available.

112

415-20, 436
-, large, 352^, 362, 365, 386, 388 -, law of apparition of.

Rank

(see matrix)
series,

Recurring 411

376-7, 393-

Symmetric
,

396, 398, 406

repeti-

algebraic the-

p, 70, 95, 106,

functions 143
112,

mod.
455,

tion of, 396-8

-,

miscellaneous results

on, 436-9
-,

number
product

of,

352-4,

429-35, 450
,

of,

126

represented by quadratic forms,

or\- of, 407 Reducible law of recurrence, 409-10 Redundantem, 3, 4 Remainders on di\dding n by n, 290, 313, 327-31 1, Roots of unity, 133, 136, 1834, 245, 250, 256, 419
. . .

number,
463-4
.

417
poly-

Tables, 10, 14, 16, 18, 21-2, 25, 27, 30-2, 37-8, 45, 48-9, 54-5, 110-2, 126, 135, 137, 140, 156-7, 160-79, 181, 183, 185, 187-203, 213, 217, 219, 222, 244-5, 24851, 254, 262, 296, 308, 318, 331, 339-41, 347-58, 361^,

Secondary nimaber, 327

root, 191

nomials,

333,

414,

418,

420-1
-,

Series of composition, 332

simi of two, 421-4,

of,

435
Primes, tables
,

Lame, 411 Leonardo Pisano, 393 Sieve of Eratosthenes, 347-8, 353-6, 424, 439 Similar modulo k, 260
8,

366-7, 379, 381-4, 386, 388, 390-1, 399, 417, 422, 432,
446, 457

347, 381

Tahnud, 337
Totient, 124-5, 148, 153, 246 point, 154
Totitives, 98, 124, 130-1,
all

test for, 35, 276, 302, 305, 360-65, 370, 374, 3768, 380, 396-404, 426-8, 445 -, to base 2, 22, 353-4

246
20,

Primitive diN-isor of a'^-b^, 388

X-root,

Simple sj'stem of numbers, 455, 458

Solution
of
alg.

primes, 132, 134

7, 9,

Triangular number,
373, 425, 427 Trinomials, factors
Uberflussig, 3

202

equations,

59, 284, 290, 295, 302, 310,

of,

non-deficient number,

407-8
Sous-double, 33 Squares, 52, 54, 284-6, 358,
361, 366, 453-464
Stencil, 349, 356,

31

391

number, 327, 334

root, 63, 65, 72, 103, 117, 181-204, 222, 378-9 -, imaginarj'.

359

Uberschiessende, 3
tJbervollstandig, 3

235-252
of unity, 133,

Substitutions, 75, 78-80, 82, 85, 158, 232, 262 Sum of divisors, 5, 18, 19,
22, 42, 48, 52-8,

Unvollkommen, 3
Unvollstiindig, 3

136 ProbabUity,

135,

139,

138,

302,

308,

279-325, 445, 450

A-th

328, 330, 333, 335, 407, 438 Product of consecutive integers, 79, 263-4, 269,

divisors, 38, 123, 151,

powers of 286integers

Verwandte, 38, 47 Vollkommen, 3

Vollstandig, 3

331 differences, 269

divisors,

325, 450

Wilson's theorem, 59-91, 99,

103, 275
,

58,

<n,

95, 106, 121, 123, 126,

63,
of,

converse

of,

332
Pronic, 357

140, 332

427-8
65,

Quadratic forms,
158,

207,

318,

330, 400, 415-8, 420-1

109, 130, 219, 276, 361-5, 369-70,

four squares, 283 two squares. 247, 286, 340, 360, 381-2,
390, 402-3 Superfluos, 3, 4

generalization 68-74, 77-84, 87,

,

90-1 (see Galois) Zeta

function,
121,

210,

125-7,

SymboUc,

99, 119, 124, 141-2,

134, 139, 149, 292-3, 298-9,

residues, 23, 25, 29,

65-8, 71, 76, 92, 109, 165,

144-5, 148, 248, 250, 278, 296, 395, 399, 402, 449

310,318,322,324,328,331, 439, 448

486
Primes 6nl, 7
ence, highest)
,

Subject Index
(see differ-

asymptotic distribution of, 439, 449 density of, 329, 416 in arith. progression,
,

185, 189, 190, 196-8, 210, 213-4, 218, 221, 240, 245-6, 253-5, 277, 360, 363, 365, 382, 393, 395-6, 403

202, 231, 275, 373,

Symbols, E(n), 281;

Quasi-Mersenne number, 390

Quotient (a*"')-l)/m, 102,
10.5-112

425
-,

infinity of,

413

{{p-l)\
arith. progressions, 85, 395,

+ l}/p,

109,

112

41.S-20,
-,

436

352^, 362, 365, 386, 388 -, law of apparition of.

large,

Rank

(see matrix)
series,

Er{n), 296; Fia, N),84; Fr, 375; Him), Hm, 264; Jkin), 147; Mg, 31; M(n), 441; 0, 305; Pm, 33; <^(n), 61, 113; <j)k{n), 140; qu, 105, 109; sHn), 48; s, 95; 5. m, 96; a(n), 53, 279, 446; akin), Tin), Tin), 279; Tkin),291; ein),429; C/,u,393; f(s), 292; [x], 115, 276; fn, 42; *before author, not available.

Recurring 411

376-7, 393-

Symmetric
,

396, 398, 406

repeti-

algebraic the-

p, 70, 95, 106,

functions 143
112,

mod.
455,

tion of, 396-8

-,

miscellaneous results

on, 436-9
-,

number
product

of,

352-4,

429-35, 450
,

of,

126

represented by quadratic forms,

or>' of, 407 Reducible law of recurrence, 409-10 Redundantem, 3, 4 Remainders on dividing n by n, 290, 313, 327-31 1, Roots of unity, 133, 136, 1834, 245, 250, 256, 419
. . .

number,
463-4

417
poly-

Secondary nrnnber, 327

root, 191

nomials,

333,

414,

418,

420-1
-,

sum

of two,
of,

421-4,

Series of composition, 332 Lame. 41

Tables, 10, 14, 16, 18, 21-2, 25, 27, 30-2, 37-8, 45, 48-9, 54-5, 110-2, 126, 135, 137, 140, 156-7, 160-79, 181, 183, 185, 187-203, 213, 217, 219, 222, 244-5, 24851, 254, 262, 296, 308, 318, 331, 339-41, 347-58, 361^, 366-7, 379, 381-4, 386, 388, 390-1. 399. 417. 422. A^9.

435
Primes, tables
,

347, 381

test for, 35, 276, 302,

ano, 393 Sieve of Eratostb

JohS^.h^.^^.

Date

305, 360-65, 370, 374, 3768, 380, 396-404, 426-8, 445

347-8,353-6,424,
Similar modulo
k, 26l
r

^^ ^ ^^^^"""^^
Stab by

^ime
No. Sect
Press

Sew

by.

to base 2, 22, 353-4 Primitive diN-isor of a^-b", 388

,

Simple system of 455, 458

Solution
of
alg.

Score

Strip Sect.

X-root,

202

ec

non-deficient number,

407-8
Sous-double, 33 984 SnnnrP9 O^, ^9 t>% ^4 ^4 isquares,
361, 366, 453-464
Stencil, 349, 356, 35{

31

. to

number, 327, 334

root, 63, 65, 72, 103, 117, 181-204, 222, 378-9
,

and to satisfaction of purchaser, wear indefinitely j anv defects appearing in either will be made good "Bound to wear." ;jj^ ^ additional charge.
.

This book bound by Pacific Library Binding Company, Los Angeles, specialists in Library Binding. Our work and materials are guaranteed

imaginary-.

235-252
of unity, 133,

Substitutions, 75, 78-80, 82, 85, 158, 232, 262

Ubervollstandig, 3

Unvollkommen, 3
Unvollstandig, 3

Sum

of

divisors,

5,

18,

19,

136
138, 302, 308, 328, 330, 333, 335, 407, 438 Product of consecutive integers, 79, 263-4, 269, 331

22, 42, 48, 52-8, 135,

139,

Probability,

279-325, 445, 450

divisors, 38,

powers of 123, 151, 286A:th

Venvandte, 38, 47 ^'ollkommen, 3

Vollstiindig, 3

325, 450
integers
58,

Wilson's theorem, 59-91, 99,

103, 275
,

differences,
divisors,

269

<n,

95, 106, 121, 123, 126, 63,

of,

converse

of,

332
Pronic, 357

140, 332

427-8
,

Quadratic forms,
158,

207,

318, 330, 400, 415-8, 420-1

130, 210, 219, 276, 361-5, 369-70,

109,

four squares, 283 two squares. 247, 286, 340, 360, 381-2,
390, 402-3 Superfluos, 3, 4

generalization 68-74, 77-84, 87, 90-1 (see Galois)

65,

Zeta

Symbolic, 99, 119, 124, 141-2,

144-5, 148, 248, 250, 278, 296, 395, 399, 402, 449

function, 121, 125-7, 134, 139, 149, 292-3, 298-9,

residues, 23, 25, 29,

6&-8, 71, 76, 92, 109, 165,

310,318,322,324,328,331, 439, 448

"X

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