MATHEMATICS

RADIUS OF CURVATURE
OF CARTESIAN AND
POLAR CURVES
 Acknowledgement

I wish to express my sincere thanks and

gratitude to the
Mathematics teacher

MR. DEEPAK ANAND

Whose valuable guidance and advice has helped
in achieving all the aims
Set out for project.

CERTIFICATE
 IT IS TO CERTIFY THAT THE PROJECT
MENTIONED IN THE FILE HAS BEEN DONE BY
SUSHANT VIVEK CHAWLA OF C.S.E.’A’(713) ROLL
NO.-R713A16 WITH THE KIND HELP OF
MR. DEEPAK ANAND

________________________

__________________________________________ TEACHER
SIGN
INVESTIGATOR’SSIGNATURE

CONTENTS
1 One dimension in two dimensions: Curvature of plane
curves
1.1 The meaning of curvature
1.2 Signed curvature
1.3 Local expressions
1.4 Example
2 One dimension in three dimensions: Curvature of
space curves
3 Curves on surfaces
3.1 Principal curvature
4 Two dimensions: Curvature of surfaces
4.1 Gaussian curvature
4.2 Mean curvature
5 Three dimensions: Curvature of space

One dimension in two dimensions: Curvature of plane

curves
For a plane curve C, the mathematical definition of curvature
uses a parametric representation of C with respect to the arc
length parametrization. It can be computed given any regular
parametrization by a more complicated formula given below.
Let γ(s) be a regular parametric curve, where s is the arc
length, or natural parameter. This determines the unit tangent
vector T, the unit normal vector N, the curvature κ(s), the
oriented or signed curvature k(s), and the radius of curvature at
each point:

The curvature of a straight line is identically zero. The curvature

of a circle of radius R is constant, i.e. it does not depend on the
point and is equal to the reciprocal of the radius:

Thus for a circle, the radius of curvature is simply its radius.

Straight lines and circles are the only plane curves whose
curvature is constant. Given any curve C and a point P on it
where the curvature is non-zero, there is a unique circle which
most closely approximates the curve near P, the osculating
circle at P. The radius of the osculating circle is the radius of
curvature of C at this point.

The meaning of curvature

Suppose that a particle moves on the plane with unit speed.
Then the trajectory of the particle will trace out a curve C in the
plane. Moreover, taking the time as the parameter, this
provides a natural parametrization for C. The instanteneous
direction of motion is given by the unit tangent vector T and
the curvature measures how fast this vector rotates. If a curve
keeps close to the same direction, the unit tangent vector
changes very little and the curvature is small; where the curve
undergoes a tight turn, the curvature is large. The magnitude of
curvature at points on physical curves can be measured in
diopters (also spelled dioptre) — this is the convention in
optics. A diopter has the dimension Length − 1.
Signed curvature
The sign of the signed curvature k indicates the direction in
which the unit tangent vector rotates as a function of the
parameter along the curve. If the unit tangent rotates
counterclockwise, then k > 0. If it rotates clockwise, then k < 0.
The signed curvature depends on the particular parametrization
chosen for a curve. For example the unit circle can be
parametrised by (cos(θ),sin(θ)) (counterclockwise, with k > 0),
or by (cos( − θ),sin( − θ)) (clockwise, with k < 0). More
precisely, the signed curvature depends only on the choice of
orientation of an immersed curve. Every immersed curve in the
plane admits two possible orientations.
Local expressions
See also: Centripetal force#Alternative approach
For a plane curve given parametrically as c(t) = (x(t),y(t)), the
curvature is

and the signed curvature k is

For the less general case of a plane curve given explicitly as y
= f(x) the curvature is

Slightly abusing notation, the signed curvature may also be

written in this way as

with the understanding that the curve is traversed in the

direction of increasing x.
This quantity is common in physics and engineering; for
example, in the equations of bending in beams, the 1D
vibration of a tense string, approximations to the fluid flow
around surfaces (in aeronautics), and the free surface boundary
conditions in ocean waves. In such applications, the assumption
is almost always made that the slope is small compared with
unity, so that the approximation:

may be used. This approximation yields a straightforward linear

equation describing the phenomenon, which would otherwise
remain intractable.
If a curve is defined in polar coordinates as r(θ), then its
curvature is
where here the prime refers to differentiation with respect to θ.

Example
Consider the parabola y = x2. We can parametrize the curve
simply as c(t) = (t,t2) = (x,y),

Substituting
One dimension in three dimensions: Curvature of space
curves
See Frenet-Serret formulas for a fuller treatment of curvature
and the related concept of torsion.
For a parametrically defined space curve as

, its curvature is:

Given a function r(t) with values in R3, the curvature at a given

value of t is

where and correspond to the first and second derivatives of

r(t), respectively. (Note that this formula is the vector notation
of F[x,y,z] above.)
Curves on surfaces
When a one dimensional curve lines on a two dimensional
surface embedded in three dimensions R3, further measures of
curvature are available, which take the surface's unit-normal
vector, u into account. These are the normal curvature,
geodesic curvature and geodesic torsion. Any non-singular
curve on a smooth surface will have its tangent vector T lying
in the tangent plane of the surface orthogonal to the normal
vector. The normal curvature, kn, is the curvature of the curve
projected onto the plane containing the curves tangent T and
the surface normal u; the geodesic curvature, kg, is the
curvature of the curve projected onto the surfaces tangent
plane; and the geodesic torsion (or relative torsion), τr,
measures the rate of change of the surface normal around the
curves tangent.
Let the curve be a unit speed curve and let t = u × T so that T,
u, t form an orthonormal basis: the Darboux frame. The
quantities k, g and τ are related by:

Principal curvature

Saddle surface with normal planes in directions of principal

curvatures
All curves with the same tangent vector will have the same
normal curvature, which is the same as the curvature of the
curve obtained by intersecting the surface with the plane
containing T and u. Taking all possible tangent vectors then the
maximum and minimum values of the normal curvature at a
point are called the principal curvatures, k1 and k2, and the
directions of the corresponding tangent vectors are called
principal directions.
Two dimensions: Curvature of surfaces
Gaussian curvature
In contrast to curves, which do not have intrinsic curvature, but
do have extrinsic curvature (they only have a curvature given
an embedding), surfaces have intrinsic curvature, independent
of an embedding.
Here we adopt the convention that a curvature is taken to be
positive if the curve turns in the same direction as the surface's
chosen normal, otherwise negative.
The Gaussian curvature, named after Carl Friedrich Gauss, is
equal to the product of the principal curvatures, k1k2. It has the
dimension of 1/length2 and is positive for spheres, negative for
one-sheet hyperboloids and zero for planes. It determines
whether a surface is locally convex (when it is positive) or
locally saddle (when it is negative).
The above definition of Gaussian curvature is extrinsic in that it
uses the surface's embedding in R3, normal vectors, external
planes etc. Gaussian curvature is however in fact an intrinsic
property of the surface, meaning it does not depend on the
particular embedding of the surface; intuitively, this means that
ants living on the surface could determine the Gaussian
curvature. Formally, Gaussian curvature only depends on the
Riemannian metric of the surface. This is Gauss' celebrated
Theorema Egregium, which he found while concerned with
geographic surveys and mapmaking.
An intrinsic definition of the Gaussian curvature at a point P is
the following: imagine an ant which is tied to P with a short
thread of length r. She runs around P while the thread is
completely stretched and measures the length C(r) of one
complete trip around P. If the surface were flat, she would find
C(r) = 2πr. On curved surfaces, the formula for C(r) will be
different, and the Gaussian curvature K at the point P can be
computed by the Bertrand–Diquet–Puiseux theorem as

The integral of the Gaussian curvature over the whole surface

is closely related to the surface's Euler characteristic; see the
Gauss-Bonnet theorem.
The discrete analog of curvature, corresponding to curvature
being concentrated at a point and particularly useful for
polyhedra, is the (angular) defect; the analog for the Gauss-
Bonnet theorem is Descartes' theorem on total angular defect.
Because curvature can be defined without reference to an
embedding space, it is not necessary that a surface be
embedded in a higher dimensional space in order to be curved.
Such an intrinsically curved two-dimensional surface is a simple
example of a Riemannian manifold.
Mean curvature
The mean curvature is equal to the sum of the principal
curvatures, k1+k2, over 2. It has the dimension of 1/length.
Mean curvature is closely related to the first variation of surface
area, in particular a minimal surface such as a soap film, has
mean curvature zero and a soap bubble has constant mean
curvature. Unlike Gauss curvature, the mean curvature is
extrinsic and depends on the embedding, for instance, a
cylinder and a plane are locally isometric but the mean
curvature of a plane is zero while that of a cylinder is nonzero.
Three dimensions: Curvature of space
By extension of the former argument, a space of three or more
dimensions can be intrinsically curved; the full mathematical
description is described at curvature of Riemannian manifolds.
Again, the curved space may or may not be conceived as being
embedded in a higher-dimensional space. In recent physics
jargon, the embedding space is known as the bulk and the
embedded space as a p-brane where p is the number of
dimensions; thus a surface (membrane) is a 2-brane; normal
space is a 3-brane etc.
After the discovery of the intrinsic definition of curvature, which
is closely connected with non-Euclidean geometry, many
mathematicians and scientists questioned whether ordinary
physical space might be curved, although the success of
Euclidean geometry up to that time meant that the radius of
curvature must be astronomically large. In the theory of
general relativity, which describes gravity and cosmology, the
idea is slightly generalised to the "curvature of space-time"; in
relativity theory space-time is a pseudo-Riemannian manifold.
Once a time coordinate is defined, the three-dimensional space
corresponding to a particular time is generally a curved
Riemannian manifold; but since the time coordinate choice is
largely arbitrary, it is the underlying space-time curvature that
is physically significant.
Although an arbitrarily-curved space is very complex to
describe, the curvature of a space which is locally isotropic and
homogeneous is described by a single Gaussian curvature, as
for a surface; mathematically these are strong conditions, but
they correspond to reasonable physical assumptions (all points
and all directions are indistinguishable). A positive curvature
corresponds to the inverse square radius of curvature; an
example is a sphere or hypersphere. An example of negatively
curved space is hyperbolic geometry. A space or space-time
without curvature (formally, with zero curvature) is called flat.
For example, Euclidean space is an example of a flat space, and
Minkowski space is an example of a flat space-time. There are
other examples of flat geometries in both settings, though. A
torus or a cylinder can both be given flat metrics, but differ in
their topology. Other topologies are also possible for curved
space. See also shape of the universe.

REFRENCES:-
*www.wikipedia.org
*http://www.mathpages.com/rr/rrtoc.htm