Introduction to Hypersonic Aerothermodynamics

Iain D. Boyd Dept. Aerospace Eng. University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI Graham V. Candler Dept. Aerospace Eng. & Mech. University of Minnesota Minneapolis, MN

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1. Hypersonic Gas Dynamics

1.1 Introduction and Examples Outline (1)
1. Hypersonic Gas Dynamics (1.5 hours) 1.1 Introduction and Examples 1.2 Post-shock conditions: perfect gas vs. equilibrium gas Iteration approach for post-shock conditions Examples 1.3 Reacting gas effects: Finite-rate reactions nonequilibrium vs. equilibrium Ionization Radiation 1.4 Transport phenomena
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Outline (2)
2. Hypersonic Aerodynamics: Pressure (1.0 hours) 2.1 Exact and approximate equilibrium gas solutions: Stagnation points Cones and wedges 2.2 Mach number independence 2.3 Newtonian and Modified Newtonian aerodynamics 2.4 Examples

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Outline (3)
3. Hypersonic Aerothermodynamics: Heat Transfer (1.0 hours) 3.1 Introduction: role of aerodynamic heating hypersonic boundary layers 3.2 Boundary layer equations, Lees-Dorodnitsyn transformation 3.3 Flat plate / wedge / cone solutions 3.4 Stagnation point solution 3.5 Transition to turbulence 3.6 Wall catalysis 3.7 Examples

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Outline (4)
4. Viscous Interactions (1.0 hours) 4.1 Leading edge interactions 4.2 Effect on high-altitude L/D; scaling for vehicles 4.3 Shock-BL interactions, shock-shock interactions 5. Thermal Protection Systems (1.0 hours) 5.1 Passive: re-radiative cooling, equilibrium wall boundary condition role of wall temperature, material properties examples 5.2 Ablative Surface ablators Pyrolyzing ablators
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Outline (5)
6. Aerothermodynamics of Hypersonic Vehicles (1.0 hours) Ballistic entry Lifting capsule re-entry: Apollo High-lift re-entry: Shuttle Aerocapture / Aerobraking Airbreathing scramjets

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What is Hypersonic Flow?

Working definition of hypersonic flow: M = (U / a) >> 1 Hypersonic aerothermodynamic phenomena: strong shock waves with high temperature not calorifically perfect (variable ) chemical reactions significant surface heat flux several different types of vehicles: missiles, space planes, capsules, air-breathers
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Hypersonic Examples: I. Missiles

Mission: high-speed delivery of explosives Aerodynamics: slender body with blunt nose Propulsion: rockets, ramjets Examples: AMRV, SCUD, Patriot, Hy-Fly
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Hypersonic Examples: II. Space Planes

Mission: orbital re-entry Aerodynamics: gliders with thermal protection Propulsion: none (except small control thrusters) Examples: Space Shuttle, Buran, Hermes
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Hypersonic Examples: III. Air-breathing Systems

Missions: launch, cruise, orbital re-entry Aerodynamics: slender with integrated engines Propulsion: ram/scram-jets, rockets, turbojets Examples: X-15, NASP, X-43, X-51
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Hypersonic Examples: IV. Planetary Entry

Missions: EDL, aero-braking, aero-capture Aerodynamics: very blunt, thick heat shield Propulsion: none (sometimes RCS) Examples: Apollo, MSL, CEV (Orion)
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Hypersonic Vehicle Historical Overview

Flight vehicles: WAC Corporal missile (1949, M~8) Vostok I (1961, M~25) X-15 (1963-1967, M~7) Space Shuttle (1981-???, M~25) HyShot (2002, M~8) X43 (2004, M>7) Hy-CAUSE (2007) Recent programs without flight: NASP, Hermes, AFE, AOTV (1990) VentureStar-X33 (2000)
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Some Current Hypersonic Programs

Falcon (DARPA) HyBoLT (NASA/ATK)

X51 (AFRL)

Orion (NASA)

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Hypersonic Tales of Woe

Hypersonics produces unexpected phenomena X15 test flight with dummy scramjet installed: unexpected shock interactions generated burned holes in connection pylon First re-entry of Space Shuttle (STS-1): larger than expected nose-up pitch generated required near-maximum deflection of body flap Shock-shock interactions: heating amplified significantly leading edges, cowl lips, engine flow paths
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Re-entry Trajectories
Trajectory equations for Earth centered system:
U" L $ U 2' T, U = # & 1# cos(" ) ) g W % gR ( T U D " = + sin(# ) W g W
L

D W

Ballistic missiles: mission: short flight, fast impact rocket launch, ballistic entry no thrust or lift during entry (T=0, L=0) fixed flight path at large angle (=const)
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Re-entry Trajectories
Space Shuttle: mission: orbital return rocket launch equilibrium glide entry no thrust, L/D~1, ~0 (shallow entry) Air-breathing vehicle: missions: cruise, orbital return completely reusable powered take-off and entry 1 "U 2 for engine efficiency constant 2
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Flight Velocity

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Stagnation Point Heating

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Stagnation Point Temperature

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Deceleration Levels

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1.2 Post-Shock Conditions

Perfect-gas shock relations:

Density ratio asymptotes to:

Pressure and temperature are quadratic in M

Makes sense: energy is conserved

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Post-Shock Conditions
Post-Shock Temperature:

Temperatures rapidly become huge!

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Post-Shock Conditions
Variation of air internal energy with T:

10% departure from calorically perfect gas equation of state = onset of hypersonic flow

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Post-Shock Conditions
More fundamentally 1D gas dynamics:

Plus equations of state:

Thermally perfect, calorically imperfect General equilibrium gas mixture

No exact solutions
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Post-Shock Conditions
Hypersonic limit:

Can solve for the thermodynamic state

Note that post-shock enthalpy and pressure only depend on upstream conditions in hypersonic limit.

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Post-Shock Conditions
Iterative solution to shock relations:

Guess a value of = i and iterate:

Use tables, NASA CEA, etc.

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Equilibrium Air
Temperature (K) Z = Compressibility

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Post-Shock Conditions
Example: M = 12 at 30 km altitude:

Imperfect

Perfect

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Post-Shock Conditions
Perfect-gas vs. equilibrium post-shock conditions:

Difference is due to energy storage in internal energy modes + chemistry

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Post-Shock Conditions
Post-shock pressure has weak dependence on nonideal gas effects (just through (1- )) Post-shock temperature and density have strong Mach number (free-stream speed) dependence Density ratio > ( + 1)/( - 1) = 6 Temperature decreases significantly Concept of no longer has much meaning; if:

Matlab code:
ftp://ftp.aem.umn.edu/users/candler/HEI/mollier.m
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1.3 Reacting Gas Effects

Analysis of Earth hypersonic vehicles at U<8km/s: 5-species air model sufficient: N2, O2, NO, N, O Reactions: Dissociation-recombination:

N2 + M " N + N + M O2 + M " O + O + M NO + M " N + O + M N 2 + O " NO + N NO + O " O2 + N

Zeldovich exchange:

! ! !

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! !

Finite Rate of Reactions

For illustration, consider: 2-species: N2, N
kf1

N2 + M " N + N + M
kf 2 kb 2

Each reaction proceeds at a finite rate:

N2 + N2 " N + N + N2 kb1 !

N2 + N " N + N + N

Forward rate coefficients measured experimentally, kf (T) Backward rate coefficients from equilibrium constant: !f "Qproducts k Ke = = kb "Qreactants partition functions Q from quantum+statistical mechanics
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Finite Rate of Reactions

Net rate of change in concentration of a species: contributions from forward and backward directions d[N 2 ] = "k f 1[N 2 ][N 2 ] " k f 2 [N 2 ][N] + kb1[N][N][N 2 ] + k b 2 [N][N][N] dt Chemical equilibrium: final state reached instantaneously production of each species balanced by its destruction analytical solution for our system:
2 "2 m QN = exp(#% d /T) 1# " $V QN 2

=mass fraction, m=atom mass, =density, V=volume, d=dissociation temperature

!
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Finite Rate of Reactions

Chemical equilibrium: O2 dissociates before N2 (has lower d) fewer atoms at high pressure (more recombination)

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Finite Rate of Reactions

Chemical nonequilibrium: equilibrium end state reached only after finite time in a flow field, this translates as finite distance

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Nonequilibrium
Impact of chemical nonequilibrium: chemical composition mainly affects energy of flow exothermic reactions consume energy catalysis: fraction of atoms reaching the vehicle surface may recombine releasing heat scaling: nonequilibrium flow occurs at lower density and/or smaller body length scales

#$U$ L small Re " $

#$ 1 large Kn " % L &$ L

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Ionization
Very high temperature reacting air (U>8km/s): N2, O2, NO, N, O, N2+, O2+, NO+, N+, O+, eReactions: dissociation-recombination: exchange: associative Ionization:

N2 + M " N + N + M

N 2 + O " NO + N !
+ N + N " N 2 + e#

direct Ionization: !

N+e #N +e +e

"

"

"

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Ionization
Equilibrium solution (Saha) for [N, N+, e-] system:
"2 T 5/2 =C exp(#$ i /T) 2 1# " p

=ion mole fraction, C=constant, p=pressure, i=ionization temperature

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Ionization
Significance: plasma causes communications blackout highly catalytic ions are source of heating

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Radiation
Another important process at high temperature: activation-deactivation: N + e" # N * + e" spontaneous emission: N * " N + h# analysis is complex, no closed form expressions ! research area, e.g. NEQAIR (NASA-ARC) Radiative heating important at U>12km/s: ! e.g. stagnation point heating correlation (Martin)

qrad " RNU 8.5 #1.6

also proportional to shock layer thickness Stardust: radiation provides 10% of total heating

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1.4 Transport Phenomena

Generated by gradients in flow properties: dCA diffusion (Ficks Law): J A = "#DAB dy DAB=diffusion coefficient viscosity (Newtonian fluid): = viscosity coefficient !

du " = dy dT q = "# dy

thermal conduction (Fouriers Law): = thermal conductivity coefficient !

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Diffusion
Affects continuity and energy equations Influences transport of species to surface Coefficient evaluation: 3 #mi kT for simple gas (self diffusion) Dii = 8 " #$(1,1) ii for gas mixture "
(1,1) ij

are diffusion collision integrals

kT (mi + m j )kT 1 Dij " p mi m j #$(1,1) ij

averaged binary coefficient D1m often used !

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Viscosity
Affects momentum and energy equations Influences surface shear stress Coefficient evaluation: for simple gas various mixing rules "
(2,2) are ij

5 "mi kT i = 16 "#(2,2) ii

= ("(1,1),"(2,2) ) ij ij

! viscosity collision integrals

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Thermal Conductivity
Affects energy equations Influences surface convective heat flux Coefficient evaluation: 5 #mi kT 1 % 9 ( for simple gas (Eucken) " i = 16 #$(2,2) M 'Cv + 4 Ru * ) ii i& various mixing rules
!

" = " (#(1,1),#(2,2) ) ij ij

"(2,2) are again viscosity collision integrals ij curve fits for collision integrals from the literature !

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