Isomorphisms Math 130 Linear Algebra

D Joyce, Fall 2012 Frequently in mathematics we look at two algebraic structures A and B of the same kind and want to compare them. For instance, we might think theyre really the same thing, but they have different names for their elements. That leads to the concept of isomorphism f : A B, and well talk about that rst. Other times well know theyre not the same thing, but there is a relation between them, and that will lead to the next concept, homomorphism, f : A B. Well then look as some special homomorphisms such as monomorphisms. When we have a homomorphism f : A A, well call it an endomorphism, and when an isomorphism f : A A, well call it an automorphism. Well take each of these variants in turn.

the identity function on B. The usual notation for the function inverse to f is f 1 . In this situation f and g are inverse to each other, that is, if g is f 1 , then f is g 1 . Thus, (f 1 )1 = f . An important property of bijections is that you can convert equations involving f to equations involving f 1 : f (x) = y if and only if x = f 1 (y) .

Isomorphisms of algebraic structures. There are lots of dierent kinds of algebraic structures. Weve already seen two of them, namely, elds and vector spaces. Well say two algebraic structures A and B are isomorphic if they have exactly the same structure, but their elements may be dierent. For instance, let A be the vector space R[x] of polynomials in the variable x, and let B be the vector space R[y] of polynomials in y. Theyre both just polynomials in one variable, its just that the choice of variable is dierent in the two rings. Were studying vector spaces, so we need a preInjections, surjections, and bijections of cise denition of isomorphism for them. functions between sets. These are words that describe certain functions f : A B from one set Denition 1 (Isomorphism of vector spaces). Two vector spaces V and W are isomorphic if there is a to another. An injection, also called a one-to-one function bijection T : V W which preserves addition and is a function that maps distinct elements to dis- scalar multiplication, that is, for all vectors u and tinct elements, that is, if x = y, then f (x) = f (y). v in A, and all scalars c, Equivalently, if f (x) = f (y) then x = y. If A T (u + v) = T (u) + T (v) and T (cv) = cT (v). is a subset of B, then there is a natural injection : A B, called the inclusion function, dened The correspondence T is called an isomorphism of by (x) = x. vector spaces. A surjection, also called an onto function is one that includes all of B in its image, that is, if y B, When T : V W is an isomorphism well write then there is an x A such that f (x) = y. T : V W if we want to emphasize that it is. A bijection, also called a one-to-one correspon- When V and W are isomorphic, but the specic dence, is a function that is simultaneously injective isomorphism is not named, well just write V W . = and bijective. Another way to describe a bijection Of course, the identity function IV : V V is f : A B is to say that there is an inverse function an isomorphism. g : B A so that the composition g f : A A After we introduce linear transformations (which is the identity function on A while f g : B B is is what homomorphisms of vector spaces are 1

Theorem 5. If T : V W is an isomorphism, then T carries linearly independent sets to linearly Theorem 2. If T : V W is an isomorphism of independent sets, spanning sets to spanning sets, vector spaces, then its inverse T 1 : W V is also and bases to bases. an isomorphism. Proof. For the rst statement, let S be a set of linProof. Since T is a bijection, T 1 exists as a func- early independent vectors in V . Well show that its tion W V . We have to show T 1 preserves ad- image T (S) is a set of linearly independent vectors dition and scalar multiplication. in W . If 0 were a nontrivial linear combination of First, well do addition. Let w and x be elements vectors in T (S), then an application of T 1 would of W . We have to show that yield a nontrivial linear combination of vectors in S, but there is none since S is independent. ThereT 1 (w + x) = T 1 (w) + T 1 (x). fore, T (S) is linear independent. For the second statement, let w be any vector in Well show that by simplifying it to logically equivW , then T 1 (w) is a linear combination of vectors alent statements until we reach one which we know is true. Since T and T 1 are inverse functions, that in V . Apply T to that linear combination to see that w is a linear combination of vectors in W . equation holds if and only if Finally, since T carries both independent and w + x = T (T 1 (w) + T 1 (x)). spanning sets from V to W , it carries bases to bases. q.e.d. Since T is an isomorphism, we can rewrite that as Coordinates with respect to a basis determine an isomorphism. One of the main uses of which simplies to w + x = w + x which is true. a basis = (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ) for a vector space V Scalar multiplication is left to you. Show over a eld is to impose coordinates on V . Each 1 1 T (cw) = cT (w). q.e.d. vector v in V is a unique linear combination of of the basis vectors Well omit the proof of the next theorem. w + x = T (T 1 (w)) + T (T 1 (x)) v = v1 b1 + v2 b2 + + vn bn . Theorem 3. If S : V W and T : W X are both isomorphisms of vector spaces, then so is their The coecients are used as coordinates for v with composition (T S) : V X. the respect to the basis Example 4. Consider P3 , the vector space of polyv1 nomials over R of degree 3 or less. Dene T : P3 v2 4 3 2 R by T (a1 x +a2 x +a3 x+a4 ) = (a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ). It [v] = . . . just associates to a polynomial its 4-tuple of coe. 3 cients starting with the coecient of x and going vn 2

called), well have another way to describe isomorphisms. You can prove various properties of vector space isomorphisms from this denition. Since the structure of vector spaces is dened in terms of addition and scalar multiplication, if T preserves them, it will preserve structure dened in terms of them. For instance, T preserves 0, negation, subtraction, and linear transformations.

down in degree. This is a linear transformation, it is one-to-one, and it is onto. (Those statements are easy to verify.) This is not the only isomorphism P3 R4 . A cubic polynomial is determined by its value at any four points. The association f (x) to the 4-tuple (f (1), f (2), f (3), f (4)) is also an isomorphism.

Lets denote the function that assigns these coordinates . Theorem 6. The correspondence v to [v] is an isomorphism : V F n . To prove that theorem, youll need to note that this is a bijection, prove that [u + v] = [u] + [v] , and prove that [cv] = c[v] . Since the correspondence is an isomorphism, it means we can work with these coordinates on V just like ordinary coordinates. Corollary 7. Two nite dimensional vector spaces are isomorphic if and only if they have the same dimension. Proof. If theyre isomorphic, then theres an isomorphism T from one to the other, and it carries a basis of the rst to a basis of the second. Therefore they have the same dimension. On the other hand, if they have the same dimension n, then theyre each isomorphic to F n , and therefore theyre isomorphic to each other. q.e.d. Linear transformations. Next well look at linear transformations of vector spaces. Whereas isomorphisms are bijections that preserve the algebraic structure, homomorphisms are simply functions that preserve the algebraic structure. In the case of vector spaces, the term linear transformation is used in preference to homomorphism. Math 130 Home Page at http://math.clarku.edu/~djoyce/ma130/