Universitt Stuttgart a

Institut f r Mechanik u Prof. Dr.-Ing. W. Ehlers

www. mechbau . uni-stuttgart.de

Supplement to the COMMAS Courses Core I: Continuum Mechanics Elective I: Single- and Multiphasic Materials

Vector and Tensor Calculus An Introduction

WT 2012/13

Chair of Continuum Mechanics, Pfaenwaldring 7, D - 70 569 Stuttgart, Tel.: (0711) 685 - 66346

Contents
1 Mathematical Prerequisites 1.1 Basics of vector calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 9 9 10 13 16 25 28 28 32 34 36 36 36 37 41 47

2 Fundamentals of tensor calculus 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 Introduction of the tensor concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Basic rules of tensor algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Specic tensors and operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Change of the basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Higher order tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fundamental tensor of 3rd order (Ricci permutation tensor) . . . . . . . . The axial vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The outer tensor product of tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The eigenvalue problem and the invariants of tensors . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 Fundamentals of vector and tensor analysis 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Introduction of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Functions of scalar variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Functions of vector and tensor variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Integral theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transformations between actual and reference congurations . . . . . . . .

Supplement to the COMMAS Core Course I on Continuum Mechanics

1
1.1

Mathematical Prerequisites
Basics of vector calculus

(a) Symbols, summation convention, Kronecker

Single- or multiple subscripts ui u1, u2 , u3 , ... ui vk u1 v1 , u1 v2 , u1 v3 , ... u2 v1 , u2 v2 , ... ... tik t11 , t12 , ... ... Summation convention of Einstein Denition: Whenever the same subscript occurs twice in a term, a summation over that double subscript has to be carried out.

Example: uj vj = u1 v1 , + u2 v2 , + ... + un vn ,
n

=
j=1

uj vj

Kronecker symbol Denition: It exists a symbol ik with the following properties 0 if i = k ik = 1 if i = k ui ik = u1 1k + u2 2k + ... + u1 11 = u1 12 = u1 1k = u = 1 1n ui ik = uk un nk u1 0 0

Example:

with

If the Kronecker symbol is multiplied with another quantity and if there is a double subscript in this term, the Kronecker symbol disappears, the double subscript can be dropped and the free subscript remains. Institute of Applied Mechanics, Chair II

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Rem.: Subscripts occuring two times in a term can be renamed arbitrarily.

(b) Terms and definitions of vector algebra

Rem.: The following statements are related to the standard three-dimensional (3-d) physical space, i. e. the Euclidean vector space V 3 . Generally, SPACE is a mathematical concept of a set and does not directly refer to the 3-d point space E 3 and the 3-d vector space V 3 .

A: Vector addition

Requirement: {u, v, w, ...} V 3 The following relations hold: u+v = v+u : commutative law

u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w : associative law u+0 = u u + (u) = 0 : 0 : identity element of vector addition : u : inverse element of vector addition

Examples to the commutative and the associative law: u+v u v v u v+u u+v u v v+w w

u+v+w

B: Multiplication of a vector with a scalar quantity Requirement: {u, v, w, ...} V 3 ; {, , ...} R 1v = v ( v) = ( ) v ( + ) v = v + v : 1: identity element : associative law : distributive law (addition of scalars)

(v + w) = v + w : distributive law (addition of vectors) v = v : commutative law

Rem.: In the general vector calculus, the denitions A and B constitute the ane vector space. Linear dependency of vectors Rem.: In V 3 , 3 non-coplanar vectors are linearly independent; i. e. each further vector can be expressed as an multiple of these vectors. Institute of Applied Mechanics, Chair II

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Theorem:

The vectors vi (i = 1, 2, 3, ..., n) are linearly dependent, if real numbers i exist which are not all equal to zero, such that i vi = 0 or 1 v1 + 2 v2 + ... + n vn = 0

Example (plane case): v2 v3 v1 1 v 1 2 v 2 3 v 3 v1 + v 2 + v 3 = 0 but: 1 v1 + 2 v2 + 3 v3 = 0 {v1 , v2 , v3 }: linearly dependent {v1 , v2 }: linearly independent

Rem.: The i can be multiplied by any factor . Basis vectors in V 3 then : {v1 , v2 , v3 , v} : linearly dependent Thus, it follows that 1 v 1 + 2 v 2 + 3 v 3 + v = 0 v = i vi i or v = vi =: i vi i : coecients (of the vector components) i = with vi : basis vectors of v Choice of a specic basis Rem.: In V 3 , each system of 3 linearly independent vectors can be selected as a basis; e. g. vi : ei : general basis specic, orthonormal basis (Cartesian, right-handed) v3 v1 v v2 e1 Basissystem vi Basissystem ei e3 e2 v ex. : {v1 , v2 , v3 } : linearly independent

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Representation of the vector v: i vi i ei

v=

here:

Specic choice of the Cartesian basis system ei

Notations v = vi ei = v1 e1 + v2 e2 + v3 e3 with vi ei : vector components vi : coecients of the vector components

C: Scalar product of vectors The following relations hold: uv = vu u (v + w) = u v + u w uv = 0 u u = 0 u, if v 0 , if u = 0 : commutative law : distributive law

(u v) = u ( v) = ( u) v : associative law

Rem.: The denitions A, B and C constitute the Euclidean vector space. If instead of u u = 0 especially holds, then A, B and C dene the proper Euclidean vector space V 3 (physical space). Square and norm of a vector v2 := v v , v = |v| = v2 u u > 0 , if u = 0,

Rem.: The norm is the value or the positive square root of the vector. Angle between two vectors

v u

uv

< (u ; v) =: )

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Supplement to the COMMAS Core Course I on Continuum Mechanics Law of cosines |u v|2 = |u|2 + |v|2 2 |u| |v| cos cos = u2 + v2 (u v)2 2 |u| |v| uv = |u| |v|

or

u v = |u| |v| cos

Scalar products (inner products) in an orthonormal basis Scalar product of the basis vectors ei : < (ei ; ek ) ) thus 90 if i = k 0 if i = k : cos 90 = 0 : cos 0 = 1

ei ek = |ei | |ek | cos < (ei ; ek ) ) = cos < (ei ; ek ) ) It follows with the Kronecker ei ek = ik = Scalar product of two vectors: u v = (ui ei ) (vk ek ) = ui vk (ei ek ) = ui vk ik 1 if i = k 0 if i = k

= ui vi = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 D: Vector or cross product (outer product) of vectors One denes the following vector product with n: unit vector u , v (corkscrew rule or right-hand rule, see page 7) From the above deniton, the following relations can be derived u v = v u u (v + w) = u v + u w : no commutative law : distributive law u v = |u| |v| sin < (u ; v) n )

(u v) = ( u) v = u ( v) : associative law Institute of Applied Mechanics, Chair II

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Scalar triple product (parallelepidial product): u (v w) = v (w u) = w (u v) Arithmetic laws for the vector product (without proof) uu = 0

(u + v) w = u w + v w u (u v) = v (u u) = 0 Expansion theorem: u (v w) = (u w) v (u v) w Lagrangean identity (Jean Louis Lagrange: 1736-1813): (u v) (w z) = (u w) (v z) (u z) (v w) Norm of the vector product: |u v||u| |v| sin < (u ; v) ) Vector product in an orthonormal basis here: simplied representation in matrix notation e1 u = vw = v1 e2 v2 e3 v3

Calculation of

w1 w2 w3

(v2 w3 v3 w2 ) e1 (v1 w3 v3 w1 ) e2 + (v1 w2 v2 w1 ) e3

Rem.: u v, w ; i. e. u v = u w = 0 holds Example: u v = ui vi = (v2 w3 v3 w2 ) v1 (v1 w3 v3 w1 ) v2 + (v1 w2 v2 w1 ) v3 = 0 q. e. d. Remarks on the products between vectors on the scalar product Decomposition of a vector (example: in 2-d): u2 u2 e2 e1 u u1 u1 u = u1 + u2 with u1 = u1 e1 and u2 = u2 e2 u1 , u2 : u1 , u2 : vector components coecients of the vector components

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Supplement to the COMMAS Core Course I on Continuum Mechanics Projection of u on the directions of ei : ui = u ei Verication of the projection law: u ei = = uk ki = ui (uk ek ) ei q. e. d.

Calculation of the projections: u1 = = u2 = |u| |e1 | cos |u| cos = u cos u cos u cos (90 ) = u sin

with u = |u| = Note:

For the values of the vector components, the following relations hold u2 u u1 u1 = u cos u2 = u sin

on the vector product Orientation of the vector u = v w: u w v It is obvious that w v z Value of the vector product: w sin v w |v w| = = |v| |w| sin v (w sin ) z = wv v w = w v (1) (2) u v, w corkscrew rule (right-hand rule)

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Note:

The vector v w is perpendicular to v and w (corkscrew orientation); its value corresponds to the area spanned by v and w.

Scalar triple product (parallelepidial product):

z u w v

follows u z

with z = v w = =

u (v w) =: [ u v w ] |u| |z| cos z (u cos )

with (u cos ) : projection of u on the direction of z

Rem.: The parallelepidial product yields the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by u, v and w. Remark: The preceding and the following relations are valid with respect to an arbitrary basis system. For simplicity, the following material is restricted to the orthonormal basis, whenever a basis notation occurs. Concerning a more general basis representation, cf., e. g., de Boer, R.: Vektor- und Tensorrechnung f r Ingenieure. Springer-Verlag, Berlin 1982. u

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Fundamentals of tensor calculus

Rem.: The following statements are related to the proper Euklidian vector space V 3 and the corresponding dyadic product space V 3 V 3 V 3 (n times) of n-th order.

2.1

Introduction of the tensor concept

(a) Tensor concept and linear mapping

Denition: A 2nd order (2nd rank) tensor T is a linear mapping which transforms a vector u uniquely in a vector w: w = Tu 3 3 3 u, w V ; T L(V , V ) therein: L(V 3 , V 3 ) : set of all 2nd order tensors or linear mappings of vectors, respectively

(b) Tensor concept and dyadic product space

Denition: There is a simple tensor (a b) with the property (a b) c =: (b c) a a b V 3 V 3 (dyadic product space)

therein:

: dyadic product (binary operator of V 3 V 3 ) V 3 V 3 L(V 3 , V 3 )

It follows directly that a b L(V 3 , V 3 )

Rem.: (a b) maps a vector c onto a vector d = (b c) a . Basis notation of a simple tensor: A := a b = (ai ei ) (bk ek ) = ai bk (ei ek ) with ai bk : coecients of the tensor components ei ek : tensor basis

Tensors A V 3 V 3 have 9 independent components (and directions); e. g. a1 b3 (e1 e3 ) etc.

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Introduction of arbitrary tensors T V 3 V 3 : T = tik (ei ek ) t11 t12 t13 with tik = t21 t22 t23 t31 t32 t33

matrix of coecients of T with 9 independent quantities

2.2

Basic rules of tensor algebra

Requirement: {A, B, C, ...} V 3 V 3 .

(a) Tensor addition

A+B = B+A : commutative law

A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C : associative law A+0 = A A + (A) = 0 : 0 : identical element : inverse element

: A

Tensor addition with respect to an orthonormal tensor basis: A = aik (ei ek ), B = bik (ei ek )

C = A + B = (aik + bik )(ei ek ) cik Rem.: A tensor addition carried out as an addition of the tensor coecients requires that both tensors have the same tensor basis.

(b) Multiplication of tensors by a scalar

1A = A ( A) = ( ) A : 1 : identical element : associative law

( + ) A = A + A : distributive law (with respect to the addition of scalars) (A + B) = A + B : distributive law (with respect to the addition of tensors) A = A : commutative law

(c) Linear mapping between tensor and vector

The following denitions make use of the linear mapping (cf. 2.1) w = Tu Institute of Applied Mechanics, Chair II

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11

Rem.: In the literature, the multiplication of a vector by a tensor is also called contraction. The following relations hold: A (u + v) = A u + A v : distributive law A ( u) = (A u) : associative law

(A + B) u = A u + B u : distributive law ( A) u = (A u) 0u = 0 Iu = u : associative law : 0 : zero element of the linear mapping : I : identity element of the linear mapping

Linear mapping in basis notation: A = aik (ei ek ) , One obtains u = ui ei

A u = (aik ei ek ) (uj ej ) = aik uj (ei ek ) ej mit i : free index (basis index k : silent index (double index of wi ) e3 u e2 Au

w = A u = aik uj kj ei = aik uk ei wi

Rem.: In general, a linear mapping A causes both a rotation and a stretch of a vector u. Identity tensor I V 3 V 3 : I = ik ei ek = ei ei Proof of the dening property:

0 e1

u = I u = (ei ei ) uj ej = uj (ei ei ) ej = uj ij ei = ui ei

q. e. d.

Rem.: Tensors built from basis vectors are called fundamental tensors, i. e. I V 3 V 3 is the fundamental tensor of 2nd order.

(d) Scalar product of tensors (inner product)

The following relations hold: AB = BA A (B + C) = A B + A C ( A) B = A ( B) = (A B) A B = 0 A , if B 0 A A > 0 for A = 0 Institute of Applied Mechanics, Chair II : commutative law : distributive law : associative law

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Scalar product of A with a simple tensor a b V 3 V 3 : A (a b) = a A b Scalar product of A and B in basis notation: A = aik (ei ek ), B = bik (ei ek ) One obtains = A B = aik (ei ek ) bst (es et ) = aik bst (ei ek ) (es et ) = aik bst is kt = aik bik Rem.: The result of the scalar product is a scalar.

(e) Tensor product of tensors

Denition: The tensor product of tensors yields (AB) v = A (B v) Rem.: With this denition, the tensor product of tensors is directly linked to the linear mapping (cf. 2.1 (a)). The following relations hold: (A B) C = A (B C) A (B + C) = A B + A C (A + B) C = A C + B C : associative law : distributive law : distributive law

(A B) = ( A) B = A ( B) : associative law IT = TI = T 0T = T0 = 0 : I : identity element : 0 : zero element

Rem.: In general, the commutative law is not valid, i. e. A B = B A. Tensor product of simple tensors: A= ab, It follows with the above denition (A B) v = A (B v) [ (a b) (c d) ] v = (a b) [ (c d) v ] = (a b) (d v) c = (b c) (d v) a = [ (b c) (a d) ] v Institute of Applied Mechanics, Chair II B=cd

Supplement to the COMMAS Core Course I on Continuum Mechanics Consequence: (a b) (c d) = (b c) a d Tensor product in basis notation: A B = aik (ei ek ) bst (es et ) = aik bst (ei ek ) (es et ) = aik bst ks (ei et ) = aik bkt (ei et ) Rem.: The result of a tensor product is a tensor.

13

2.3

Specic tensors and operations

(a) Transposed tensor

Denition: The transposed tensor AT belonging to A exhibits the property w (A u) = (AT w) u The following relations hold: (A + B)T = AT + BT ( A)T = AT (A B)T = BT AT

Transposition of a simple tensor a b: It follows with the above denition w (a b) u = w (b u) a = (w a) (b u) = (b a) w u (a b)T Transposed tensor in basis notation: A = aik (ei ek ) = aki (ei ek ) : renaming the indices Institute of Applied Mechanics, Chair II = ba

AT = aik (ek ei )

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Note:

The transposition of a tensor A V 3 V 3 can be carried out by an exchange of the tensor basis or by an exchange of the subscripts of the tensor coecients.

(b) Symmetric and skew-symmetric tensor

Denition: A tensor A V 3 V 3 is symmetric, if A = AT and skew-symmetric (antimetric), if A = AT Symmetric and skew-symmetric parts of an arbitrary tensor A V 3 V 3 : sym A = skw A =
1 2 1 2

(A + AT ) (A AT )

A = sym A + skw A Properties of symmetric and skew-symmetric tensors: w (sym A) v = (sym A) w v v (skw A) v = (skw A) v v = 0 Positive denite symmetric tensors: sym A is positive denite, if sym A is positive semi-denite, if sym A (v v) = v (sym A) v > 0 sym A (v v) = v (sym A) v 0

(c) Inverse tensor

Denition: If A1 inverse to A exists, it exhibits the property v = Aw The following relations hold: A A1 = A1 A = I (A1 )T = (AT )1 =: AT 1 (A B)1 = B1 A1 Institute of Applied Mechanics, Chair II w = A1 v

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15

Rem.: The computation of the inverse tensor in basis notation is carried out by introducing the double cross product (outer tensor product of tensors), cf. 2.8.

(d) Orthogonal tensor

Denition: An orthogonal tensor Q V 3 V 3 exhibits the property Q1 = QT Additionally Q QT = I

(det Q)2 = 1 : orthogonality det Q = 1 : proper orthogonality

Rem.: The computation of the determinant of 2nd order tensors is dened with the aid of the double cross product, cf. 2.8. Properties of orthogonal tensors: Q v Q w = QT Q v w = v w Rem.: Linear mapping with Q preserves the norm of the respective vector. Illustration: u in general: linear mapping with A V 3 V 3 causes a rotation and a stretch Au in special: linear mapping with Q V 3 V 3 causes only a rotation Q u Q u = u u

Qu

(e) Trace of a tensor

Denition: The trace tr A of a tensor A V 3 V 3 is the scalar product tr A = A I The following relations hold: tr ( A) = tr A tr (a b) = a b tr AT = tr A tr (A B) = tr (BA) (A B) I = B AT = BT A

tr (A B C) = tr (B C A) = tr (C A B)

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2.4

Change of the basis

Rem.: The goal is to nd a relation between vectors and tensors which belong to different basis systems. here: Restriction to orthonormal basis systems which are rotated against each other.

(A) Rotation of the basis system

Illustration: e3

e3

e2 { 0, ei } : basis system e2 { 0, ei } : rotated basis system { ik } : angle between the basis vectors ei and ek

e1

11

22 21 e1

Development of the transformation tensor: The following relations hold: ei = I ei Thus, using ei = ik ek leads to ei = (ej ik ek ) ej = (ej ek ) (ei ek ) ej ei = (ej ek ) (ej ek )ei =: R ei

and I = ej ej

ei = (ej ej ) ei = (ej ei ) ej

one obtains

with R = (ej ek ) ej ek

Rem.: R is the transformation tensor which transforms the basis vectors ei into the basis vectors ei . Coecient matrix Rjk : Rjk = ej ek = |ej | |ek | cos < (ej ; ek ) = cos jk )

with |ej | = |ek | = 1

Rem.: Rjk contains the 9 cosines of the angles between the directions of the basis vectors ej and ek . Institute of Applied Mechanics, Chair II

Supplement to the COMMAS Core Course I on Continuum Mechanics Orthogonality of the transformation tensor:

17

Rem.: By R, the basis vectors ei are only rotated towards ei , thus, R is an orthogonal tensor. Orthogonality condition:
!

R RT = I = Rjk (ej ek ) Rpn (en ep ) = Rjk Rpn kn ej ep = Rjk Rpk (ej ep ) It follows with I = jp (ej ep ) by comparison of coecients Rjk Rpk = jp ()

Rem.: () contains 6 constraints for the 9 cosines (R RT = sym (R RT )), i. e. only 3 of 9 trigonometrical functions are independent. Thus, the rotation of the basis system is dened by 3 angles.

(B) Introduction of CARDANO angles

Idea: Rotation around 3 axes which are given by the basis directions ei . This procedure was rstly investigated by Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576). Procedure: The rotation of the basis system is carried out by 3 independent rotations around the axes e1 , e2 , e3 . Each rotation is expressed by a transformation tensor Ri (i = 1, 2, 3). Rotation of ei around e3 , e2 , e1 : ei = {R1 [R2 (R3 ei )]} = R ei Rotation of ei around e1 , e2 , e3 : i = {R3 [R2 (R1 ei )]} = R ei e Obviously, R=R

with R = R1 R2 R3

with R = R3 R2 R1

e = i e

Rem.: The result of the orthogonal transformation depends on the sequence of the rotations. Institute of Applied Mechanics, Chair II

18 Illustration:

Supplement to the COMMAS Core Course I on Continuum Mechanics

(a) Rotation around e3 , e2 , e1 (e. g. each about 90) (e3 ) 90 e3 e2 e1 2 e1

3 2 1 90 (e2 )

1 3 90 (e1 )

e2 e3

(b) Rotation around e1 , e2 , e3 (e. g. each about 90 ) with e3 2

e2 e1 90 (e1 ) (e3 ) 90 3 2 1

3 1

90 (e2 ) e1

3 e 180 e1

2 e2 e e3

Denition of the orthogonal rotation tensors Ri (a) Rotation around the e3 -axis e2 e2 3 3 e3 e1

The following relations hold: e1

e1 = cos 3 e1 + sin 3 e2 e2 = sin 3 e1 + cos 3 e2 e3 = e3

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19

ei = R3 ei = R3jk (ej ek ) ei = R3jk ki ej = R3ji ej Thus, by comparison of coecients R3 = R3ji (ej ei ) with R3ji (b) Rotation around the e2 - and e1 -axis Analogously, R2 = R2ji (ej ei ) with R2ji cos 2 0 sin 2 0 1 0 = sin 2 0 cos 2 cos 3 sin 3 0 = sin 3 cos 3 0 0 0 1

R1 = R1ji (ej ei )

with R1ji

1 0 0 = 0 cos 1 sin 1 0 sin 1 cos 1

Rem.: The rotation tensor R can be composed of single rotations under consideration of the rotation sequence. (c) Denition of the total rotation R (c1 ) it follows from rotation of ei around e3 , e2 , e1 that

R R = R1 R2 R3 = R1ij (ei ej ) R2no (en eo ) R3pq (ep eq ) = R1ij R2no R3pq jn op (ei eq ) = R1ij R2jo R3oq (ei eq )

Riq with
Riq = sin 1 sin 2 cos 3 + cos 1 sin 3

cos 2 cos 3

cos 2 sin 3 sin 1 sin 2 sin 3 + cos 1 cos 3 cos 1 sin 2 sin 3 + sin 1 cos 3

sin 2 sin 1 cos 2 cos 1 cos 2

cos 1 sin 2 cos 3 + sin 1 sin 3

(c2 ) it follows from rotation of ei around e1 , e2 , e3 that R R = R3 R2 R1 = R3ij R2jo R1oq (ei eq ) Riq

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20 with

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Riq = cos 2 sin 3 sin 1 sin 2 sin 3 + cos 1 cos 3 cos 1 sin 2 sin 3 sin 1 cos 3
sin 2 sin 1 cos 2 cos 1 cos 2

cos 2 cos 3

sin 1 sin 2 cos 3 cos 1 sin 3

cos 1 sin 2 cos 3 + sin 1 sin 3

Orthogonality of Cardano rotation tensors: For all R {R1 , R2 , R3 , R, R}, the following relations hold R1 = RT , i. e. R RT = I and (det R)2 = 1 Furthermore, all rotation tensors hold the following relation det R = 1 : proper orthogonality orthogonality

Rem.: A basis transformation with non-proper orthogonal transformations (det R = 1) transforms a right-handed into a left-handed basis system. Example: here: Investigation of the orthogonality properties of R3 cos 3 sin 3 with R3ij = sin 3 cos 3 0 0 R3 RT = R3ij (ei ej ) R3on (en eo ) 3 = R3ij R3on jn (ei eo ) = R3in R3on (ei eo ) where R3in R3on and one obtains Furthermore, sin2 3 + cos2 3 0 0 0 sin2 3 + cos2 3 0 = io = 0 0 1 R3 RT = io (ei eo ) = I q. e. d. 3 det R3 := det (R3ij ) = 1 R3 is proper orthogonal = R3ij (ei ej ) 0 0 1

One looks at

Description of rotation tensors: In general, the transformation between basis systems i and basis systems ei satises the e following relation: e e ei = R i with R = Rik i k e i = R ei e
T

1 T with R R

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21

i = R ei e

Consequence: By comparing both relations, it follows that

T R = R , i. e., Rik ei ek = (Rik )T i k e e

with R = Rik ei ek

Rik = Rki

In particular,
R = Rik (ei ek ) = Rik (R ei R ek ) ! = Rik Rni en Rpk ep = (Rni Rik Rpk ) en ep = Rpn en ep = RT

! Rni Rik Rpk = Rpn

Rni Rik = nk

Rem.: The coecient matrices Rni and Rik are inverse to each other, i. e., in general, Rni Rik = nk implies 6 equations for the 9 unknown coecients Rik . Due to 1 T 1 R = R , one has Rni = (Rni )T = Rin , i. e. Rik = (Rik )T = Rki

(C) Introduction of EULER angles

Rem.: Rotation of a basis system ei around three specic axes. Introduction of 3 specic angles around e3 , e1 , e3 =e3 Illustration:

e3

e3 e2 e2 2 e e2 e1

1 e

Idea: Given are 2 planes F and F with in-plane vectors e1 , e2 and e1 , e2 and surface normals e3 and e3 . The basis systems ei and ei are related to each other by the Eulerian rotation tensor R: ei := R ei

e1

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22 1st step:

Supplement to the COMMAS Core Course I on Continuum Mechanics Rotation of ei in plane F around e3 with the angle , such that ei is directed towards c c. This yields the rotation tensor cos sin 0 R3 = sin cos 0 ej ek . 0 0 1 e2 Then, the new system ei is computed as follows ei = R3 ei = R3jk (ej ek ) ei = R3ji ej . Thus, e1 = R3j1 ej = cos e1 + sin e2 e2 = R3j2 ej = sin e1 + cos e2 e3 = R3j3 ej = e3 . c e1 e1

e3 = e3 e2

2nd step:

e3

e3 e2 e2 e1 = e1 c

Rotation of ei around e1 with the angle , such that e2 lies in the plane F , and e3 is directed normal to the plane F . This yields the rotation tensor 1 0 0 R1 = 0 cos sin ej ek . 0 sin cos Then, the new system ei is computed as follows ei = R1 ei = R1jk (j ek ) ei = R1ji ej . e Thus, e1 = R1j1 ej = e1 e2 = R1j2 ej = cos e2 + sin e3 e3 = R1j3 ej = sin e2 + cos e3 .

3rd step:

e3 = e3 e2 e2 c e1 e1 c

Rotation of ei in plane F around e3 with the angle . This yields the rotation tensor cos sin 0 R3 = sin cos 0 ej ek . 0 0 1 Then, the new system ei is computed as follows
ei = R3 ei = R3jk (j ek ) ei = R3ji ej . e

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23

e1 = R3j1 ej = cos e1 + sin e2 e2 = R3j2 ej = sin e1 + cos e2 e3 = R3j3 ej = e3 .

Summary: (a) Inserting ei = R1 ei e1 =

cos e1 + sin (cos e2 + sin e3 )

e2 = sin e1 + cos (cos e2 + sin e3 ) Result:

e3 = e3 = sin e2 + cos e3

e1 = e3 =

cos e1 + sin cos e2 + sin sin e3 + cos cos e2 + cos sin e3 sin e2 + with cos e3 R = R3 R1

e2 = sin e1

ei = R3 (R1 ei ) =: R ei

ei

(b) Inserting ei = R3 ei e1 =

cos (cos e1 + sin e2 ) + sin cos ( sin e1 + cos e2 ) + sin sin e3

e3 = sin ( sin e1 + cos e2 ) + cos e3 Result:

e2 = sin (cos e1 + sin e2 ) + cos cos ( sin e1 + cos e2 ) + cos sin e3

e1 = (cos cos sin cos sin ) e1 + +(cos sin + sin cos cos ) e2 + sin sin e3 e2 = ( sin cos cos cos sin ) e1 + +( sin sin + cos cos cos ) e2 + cos sin e3 e3 = sin sin e1 sin cos e2 + cos e3
ei = R (R3 ei ) =: R ei

with

R = R R3 = R3 R1 R3

ei

Rotation tensors R and R: For the total rotation the following relation holds: ei

= (R3 R1 R3 ) ei =: R ei = (R3 R1 ) (R3 ei ) = R3 (R1 ei ) = R3 ei ei ei ei

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ei = R ei

ei = RT ei =: R ei

R = RT

Analogously to the previous considerations Description:

cos cos sin cos sin sin sin

Rik = (Rik )T = Rki

sin cos cos cos sin cos sin

sin sin

R = cos sin + sin cos cos sin sin + cos cos cos sin cos ei ek
cos

Combining rotation tensors with dierent basis systems: Example: R := R3 R1

ei = R3 ei = (R3 R1 ) ei R = R3ik (i ek ) R1no (n eo ) e e e = R3ik ( R1 ei R1 ek ) R1no (n eo )

R1si es R1tk et

R = R1si R3ik R1tk (s et ) R1no (n eo ) e e = R1si R3ik R1tk R1no tn (s eo ) e = R1si R3ik R1tk R1to (s eo ) e Rso

Thus, the rotation tensor R is given by cos sin 0 R = sin cos cos cos sin ei ek sin sin cos sin cos Rem.: Concerning Cardano angles, all partial rotations (e. g. R = R3 R2 R1 with ei = R ei ) are carried out with respect to the same basis ei , i. e. the combination of the partial rotations is much easier. Rotation around a xed axis: Rem.: A rotation around 3 independent axes can also be described by a rotation around the resulting axis of rotation: The Euler-Rodrigues representation of the rotation is discussed later (see section 2.7). Euler-Rodrigues representation of the spatial rotation

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2.5

Higher order tensors

An arbitrary n-th order tensor is given by A V3 V3 V3
3 3 3 n

Denition:

(n times) : n-th order dyadic product space

with V V V

Rem.: Usually, n 2. However, there exist special cases for n = 1 (vector) and n = 0 (scalar). General description of the linear mapping Denition: A linear mapping is a contracting product (contraction) given by AB= C Descriptive example on simple tensors: (a b c d) (e f ) = (c e) (d f ) a b A Fundamental 4-th order tensors Rem.: 4-th order fundamental tensors are built by a dyadic product of 2nd order identity tensors and the corresponding independent transpositions. One introduces: (I I) T II
23

n s

ns

with n s

= =

= (ei ei ) (ej ej ) ei ej ej ei ei ej ei ej

24

(I I) T
ik

with ( ) T : transposition, dened by the exchange of the i-th and the k-th basis system Rem.: Further transpositions of I I do not lead to further independent tensors. The fundamental tensors from above exhibit the property A = AT
4 4

with

AT = (AT ) T

13 24

Consequence: The 4-th order fundamental tensors are symmetric (concerning an exchange of the rst two and the second two basis systems). Institute of Applied Mechanics, Chair II

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Properties of 4-th order fundamental tensors (a) identical map

23

(I I) T A = (ei ej ei ej ) ast (es et ) = ast is jt (ei ej ) = aij (ei ej ) = A I := (I I) T (b) transposing map
24

23

is 4-th order identity tensor

(I I) T A = (ei ej ej ei ) ast (es et ) = ast js it (ei ej ) = aji (ei ej ) = AT (c) tracing map (I I) A = (ei ei ej ej ) ast (es et ) = ast js jt (ei ei ) = ajj (ei ei ) = (A I) I = (tr A) I with A I = ast (es et ) (ej ej ) = ast sj tj = ajj Specic 4-th order tensors Let A, B, C, D be arbitrary 2nd order tensors. Then, a 4-th order tensor A can be dened exhibiting the following properties: A AT
4 4 4
23 14

= (A B) T = (BT AT ) T
23 23

()
23 23

A 1 = [(A B) T ]1 = (A1 B1 ) T Furthermore, following relation holds: ( ) T = [( ) T ] T From (), the following relations can be derived:
23 23

= [(A B) T ]T = (AT BT ) T

13 24

23

(A B) T (C D) T
23

(A B)(C D) T and
23

(A B) T (C D) = (ACBT D)
23

= (AC BD) T

= (A CT BD)

(A B) T C = ACBT
23

23

(A B) T v = [A (B v)] T

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4

27

Dening a 4-th order tensor B with the properties B BT

4 4 4
24 13

= (A B) T = [(A B) T ]T
24

24

B 1 = [(A B) T ]1 = (BT 1 AT 1 ) T it can be shown that

24 24

= [(A B) T ]T = (B A) T
24

24

(A B) T (C D) T
23 24

24

(A B) T (C D) T
24

(A B) T (C D) T

= (ADT BT C) T = (AC DBT ) T

24 24

23

23

(A B)(C D) T and

(A B) T (C D) = (ACT B D)
24

= (AD CT B) T

= (A DBT C)

24

(A B) T C = ACT B Furthermore, the following relation holds: (CD)T = D T C T where C and D are arbitrary 4-th order tensors. High order tensors and incomplete mappings If higher order tensors are applied to other tensors in the sense of incomplete mappings, one has to know how many of the basis vectors have to be linked by scalar products. Therefore, a underlined supercript ()i indicates the order of the desired result after the tensor operation has been carried out. Examples in basis notation: (A B)3 = [aijkl (ei ej ek el ) bmno (em en eo )]3 = aijkl bmno km ln (ei ej eo ) (A B)1 = [aij (ei ej ) bmno (em en eo )]1 = aij bmno im jn eo
3 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 4

Note:

Note in passing that the incomplete mapping is governed by scalar products of a sucient number of inner basis systems.

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2.6

Fundamental tensor of 3rd order (Ricci permutation tensor)

Rem.: The fundamental tensor of 3rd order is introduced in the context of the outer product (e. g. vector product between vectors). Denition: The fundamental tensor E satises the rule u v = E (u v) Introduction of E in basis notation: There is E = eijk (ei ej ek ) with the permutation symbol eijk : even permutation 1 1 : odd permutation eijk = 0 : double indexing
3 3 3 3 3

Application of E to the vector product of vectors: From the above denition, u v = E (u v) = eijk (ei ej ek ) (us es vt et ) = eijk us vt js kt ei = eijk uj vk ei
3

e123 = e231 = e312 = 1 e321 = e213 = e132 = 1 all remaining e vanish ijk

= (u2 v3 u3 v2 ) e1 + (u3 v1 u1 v3 ) e2 + (u1 v2 u2 v1 ) e3 Comparison with the computation by use of the matrix notation, cf. page 5 uv =
3

e1 e2 e3 u1 u2 u3 v1 v2 v3

q. e. d.

An identity for E: Incomplete mapping of two Ricci-tensors yielding a 2nd or 4th order object (E E)2 = 2 I ,
3 3

(E E)4 = ( I I ) T ( I I ) T

3 3

23

24

2.7

The axial vector

Rem.: The axial vector (pseudo vector) can be used for the description of rotations (rotation vector). Institute of Applied Mechanics, Chair II

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29

Denition:

The axial vector t is associated with the skew-symmetric part skw T of an arbitrary tensor T V 3 V 3 via
A

t :=

1 2

E TT

One calculates,
A

1 = 2 eijk (ei ej ek ) tst (et es ) 1 = 2 eijk tst jt ks ei = 1 eijk tkj ei 2 1 = 2 [(t32 t23 ) e1 + (t13 t31 ) e2 + (t21 t12 ) e3 ]

It follows from 2.3 (b)

T = sym T + skw T

Thus, the axial vector of T is given by

A

= =

1 2 1 2

E (sym T + skw T)T E (skw TT ) = 1 E (skw T) 2

3 3

Rem.: A symmetric tensor has no axial vector. Axial vector and linear mapping: The following relation holds: (skw T) v = t v v V 3 Axial vector and the vector product of tensors: Denition: The vector product of 2 tensors {T, S} V 3 V 3 satises S T = E (S TT ) Rem.: The vector product (cross product) of 2 tensors yields a vector. In comparison with the denition of the axial vector follows I T = E TT = 2 t Furthermore, the vector product of 2 tensors yields S T = T S
3 A 3 A

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Axial vector and outer tensor product of vector and tensor: The outer tensor product of a vector u V 3 and a tensor T V 3 V 3 satises (u T) v = u (T v) ; v V 3

Denition:

Rem.: The outer tensor product of vector and tensor yields a tensor. The following relations hold: u T = (u T)T = T u i. e. u T is skew-symmetric
3

u T = [ E (u T)]2 with ( )2 : incomplete linear mapping (association) resulting in a 2nd order tensor. Evaluation in basis notation leads to u T = [(eijk ei ej ek ) (ur er tst es et )]2 = eijk ur tst jr ks (ei et ) = eijk uj tkt (ei et ) In particular, if T I, the following relation holds: u I = [ E (u I)]2 = eijk uj kt (ei et ) = eijt uj (ei et ) Furthermore, for the special tensor u I follows E (u I) = 2 u Consequence:
1 u = 2 E (u I) = 3 1 2 3 3

E (u I)T

In the tensor u I, the vector u is already the corresponding axial vector.

Finally, the following relation holds: uI=E u E (u I) = E (E u) = (E E)2 u = 2 u i. e. (E E)2 = 2 I

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 ! 3

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31

Application to the tensor product of vector and tensor

Rotation around a xed spatial axis

u b x a e O

Rotation of x around axis e u

x= a + C1 u + b a = (x e) e with u=xa b = C2 (e x) and = e ; |e| = 1

Determination of the constants C1 and C2 : (a) For the angle between u and u, the following relation holds cos =

|u| |u|

u u

C1 = cos

(b) For the angle between b and u, the following relation holds cos(90 ) = sin = Thus, x is given by x = (x e) e + cos [x (x e) e] + sin (e x) Determination of the rotation tensor R: For the tensor product of vector and tensor, the following relation holds: Thus,

|b| |u|

b u

C2 = sin

(e I) x = e (I x) = e x x= (e e) x + cos (I e e) x + sin (e I) x = R x R = e e + cos (I e e) + sin (e I) ()

!

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Rem.: () is the Euler-Rodrigues form of the spatial rotation. Example: Rotation with 3 around the e3 axis R = R3 = e3 e3 + cos 3 (I e3 e3 ) + sin 3 (e3 I) The following relation holds: e3 I = [ E (e3 I)]2 = [eijk (ei ej ek ) (e3 el el )]2 = eijk j3 kl (ei el ) = ei3l (ei el ) = e2 e1 e1 e2 Thus, leading to R3 = e3 e3 + cos 3 (e1 e1 + e2 e2 ) + sin 3 (e2 e1 e1 e2 ) = R3ij (ei ej ) with R3ij cos 3 sin 3 0 = sin 3 cos 3 0 0 0 1 q. e. d.
3

2.8

The outer tensor product of tensors

The outer tensor product of tensors (double cross product) is dened via
@ (A @ B)(u1 u2 ) := Au1 Bu2 Au2 Bu1

Denition:

As a direct consequence, one nds

@ @ A@ B = B@ A

Furthermore, the following relations hold:

@ @ (A @ B)T = AT @ BT @ @ @ @ (A @ B) (C @ D) = (A C @ B D) + (A D @ B C) @ (I @ I) = 2 I @ (a b) @ (c d) = (a c) (b d) @ @ @ (A @ B) C = (B @ C) A = (C @ A) B

From the above denition, it is easily proved that

@ [(A @ B) C][(u1 u2 ) u3 ] = eijk (Aui Buj ) Cuk

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Supplement to the COMMAS Core Course I on Continuum Mechanics The outer tensor product in basis notation
@ @ A @ B = aik (ei ek ) @ bno (en eo )

33

with

= aik bno (ei en ) (ek eo ) 3 ei en = E (ei en ) = einj ej

@ A @ B = aik bno einj ekop (ej ep )

Furthermore, it follows that

3 e e = E (e e ) = e e k o k o kop p

@ A @ B = (A I) (B I) I (AT B) I (A I) BT @ (A @ B) C = (A I) (B I) (C I) (A I) (BT C) (B I) (AT C)

@ A @ I = (A I) I AT

(B I) AT + AT BT + BT AT

(C I) (AT B) + (AT BT ) C + (BT AT ) C

The cofactor, the adjoint tensor and the determinant: The following relations hold: cof A = det A =
1 2 1 6

@ A @ A =: A ,

adj A = (cof A)T (Au1 Au2 ) Au3 (u1 u2 ) u3

@ (A @ A) A = det |aik | =

In basis notation the following relation holds: A=

+ 1 2

(aik ano einj ekop ) (ej ep ) = ajp (ej ep )

+

Rem.: The coecient matrix ajp of the cofactor cof A contains at each position ( )jp the corresponding subdeterminant of A
+

a11 = a22 a33 a23 a32

etc.

The inverse tensor: The following relation holds: A1 = (det A)1 adj A ; A1 exists if det A = 0

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Rules for the cofactor, the determinant and the inverse tensor: det (A B) = det A det B det ( A) = 3 det A det I = 1 det AT = det A det A = (det A)2 det A1 = (det A)1 det (A + B) = det A + A B + A B + det B (A B) = A B (A)T = (AT )
+ + + + + + + +

2.9

The eigenvalue problem and the invariants of tensors

The eigenvalue problem of an arbitrary 2nd order tensor A is given by (A A I) a = 0 , where A : eigenvalue a : eigenvector

Denition:

Formal solution for a yields a = (A A I)1 0 = adj (A A I)

0

det (A A I)

With the determinant rule

Consequence: Non-trivial solution for a only if the characteristic equation is fullled, i. e. det (A A I) = 0 det (A + B) = =
1 6 1 6

@ [(A + B) @ (A + B)] (A + B)
1 1 @ @ @ (A @ A) A + 6 (A @ A) B + 3 (A @ B) A + + +

@ @ @ + 1 (A @ B) B + 1 (B @ B) A + 1 (B @ B) B 3 6 6

= det A + A B + A B + det B follows det (A A I) = det A + A (A I) + A (A I)+ + det (A I)

2 1 3 @ @ = det A A 1 (A @ A) I + A 2 A (I @ I) A det I = 0 2 +

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35

IA IIA

= =

1 2 1 2 1 6

@ (A @ I) I @ (A @ A) I @ (A @ A) A

IIIA =

the characteristic equation can be simplied to

2 3 det (A A I) = IIIA A IIA + A IA A = 0

Rem.: The abreviations IA , IIA and IIIA are the three scalar principal invariants of a tensor A which play an important role in the eld of continuum mechanics. Alternative representations of the principal inavriants Scalar product representation: IA IIA = A I = tr A =
1 2 1 6 1 6 2 (IA A A I) = 1 2

[(tr A)2 tr (A A)]

IIIA = =

1 2 3 IA 2 IA (A A I) + 1 AT AT A = 3

[(tr A)3 3 tr A tr (A A) + 2 tr (A A A)] = det A

Eigenvalue representation: IA IIA = A(1) + A(2) + A(3) = A(1) A(2) + A(2) A(3) + A(3) A(1)

IIIA = A(1) A(2) A(3) Caley-Hamilton-Theorem: AAA IA AA + IIA A IIIA I = 0

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3
3.1

Fundamentals of vector and tensor analysis

Introduction of functions

Notation: ( ) : scalar-valued function v( ) : vector-valued function exists T( ) : tensor-valued function Notions: Domain of a function: set of all possible values of the independent variable quantities (variables); usually contiguous Range of a function: set of all possible values of the dependent variable quantities: ( ); v( ); T( ) scalar variables vector variables of ( ) tensor variables

Example: (A) : scalar-valued tensor function

3.2
here:

Functions of scalar variables

Vector- and tensor-valued functions of real scalar variables

(a) Vector-valued functions of a single variable

It exists: u = u() with u : unique vector-valued function, range in the open domain V 3 : real scalar variable w() := u () := Dierential of u(): du = u () d Introduction of higher derivatives and dierentials: d2 u = d(du) = u () d2 = d2 u() 2 d d2 etc. du() d

Derivative of u() with the dierential quotient:

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(b) Vector-valued functions of several variables

It exists: u = u(, , , ...) with {, , , ...} : real scalar variable Partial derivative of u(, , , ...): w (, , , ...) := Total dierential of u(, , , ...): du = u, d + u, d + u, d + Higher partial derivative (examples): u, = 2 u( ) ; 2 u, = 2 u( ) u( ) =: u,

Rem.: The order of partial derivatives is permutable.

(c) Tensor functions of a single or of several variables

Rem.: Tensor-valued functions are treated analogously to the above procedure.

(d) Derivative of products of functions

Some rules: (a b) = a b + a b (A B) = A B + A B (A1 ) = A1 A A1

3.3

Functions of vector and tensor variables

(a) The gradient operator

Rem.: Functions of the position (placement) vector are called eld functions. Derivatives with respect to the position vector are called gradient of a function. Scalar-valued functions (x) grad (x) := or in basis notation grad (x) := d(x) =: w(x) dx result is a vector eld

(x) ei =: ,i ei xi Institute of Applied Mechanics, Chair II

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Vector-valued functions v(x) grad v(x) := or in basis notation grad v(x) := Tensor-valued functions T(x) grad T(x) := or in basis notation grad T(x) := tik (x) ei ek ej =: tik ,j ei ek ej xj
3 dT(x) =: U (x) dx

dv(x) =: S(x) dx

result is a tensor eld

vi (x) ei ej =: vi ,j ei ej xj

result is a tensor eld of 3-rd order

Rem.: The gradient operator grad ( ) = ( ) (with : Nabla operator) increases the order of the respective function by one.

(b) Derivative of functions of arbitrary vectorial and tensorial variables

Rem.: Derivatives concerning the respective variables are built analogously to the preceding procedures, e. g. Rij (T, v) R(T, v) ei ej es et = T tst Some specic rules for the derivative of tensor functions with respect to tensors For arbitrary 2-nd order tensors A, B, C, the following rules hold: (AB) B (AB) A (AA) A (AT A) A
23

= (A I) T
23

= (I BT ) T
23 23

= (A I) T + (I AT ) T
23 24

= (AT I) T + (I A) T

23 24 (AAT ) = (A I) T + (I A) T A 23 (ABC) = (A CT ) T B 23 A1 = (A1 AT 1) T A

A A

24

= det A [(AT 1 AT 1 ) (AT 1 AT 1 ) T ]

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Supplement to the COMMAS Core Course I on Continuum Mechanics ( ) C ( v) C ( A) C (A v) C (u v) C (A B) C (AB) C Furthermore,

4 23 A = (I I) T =: I A 24 AT = (I I) T A (A I) I = (I I) A

39

= = = = = = =

+ C C v v + C C A A + C C 24 23 v A T T v+ A C C 13 u T T v v + C C B T A T B+ A C C A 24 4 24 T T B + C

13

B C

14

14

AT

t(A) A

= 1 E 2

Principal invariants and their derivatives (see also section 2.9) IA = I A IIA @ = A@ I A + IIIA = A A with with with IA = A I IIA =
1 2 2 (IA A A I)

IIIA = det A

(c) Specific operators

here: Introduction of the further dierential operators div ( ) and rot ( ). div v(x) := grad v(x) I =: (x) or in basis notation result is a scalar eld

Divergence of a vector eld v(x)

div v(x) = vi ,j (ei ej ) (en en ) = vi ,j in jn = vn ,n = v2 v3 v1 + + x1 x2 x3 Institute of Applied Mechanics, Chair II

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Divergence of a tensor eld T(x) div T(x) = [grad T(x)] I =: v(x) or in basis notation div T(x) = tik ,j (ei ek ej ) (en en ) = tik ,j kn jn ei = tin ,n ei Rem.: The divergence operator div ( ) = ( ) decreases the order of the respective function by one. Rotation of a vector eld v(x) rot v(x) := E [grad v(x)]T =: r(x) or in basis notation rot v(x) = eijn (ei ej en ) vo ,p (ep eo ) = eijn vo ,p jp no ei = eijn vn ,j ei Consequence: rot v(x) yields twice the axial vector corresponding to the skewsymmetric part of grad v(x).
3

result is a vector eld

result is a vector eld

Rem.: The rotation operator rot ( ) = curl ( ) = ( ) preserves the order of the respective function. Laplace operator ( ) := div grad ( ) analogical to the precedings Rem.: The Laplace operator ( ) = ( ) preserves the order of the dierentiated function. Rules for the operators grad ( ), div ( ), and rot ( ) grad () = grad + grad grad (v) = v grad + grad v grad (T) = T grad + grad T grad (u v) = (grad u)T v + (grad v)T u grad (u v) = u grad v + grad u v
23

grad (a b) = [grad a b + a (grad b)T ] T

23

grad (Tv) = (grad T) T v + T grad v

23 23

grad (TS) = [(grad T) T S]3 T + (T grad S)3 grad (T S) = (grad T) T ST + (grad S) T TT grad x = I
13 13

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Supplement to the COMMAS Core Course I on Continuum Mechanics div (u v) = u div v + (grad u) v div ( v) = v grad + div v div (Tv) = (div TT ) v + TT grad v div (grad v)T = grad div v div (u v) = (grad u v) I (grad v u) I = v rot u u rot v div ( T) = T grad + div T div (T S) = (grad T) S + T div S div (v T) = v div T + grad v T div (v T) = v div T + (grad v) TT div (grad v)+ = 0 div (grad v (grad v)T ) = div grad v grad div v div rot v = 0 rot rot v = grad div v div grad v rot grad = 0 rot grad v = 0 rot (grad v)T = grad rot v rot ( v) = rot v + grad v rot (u v) = div (u v v u) = u div v + (grad u)v v div u (grad v)u Grassmann evolution: v rot v =
1 2

41

grad (v v) (grad v) v = (grad v)T v (grad v) v

3.4

Integral theorems

Rem.: In what follows, some integral theorems for the transformation of surface integrals into volume integrals are presented. Requirement: u = u(x) is a steady and suciently often steadily dierentiable vector eld. The domain of u is in V 3 .

(a) Proof of the integral theorem

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u(x) da =
S V

grad u(x)dv

with da = n da

and

da : surface element n : outward oriented unit surface normal vector u(x) u4 e2 da4 x e1 dx3 u3 da2 u2

dx2 X da3 u5 da5 dx1 da1 u1

e3

Basis: Consideration of an innitesimal volume element dv spanned in the point X by the position vector x, and ui , i. e. the values of u(x) in the centroid of the partial surfaces 1 - 6. Determination of the surface element vectors dai : da1 = dx2 dx3 = dx2 dx3 (e2 e3 ) Furthermore, one obtains = dx2 dx3 e1 = da4 e1 = n1 = n4

da2 = dx3 dx1 e2 = da5 e2 = n2 = n5 da3 = dx1 dx2 e3 = da6 e3 = n3 = n6

6

Rem.: The surface vectors hold the condition

i=1

dai = 0 .

Determination of the volume elements dv: dv = (dx1 dx2 ) dx3 = dx1 dx2 dx3 Values of u(x) in the centroids of the partial surfaces: Rem.: The increments of u(x) in the directions of dx1 , dx2 , dx3 are approximated by the rst term of a Taylor series. u4 = u(x) + u1 = u4 + 1 u 1 u dx2 + dx3 2 x2 2 x3

u dx1 x1

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Supplement to the COMMAS Core Course I on Continuum Mechanics Furthermore, one obtains u2 = u5 + u dx2 , x2 u3 = u6 + u dx3 x3

43

Computation of the surface integral yields

6

u(x) da
S(dv)

i=1

ui dai = u1 da1 + u4 da4 +

(u1

u dx1 ) (da1 ) x1

Thus

i=1

ui dai =

u u u dx1 da1 + dx2 da2 + dx3 da3 x1 x2 x3

with da1 = dx2 dx3 e1 , da2 = dx1 dx3 e2 , da3 = dx1 dx2 e3 yields
6

i=1

ui dai =

u u u e1 + e2 + e3 dx1 dx2 dx3 x1 x2 x3 ui ei ej = grad u xj dv

Thus

i=1

ui dai = grad u dv

Integration over an arbitrary volume V yields u(x) da =

S V

grad u(x) dv

q. e. d.

()

(b) Proof of the GAUSSian integral theorem

u(x) da =
S V

div u(x) dv

Basis: Integral theorem () after scalar multiplication with the identity tensor I
S

u(x) da

=I
V

grad u(x) dv

I [u(x) da] = u(x) da

V

I grad u(x) dv div u(x)

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44 Thus, leading to

Supplement to the COMMAS Core Course I on Continuum Mechanics

u(x) da =
S V

div u(x) dv

()

Institute of Applied Mechanics, Chair II

Supplement to the COMMAS Core Course I on Continuum Mechanics

45

(c) Proof of the integral theorem

T(x) da =
S V

div T(x) dv

Basis: Scalar multiplication of the surface integral with a constant vector b V 3 b

S

T(x) da =
S

b T(x) da =
S

[TT (x) b] da =:
S

u(x) da

with u(x) := TT (x) b It follows with the integral theorem () b

S

T(x) da =
V

div [TT (x) b] dv

In particular, with b = const. and a divergence rule follows div [TT (x) b] = div T(x) b leading to b
S

T(x) da =
V

div T(x) b dv

Thus T(x) da =
S V

div T(x) dv

q. e. d.

Rem.: At this point, no further proofs are carried out.

(d) Summary of some integral theorems

For the transformation of surface integrals into volume integrals, the following relations hold: u da =
S V

grad u dv

da =
S V

grad dv

u da =
S V

div u dv

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46

Supplement to the COMMAS Core Course I on Continuum Mechanics

u da =
S V

rot u dv

T da =
S V

div T dv

u T da =
S V

div (u T) dv div (u T) dv
V

u T da =
S

For the transformation of line into surface integrals the following relations hold: u dx =
L S

grad u da grad da
S

dx =
L

u dx =
L S

(rot u) da (I div u grad T u) da

S

u dx =
L

T dx =
L S

(rot T)T da

with

da = n da

Rem.: If required, further relations of the vector and tensor calculus will be presented in the respective context. The description of non-orthogonal and non-unit basis systems was not discussed in this contribution.

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Supplement to the COMMAS Core Course I on Continuum Mechanics

47

3.5

Transformations between actual and reference congurations

Given are the deformation gradient F = x/X and arbitrary vectorial and tensorial eld functions v and A. Then, with Grad ( ) = ( ) X reference conguration Div ( ) = [Grad ( )] I or [Grad ( )] I actual conguration grad ( ) div ( ) = () x = [grad ( )] I or [grad ( )] I

the following relations hold:

Grad v = (grad v) F grad v Div v div v = (Grad v) F1 = (grad v) FT

Grad A = [(grad A) F]3 grad A = [(Grad A) F1 ]3 Div A = (grad A) FT div A = (Grad A) FT 1

= (Grad v) FT 1

Furthermore, it can be shown that Div FT 1 = FT 1 (FT 1 Grad F)1 = (det F)1 FT 1 [Grad (det F)] = FT (FT grad F1 )1 = (det F) FT [grad (det F)1 ]

div FT

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