BENP 2183 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

Objectives
Describe the basic block diagram of several types of signal generators and analyzers commonly used. Explain the function and operation of signal generators such as function and pulse generator. Explain the function and operation of signal analyzers such spectrum and Fourier analyzer. p y

CHAPTER 5 Signal Generators and Analyzers y

Introduction
A signal generator is very useful and important equipment in electronic troubleshooting and development. Applications of a signal gen.: pp g g checking the stage gain, S/N, bandwidth. checking the frequency response checking the alignment in receivers Oscillator provides sinusoidal signal only Converts a DC source to an AC energy (no energy is created). d) Usually built-in in the instrument. E.g: 1. Fixed freq normally at 1000c/s. 2. Variable freq 100kHz - MHz
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Introduction
Generator provides several types of waveforms including sine wave, square wave, triangular wave, pulse trains, as well as amplitude modulation (AM) waveform. Available as a separate instrument. Provide signals for testing purposes (eg: radio transmitter & receiver). There are several requirements for signal generator : The frequency of the signal should be known and stable. The amplitude should be controllable from small to large values. The signal should be distortion-free.

Signal Generator
Table 1 shows the band limit of various types of signal provided by an RF generator.
Band AF RF VLF Very Low Frequency LF Low Frequency Broad Cast Video HF VHF UHF Microwave Table 1 Approximate Range 20Hz 20kHz Above 30kHz 15 100kHz 100 500kHz 0.5 1.5MHz DC 5MHz 1.5 30MHz 30 300MHz 300 3000MHz Beyond 3000MHz (3GHz)
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Conventional Signal Generator

Figure 1: Conventional Standard Signal Generator

Signal Generator

Signal Generator
Highest freq. ranges are provided by RF Oscillator (34MHz 80MHz). Lowest freq. ranges are obtained by using frequency divider. 34MHz 80MHz divided by 512 (29) 67kHz 156kHz.

Buffer amplifiers (B1, B2, B3) provide isolation between the master oscillator and power amplifier. Eliminates frequency effects (signal distortion) between input and output circuits.

Figure 2: Modern Signal Generator

Signal Generator
Compared to conventional std signal gen, modern signal gen uses same oscillator on all bands. Eliminates range switching effects. Master oscillator is tuned by a motor driven variable capacitor. Coarse freq. tuning 7% frequency changes per second. Fine tuning at 0.01% of the main dial. Modulation process is done at the power amplifier stage. Two internally generated signal are used (400Hz &1kHz) for modulation.
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Function Generator
A function generator produces different waveforms of adjustable frequency.
Capable of producing various outputs at the same time (eg: a square wave to test an amplifier and a sawtooth to drive a CRO).

The common output waveforms are the sine, square, triangular, and sawtooth waves. The block diagram of a function generator is shown in Figure 3. Freq. Control regulates two currents sources (control the freq). Upper current source supplies constant current to the pp pp integrator, produces an output voltage that is increasing linearly with time. Lower current source supplies a reverse current to the integrator so that its output decreases linearly with time.
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Function Generator

Function Generator
The integrator output voltage is given by :

V0 =

1 C

i dt

Freq is controlled by varying upper and lower currents. An increase or decrease in the current will increase or decrease the slope of the output voltage, hence controls the frequency. The voltage comparator changes states at a pre-determined maximum and minimum level of the integrator output voltage. When the pre-determined level is reached, it changes the state and switches the current source.
Figure 3: Function Generator
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Produces a square wave.

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Function Generator
The integrator output is a triangular waveform whose frequency is determined by the magnitude of the constant current sources. The comparator output delivers a square wave of the same frequency. The resistance diode network produces a sine wave from the triangular wave with less than 1% distortion.

Function Generator
Square to sine converter

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Figure 4: Basic Function Gen

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Function Generator
Figure 4 shows the circuit for a basic function generator. Vo1 is the square wave, Vo2 is the triangular wave, and Vo3 is the sine wave. wave The maximum amplitude of Vo2 is given by :

Example 1: Figure shows a basic function generator. A variable resistor, R is used to tune the required freq of the waveform and the circuit is supplied by a voltage of 10V. If R is tuned to the value of five times the R2 to produce a 1kHz triangular waveform with the amplitude equals to 0.8Vcc, find R1, R2 and R. Then, draw the output waveform at V01 and V02.

V02 =

R1 VCC R2

The frequency of output voltage is given by : Th f f t t lt i i b

f =

1 4RC

R2 R 1

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Pulse Generator
Pulse generators are instruments that produce a rectangular waveform similar to a square wave but with a different duty cycle. Duty D t cycle i given b : l is i by

Pulse Generator

Duty cycle =

pulse width pulse period

A square wave generator has a 50% duty cycle. The basic circuit for pulse generation is the asymmetrical multi-vibrator. multi vibrator Figure 6 shows block diagram of a pulse generator.

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Figure 6: Block diagram of a Pulse Generator

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Pulse Generator
The duty cycle can be varied from 25-75%. Two independent outputs:
50 - supplies pulses with a rise and fall time of 5ns at 5Vp. 600 - supplies pulses with a rise and fall time of 70ns at 30Vp.

Pulse Generator

The instrument can operate as a free-running or can be synchronized with external signal or circuit. Basic generating loop consists of the current sources, the g g p ramp capacitor, the Schmitt trigger, and the current switching circuit as shown in Figure 7.

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Figure 7: Basic Generating Loop

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Pulse Generator
Upper current source supplies a constant current to the ramp capacitor and the capacitor voltage increases linearly. When the positive slope of the ramp reaches the upper limit, Schmitt Trigger will change it state. S h itt T i ill h its t t
Reverses the condition of the current switch. Capacitor discharges linearly. (lower current source takes part)

Sweep Generator
Sweep frequency generators are instruments that provide a sine wave in the RF range. Its frequency can be varied smoothly and continuously over an entire frequency band. Figure 8 shows the block diagram of the sweep generator. The frequency sweeper provides a varying sweep voltage for synchronization to drive the horizontal deflection plates of the CRO. A sweep rate can be of the order of 20 sweeps/sec. Figure 9 shows the modulated sinewave by a voltagecontrolled oscillator (VCO).
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When the negative slope of the ramp reaches the lower limit, upper current will control the circuit. The process is repeated. The ratio i1/i2 determines the duty cycle and is controlled by cycle, symmetry control. The sum of i1 and i2 determines the frequency. The size of the capacitor is selected by the multiplier switch.

Sweep Generator

Sweep Generator

Figure 9: RF signal modulated by an audio-frequency ramp voltage.

Figure 8: Sweep Generator

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Radio Frequency Generator

Radio frequency generators are designed to provide an output signal over a wide range of frequencies from approximately 30 kHz to nearly 3000 MHz. Contain C t i a precision output attenuator network th t permits i i t t tt t t k that it selection of output voltages from 1 uV to 3V in precise steps. Output impedance = 50. Figure 10 shows a block diagram for a basic RF signal generator. The frequency range is selected with the band selector and exact freq. is selected with the vernier freq. selector. Broadband amplifier provides buffering between the oscillator and the load connected to the output terminal. The output of the attenuator is monitored by the output meter.
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Radio Frequency Generator

Figure 10: Basic RF Signal Generator

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Distortion Analyzer
Distortion the alteration of the original shape of a waveform. Function of distortion analyzer: measuring the extent of distortion (the o/p differs from the waveform at the i/p) introduced by the active or passive devices devices. An amplitude distorted sine wave is made up of pure sine wave components, including the fundamental frequency, f of the input signal, and harmonic multiples of fundamental frequency, 2f, 3f, 4f, etc. Harmonic distortion can be measured accurately using harmonic distortion analyzer, generally called a distortion analyzer. The total harmonic distortion (THD) is given by :

Distortion Analyzer
The total harmonic distortion (THD) can also be written as :

THD =

2 E 2 + E 3 + ... + E 2 2 n

Ef

THD =

(harmonics rms) 2 fundamenta l rms

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where THD = the total harmonic distortion Ef = the amplitude of fundamental frequency including the harmonics E2,E3 ,En = the amplitude of the individual harmonics

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Distortion Analyzer
Example 1: Compute the THD of a signal that contains a fundamental signal of Ef = 10Vrms , harmonics E2 = 3Vrms , E3 = 1 .5Vrms , and E4 = 0.6Vrms . Solution :

Distortion Analyzer: Examples

1.

A sinusoidal signal is applied to a circuit that introduces the second, fourth and sixth harmonics. If the amplitude of the primary signal has an rms value of 5V and the second, fourth and sixth harmonics have rms values of 1V, 0.4V and 0.1V respectively, what is the total harmonic distortion? A wave analyzer is used to determine the harmonics present in a signal. Only the fifth harmonic was found to be present and its amplitude was 0.4Vrms. If the fundamental frequency had an amplitude of 4Vrms, what was the total harmonic distortion? The total harmonic content of a signal is 20% and contains only the fundamental, first, third and fifth harmonics. If the rms values of the third, fifth and seventh harmonics are 2 V, 0.8V and 0.16V respectively, what is the rms value of the fundamental frequency?

2.

(3V)2 + (1.5V)2 + (0.6V)2 THD = 10V = 34.07%

3.

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Wave Analyzer
A harmonic distortion analyser measures the total harmonic content in a waveform. Any complex waveform is made up of a fundamental and its harmonics. Wave analyzer is used to measure the amplitude of each harmonic or fundamental frequency individually. Wave analyzers are also referred to as frequency selective voltmeters, carrier frequency voltmeters, and selective level voltmeters. The instrument is tuned to the frequency of one component whose amplitude is measured measured. Some wave analyzers have the automatic frequency control which tunes to the signal automatically.

Wave Analyzer

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Wave Analyzer
Figure 9.1 (textbook) shows a basic wave analyzer. The analyzer consists of a primary detector, which is a simple LC circuit circuit. The LC circuit is adjusted for resonance at the frequency of the particular harmonic component to be measured. It passes only the frequency to which it is tuned and provides a high attenuation to all other frequencies. The full wave rectifier is used to get the average value of the input signal. The indicating device is a simple dc voltmeter that is calibrated to read the peak value of the sinusoidal input voltage.

Wave Analyzer: Examples

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The distortion caused by the third harmonic is found to be 3.33% by using a wave analyzer. The total harmonic distortion y when measured with a distortion analyzer is found to be 3.5%. If the rms value of the fundamental is 18V and if only the third and fifth harmonics are present, what is the rms value of the fifth harmonic? Using a spectrum analyzer, we observe a signal to contain the third, fifth and seventh harmonics in addition to the fundamental. If th thi d h the third harmonic equals 0 2 ti i l 0.2 times th f d the fundamental, th fifth t l the harmonic equals 0.3 times the third harmonic, and the seventh harmonic equals 0.24 times the fifth harmonic, what is the total harmonic distortion?

2.

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Heterodyne Wave Analyzer

Wave analyzers audio frequency range measurement only. Heterodyne: To mix two or more signals which produce sum and difference. Heterodyne wave analyzers are used t analyze signal i th RF H t d l d to l i l in the range and above (MHz range). In this analyzer, the input signal is mixed with the internal signal to produce a higher IF frequency. Figure 9.4 (textbook) shows the block diagram of a RF heterodyne wave analyzer. The local oscillator is tunable to get all the frequency components of the input signal. th i t i l Attenuator is used to modify the amplitude of the input signal. The first mixer stage produces an output of 30Mhz which is a difference between the input and oscillator signal.

Heterodyne Wave Analyzer

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Heterodyne Wave Analyzer

This 30MHz signal will be amplified by IF amplifier and fed to the second mixer. The second mixer will produce a 0 Hz signal which is the p g difference between IF and crystal oscillator signal. This signal will then be filtered by the active filter of a bandwidth less than 1500Hz. The amplitude of the selected frequency component can be read from the output meter in Volt or dB. This wave analyzer is operated in the RF range of 10kHz 18MHz.

Spectrum Analyzer
Oscilloscope is used to display and measure signal in a timedomain. It is also useful to display signal in the frequency domain. The instrument providing this frequency domain view is the spectrum analyzer. A spectrum analyzer display signal on its CRT with frequency on the horizontal axis and amplitude (voltage) on the vertical axis. Spectrum analyzers use either a parallel filter bank or a swept frequency technique.

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Spectrum Analyzer

Spectrum Analyzer
In a parallel filter bank analyzer, the frequency range is covered by a series of filters whose central frequencies and y p bandwidth are so selected that they overlap each other. See Figure 9.9(a) textbook. For the RF or microwave signals, the swept technique is preferred. Figure 9.9(b) shows the block diagram of a spectrum analyzer using swept receiver design. In the figure, the sawtooth generator provides the sawtooth voltage which drives the horizontal movement of the scope and the frequency controlled element of the voltage tuned oscillator.
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Spectrum Analyzer

Spectrum Analyzer

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Spectrum Analyzer
The voltage tuned oscillator will sweep from fmin to fmax of its frequency band at a linear recurring rate. The frequency component and voltage tuned oscillator frequency beats together to produce a difference frequency, i.e. IF (intermediate frequency). This IF will be amplified and displayed on the CRT screen of the spectrum analyzer. Figure 9.10, 9.11, and 9.12 (textbook) shows the spectrum produced if th i d d the input wave i a single t t is i l toned A M signal. d A.M. i l

Digital Fourier Analyzer

The basic principle of a digital Fourier analyzer is shown in Figure 9.14 (textbook). The digital Fourier analyzer converts the analogue waveform g y g over time period T into N samples. A Fourier analyzer is based on the calculation of the discrete Fourier transform using an algorithm called the fast Fourier transform. This algorithm calculates the amplitude and phase of each s g a co po e signal component from a set of time-domain samples of the o se o e do a sa p es o e input signal. Figure 9.15 (textbook) shows the block diagram of a digital Fourier analyzer.

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Digital Fourier Analyzer

Digital Fourier Analyzer

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Digital Fourier Analyzer

The block diagram is divided into 3 sections input, control and display section. The input signal is applied to the input amplifier where it is amplifier, conditioned and passed through two or more anti-aliasing filters. A 12-bit ADC is used to convert the signal into a digital form. The output from the ADC is connected to a multiplier and a digital filter. The processing section of the analyzer provides FFT processing on the input signal to produce a magnitude and phase of input signals components.
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Logic Probe
A logic probe is a tool used in digital-circuitry troubleshooting. It is employed to trace logic levels and pulses through integrated circuitry to determine whether the point under test is logic high, low, bad level, open circuited, or pulsing. When the probe is touched to a high level point, a bright light appears around the probes tip, and the light goes out when it is touched on a low level point. Figure 14.18 (Larry textbook) shows a block diagram of the logic probe circuitry and its response to different inputs.

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Logic Probe

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