PQT Notes

1
JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Jeppiaar Nagar, Rajiv Gandhi Salai, Chennai 119

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

2009-2010 Even Semester
SEMESTER IV

Unit wise 2 mark and 16 mark Questions with Answers
(As per Anna University syllabus)

Code No. Course Title Page
Number
MA 2262 Probability and Queuing Theory 2
CS 2255 Data Base Management Systems 23
CS2252 Microprocessors & Microcontrollers 71
CS 2253 Computer Organization and Architecture 100
CS 2254 Operating Systems 153
IT 2251
Software Engineering and Quality Assurance

283

2
MA2262 PROBABILITY AND QUEUEING THEORY
(Common to CSE & IT)

SYLLABUS

UNIT I RANDOM VARIABLES 9+3
Discrete and continuous random variables - Moments - Moment generating functions
and their properties. Binomial, Poisson ,Geometric ,Negative binomial, Uniform,
Exponential, Gamma, and Weibull distributions .
UNIT II TWO DIMENSIONAL RANDOM VARIABLES 9+3
Joint distributions - Marginal and conditional distributions Covariance - Correlation and
regression - Transformation of random variables - Central limit theorem.

UNIT III MARKOV PROCESSES AND MARKOV CHAINS 9+3
Classification - Stationary process - Markov process - Markov chains - Transition
probabilities - Limiting distributions-Poisson process

UNIT IV QUEUEING THEORY 9+3

Markovian models Birth and Death Queuing models- Steady state results: Single and
multiple server queuing models- queues with finite waiting rooms- Finite source models-
Littles Formula

UNIT V NON-MARKOVIAN QUEUES AND QUEUE NETWORKS 9+3

M/G/1 queue- Pollaczek- Khintchine formula, series queues- open and closed networks

TUTORIAL 15
TOTAL : 60
TEXT BOOKS
1. O.C. Ibe, Fundamentals of Applied Probability and Random Processes,
Elsevier, 1
st
Indian Reprint, 2007 (For units 1, 2 and 3).
2. D. Gross and C.M. Harris, Fundamentals of Queueing Theory, Wiley
Student edition, 2004 (For units 4 and 5).

BOOKS FOR REFERENCES

1. A.O. Allen, Probability, Statistics and Queueing Theory with Computer
Applications, Elsevier, 2
nd
edition, 2005.
1. H.A. Taha, Operations Research, Pearson Education, Asia, 8
th
edition,
2007.
3. K.S. Trivedi, Probability and Statistics with Reliability, Queueing and
Computer Science Applications, John Wiley and Sons, 2
nd
edition, 2002.

3

UNIT I UNIT I UNIT I UNIT I

RANDOM VARIABLES

PART A

1. If Var(x) = 4, find Var (3x+8), where X is a random variable.
Solution: Var (ax+b) = a
2
Var x
Var (3x+8) = 3
2
Var x = 36

2. If a random variable X takes the values 1,2,3,4 such that 2P(X=1) =
3P(X=2) = P(X=3) = 5P(x=4). Find the probability distribution of
X.
Solution: Let P(X=3)= k,
P(X=1) = k/2
P(X=2) = k/3
P(X=4) = k/5
61
30
1
5 3 2
=
= + + +
k
k
k
k k

P(X=1) = 15/61
P(X=2) = 10/61
P(X=3)= 30/61
P(X=4)= 6/61
3. A continuous random variable X has probability density function
given by f(x) = 3x
2
0,x,1. Find K such that P(X>K) = 0.05.
Solution:

( ) 983 . 0 95 . 0
95 . 0 5 . 0 3
95 . 0 ) (
3
1
3
0
2
= =
= =
=
K
K dx x
K X P
K

4. Find the cumulative distribution fuction F(x) corresponding to the
p.d.f. f(x) =
< <
+
x
x
,
) 1 (
1
2

4
Solution:
[ ]
2
1
tan
1
tan
1
) 1 (
1
) (
1
1
2
+ =
=
+
=
x
x
dx
x
x F
x
x

5. If a RV X has the moment generating function M
x
(t) =
t 2
2

Determine the variance of X.
Solution:

( )
4
1
) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
) (
2
1
) (
2
1
2
2
) (
2 2
2
1
= =
= =
|
\
|
=
X E X E x Var
X E X E
t
t
t M
x

6. In a binomial distribution the mean is 4 and variance is 3, Find
P(X=0).
Solution: np=4, npq=3
Hence q=3/4, p=1-q=1/4,
Since np=4 , n=16.
01002 . 0
4
3
) 0 9
,... 2 , 1 , 0
4
3
4
1
16
) (
16
16
= |
\
|
= =
= |
\
|
|
\
|
=
= =
X P
x c
q p nc x X P
x x
x
x n x
x

7. The moment generating function of a random variable X is given
by M
x
(t) = .
) 1 ( 3
t
e
e Find P(X=1).
Solution: = 3
1494 . 0
! 1
3
) 1 (
,... 3 , 2 , 1 ,
!
3
) (
1 3
3
= = =
= =
e
X P
x
x
e
x f
x

8. Find the moment generating function of uniform distribution.
5
Solution:
) (
1
) ( ) (
a b t
e e
dx
a b
e
dx x f e t M
at bt
b
a
tx
tx
x
=
=

9. What are the properties of Normal distribution?
Solution:
The normal curve is symmetrical when p=q or pq
The normal curve is a single peaked curve
The normal curve is asymptotic to x-axis as y decreases
rapidly when x increases numerically.
The mean, median and mode coincide and lower and upper
quartiles are equidistant from the median
The curve is completely specified by mean and standard
deviation along with the value of y
o

10. The life time of a component measured in hours is Weibull
distribution with parameter . 5 . 0 , 2 . 0 = = Find the mean lifeti;me
of the component.
Solution:
Mean = E(X)=
|
|
\
|
+
1
1
1

The mean life of the component = hours 50
5 . 0
1
1 2 . 0
5 . 0
1
= |
\
|
+

11. If X is binomially distributed with n=6 such that
P(X=2)=9P(X=4), find E(x) and Var(x).
Solution: 6C
2
p
2
q
4
= 9 (6C
4
p
4
q
2
); q=3p ;p=1/4.
E(X)=1.5 ; Var(X) = 9/8
13. If f(x) = kx
2
, 0<x<3, is to be a density function, find the value of k.
Solution:
= = =
3
0
2
9
1
; 1 9 ; 1 k k dx kx

PART B

6
Refer: (A) Probability and statistics by M. Sundravalli and R.
Mahadevan
(B) Probability and statistics by T. Veerarajan.
(C) Probability Queueing Theory by G. Balaji.

1. Find the mean and variance of the following distributions:
Binomial, Poisson( Refer B: page no:179,183)

2. Find the mean and variance of the following distributions :
Geometric and Exponential(Refer B : page no:185,212)

3. Prove that Poisson distribution is the limiting form of
Binomial distribution.
(Refer B: page no : 181)
4. For a triangular distribution

<
=
otherwise
x x
x x
x f
0
2 1 2
1 0 ,
) (
Find the mean, variance and moment generating function.
(Refer C: page no : 1.122)

5.It is known that the probability of an item produced by a certain
machine will be defective is 0.05. If the produced items are sent to the
market in packets of 20, fine the no. of packets containing at least,
exactly and atmost 2 defective items in a consignment of 1000 packets
using (i) Binomial distribution (ii) Poisson approximation to binomial
distribution.

6. The daily consumption of milk in excess of 20,000 gallons is
approximately exponentially distributed with . 3000 = The city has a
daily stock of 35,000 gallons. What is the probability that of two days
selected at random, the stock is insufficient for both days.

7. Each of the 6 tubes of a radio set has a life length (in yrs) which may
be considered as a RV that follows a weibull distribution with parameters
. 2 25 = = and If these tubes function independently of one another,
7
what is the probability that no tube will have to be replaced during the
first 2 months of service?

UNIT II

TWO- DIMENSIONAL RANDOM VARIABLES

PART A

1. State Central limit theorem.
Solution: If X is the mean of a sample of size n taken from a
population having the mean and the finite variance
2
, then
8
Z =
n
X

is a random variable whose distribution function
approaches that of the standard normal distributions as n tends to
infinity.
2. Define discrete probability Distribution.
Solution: The mathematical definition of a discrete probability
function, p(x) is a function that satisfies the following properties.
a) The probability that x can take a specific value is p(x). That is
P(X=x)=p(x)=p
x

b) P(x) is non-negative for all real x.
c) The sum of p(x) over all possible values of x is 1, that is
=1 ) ( j p where j represents all possible values that x can have

and p
j
is the probability at x
j
.

3. What is conditional probability?
Solution: The conditional probability of X given Y is f(y/x)=
f(x,y)/f
2
(y).

4. Define Marginal distribution function.
Solution: P(Xx) = F
1
(x) = dudv v u f
x
u v

=
=
) , (
P(Yy) = F
2
(x) = dudv v u f
u
y
v

= =
) , (
The above eqns are called the marginal distribution functions or
distribution functions of X and Y.

5. Define Marginal density function.
Solution: P(Xx) = F
1
(x) = dudv v u f
x
u v

=
=
) , (
P(Yy) = F
2
(x) = dudv v u f
u
y
v

= =
) , (
The derivatives of the above equations with respect to x and y are then
called the marginal density functions or simply the density functions,
of X and Y and are given by f
1
(x)=

= v
dv y x f ) , ( f
2
(y)= u d y x f
u
=
) , (

6. What is Covariance?
9
Solution: If X and Y are two random variables with the respective
expected values X , Y then the covariance between X and Y is defined
by the relation
11
=Cov(X,Y)=E((X- X )(Y-Y ))

7. Define regression.
Solution: The main purpose of curve fitting is to estimate one of the
variables ( the dependent variable) from the other( the independent
variable). The process of estimation is often referred to as regression.

8. What is a scatter diagram?
Solution: A scatter diagram is a graphical representation of data
points for a particular sample. Choosing a different sample, or
enlarging the original one can obtain a different scatter diagram.

9. If X represents the total number of heads obtained, when a fair
coin is tossed 5 times, find the probability distribution of X.
Soln.:

10. If the probability distribution of X is given as:

Find
|
\
|
> < < 1 /
2
7
2
1
X X P .
Solution:
( )
( ) 1
1
2
7
2
1
>
)
`
>
|
\
|
< <
X P
X X P
=
6
5
6 . 0
5 . 0
) 4 3 , 2 (
) 3 2 (
= =
=
=
or X P
or X P

11. If the pdf of X is f(x)=2x , 0<x<1, find the pdf of (i)Y=3X+1.
(ii) y= X
Solution: (i) f(y) = 4 1 ) 1 (
9
2
) ( < < = y in y x f
dy
dx

(ii)f(y) = 2y x 2y
2
= 4y
3
in 0 <y <1.

12. If the RV X is uniformly distributed in (0,2), find the pdf of
X 0 1 2 3 4 5
P
x
1/32 5/32 10/32 10/32 5/32 1/32
x 1 2 3 4
P
x
0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
10
Y= X
3
.
Solution: f(y) =
3
2
3
2
6
1
2
1
2
1

= y y 0 <y<8.
13. If the R.V X is uniformly distributed in (-1,1) , find the pdf of
Y = |X|.
Solution: f(y) = 1
2
1
2
1
= + in 0 < y < 1.
14. If the joint pdf of (X,Y) is given by f(x,y)=2 in 0x<y1.
Find E(x).
Solution: E(x) =

= =
1
0 0
1
0
2
3
1
2
y
dy y xdxdy
15. When are 2 random variables orthogonal?
Solution: If E(XY)= 0.

PART B

Refer: (A) Probability and statistics by M. Sundravalli and R.
Mahadevan
(B) Probability and statistics by T. Veerarajan.
(C) Probability Queueing Theory by G. Balaji.

1. State and prove the central limit theorem for independent and identically
distributed random variables.
Solution: Refer(B) page no: 165.

2. (a) If X
1
and X
2
are independent Poisson variates with parameters

1
and
2
, find the conditional distribution of X
1
for a given
X
1
+X
2
.
(b).The joint density function of 2 continuous random variables
X and Y is f(x,y)= c xy, 0<x<4, 1<y<5
0 otherwise
1.Find P[X3, Y2]
2.Find marginal distribution function of X.
Solution: Refer (A) page no: 81-86

11
3. The joint density function of a RV (X,Y) is
f(x,y)= 8xy , 0 <x<1; 0<y<x;
Find the marginal density functions.
Find the conditional density function f(y/x).
Solution: Refer (B) page no: 81(prob 34).

4. The joint pdf of the RV (X,Y) is given by
f(x,y) = kxy
) (
2 2
y x
e
+
, x>0 , y>0
Find the value of k and prove also that X and Y
are independent.
Solution: Refer (B) page no: 73.

5. The joint probability mass function of (X,Y) is
given by p(x,y) = k(2x + 3y); x=0,1,2; y=1,2,3.
Find all the marginal and conditional probability
distributions. Also find the probability distribution
of (X+Y).
Solution: Refer (B) page no:65.

6. If X and Y are independent RVs each following N(0,2),
Find the pdf of Z=2X+3Y.
Solution: Refer (B) : page no :106.

7. If X and Y each follow an exponential distribution with parameter 1
and are independent , find the pdf of U=X-Y.
Solution: Refer (B) : page no : 107.

8. If the joint pdf of (X,Y) is given by f(x,y) = x+y ; 0 x,y 1, find
the pdf of U=XY.
Solution: Refer (B) : page no : 108.
9. If X and Y are independent RVs with f(x) = e
-x
U(x) and
f(y)= 3e
-3y
U(y), find f(z) if Z=X/Y
Solution: Refer (B): page no:109.

10. If X,Y and Z are uncorrelated RVs with zero means and standard
deviations 5,12 and 9 respectively and if U=X+Y and V=Y+Z, find
the correlation coefficient between U and V.
Solution: Refer B : page no: 132

12
11. If the joint pdf of (X,Y) is given by f(x,y) = x + y, 0 x, y1,find
xy
.
Solution: Refer B: page no:140 (prob 64).

12. The lifetime of a certain brand of an electric bulb may be considered a
RV with mean 1200 h and standard deviation 250h. Find
the probability, using central limit theorem, that the average lifetime of
60 bulbs exceeds 1250 h.
Solution: Refer B: page no : 165

13. A distribution with unknown mean has variance equal to 1.5. Use
Central limit theorem to find how large a sample should be taken
from the distribution in order that the probability will be atleast 0.95
that the sample mean will be within 0.5 of the population mean.
Solution: Refer B: page no :166

14.
If X
1
,X
2
,,X
n
are Poisson variates with parameter =2, use central
limit theorem to estimate P(120S
n
160), where S
n
= X1+X2++X
n
and n=75.
Solution: Refer B: page no: 167.
15. The joint pdf of a two dimensional RV (X,Y) is given by
f(x,y)= xy
2
+ x
2
/8, 0 x 2, 0 y 1. Compute P(X 1),
P(Y< ),P(x >1/y < 1/2 ), P( X < Y )
Solution: REFER (B) , pg no : 69

UNIT III

MARKOV PROCESSES AND MARKOV CHAINS

REFERENCE : PROBABILITY, STATISTICS & RANDOM
PROCESS - T. VEERARAJAN

PART A

1. Define Random process. (Pg 337)
Solution: A random process is a collection of random variables
{X(s,t)} that are functions of a real variable, namely t where
13
s (sample space) and tT(parameter set).

2. Give the classification of Random Processes.(Pg 338)
Solution: Discrete random sequence, Continuous random sequence,
Discrete random process, Continuous random process.

3. Define Stationary processes. (Pg 339)
Solution: If certain probability distribution or averages do not depend
on t, then the random process {X(t)} is called stationary.

4. Define SSS process.(Pg 340)
Solution: A random process is called a strongly stationary process or
strict sense stationary process, if all its finite dimensional distributions
are invariant under translation of time parameter.

5. Define WSS process.(Pg 341)
Solution: A random process {X(t)} with finite first and second order
moments is called a weakly stationary process or covariance
stationary process or wide-sense stationary process, if its mean is a
constant and the auto correlation depends only on the time difference.

6. Is Poisson process covariance stationary? Justify.(Pg 343)
Solution: No. Mean of poisson process = t a constant.

7. Show that the random process X(t)=A cos(w
0
t

+ ) is WSS,
if A and w
0
are constants and is a uniformly distributed RV in (0 , 2).
(Pg 344)
Solution: Mean = 0 = a constant.
Autocorrelation = (A
2
/2)cosw
0
(t
1
t
2
).
Hence WSS process.

8. If {X(t)} is a wss process with autocorrelation R()=Ae
-||
,
determine the second-order moment of the RV X(8) X(5).
Solution: 2A(1 e
-3
)

9. Define Markov process. (Pg 446)
Solution: Markov process is one in which the future value is
independent of the past values, given the present value

14
10. Define Markov chain.(Pg 447).
Solution: Random processes with Markov property which takes
discrete values, whether t is discrete or continuous, are
called Markov chains.

11. Prove that the matrix
|
|
|
\
|
0 2 / 1 2 / 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
is the tpm of the irreducible
Markov chain. (Pg 458 ;eg: 7)

12. . State Chapman-Kolmogorov theorem.(Pg 448)
Solution: If P is the tpm of a homogeneous Markov chain, then the n-
step tpm P
(n)
= P
n
.

13. If the tpm of a Markov chain is
|
|
\
|
2 / 1 2 / 1
1 0

find the steady-state distribution of the chain.(Pg 460)
Sol: 1/3 , 2/3

PART B PART B PART B PART B

1(a). Define Poisson Process.(Pg 434)
Derive the Probability Law for the Poisson Process.
(Pg 435).
(b). What is the mean and autocorrelation of the Poisson
Process?(Pg 436)

2(a). Prove that the interarrival time of a Poisson process with
parameter has an exponential distribution with mean (1 / ).
(Pg 438)
(b). If the customers arrive at a bank according to a Poisson process
with mean rate of 2 per minute, find the
15
probability that, during a 1 min interval, no customer
arrives.(Pg 444)

3. A radioactive source emits particles at rate of 5 per minute in
accordance with Poisson process. Each particle emitted has a
probability 0.6 of being recorded. Find the probability that 10
particles are recorded in 4 min period. (Pg 442)

4. Patients arrive randomly and independently at a doctors consulting
room from 8 A.M. at an average rate of one in 5 min. The waiting
room can hold 12 persons. What is the probability that the room will
be full when the doctor arrives at 9 A.M.?(Pg 445)

5. Suppose that the customers arrive at a counter independently
from 2 different sources. Arrivals occur in accordance with a
Poisson process with mean rate of 6 per hour from the first
source and 4 per hour from the second source. Find the mean
interval between any 2 successives arrivals.(Pg 445)

6. Define Autocorrelation and Autocovariance of the Random
process.(Pg 340)
Define Correlation coefficient, Cross-correlation,cross-
covariance of Random process. (Pg 340).
Define Random walk.(Pg-350)
Define a semirandom telegraph signal process and random
telegraph signal process . Are they stationary? (Pg -353)

7. State and prove the additive property of Poisson process.
(Pg 437)
Prove that the difference of 2 independent Poisson Process is not
a Poisson Process. (Pg 438)

8. A man either drives a car or catches a train to go to office each day. He
never goes 2 days in a row by train but if he drives one day, then the next
day he is just as likely to drive again as he is to travel by train. Now
suppose that on the first day of the week, the man tossed a fair dice and
drove to work if and only if a 6 appeared. Find (a) the probability that he
takes a train on the third day and (b) the probability he drives to work in
the long run.(Pg 453 ; eg:3)

16
9. A gambler has Rs. 2/- . He bets Rs.1 at a time and wins Rs.1 with
probability . He stops playing if he loses Rs.2 or wins Rs.4. (a)what is
the tpm of the related Markov chain? (b) What is the probability that he
has lost his money at the end of 5 plays? (c) What is the probability that
the same game lasts more than 7 plays?(Pg-456)

10. There are 2 white marbles in urn A and 3 red marbles in urn B. At
each step of the process, a marble is selected from each urn and the 2
marbles selected are interchanged. Let the state a
I
of the system be
the number of red marbles in A after i changes. What is the
probability that there are 2 red marbles in urn A?(Pg 457)

11. Three boys A,B and C are throwing a ball to each other. A always
throws the ball to B and B always throws the ball to C, but C is just as
likely to throw the ball to B as to A. Show that the process is
Markovian. Find the transition matrix and classify the states.
(Pg 459).

UNIT IV UNIT IV UNIT IV UNIT IV

QUEUEING THEORY QUEUEING THEORY QUEUEING THEORY QUEUEING THEORY

PART A PART A PART A PART A

1. What are the characteristics of a queueing system?
Solution: (i) The input pattern
(ii) The service mechanism
(iii)The queue discipline

2. What do you mean by transient state and steady-state queueing
systems?
17
Solution: If the characteristics of a queueing system are independent
of time or equivalently if the behaviour of the system is independent
of time, the system is said to be in steady-state. Otherwise it is said to
be in transient-state.

3. Write down the Littles formula that hold good for the infinite
capacity Poisson queue models.
Solution: (i) E(N
s
) = ) (
s
W E

(ii) E(N
q
)= ) (
) (
2
q
W E

(iii)E(W
s
)= E(W
q
) +
1

(iv)E(N
s
) = E(N
q
) +

4. If a customer has to wait in a (M/M/1):(/FIFO) queue system,
What is his average waiting time in the queue, if =8 per hour and
=12 per hour.
Solution: 5 min.

5. If there are 2 servers in an infinite capacity Poisson queue system with
=10 per hour and =15 per hour,what is the percentage of idle time
for each server.
Solution: 50%

6. In a 3 server infinite capacity Poisson queue model if /s=2/3
Find P
0.

Solution : 1/9
7. If /s=2/3 in a (M/M/s):(/FIFO) queue system find the average
number of customers in the nonempty queue.
Solution: 2

8. What is the probability that an arrival to infinite capacity 3 server
infinite capacity Poisson queue with /s=2/3 and P
0
=1/9 enters the
service without waiting?
Solution : 5/9

18
9. What is the average waiting time of a customer in the 3 server infinite
capacity Poisson queue if he happens to wait, given that
=6 per hour and =4 per hour.
Solution: 10 min

10. If =4 per hour and =12 per hour in an (M/M/1):(4/FIFO) queueing
system, find the probability that there is no customer in the system. If
=, what is the value of this probability?
Solution: 81/121 ;1/5.

PART B

Reference : Probability,Statistics and Queueing Theory
- T. Veerarajan

1. The local one-person barber shop can accommodate a maximum of
5 people at a time(4 waiting and 1 getting hair cut). Customers
arrive according to a Poisson distribution with mean 5 per hour.
The barber cuts hair at an average rate of 4 per hour.(Exponential
service time).
(a) What percentage of time is the barber idle?
(b) What fraction of the potential customers are turned away?
(c) What is the expected number of customers waiting for a
hair cut?
(d) How much time can a customer expect to spend in the
barber shop?(Page no: 506)

2. A bank has two tellers working on savings accounts. The first
teller handles withdrawals only. The second teller handles deposits
only. It has been found that the service time of 3 min per
customer. Depositors are found to arrive in a Poisson fashion
throughout the day with mean arrival rate of 16 per hour.
Withdrawers also arrive in a Poisson fashion with mean arrival rate
of 14 per hour. What would be the effect on the average waiting
time for the customers if each teller could handle both withdrawals
and deposits. What would be the effect, if this could only be
accomplished by increasing the service time to 3.5 min.? (Page no:
500)

19
3. Customers arrive at a one-man barber shop according to a Poisson
process mean interarrival time of 12 min. Customers spend an
average of 10 min in the barbers chair.
(a) What is the expected number of customers in the barber
shop and in the queue?
(b) Calculate the percentage of time an arrival can walk
straight into the barbers chair without having to wait.
How much time can a customer expect to spend in the
barbers shop?
(e)Management will provide another chair and hire another
barber, when a customers waiting time in the shop exceeds
1.25h. How much must the average rate of arrivals increase to
warrant a second barber?
(f)What is the probability that the waiting time in the system is
greater than 30 min?
(page no: 490)

4. A 2-person barber shop has 5 chairs to accommodate waiting
customers. Potential customers, who arrive when all 5 chairs are
full, leave without entering barber shop. Customers arrive at the
average rate of 4 per hour and spend an average of 12 min in the
barbers chair. Compute P
0
,P
1
,P
7
E(N
q
) and E(W).(page no:510)

5. Derive the difference equations for a Poisson queue system in the
steady state.(page no:470)
6. There are 3 typists in an office. Each typist can type an average of
6 letters per hour. If letters arrive for being typed at the rate of 15
letters per hour.
What fraction of the time all the typists will be busy?
What is the average number of letters waiting to be typed?
What is the average time a letter has to spend for waiting
and for being typed?
What is the probability that a letter will take longer than 20
min. waiting to be typed and being typed?
Solution: Refer : Probability and Queueing Theory by G. Balaji
pg.5.33.

7. Determine the steady state probabilities for M/M/C queueing
system.
20
pg.5.52.

8. An automatic car wash facility operates with only one bay. Cars
arrive according to a poisson distribution with a mean of 4 cars per
hour and may wait in the facilitys parking lot if the bay is busy. If
the service time for all the cars is constant and equal to 10 minutes,
determine
Mean number of customers in the system
Mean waiting time of a customer in the system
Mean waiting time of a customer in the queue
Mean number of customers in the queue
pg.5.54.

UNIT V UNIT V UNIT V UNIT V

NON MARKOVIAN QUEUES AND QUEUE NETWORKS NON MARKOVIAN QUEUES AND QUEUE NETWORKS NON MARKOVIAN QUEUES AND QUEUE NETWORKS NON MARKOVIAN QUEUES AND QUEUE NETWORKS

PART A PART A PART A PART A

1. What is the probability then an arrival to an infinite capacity 3
server poisson queuing system with 2 =
and P
o
= 1/9 enters the
service without waiting.

Solution: P( without waiting ) = P(N<3)= P
o
+P
1
+P
2

21
9
5
9
1
2
2
1
9
2
9
1
) 3 (
3
!
1
2
= + + = <
=
|
|
\
|
=
N P
c n when P
n
P
o
n
n

2. Define Littles formula.
` Solution: (i) E(N
s
) = ) (
s
W E

(ii) E(N
q
)= ) (
) (
2
q
W E

(iii)E(W
s
)= E(W
q
) +
1

(iv)E(N
s
) = E(N
q
) +

3. Write down the Pollaczek khinchine formula.
`Solution: The average number of customers in the system is
+
) 1 ( 2
2 2 2

4. Define Pollaczek khinchine formula for average queue length.
Solution: Average queue length=
) 1 ( 2
2 2 2
+

5. Define P-K formula for average waiting time of a customer in the
queue.
Solution: Average waiting time of a customer in the queue =
) 1 ( 2
2 2 2

+

6. Define P-K formula for average waiting time that a customer
spends in the system.
Solution: Average waiting time of a customer in the system =

1
) 1 ( 2
2 2 2
+
+

PART B

1. Derive the Balance equation of the birth and death process.
pg.4.88
2. Derive the Pollaczek- Khinchine formula.
22
pg.5.55.
3. Consider a single server, poisson input queue with mean arrival
rate of 10 hour currently the server works according to an
exponential distribution with mean service time of 5 minutes.
Management has a training course which will result in an
improvement in the variance of the service time but at a slight
increase in the mean. After completion of the course;, it is
estimated that the mean service time will increase to 5.5 minutes
but the standard deviation will decrease from 5 minutes to 4
minutes. Management would like to know ;whether they should
have the server undergo further training.
pg.5.59.

4. In a heavy machine shop, the overhead crane is 75% utilized.
Time study observations gave the average slinging time as 10.5
munutes with a standard deviation of 8.8 minutes. What is the
average calling rate for the services of the crane and what is the
average delay in getting service? If the average service time is cut
to 8.0 minutes, with a standard deviation of 6.0 minutes, how much
reduction will occur, on average, in the delay of getting served?
pg.5.61.
5. Automatic car wash facility operates with only on Bay. Cars arrive
according to a Poisson process, with mean of 4 cars per hour and
may wait in the facilitys parking lot if the bay is busy. If the
service time for all cars is con;stant and equal to 10 min, determine
L
s
, L
q
, W
s
and W
q

pg.5.64.

23
CS 2255 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

SYLLABUS

1. Introduction 9
Purpose of Database System - Views of data Data Models Database Languages
Database System Architecture Database users and Administrator Entity
Relationship model (E-R model ) E-R Diagrams -- Introduction to relational databases

2. Relational Model 9
The relational Model The catalog- Types Keys - Relational Algebra Domain
Relational Calculus Tuple Relational Calculus - Fundamental operations Additional
Operations- SQL fundamentals - Integrity Triggers - Security Advanced SQL
features Embedded SQL Dynamic SQL- Missing Information Views Introduction
to Distributed Databases and Client/Server Databases

3. Database Design 9
Functional Dependencies Non-loss Decomposition Functional Dependencies First,
Second, Third Normal Forms, Dependency Preservation Boyce/Codd Normal Form-
Multi-valued Dependencies and Fourth Normal Form Join Dependencies and Fifth
Normal Form

4. Transactions 9
Transaction Concepts - Transaction Recovery ACID Properties System Recovery
Media Recovery Two Phase Commit - Save Points SQL Facilities for recovery
Concurrency Need for Concurrency Locking Protocols Two Phase Locking
Intent Locking Deadlock- Serializability Recovery Isolation Levels SQL Facilities
for Concurrency.
5. Implementation Techniques 9
Overview of Physical Storage Media Magnetic Disks RAID Tertiary storage File
Organization Organization of Records in Files Indexing and Hashing Ordered
Indices B+ tree Index Files B tree Index Files Static Hashing Dynamic Hashing
Query Processing Overview Catalog Information for Cost Estimation Selection
Operation Sorting Join Operation Database Tuning.

Text Books:
1. Abraham Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth, S. Sudharshan, Database System Concepts,
Fifth Edition, Tata McGraw Hill, 2006 (Unit I and Unit-V ) .
2. C.J.Date, A.Kannan, S.Swamynathan, An Introduction to Database Systems, Eighth
Edition, Pearson Education, 2006.( Unit II, III and IV)
References:
1. Ramez Elmasri, Shamkant B. Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems,
FourthEdition , Pearson / Addision wesley, 2007.
2. Raghu Ramakrishnan, Database Management Systems, Third Edition, McGraw
Hill, 2003.
3. S.K.Singh, Database Systems Concepts, Design and Applications, First Edition,
Pearson Education, 2006.
24
TWO MARKS

UNIT: 1
INTRODUCTION

1. Define database management system?
Database management system (DBMS) is a collection of interrelated data and a
set of programs to access those data.

2. List any eight applications of DBMS.
a) Banking
b) Airlines
c) Universities
d) Credit card transactions
e) Tele communication
f) Finance
g) Sales
h) Manufacturing
) Human resources

3. What are the disadvantages of file processing system?
The disadvantages of file processing systems are
a) Data redundancy and inconsistency
b) Difficulty in accessing data
c) Data isolation
d) Integrity problems
e) Atomicity problems
f) Concurrent access anomalies

4. What are the advantages of using a DBMS?
The advantages of using a DBMS are
a) Controlling redundancy
b) Restricting unauthorized access
c) Providing multiple user interfaces
d) Enforcing integrity constraints.
e) Providing back up and recovery

5. Give the levels of data abstraction?
a) Physical level
b) logical level
c) view level

6. Define instance and schema?
Instance: Collection of data stored in the data base at a particular moment is
25
called an Instance of the database.
Schema: The overall design of the data base is called the data base schema.

7. Define the terms 1) physical schema 2) logical schema.
Physical schema: The physical schema describes the database design at the
physical level, which is the lowest level of abstraction describing how the data are
actually stored.
Logical schema: The logical schema describes the database design at the logical
level, which describes what data are stored in the database and what relationship
exists among the data.

8. What is conceptual schema?
The schemas at the view level are called subschemas that describe different views
of the database.

9. Define data model?
A data model is a collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data
relationships, data semantics and consistency constraints.

10. What is storage manager?
A storage manager is a program module that provides the interface between the
low level data stored in a database and the application programs and queries
submitted to the system.

11. What are the components of storage manager?
The storage manager components include
a) Authorization and integrity manager
b) Transaction manager
c) File manager
d) Buffer manager

12. What is the purpose of storage manager?
The storage manager is responsible for the following
a) Interaction with he file manager
b) Translation of DML commands in to low level file system commands
c) Storing, retrieving and updating data in the database

13. List the data structures implemented by the storage manager.
The storage manager implements the following data structure
a) Data files
b) Data dictionary
c) indices

14. What is a data dictionary?
A data dictionary is a data structure which stores meta data about the structure of
26
the database ie. the schema of the database.

15. What is an entity relationship model?
The entity relationship model is a collection of basic objects called entities and
relationship among those objects. An entity is a thing or object in the real world
that is distinguishable from other objects.
16. What are attributes? Give examples.
An entity is represented by a set of attributes. Attributes are descriptive properties
possessed by each member of an entity set.
Example: possible attributes of customer entity are customer name, customer id,
customer street, customer city.

17. What is relationship? Give examples
A relationship is an association among several entities.
Example: A depositor relationship associates a customer with each account that
he/she has.
18. Define the terms i) Entity set ii) Relationship set
Entity set: The set of all entities of the same type is termed as an entity set.
Relationship set: The set of all relationships of the same type is termed as a
relationship set.

19. Define single valued and multivalued attributes.
Single valued attributes: attributes with a single value for a particular entity are
called single valued attributes.
Multivalued attributes: Attributes with a set of value for a particular entity are
called multivalued attributes.

20. What are stored and derived attributes?
Stored attributes: The attributes stored in a data base are called stored attributes.
Derived attributes: The attributes that are derived from the stored attributes are
called derived attributes.

21. What are composite attributes?
Composite attributes can be divided in to sub parts.

22. Define null values.
In some cases a particular entity may not have an applicable value for an attribute
or if we do not know the value of an attribute for a particular entity. In these cases
null value is used.
23. Define the terms i) Entity type ii) Entity set
Entity type: An entity type defines a collection of entities that have the same
attributes.
Entity set: The set of all entities of the same type is termed as an entity set.

24. What is meant by the degree of relationship set?
The degree of relationship type is the number of participating entity types.
27

25. Define the terms i) Key attribute ii) Value set
Key attribute: An entity type usually has an attribute whose values are distinct
from each individual entity in the collection. Such an attribute is called a key
attribute.
Value set: Each simple attribute of an entity type is associated with a value set
that specifies the set of values that may be assigned to that attribute for each
individual entity.

26. Define weak and strong entity sets?
Weak entity set: entity set that do not have key attribute of their own are called
weak entity sets.
Strong entity set: Entity set that has a primary key is termed a strong entity set.

27. What does the cardinality ratio specify?
Mapping cardinalities or cardinality ratios express the number of entities to which
another entity can be associated. Mapping cardinalities must be one of the
following:

One to one
One to many
Many to one
Many to many

28. Explain the two types of participation constraint.
1. Total: The participation of an entity set E in a relationship set R is said to
be total if every entity in E participates in at least one relationship in R.
2. Partial: if only some entities in E participate in relationships in R, the
participation of entity set E in relationship R is said to be partial.

29. Define the terms i) DDL ii) DML
DDL: Data base schema is specified by a set of definitions expressed by a special
language called a data definition language.
DML: A data manipulation language is a language that enables users to access or
manipulate data as organized by the appropriate data model.

30. Write short notes on relational model
The relational model uses a collection of tables to represent both data and the
relationships among those data. The relational model is an example of a record
based model.
31. Define tuple and attribute
Attributes: column headers
Tuple: Row

32. Define the term relation.
Relation is a subset of a Cartesian product of list domains.
28

33. Define tuple variable
Tuple variable is a variable whose domain is the set of all tuples.

34. Define the term Domain.
For each attribute there is a set of permitted values called the domain of that
attribute.

35. What is a candidate key?
Minimal super keys are called candidate keys.

36. What is a primary key?
Primary key is chosen by the database designer as the principal means of
identifying an entity in the entity set.

37. What is a super key?
A super key is a set of one or more attributes that collectively allows us to
identify uniquely an entity in the entity set.

38. Define- relational algebra.
The relational algebra is a procedural query language. It consists of a set of
operations that take one or two relation as input and produce a new relation as
output.

39. What is a SELECT operation?
The select operation selects tuples that satisfy a given predicate. We use the
lowercase letter to denote selection.

40. What is a PROJECT operation?
The project operation is a unary operation that returns its argument relation with
certain attributes left out. Projection is denoted by pie ().

41. Write short notes on tuple relational calculus.
The tuple relational calculation is anon procedural query language. It describes
the desired information with out giving a specific procedure for obtaining that
information.
A query or expression can be expressed in tuple relational calculus as
{t | P (t)}
which means the set of all tuplest such that predicate P is true for t.
Notations used:
t[A] the value of tuple t on attribute, A
t r tuple t is in relation r
there exists
Definition for there exists ():
t r(Q(t))
29
which means there exists a tuple t in relation r such that
predicate Q(t) is true.
for all
Definition for for all ():
t r(Q(t))
which means Q(t) is true for all tuples t in relation r.
_ Implication
Definition for Implication (_):
P_Q means if P is true then Q must be true.

42. Write short notes on domain relational calculus
The domain relational calculus uses domain variables that take on values from an
attribute domain rather than values for entire tuple.

43. Define query language?
A query is a statement requesting the retrieval of information. The portion of
DML that involves information retrieval is called a query language.

44. Write short notes on Schema diagram.
A database schema along with primary key and foreign key dependencies can be
depicted pictorially by schema diagram. Each relation appears as a box with
attributes listed inside it and the relation name above it.

45. What is foreign key?
A relation schema r1 derived from an ER schema may include among its
attributes the primary key of another relation schema r2.this attribute is called a
foreign key from r1 referencing r2.

UNIT: 2
RELATIONAL MODEL

1. What are the parts of SQL language?
The SQL language has several parts:
data - definitition language
Data manipulation language
View definition
Transaction control
Embedded SQL
Integrity
Authorization
2. What are the categories of SQL command?
SQL commands are divided in to the following categories:
1. Data - Definitition Language
2. Data Manipulation language
30
3. Data Query Language
4. Data Control Language
5. Data Administration Statements
6. Transaction Control Statements

3. What are the three classes of SQL expression?
SQL expression consists of three clauses:
Select
From
Where

4. Give the general form of SQL query?
Select A1, A2., An
From R1, R2, Rm
Where P

5. What is the use of rename operation?
Rename operation is used to rename both relations and a attributes.
It uses the as clause, taking the form:
Old-name as new-name

6. Define tuple variable?
Tuple variables are used for comparing two tuples in the same relation. The tuple
variables are defined in the from clause by way of the as clause.

7. List the string operations supported by SQL?
1) Pattern matching Operation
2) Concatenation
3) Extracting character strings
4) Converting between uppercase and lower case letters.

8. List the set operations of SQL?
1) Union
2) Intersect operation
3) The except operation

9. What is the use of Union and intersection operation?
Union: The result of this operation includes all tuples that are either in r1 or in r2
or in both r1 and r2.Duplicate tuples are automatically eliminated.
Intersection: The result of this relation includes all tuples that are in both r1 and
r2.

10. What are aggregate functions? And list the aggregate functions supported by
SQL?
Aggregate functions are functions that take a collection of values as input and
return a single value.
31
Aggregate functions supported by SQL are
Average: avg
Minimum: min
Maximum: max
Total: sum
Count: count

11. What is the use of group by clause?
Group by clause is used to apply aggregate functions to a set of tuples. The
attributes given in the group by clause are used to form groups. Tuples with the
same value on all attributes in the group by clause are placed in one group.

12. What is the use of sub queries?
A sub query is a select-from-where expression that is nested with in another
query. A common use of sub queries is to perform tests for set membership, make
set comparisions, and determine set cardinality.

13. What is view in SQL? How is it defined?
Any relation that is not part of the logical model, but is made visible to a user as a
virtual relation is called a view.
We define view in SQL by using the create view command. The form of the
create view command is
Create view v as <query expression>

14. What is the use of with clause in SQL?
The with clause provides a way of defining a temporary view whose definition is
available only to the query in which the with clause occurs.

15. List the table modification commands in SQL?
Deletion
Insertion
Updates
Update of a view

16. List out the statements associated with a database transaction?
Commit work
Rollback work

17. What is transaction?
Transaction is a unit of program execution that accesses and possibly updated
various data items.

18. List the SQL domain Types?
SQL supports the following domain types.
1) Char(n) 2) varchar(n) 3) int 4) numeric(p,d) 5) float(n) 6) date.

32
19. What is the use of integrity constraints?
Integrity constraints ensure that changes made to the database by authorized users
do not result in a loss of data consistency. Thus integrity constraints guard against
accidental damage to the database.

20. Mention the 2 forms of integrity constraints in ER model?
Key declarations
Form of a relationship

21. What is trigger?
Triggers are statements that are executed automatically by the system as the side
effect of a modification to the database.

22. What are domain constraints?
A domain is a set of values that may be assigned to an attribute .all values that
appear in a column of a relation must be taken from the same domain.

23. What are referential integrity constraints?
A value that appears in one relation for a given set of attributes also appears for a
certain set of attributes in another relation.

24. What is assertion? Mention the forms available.
An assertion is a predicate expressing a condition that we wish the database
always to satisfy.
Domain integrity constraints.
Referential integrity constraints

25. Give the syntax of assertion?
Create assertion <assertion name>check<predicate>

26. What is the need for triggers?
Triggers are useful mechanisms for alerting humans or for starting certain tasks
automatically when certain conditions are met.

27. List the requirements needed to design a trigger.
The requirements are
Specifying when a trigger is to be executed.
Specify the actions to be taken when the trigger executes.

28. Give the forms of triggers?
The triggering event can be insert or delete.
For updated the trigger can specify columns.
The referencing old row as clause
The referencing new row as clause
The triggers can be initiated before the event or after the event.

33
29. What does database security refer to?
Database security refers to the protection from unauthorized access and malicious
destruction or alteration.

30. List some security violations (or) name any forms of malicious access.
Unauthorized reading of data
Unauthorized modification of data
Unauthorized destruction of data.

31. List the types of authorization.
Read authorization
Write authorization
Update authorization
Drop authorization

32. What is authorization graph?
Passing of authorization from one user to another can be represented by an
authorization graph.

33. List out various user authorization to modify the database schema.
Index authorization
Resource authorization
Alteration authorization
Drop authorization

34. What are audit trails?
An audit trail is a log of all changes to the database along with information such
as which user performed the change and when the change was performed.

35. Mention the various levels in security measures.
Database system
Operating system
Network
Physical
Human

36. Name the various privileges in SQL?
Delete
Select
Insert
Update

37. Mention the various user privileges.
All privileges directly granted to the user or role.
All privileges granted to roles that have been granted to the user or role.
34

38. Give the limitations of SQL authorization.
The code for checking authorization becomes intermixed with the rest of the
application code.
Implementing authorization through application code rather than specifying it
declaratively in SQL makes it hard to ensure the absence of loopholes.

39. Give some encryption techniques?
DES
AES
Public key encryption

40. What does authentication refer?
Authentication refers to the task of verifying the identity of a person.

41. List some authentication techniques.
Challenge response scheme
Digital signatures
Nonrepudiation

42. Define Boyce codd normal form
A relation schema R is in BCNF with respect to a set F of functional
dependencies if, for all functional dependencies in F
+
of the form. ->.

43. List the disadvantages of relational database system
Repetition of data
Inability to represent certain information.
44. What is first normal form?
The domain of attribute must include only atomic (simple, indivisible) values.

45. What is meant by functional dependencies?
Consider a relation schema R and C R and C R. The functional dependency
-> holds on relational schema R if in any legal relation r(R), for all pairs of
tuples t1 and t2 in r such that t1 [] =t2 [], and also t1 [] =t2 [].

46. What are the uses of functional dependencies?
To test relations to see whether they are legal under a given set of functional
dependencies.
To specify constraints on the set of legal relations.

47. Explain trivial dependency?
Functional dependency of the form ->. is trivial if C . Trivial functional
dependencies are satisfied by all the relations.

48. What are axioms?
Axioms or rules of inference provide a simpler technique for reasoning about
35
functional dependencies.

49. What is meant by computing the closure of a set of functional dependency?
The closure of F denoted by F
+
is the set of functional dependencies logically
implied by F.

50. What is meant by normalization of data?
It is a process of analyzing the given relation schemas based on their Functional
Dependencies (FDs) and primary key to achieve the properties
Minimizing redundancy
Minimizing insertion, deletion and updating anomalies.
51. Define canonical cover?
A canonical cover Fc for F is a set of dependencies such that F logically implies
all dependencies in FC and Fc logically implies all dependencies in F. Fc must
have the following properties.

52. List the properties of canonical cover.
Fc must have the following properties.
No functional dependency in Fc contains an extraneous attribute.
Each left side of a functional dependency in Fc is unique.

53. Explain the desirable properties of decomposition.
Lossless-join decomposition
Dependency preservation
Repetition of information

54. What is 2NF?
A relation schema R is in 2NF if it is in 1NF and every non-prime attribute A in R
is fully functionally dependent on primary key.

UNIT: 3
DATABASE DESIGN

1. What is an index?
An index is a structure that helps to locate desired records of a relation quickly,
without examining all records.

2. Define query optimization.
Query optimization refers to the process of finding the lowest cost method of
evaluating a given query.

3. What are called jukebox systems?
Jukebox systems contain a few drives and numerous disks that can be loaded into
one of the drives automatically.

36
4. What are the types of storage devices?
Primary storage
Secondary storage
Tertiary storage
Volatile storage
Nonvolatile storage

5. What is called remapping of bad sectors?
If the controller detects that a sector is damaged when the disk is initially
formatted, or when an attempt is made to write the sector, it can logically map the
sector to a different physical location.

6. Define access time.
Access time is the time from when a read or write request is issued to when data
transfer begins.

7. Define seek time.
The time for repositioning the arm is called the seek time and it increases with the
distance that the arm is called the seek time.

8. Define average seek time.
The average seek time is the average of the seek times, measured over a sequence
of random requests.

9. Define rotational latency time.
The time spent waiting for the sector to be accessed to appear under the head is
called the rotational latency time.

10. Define average latency time.
The average latency time of the disk is one-half the time for a full rotation of the
disk.

11. What is meant by data-transfer rate?
The data-transfer rate is the rate at which data can be retrieved from or stored to
the disk.

12. What is meant by mean time to failure?
The mean time to failure is the amount of time that the system could run
continuously without failure.

13. What is a block and a block number?
A block is a contiguous sequence of sectors from a single track of one platter.
Each request specifies the address on the disk to be referenced. That address is in
the form of a block number.

37
14. What are called journaling file systems?
File systems that support log disks are called journaling file systems.

15. What is the use of RAID?
A variety of disk-organization techniques, collectively called redundant arrays of
independent disks are used to improve the performance and reliability.

16. What is called mirroring?
The simplest approach to introducing redundancy is to duplicate every disk. This
technique is called mirroring or shadowing.

17. What is called mean time to repair?
The mean time to failure is the time it takes to replace a failed disk and to restore
the data on it.

18. What is called bit-level striping?
Data striping consists of splitting the bits of each byte across multiple disks. This
is called bit-level striping.

19. What is called block-level striping?
Block level striping stripes blocks across multiple disks. It treats the array of disks
as a large disk, and gives blocks logical numbers
.

20. What are the two main goals of parallelism?
Load balance multiple small accesses, so that the throughput of such
accesses increases.
Parallelize large accesses so that the response time of large accesses is
reduced
.
21. What are the factors to be taken into account when choosing a RAID level?
Monetary cost of extra disk storage requirements.
Performance requirements in terms of number of I/O operations
Performance when a disk has failed.
Performances during rebuild.

22. What is meant by software and hardware RAID systems?
RAID can be implemented with no change at the hardware level, using only
software modification. Such RAID implementations are called software RAID
systems and the systems with special hardware support are called hardware RAID
systems.
23. Define hot swapping?
Hot swapping permits the removal of faulty disks and replaces it by new ones
without turning power off. Hot swapping reduces the mean time to repair.
38
24. What are the ways in which the variable-length records arise in database
systems?
Storage of multiple record types in a file.
Record types that allow variable lengths for one or more fields.
Record types that allow repeating fields.

25. What is the use of a slotted-page structure and what is the information
present in the header?
The slotted-page structure is used for organizing records within a single block.
The header contains the following information.
The number of record entries in the header.
The end of free space
An array whose entries contain the location and size of each record.

26. What are the two types of blocks in the fixed length representation? Define
them.
Anchor block: Contains the first record of a chain.
Overflow block: Contains the records other than those that are the first
record of a chain.

27. What is known as heap file organization?
In the heap file organization, any record can be placed anywhere in the file where
there is space for the record. There is no ordering of records. There is a single file
for each relation.

28. What is known as sequential file organization?
In the sequential file organization, the records are stored in sequential order,
according to the value of a search key of each record.

29. What is hashing file organization?
In the hashing file organization, a hash function is computed on some attribute of
each record. The result of the hash function specifies in which block of the file the
record hould be placed.

30. What is known as clustering file organization?
In the clustering file organization, records of several different relations are stored
in the same file.

31. What are the types of indices?
Ordered indices
Hash indices

32. What are the techniques to be evaluated for both ordered indexing and hashing?
Access types
Access time
39
Insertion time
Deletion time
Space overhead

33. What is known as a search key?
An attribute or set of attributes used to look up records in a file is called a search
key.

34. What is a primary index?
A primary index is an index whose search key also defines the sequential order of
the file.

35. What are called index-sequential files?
The files that are ordered sequentially with a primary index on the search key, are
called index-sequential files.

36. What are the two types of indices?
Dense index
Sparse index

37. What are called multilevel indices?
Indices with two or more levels are called multilevel indices.
38. What is B-Tree?
A B-tree eliminates the redundant storage of search-key values .It allows search
key values to appear only once.

39. What is a B+-Tree index?
A B+-Tree index takes the form of a balanced tree in which every path from the
root of the root of the root of the tree to a leaf of the tree is of the same length.

40. What is a hash index?
A hash index organizes the search keys, with their associated pointers, into a hash
file structure.

41. What is called query processing?
Query processing refers to the range of activities involved in extracting data from
a database.

42. What are the steps involved in query processing?
The basic steps are:
parsing and translation
optimization
Evaluation

43. What is called an evaluation primitive?
A relational algebra operation annotated with instructions on how to evaluate is
40
called an evaluation primitive.

44. What is called a query evaluation plan?
A sequence of primitive operations that can be used to evaluate a query is a
query evaluation plan or a query execution plan.

45. What is called a query execution engine?
The query execution engine takes a query evaluation plan, executes that plan, and
returns the answers to the query.

46. What are called as index scans?
Search algorithms that use an index are referred to as index scans.

47. What is called as external sorting?
Sorting of relations that do not fit into memory is called as external sorting.

48. What is called as recursive partitioning?
The system repeats the splitting of the input until each partition of the build input
fits in the memory. Such partitioning is called recursive partitioning.

49. What is called as an N-way merge?
The merge operation is a generalization of the two-way merge used by the
standard in-memory sort-merge algorithm. It merges N runs, so it is called an N-
way merge.

50. What is known as fudge factor?
The number of partitions is increased by a small value called the fudge factor,
which is usually 20 percent of the number of hash partitions computed.

UNIT: 4
TRANSACTIONS

1. What is transaction?
Collections of operations that form a single logical unit of work are called
transactions.

2. What are the two statements regarding transaction?
The two statements regarding transaction of the form:
Begin transaction
End transaction

3. What are the properties of transaction?
The properties of transactions are:
Atomicity
Consistency
Isolation
41
Durability

4. What is recovery management component?
Ensuring durability is the responsibility of a software component of the base
system called the recovery management component.

5. When is a transaction rolled back?
Any changes that the aborted transaction made to the database must be undone.
Once the changes caused by an aborted transaction have been undone, then the
transaction has been rolled back.

6. What are the states of transaction?
The states of transaction are
Active
Partially committed
Failed
Aborted
Committed
Terminated

7. What is a shadow copy scheme?
It is simple, but efficient, scheme called the shadow copy schemes. It is based on
making copies of the database called shadow copies that one transaction is active
at a time. The scheme also assumes that the database is simply a file on disk.

8. Give the reasons for allowing concurrency?
The reasons for allowing concurrency is if the transactions run serially, a short
transaction may have to wait for a preceding long transaction to complete, which
can lead to unpredictable delays in running a transaction. So concurrent execution
reduces the unpredictable delays in running transactions.

9. What is average response time?
The average response time is that the average time for a transaction to be
completed after it has been submitted.

10. What are the two types of serializability?
The two types of serializability is
Conflict serializability
View serializability

11. Define lock?
Lock is the most common used to implement the requirement is to allow a
transaction to access a data item only if it is currently holding a lock on that item.

12. What are the different modes of lock?
The modes of lock are:
42
Shared
Exclusive

13. Define deadlock?
Neither of the transaction can ever proceed with its normal execution. This
situation is called deadlock.

14. Define the phases of two phase locking protocol
Growing phase: a transaction may obtain locks but not release any lock.
Shrinking phase: a transaction may release locks but may not obtain any new
locks.

15. Define upgrade and downgrade?
It provides a mechanism for conversion from shared lock to exclusive lock is
known as upgrade.
It provides a mechanism for conversion from exclusive lock to shared lock is
known as downgrade.

16. What is a database graph?
The partial ordering implies that the set D may now be viewed as a directed
acyclic graph, called a database graph.

17. What are the two methods for dealing deadlock problem?
The two methods for dealing deadlock problem is deadlock detection and
deadlock recovery.

18. What is a recovery scheme?
An integral part of a database system is a recovery scheme that can restore the
database to the consistent state that existed before the failure.

19. What are the two types of errors?
The two types of errors are:
Logical error
System error

20. What are the storage types?
The storage types are:
Volatile storage
Nonvolatile storage

21. Define blocks?
The database system resides permanently on nonvolatile storage, and is
into fixed-length storage units called blocks.

22. What is meant by Physical blocks?
The input and output operations are done in block units. The blocks residing on
43
the disk are referred to as physical blocks.

23. What is meant by buffer blocks?
The blocks residing temporarily in main memory are referred to as buffer blocks.

24. What is meant by disk buffer?
The area of memory where blocks reside temporarily is called the disk buffer.

25. What is meant by log-based recovery?
The most widely used structures for recording database modifications is the log.
The log is a sequence of log records, recording all the update activities in the
database. There are several types of log records.

26. What are uncommitted modifications?
The immediate-modification technique allows database modifications to be output
to the database while the transaction is still in the active state. Data modifications
written by active transactions are called uncommitted modifications.

27. Define shadow paging.
An alternative to log-based crash recovery technique is shadow paging. This
technique needs fewer disk accesses than do the log-based methods.

28. Define page.
The database is partitioned into some number of fixed-length blocks, which are
referred to as pages.

29. Explain current page table and shadow page table.
The key idea behind the shadow paging technique is to maintain two page tables
during the life of the transaction: the current page table and the shadow page
table. Both the page tables are identical when the transaction starts. The current
page table may be changed when a transaction performs a write operation.

30. What are the drawbacks of shadow-paging technique?
Commit Overhead
Data fragmentation
Garbage collection

30. Define garbage collection.
Garbage may be created also as a side effect of crashes. Periodically, it is
necessary to find all the garbage pages and to add them to the list of free pages.
This process is called garbage collection.

32. Differentiate strict two phase locking protocol and rigorous two phase locking
protocol.
In strict two phase locking protocol all exclusive mode locks taken by a
transaction is held until that transaction commits.
44
Rigorous two phase locking protocol requires that all locks be held until the
transaction commits.

33. How the time stamps are implemented
Use the value of the system clock as the time stamp. That is a transactions
time stamp is equal to the value of the clock when the transaction enters the
system.
Use a logical counter that is incremented after a new timestamp has been
assigned; that is the time stamp is equal to the value of the counter.

34. What are the time stamps associated with each data item?
W-timestamp (Q) denotes the largest time stamp if any transaction that
executed WRITE (Q) successfully.
R-timestamp (Q) denotes the largest time stamp if any transaction that
executed READ (Q) successfully.

UNIT: 5
IMPLEMENTATION TECHNIQUES

1. What is meant by object-oriented data model?
The object-oriented paradigm is based on encapsulation of data and code related
to an object in to a single unit, whose contents are not visible to the outside world.

2. What is the major advantage of object-oriented programming paradigm?
The ability to modify the definition of an object without affecting the rest of the
system is the major advantage of object-oriented programming paradigm.

3. What are the methods used in object-oriented programming paradigm?
read-only
update

4. What is the main difference between read-only and update methods?
A read-only method does not affect the values of a variable in an object, whereas
an update method may change the values of the variables.

5. What is the use of keyword ISA?
The use of keyword ISA is to indicate that a class is a specialization of another
class.

6. Differentiate sub-class and super-class?
The specialization of a class is called subclasses.eg: employee is a subclass of
person and teller is a subclass of employee.Conversely, employee is a super class
of teller, and person is a super class of employee.
45

7. What is substitutability?
Any method of a class-say A can equally well be invoked with any object
belonging to any subclasses B of A. This characteristic leads to code reuse, since
the messages, methods, and functions do not have to be written again for objects
of class B.

8. What is multiple inheritance?
Multiple inheritance permits a class to inherit variables and methods from
multiple super classes.

9. What is DAG?
The class-subclass relationship is represented by a directed acyclic graph.eg:
employees can be temporary or permanenet.we may create subclasses temporary
and permanenet, of the class employee.

10. What is disadvantage of multiple inheritance?
There is potential ambiguity if the same variable or method can be inherited from
more than one superclass.eg: student class may have a variable dept identifying a
student's department, and the teacher class may correspondingly have a variable
dept identifying a teacher's department.

11. What is object identity?
An object retains its identity even if some or all the values of variables or
definitions of methods change overtime.

12. What are the several forms of identity?
Value
Name
Built-in

13. What is a value?
A data value is used for identity. This form of identity is used in relational
systems.eg: The primary key value of a tuple identifies the tuple.

14. What is a Name?
A user-supplied name is used for identity. This form of identity is used for files in
file systems. The user gives each file a name that uniquely identifies it, regardless
of its contents.

15What is a Built-in
A notation of identity is built-into the data model or programming language and
no user-supplied identifier is required. This form of identity is used in
objectoriented systems.

46
16 What is meant by object identifiers?
Object-oriented systems use an object identifier to identify objects. Object
identifiers are unique: that is each object has a single identifier, and no two
objects have the same identifier.

17. What are composite objects?
Objects that contain other objects are called complex objects or composite
objects.

18. What is object containment?
References between objects can be used to model different real-world concepts.

19. Why containment is important in oosystems?
Containment is an important concept in oosystems because it allows different
users to view data at different granularities.

20. Define object-relational systems?
Systems that provide object-oriented extensions to relational systems are called
object-relational systems.

21. How persistent programming languages differ from traditional programming
languages?
Database languages differ from traditional programming languages in that they
directly manipulate data that are persistent-that is, data that continue to exist even
after the program terminated. Relation in a database and tuples in a relation are
examples of persistent data. In contrast, the only persistent data that traditional
programming languages directly manipulate are files.

22. Define atomic domains?
A domain is atomic if elements of the domain are considered to be indivisible
units.

23. Define 1NF?
First normal form is one which requires that all attributes have atomic domains.

24. What is nested relational model?
The nested relational model is an extension of relational model in which domains
may be either atomic or relation valued.

25. List some instances of collection types?
sets
arrays
multisets

26. How to create values of structured type?
47
Constructor functions are used to create values of structured types. A function
with the same name as a structured type is a constructor function for the
structured type.

27. Write a query to define tables students and teachers as sub tables of people?
Create table students of student under people
Create table teachers of teacher under people

28. What is a homogeneous distributed database?
In homogeneous distributed databases, all sites have identical database
management system software, are aware of one another, and agree to cooperate in
processing user's requests.

29. What is a heterogeneous distributed database?
In a heterogeneous distributed database, different sites may use different schemas,
and different dbms s/w.The sites may not be aware of one another, and they may
provide only limited facilities for cooperation in transaction processing.

30. What are the two approaches to store relations in distributed database?
Replication
Fragmentation

31. What are the two different schemes for fragmenting a relation?
horizontal
vertical

32. What is horizontal fragmentation?
Horizontal fragmentation splits the relation by assuming each tuple of r to one or
more fragments.

33. What is vertical fragmentation?
Vertical fragmentation splits the relation by decomposing the scheme R of
relation r.

34. What are the various forms of data transparency?
fragmentation transparency
replication transparency
location transparency

35. Define decision tree classifiers?
48
As the name suggests decision tree classifiers use a tree: each leaf node has an
associated class, and each internal node has a predicate associated with it.

16 MARK QUESTIONS
UNIT: 1

1. EXPLAIN ABOUT DATABASE SYSTEM STRUCTURE?
Storage manager
Authorization and integrity manager
Transaction manager
File manager
Buffer manager
Storage manager implements several data structure as a part of physical system
implementation
Data function
Data dictionary
Indices
The query processor
DDL interpreter
DML
Query evaluation engine

2. DESCRIBE RELATIONAL MODEL?
Structure of relational data base
Basic structure
Database schema
Keys
Schema diagram
Query languages

49

3. BRIEFLY EXPLAIN RELATIONAL ALGEBRA?
Fundamental operations
Unary operations
Binary operations
Select operations
branchname=perryridge (loan)
The project operation
loannumber,amount (loan)
Composition of relational operations
Relational algebra expressions
Union operations
r _ s
r and s must be a same arity.
They must have the same no of attributes.
The set difference operations
r-s produce a relation containing those tuples in r but not in s.
The Cartesian product operations
The rename operations

4. WHAT IS DATA MODELS? EXPLAIN IT DETAIL?
Entity relationship model
Rectangles
Ellipse
Diamonds
Lines
Relational model
Relational model use a collection of tables to represent both data and the
relationships among those data. Each table has a multiple columns and each
columns has unique name
Other data models
Object oriented data model
Object relational data model
Network data model
Hierarchical data model

5. BRIEFLY DESCRIBE RELATIONAL CALCULUS?WITH SOME
EXAMPLES?
The tuple relational calculus
A query in a tuple relational calculus is expressed as
{t| P(t)}
50
Example Queries
Formal definition
Safety of expressions
Expressive power of languages
The domain relational calculus
Example Queries
Formal definition
Safety of expressions
Expressive power of languages

UNIT-2

1. DESCRIBE INTEGRITY AND SECURITY?
Domain constraint
Referential integrity
A value that appears in one relation for a given set of attributes also appear
for a certain set of attributes in another relation. This condition is called
referential integrity.
Referential integrity and E-R models
Database modification
Referential integrity in SQL
2. WHAT IS AGGREGATE FUNCTION?BRIEFLY DESCRIBE IT?
Aggregate functions are functions that take a collection of values as input and
return a single value. SQL offers 5 built-in aggregate functions:
Average: avg
Minimum:min
Maximum: max
Total:sum
Count:count
Average: avg
Select avg (balance)
From account
Where branch-name=perryridge
Count :count
select branch-name,count(distinct customer-name)
from depositior,account
where depositor.account-number=account.account-number
groupby branch-name
3. WHAT IS DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE?EXPLAIN IT IN DETAIL?
The SQL DDL allows specification of not only a set of relations, but also
51
information after each relation, including
The schema for each relation
The domain of values associated with each attribute
The integrity constraints
The set of indices to be maintained for each relation
The security and authorization information for each relation
The physical storage structure of each relation on disk
Domain Types in SQL
Char(n),
varchar(n), int, small int, numeric(p,d), real, double, precision,
f loat(n), date, time, timestamp.
Schema Definition in SQL
Primary key
Check

4. EXPLAIN MECHANISM OF NESTED QUERIES?
SQL provides a mechanism for nesting subqueries.A subquery is a select from
where expression that is nested within another query. A common use of sub
queries is to perform tests for set membership, make set comparisons, and
determine set cardinality.
Set membership
(select customer-name
from depositor)
Set comparison
select distinct T.branch-name
from branch as T,branch as S
where T.assets > S.assets and S.branch-city=Brooklyn
Test for Empty Relations
Select customer-name
from borrower
where exits (select *
from depositor
where depositor.customername=borrower.customer-name)
Test for the Absence of Duplicate Tuples

5. WRITE SHORT NOTES ON MODIFICTION OF THE DATA BASE?
Definition
delete from r
where P
Insertion
insert into account
values (A-9732,perryridge,1200)
Updates
update account
set balance=balance*1.05
52
Update of a view
Transaction

UNIT-3

1. DESCRIBE FILE ORGANISATION?
A file is organized logically as a sequence of records. These records are mapped
onto disk blocks.
Fixed-Length Records
Type deposit=record
Accountnumber:char(10);
branch name:char(22);
balance: real;
end
Variable length records
storage of multiple record types in a file
Record types that allow variable lengths for one or more fields
Record types that allow repeating fields
o Byte string Representation
o Fixed length representation
Reserved space
List representation

2. DEFINE RAID? BRIEFLY EXPLAIN IT?
A variety of disk organization techniques, collectively called redundant arrays
of independent disks (RAID)
o Improvement of reliability via redundancy.
o Improvement in performance via parallelism
1. Bit level striping
2. Block level striping
RAID levels
RAID level 0
RAID level 1
RAID level 2(memory style error correcting code)
RAID level 3 (Bit interleaved parity organization)
RAID level 4 (Block interleaved parity organization)
RAID level 5 (Block interleaved distributed parity)
RAID level 6 (P+Q redundancy)

3. WRITE SHORT NOTES ON INDEX STRUCTURE OF FILES?
There are two basic kinds of indices
53
1. Ordered indices
2. Hash indices
Each technique must be evaluated on the basis of these factors:
Access types
Access time
Insertion time
Deletion time
Space overhead
Ordered indices
Primary index
Dense and sparse indices
Multilevel index
Index update
Secondary indices
B+-Tree index files
B+-Tree index structure is the most widely used of several index structures
that maintain there efficiency despite insertion and deletion of data.
Structure of B+-Tree
Queries on B+-Tree
Update on B+-Tree
B+-Tree file organization
B-Tree index files

4. EXPLAIN HASH FILE ORGANIZATION?
Hash functions
The distribution is uniform
Hash functions assign each bucket the same number of search key values from
the set of all possible search-key values
The distributed in random
In the average case each bucket will have nearly same no of values
assigned to it, regardless of the actual distribution of search-key values
Handling of bucket overflows
o Insufficient buckets
o Skew
Open hashing
Under an alternative approach called open hashing
Close hashing
The form of hash structure that we have just described is something
referred to as close hashing.
Hash indices

5. WHAT IS MAGNETIC DISKS?EXPLAIN IT?
Magnetic disk provides the bulk of secondary storage of modern computer
54
system. The disk capacity is growing at over 50% per year. But the storage
requirements of large applications has also been growing very fast and in some
case every faster than the growth rate of disk capacities. A large data base may
require 100 of disks.
Physical characteristics of disk
Physical disks are relatively simple. Each disc platter has a flat circular shape
We can call magnetic disk as
hard disk
Floppy disk
The read write head store information on a sector magnetically as reversals of
the direction of magnetization of the magnetic material. There may be hundreds
of concentric tracks on a disc surface, containing thousands of sectors.

Unit 4

1. DESCRIBE LOG BASED RECOVERY
The most usably structure for recording data base modification is the LOG
the log is a sequence of log records recording all the update activities in the data
base. There are several types of log records. An update log records describes a
single data base write it has these fields
Transaction identifier
Data item identifier
Old value
New value
The various types log records as.
< Ti start >. Transaction Ti has started
< Ti , Tx v1,v2 > .Transaction Ti has performed a right on data item
< Ti commit > Transaction Ti has committed
< Ti about > Transaction Ti has aborted
Deferred data base modification
Immediate data base modification
Check point
Shadow paging

2. WHAT IS SERIALIZABILITY?EXPLAIN ITS TYPES?
The data base system must control concurrent execution of transactions, to ensure
that the data base state remains consistent. There are different forms of schedule
equivalence they lead to the notions of
We say that ii and I j conflict if they are operations by different transaction
on the same data item and at least one of these instruction is a write
operations
55
The concept of view equivalence leads to the concept of View
serializability we say that a schedules S is view serializable if it is view
equivalent to a serial scheduler

3.WRITE SHORT NOTES ON TRANSACTION STATE?
A transaction may not always complete its execution successfully such a
transaction is termed aborted
A transaction must be in one of the following states
Active
Partially committed
Failed
Aborted
Committed

4. BRIEFLY DESCRIBE CONCURRENCYEXECUTION?
Lock based protocols
Locks
There are various modes in which a data item may be locked in this section we
restrict our attention to two modes
Shared
Exclusive

T1 : lock x(B );
read(B);
B:=B-50;
write(B);
unlock(B);
Lock-x(A);
read(A);
A:=A+50;
write(A);
unlock(A).

5. EXPLAIN CONCURRENCY CONTROL?

Concurrency control
Oracles multiversion concurrency control differs from the concurrency
mechanism used by some other data base vendors. Read only queries are given a
read consistent snapshot which is view if the data base as it existed at the
specific point in time, containing all update that we were committed by that point
in time and not containing any updates that were not committed at any point in
time thus read clock are not used in read only queries dont interfere with other
data base activity in term of locking.

Managed stand by data base
56
To ensure high availability oracle provide a managed stand by data base
future A stand by data base is a copy of the regular data base ie in solved on the
separate system. If a catastrophic failure occur on the primary system, the stand
by system is activate and take over there by minimizing effect on failure on a
availability. Oracle keeps the stand by data base up to date by constantly applying
archived redo logs that are shipped from the primary data base the back up data
base can be brought online in readonly mode and used for reporting and decision
support queries

UNIT 5

1. WRITE SHORT NOTES ON DATA WARE HOUSING?
Data ware housing applications requires the transformation of data from many
sources into a cohesive consistent step set of data configured appropriately for use
in data ware house operation.
Distributed Transformation services
Data ware housing is an approach to manage data in which heterogeneous
data sources are migrated to a separate homogeneous data base
Online Analytical processing services
OLAP services provide server and client capabilities to create and manage
multidimensional OLAP data .

2. EXPLAIN NESTED RELATIONS?

Nested relations
The assumption of INF is a natural one in the bank examples wehave considered.
However, not all applications are best modeled by INF relations.

The nested relational model is an extension of the relational model in which
domains may be either atomic or relation valued.

We illustrate nested relations by an example from a library. Suppose we store for
each book the following in formations
Book title
Set of authors
Publishers
Set of keywords
We can see that if we define a relation for the preceding information, several
57
domains will be monatomic
Authors
Keywords
Publishers
Complex types
Collection and large object types
Create table books(

Keyword-set setoff(varchar(20))

)
Structure types
Creation of values of complex types

3. WHAT IS INHERITANCE? DESCRIBE IT IN DETAIL?
Inheritance
Inheritance can be at the levels of types, or at the level of tables We first
consider inheritance of types, then inheritance at the level of labels.

Type inheritance
Suppose that we have the following type definition for people
create type person
(name varchar(20)
address varchar(20))

Table inheritance
Create table people of person

The consistency requirements for sub tables are
1. Each tuple of the sub table can correspond to at most one tuple in each of its
immediate sub tables.
2. SQL:1999 has an additional constraint that all the tuples corresponding to each
other must be derived from one tuple .

Overlapping sub tables

4 WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF REFERENCE?EXPLAIN IT WITH SUITABLE
EXAMPLES?
Object oriented language provided the ability to refer the object attribute of
the type can be referred to the specified type. We can define the type dept with a
field name and a field head which is reference to the type person and a table dept
of the type dept as followed
58
Create type dept(
Name varchar(20),
Head ref(person)scope people
)
Create table dept of dept
The table definition must specify that the reverence is derived and must still
specify a self referential attribute name. When interesting a tuple for dept we can
then use
Insert into dept
Values(CS,john)

5. DESCRIBE QUERIES WITH COMPLEX TYPES?
The present extension of the SQL query language deal with the complex type
Let us start with the simple example:
Find the title and the name of the publisher of each book this query carries out the
task:
Select title, publisher.name
From books
path expression
The reference are dereference in 1999 by the > simple
Select head-> name, head->address
From dept
An expression such as head->name is called the path expression.
Collection valued attributes
Nesting and unnesting
The transformation of the nested relation in to a form with fewer
(or no) the relation valued attribute value is called unnesting
The reverse process of transformation a INF relation into a
nested relation is called nesting.

UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS
PART A

UNIT I
1. List any two advantages of database system.
2. Give the reasons why null values might be introduces into database.
3. Compare database systems with file systems.
4. Give the distinction between primary key, candidate key and super key.
5. List 5 responsibilities of the DB manager.
59
6. Give the limitations of ER model? How do you overcome this?
7. What is data dictionary? What are the informations stored in the data dictionary?
8. Distinguish between physical &logical data independence.
9. Define database schema.
10. What are the responsibilities of DBA?
UNIT II

11. Write a SQL statement to find the names and loan numbers of all customers who
have a loan at Chennai branch.
12. What is multi valued dependency?
13. What is static SQL? How does it differ from dynamic SQL.?
14. What are the different types of integrity constraints used in designing a relational
database?
15. Define query language.
16. Why it is necessary to decompose a relation?
17. Define the term tuple.
18. What is the difference between primary key and foreign key.
19. What is View ? How it is created?
20. In what way is an Embedded SQL different from SQL? Discuss.
21. What is functional dependencies?
22. What are the desirable properties of decomposition?
23. What is referential integrity?
24. Explain the simple example with loss less join decomposition.

UNIT III

25. Give the measures of the quality of a disk.
26. What are the two types of ordered indices?
27. Compare sequential access devices versus random access devices with an
example.
28. What can be done to reduce the occurrences of bucket overflows in a hash file
organization?
29. Give any 2 advantages of spares index over dense index.
30. Name the different types of joins supported in SQL.
31. How do you choose the best evaluation plan for query?

UNIT IV
32. List out the ACID properties.
33. What is shadow paging?
34. Give the ACID properties.
35. State the benefits of strict two phase locking.
36. What are the types of transparencies that a distributed database must support?
Why?
37. What benefit is provided by strict two phase locking?
38. What is time stamp ordering scheme?
39. Define Transactions.
60
UNIT V

40. Compare DBMS versus object oriented DBMS
41. What is the need for complex data types?
42. What is data mining?
43. What is data warehousing?
44. Briefly write the overall process of data ware housing.
45. What is an active database.
46. Give a comparison of object oriented and object relational databases.
47. Which are the 2 models used for discovering rules from databases?
48. Give the general forms of rules to express knowledge.
49. Define object relational databases.
50. Mention few applications of data warehousing.

PART B

UNIT I

1. (i) Describe the system structure of a database system.
( ii) List out the functions of a DBA.
2. (i) Illustrate the issues to be considered while developing an ER diagram.
(ii) Consider the relational database
employee(empname,street,city)
works(empname,companyname,salary)
company(companyname,city)
manages(empname,management)
Give an expression in the relational algebra for each request.
1) Find the names of all employees who work for First Bank Corporation.
2) Find the names, street addresses and cities of residence of all employees
who work for First Bank Corporation and earn more than 200000 per
annum.
3) Find the names of all employees in this database who live in the same
city as the company for which they work.
4) Find the names of all employees who earn more than every
employees of small Bank Corporation
3. (i) Explain the system structure of a database system with neat Block diagram.
(i) Construct the ER diagram for hospital with a set of patients
and a set of medical doctors. Associate with each patient a log
of the various tests and examinations conducted.
(ii) Discuss on various related algebra operations with suitable Example.
4. (i) Compare file system with database system.
(ii) Explain the architecture of DBMS.
5 (i) What are the steps involved in designing a database applications?
Explain with an application.
61
(ii).List the possible types of relations that may exist between two entities.
How would you realize that into tables for a binary relation?
6. (i) What are data models and how are they grouped?
(ii) Explain in detail any two data models with sample databases
7. (i) Explain the component modules of a DBMS and their interaction with the
architecture.
(ii) Construct an ER diagram to a model online book store.
8. (i) Explain the basic Relational Algebra operations with the symbol used and an
example
for each.
(ii) Discuss about Tuple relational Calculus and Domain relational
Calculus

UNIT II

1. (i) What is normalization? Explain the various normalization
techniques with suitable example.
(ii) Give the comparison between BCNF and 3 NF.
(ii) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the trigger mechanism.
Compare triggers with other integrity constraints supported by
SQL.

2) (i) Discuss about triggers. How do triggers offer a powerful
mechanism for dealing with the changes to a database with
suitable example.
(ii) What are nested queries? Explain with example.
3. (i) What is normalization? Give the various normal forms of
relational schema and define a relation which is in BCNF
and explain with suitable example.
(ii) Compare BCNF versus 3NF.
4 (i). What are the relational algebra operations supported in SQL? Write the
SQL statement for each operation.
(ii). Justify the need for Normalization with example.
5.(i) What is normalization? Explain 1NF,2NF,3NFand BCNF with Example.
(ii). What is FD? Explain the role of FD in the process of normalization.
6. (i) SQL language has several parts .What are they?
(ii) How many clauses are there in the basic structure of an SQL.
7. (i) Discuss the various pitfalls in a relational database design using a sample
database.
(ii) Explain at least two of the desirable properties of decomposition.
62
8 (i) Write short notes on the following:
Data Manipulation Language (DML), Data Definition Language (DDL)
Transaction Control Statements (TCS),Data Control Language (DCL)
Data Administration Statements (DAS).
(ii) Consider the database given by the following schemes.
Customer (Cust_No, Sales_ Person_No ,City)
Sales_ Person(Sales_ Person_No ,Sales_ Person_Name,
Common_Prec,Year_of_Hire)
Give an expression in SQL for each of the following queries:
Display the list of all customers by Cust_No with the city in which
each is located.
List the names of the sales persons who have accounts in Delhi.
9. (i)Consider the universal relation r(A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J) and the set of
FDs. G=({A,B} {C} {B,D} {E,F}, {A,D} {G,H},
{A}{I}, {H}{J}) What is the key of R? Decompose R into 2NF,
then 3NF relations.
(ii) Discuss hoe schema refinement through dependency analysis and
Normalization can improve schemas obtained through ER
UNIT III

1 (i) Explain how the RAID system improves performance and reliability.
(ii) Describe the structure of B+ tree and list the characteristics of a B+ tree.
2 (i) Explain the steps involved in processing a query.
(ii) Give the algorithm for Hash join.
3. (i) Describe about RAID levels.
(ii) Explain why allocations of records to blocks affects database system
performance significantly.
4. (i) Describe the structure of B
+
tree and give the algorithm for search in the B
+
tree
with example.
(ii) Give the comparison between ordered indexing and hashing.
5.(i). Explain the security features provided in commercial query languages.
(ii).What are the steps involved in query processing? How do you estimate
the cost of the query?
6.(i) Explain the different properties of indexes in detail.
(ii) Explain various hashing techniques.
7 (i) What are the merits and demerits of B+ tree index structure.
(ii) How update operations are performed on b+ tree.
8. (i) What are the different types of storage media?
(ii) Explain with a diagram, the block storage operations.

9 (i) Describe the different types of file organization? Explain using a
sketch of each of them with their advantages and disadvantages.
(ii) Describe static hashing and dynamic hashing.
10. (i) Explain the index schemas used in database systems.
(ii) How does a DBMS represent a relational query evaluation plan?

63

UNIT IV

1.(i) Describe about testing of serializability.
(ii) Discuss on two phase locking protocol.
2.(i) Explain the deferred and immediate modification versions of the log based
recovery scheme.
(ii) Write short notes on shadow paging.
3. (i) Explain the different forms of Serializability.
(ii)What are different types of schedules are acceptable for recoverability.
4. (i) Discuss on two-phase locking protocol and time stamp-based protocol.
(ii) Write short notes on Log-based recovery.
5. (i) Explain the properties of transactions. Ilustrate the states of transactions.
(ii). What is RAID ? List the different levels in RAID technology and Explain it.
6. (i). What is concurrency Control? How is it implemented in DBMS?
(ii) Explain various recovery techniques during transactions in detail.
7.(i) Explain Time stamp-Based Concurrency Control protocol and the
modifications implemented in it.
(ii) Describe shadow paging recovery techniques.
8.(i) Describe Strict Two-phase Locking protocol.
(ii) Explain Log-based recovery technique

UNIT V

1 (i) Highlight the features of OODBMS.
(ii) Write short notes on distributed databases.
2. (i) Give the structure of XML data.
(ii) Explain the architecture of a typical data warehouse and
describe the various components of a data warehouse.
3.(i) Discuss in detail about the object relational databases and its advantages.
(ii) Illustrate the issues to implement distributed databases.

4. (i) Give the basic structure of XML and its document schema.
(ii) What are the two important classes of data mining problems?
Explain about rule discovery using those classes.
5. (i) What are the types of Knowledge discovered data mining? Explain with
suitable example.
(ii) Explain the structure of XML with suitable example.
6 .(i) What is commercial database system? Discus in detail.
(ii) Write a detailed notes on data mining .
7. (i) Explain 2-phase commitment protocol and the behaviour of the
64
Protocol during lost messages and site failure.
(ii) Describe X path and X query with an example.
8 (i) Explain Data Mining and Data Warehousing.
(ii) Describe the anatomy of XML document.

UNIVERSITY QUESTION PAPER NOV/DEC 2006
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM(CS2255)

PART A

1. Compare database systems with file systems.
2. Give the distinction between primary key, candidate key and super
key.
3. Write a SQL statement to find the names and loan numbers of all
customers who have a loan at Chennai branch.
4. What is multi valued dependency?
5. Give the measures of the quality of a disk.
6. What are the two types of ordered indices?
7. List out the ACID properties.
8. What is shadow paging?
9. Compare DBMS versus object oriented DBMS.
10. What is data warehousing?

PART B

11.(a) (i) Describe the system structure of a database system.
65
(ii) List out the functions of a DBA.
(Or)
(b) (i) Illustrate the issues to be considered while developing an ER
diagram.
(ii) Consider the relational database
1) Find the names of all employees who work for First Bank
Corporation.
2) Find the names, street addresses and cities of residence of all
employees who work for First Bank Corporation and earn
more than 200000 per annum.
3) Find the names of all employees in this database who live in
the same city as the company for which they work.
employees of small Bank Corporation

12.(a) (i) Discuss about triggers. How do triggers offer a powerful
mechanism for dealing with the changes to a database with
suitable example.
(ii) What are nested queries? Explain with example.
(Or)
(b) (i) What is normalization? Give the various normal forms of
relational schema and define a relation which is in BCNF
and explain with suitable example.
(ii) Compare BCNF versus 3NF.

13.(a) (i) Describe about RAID levels.
(ii) Explain why allocations of records to blocks affects database
system performance significantly.
(Or)

(b) (i) Describe the structure of B
+
tree and give the algorithm for
search in the B
+
tree with example.
(ii) Give the comparison between ordered indexing and hashing.

14.(a) (i) Explain the different forms of Serializability.
66
(ii)What are different types of schedules are acceptable for
recoverability.
(Or)

(b) (i) Discuss on two-phase locking protocol and time stamp-based
protocol.
(ii) Write short notes on Log-based recovery.

15.(a) (i) Discuss in detail about the object relational databases and its
advantages.
(ii) Illustrate the issues to implement distributed databases.
(Or)

(b) (i) Give the basic structure of XML and its document schema.
(ii) What are the two important classes of data mining problems?
Explain about rule discovery using those classes.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM(CS2255)

PART A

1. List any two advantages of database system.
2. Give the reasons why null values might be introduces into database.
3. What is static SQL? How does it differ from dynamic SQL.?
4. What are the different types of integrity constraints used in designing a
relational database?
5. Compare sequential access devices versus random access devices with
an example.
6. What can be done to reduce the occurrences of bucket overflows in a
hash file organization?
7. Give the ACID properties.
8. State the benefits of strict two phase locking.
9. What is the need for complex data types?
10. What is data mining?

67
PART B

11.(a) (i) Explain the system structure of a database system with neat
Block diagram.
(Or)
(b)(i) Construct the ER diagram for hospital with a set of patients
and a set of medical doctors. Associate with each patient a log
of the various tests and examinations conducted.
(ii) Discuss on various related algebra operators with suitable
Example.
12.(a) (i) Consider the employee database , where the primary keys are
Underlined.
1) Find the names of all employees who work for First Bank
Corporation.
2) Find the names, street addresses and cities of residence of all
employees who work for First Bank Corporation and earn
more than 200000 per annum.
3) Find the names of all employees in this database who live in
the same city as the company for which they work.
employees of small Bank Corporation.
(ii) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the trigger mechanism.
Compare triggers with other integrity constraints supported by
SQL.
(Or)

(b) (i) What is normalization? Explain the various normalization
techniques with suitable example.
(ii) Give the comparison between BCNF and 3 NF.

13.(a) (i) Explain how the RAID system improves performance and
reliability.
(ii) Describe the structure of B+ tree and list the characteristics
of a B+ tree.
(Or)
68
(b) (i) Explain the steps involved in processing a query.
(ii) Give the algorithm for Hash join.

14.(a)(i) Describe about testing of serializability.
(ii) Discuss on two phase locking protocol.
(Or)
(b)(i) Explain the deferred and immediate modification versions of
the log based recovery scheme.
(ii) Write short notes on shadow paging.

15.(a) (i) Highlight the features of OODBMS.
(ii) Write short notes on distributed databases.
(Or)
(b) (i) Give the structure of XML data.
(ii) Explain the architecture of a typical data warehouse and
describe the various components of a data warehouse.


DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (CS2255)

PART A

1. What is Database Management System? Why do we need a DBMS?
2. What are three characteristics of a relational database system?
3. State the differences between Security and Integrity.
4. What is decomposition and how does it address redundancy?
5. What is a heap file? How are pages organized in a heap file?
6. How does B-tree differ from a B
+
- tree ? Why is a B
+
- tree usually
preferred as an access structure to a data file?
7. Give the meaning of the expression ACID transaction.
8. When are two schedules conflict equivalent?
9. Define the terms fragmentation and replication, in terms of where data
is stored.
69
10. What are structured data types? What are collection types ,in
particular?

PART B
11. (a) (i) Explain the component modules of a DBMS and their
interactions
with the architecture.
(ii) Construct an ER diagram to a model online book store.
(Or)

(b) (i) Explain the basic Relational Algebra operations with the
symbol
Used and an example for each.
(ii) Discuss about Tuple relational Calculus and Domain relational
Calculus

12. (a) (i) Write short notes on the following:
Data Manipulation Language (DML)
Data Definition Language (DDL)
Transaction Control Statements (TCS)
Data Control Language (DCL)
Data Administration Statements (DAS).
(ii) Consider the database given by the following schemes.
Customer (Cust_No, Sales_ Person_No ,City)
Sales_ Person(Sales_ Person_No ,Sales_ Person_Name,
Common_Prec,Year_of_Hire)
Give an expression in SQL for each of the following queries:
Display the list of all customers by Cust_No with the city in
which
each is located.
List the names of the sales persons who have accounts in
Delhi.
(Or)

(b) (i)Consider the universal relation r(A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J) and the
set of
FDs. G=({A,B} {C} {B,D} {E,F}, {A,D} {G,H},
{A}{I}, {H}{J}) What is the key of R? Decompose R into
2NF,
70
then 3NF relations.
(ii) Discuss hoe schema refinement through dependency analysis
and
Normalization can improve schemas obtained through ER
design.
13.(a) (i) Describe the different types of file organization? Explain using
a
sketch of each of them with their advantages and disadvantages.
(ii) Describe static hashing and dynamic hashing.
(Or)
(b) (i) Explain the index schemas used in database systems.
(ii) How does a DBMS represent a relational query evaluation
plan?
14.(a) (i) Explain Time stamp-Based Concurrency Control protocol and
the
Modifications implemented in it.
(ii) Describe shadow paging recovery techniques.
(Or)
(b) (i) Describe Strict Two-phase Locking protocol.
(ii) Explain Log-based recovery technique.
15.(a) (i) Explain 2-phase commitment protocol and the behaviour of the
Protocol during lost messages and site failure.
(ii) Describe X path and X query with an example.
(Or)
(b) (i) Explain Data Mining and Data Warehousing.
(ii) Describe the anatomy of XML document.

71

CS 2252 MICROPROCESSORS AND MICROCONTROLLERS

SYLLABUS

1.THE 8085 AND 8086 MICROPROCESSORS 9
8085 Microprocessor architecture-Addressing modes- Instruction set-Programming the 8085
2.8086 SOFTWARE ASPECTS 9
Intel 8086 microprocessor - Architecture - Signals- Instruction Set-Addressing Modes-Assembler
Directives- Assembly Language Programming-Procedures-Macros-Interrupts And Interrupt
Service Routines-BIOS function calls.
3. MULTIPROCESSOR CONFIGURATIONS 9
Coprocessor Configuration Closely Coupled Configuration Loosely Coupled Configuration
8087 Numeric Data Processor Data Types Architecture 8089 I/O Processor Architecture
Communication between CPU and IOP.
4. I/O INTERFACING 9
Memory interfacing and I/O interfacing with 8085 parallel communication interface serial
communication interface timer-keyboard/display controller interrupt controller DMA
controller (8237) applications stepper motor temperature control.
5. MICROCONTROLLERS 9
Architecture of 8051 Microcontroller signals I/O ports memory counters and
timers serial data I/O interrupts-
Interfacing -keyboard, LCD,ADC & DAC
TOTAL: 45
TEXT BOOKS:

1. Ramesh S. Gaonkar ,Microprocessor Architecture, Programming and
Applications with the 8085 Penram International Publisher , 5
th
Ed.,2006
2. Yn-cheng Liu,Glenn A.Gibson, Microcomputer systems: The 8086 / 8088
Family architecture, Programming and Design, second edition, Prentice Hall
of India , 2006 .
3. Kenneth J.Ayala, The 8051 microcontroller Architecture, Programming and
applications second edition ,Penram international.

REFERENCES:

1. Douglas V.Hall, Microprocessors and Interfacing : Programming and
Hardware, second edition , Tata Mc Graw Hill ,2006.
2. A.K.Ray & K.M Bhurchandi, Advanced Microprocessor and Peripherals
Architecture, Programming and Interfacing, Tata Mc Graw Hill , 2006.
3. Peter Abel, IBM PC Assembly language and programming , fifth edition,
Pearson education / Prentice Hall of India Pvt.Ltd,2007.
4. Mohamed Ali Mazidi,Janice Gillispie Mazidi, The 8051 microcontroller and
embedded systems using Assembly and C,second edition, Pearson
education /Prentice hall of India , 2007.

72
UNIT I :THE 8085 AND 8086 MICROPROCESSORS

PART A

1. What is Microprocessor? Give the power supply & clock frequency of 8085.
A microprocessor is a multipurpose, programmable logic device that reads
binary instructions from a storage device called memory accepts binary data as
input and processes data according to those instructions and provides result as
output. The power supply of 8085 is +5V and clock frequency in 3MHz.
2. List few applications of microprocessor-based system.
It is used:
i. For measurements, display and control of current, voltage,
temperature, pressure, etc.
ii. For traffic control and industrial tool control.
iii. For speed control of machines.
3. What are the functions of an accumulator?
The accumulator is the register associated with the ALU operations and
sometimes I/O operations. It is an integral part of ALU. It holds one of data to be
processed by ALU. It also temporarily stores the result of the operation performed by the
ALU.
4. List the 16 bit registers of 8085 microprocessor.
Stack pointer (SP) and Program counter (PC).
5. List the allowed register pairs of 8085.
B-C register pair
D-E register pair
H-L register pair
6. Mention the purpose of SID and SOD lines
SID (Serial input data line):
It is an input line through which the microprocessor accepts serial
data.
SOD (Serial output data line):
It is an output line through which the microprocessor sends output serial data.
7. What is an Opcode?
The part of the instruction that specifies the operation to be performed is
called the operation code or opcode
8. What is an Operand?
The data on which the operation is to be performed is called as an Operand
9. What is the function of IO/M signal in the 8085?
It is a status signal. It is used to differentiate between memory locations
and I/O operations. When this signal is low (IO/M = 0) it denotes the
memory related operations. When this signal is high (IO/M = 1) it denotes
an I/O operation.
10. How many operations are there in the instruction set of 8085
microprocessor?
There are 74 operations in the 8085 microprocessor.
73
11. List out the five categories of the 8085 instructions. Give examples of the
instructions for each group.
1. Data transfer group MOV, MVI, LXI.
2. Arithmetic group ADD, SUB, INR.
3. Logical group ANA, XRA, CMP.
4. Branch group JMP, JNZ, CALL.
5. Stack I/O and Machine control group PUSH, POP, IN, HLT.
12. Explain the difference between a JMP instruction and CALL instruction.
A JMP instruction permanently changes the program counter. A CALL
instruction leaves information on the stack so that the original program execution
sequence can be resumed.
13. Explain the purpose of the I/O instructions IN and OUT.
The IN instruction is used to move data from an I/O port into the
accumulator.
The OUT instruction is used to move data from the accumulator to an I/O
port.
The IN & OUT instructions are used only on microprocessor, which use a
separate address space for interfacing.
14. What is the difference between the shift and rotate instructions?
A rotate instruction is a closed loop instruction. That is, the data moved
out at one end is put back in at the other end. The shift instruction loses the data
that is moved out of the last bit locations.
15.Control signals used for DMA operation are ____________
HOLD & HLDA.
16. What is meant by Wait State?
This state is used by slow peripheral devices. The peripheral devices can
transfer the data to or from the microprocessor by using READY input line. The
microprocessor remains in wait state as long as READY line is low. During the
wait state, the contents of the address, address/data and control buses are held
constant.
17. List the four instructions which control the interrupt structure of the 8085
microprocessor.
DI ( Disable Interrupts )
EI ( Enable Interrupts )
RIM ( Read Interrupt Masks )
SIM ( Set Interrupt Masks )

18. What is meant by polling?
Polling or device polling is a process which identifies the device that has
interrupted the microprocessor.
19. What is meant by interrupt?
Interrupt is an external signal that causes a microprocessor to jump to a
specific subroutine.
20. Explain priority interrupts of 8085.
The 8085 microprocessor has five interrupt inputs. They are TRAP, RST
74
7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5, and INTR. These interrupts have a fixed priority of
interrupt service.
If two or more interrupts go high at the same time, the 8085 will service
them on priority basis. The TRAP has the highest priority followed bye RST 7.5,
RST 6.5, RST 5.5. The priority of interrupts in 8085 is shown in the table.
Interrupts Priority
TRAP
RST 7.5
RST 6.5
RST 5.5
INTR
21. What is a microcomputer?
A computer that is designed using a microprocessor as its CPU is called
microcomputer.
22. What is the signal classification of 8085
All the signals of 8085 can be classified into 6 groups
Address bus
Data bus
Control and status signals
Power supply and frequency signals
Externally initiated signals
Serial I/O ports
23. What are operations performed on data in 8085
The various operations performed are
Store 8-bit data
Perform arithmetic and logical operations
Test for conditions
Sequence the execution of instructions
Store data temporarily during execution in the defined R/W
memory locations called the stack
24. Steps involved to fetch a byte in 8085
The PC places the 16-bit memory address on the address bus
. The control unit sends the control signal RD to enable the memory chip
. The byte from the memory location is placed on the data bus
. The byte is placed in the instruction decoder of the microprocessor and
the task is carried out according to the instruction
25. How many interrupts does 8085 have, mention them
The 8085 has 5 interrupt signals; they are INTR, RST7.5, RST6.5, RST5.5
and TRAP
26. Basic concepts in memory interfacing
The primary function of memory interfacing is that the microprocessor
should be able to read from and write into a given register of a memory chip. To
perform these operations the microprocessor should
Be able to select the chip
Identify the register
Enable the appropriate buffer
75
27. Define instruction cycle, machine cycle and T-state
Instruction cycle is defined, as the time required completing the execution
of an instruction. Machine cycle is defined as the time required completing one
operation of accessing memory, I/O or acknowledging an external request.
T cycle is defined as one subdivision of the operation performed in one clock period

28. What is the use of ALE
The ALE is used to latch the lower order address so that it can be available in T2
and T3 and used for identifying the memory address. During T1 the ALE goes high, the
latch is transparent ie, the output changes according to the input data, so the output of the
latch is the lower order address. When ALE goes low the lower order address is latched
until the next ALE.
29. How many machine cycles does 8085 have, mention them
The 8085 have seven machine cycles. They are
Opcode fetch
Memory read
Memory write
I/O read
I/O write
Interrupt acknowledge
Bus idle
30. Explain the signals HOLD, READY and SID
HOLD indicates that a peripheral such as DMA controller is requesting
the use of address bus, data bus and control bus. READY is used to delay the
microprocessor read or write cycles until a slow responding peripheral is ready to
send or accept data. SID is used to accept serial data bit by bit
31. Mention the categories of instruction and give two examples for each
category
The instructions of 8085 can be categorized into the following five
Data transfer MOV Rd,Rs STA 16-bit
Arithmetic ADD R, DCR M
Logical XRI 8-bit RAR
Branching JNZ CALL 16-bit
Machine control HLT NOP
32. Explain LDA, STA and DAA instructions
LDA copies the data byte into accumulator from the memory location
specified by the 16-bit address. STA copies the data byte from the accumulator in the
memory location specified by 16-bit address. DAA changes the contents of
the accumulator from binary to 4-bit BCD digits.
33 Explain the different instruction formats with examples
The instruction set is grouped into the following formats
One byte instruction MOV C,A
Two byte instruction MVI A,39H
Three byte instruction JMP 2345H
34. What is the use of addressing modes, mention the different types
76
The various formats of specifying the operands are called addressing modes, it is
used to access the operands or data. The different types are as follows
Immediate addressing
Register addressing
Direct addressing
Indirect addressing
Implicit addressing
35. Why do we use XRA A instruction
The XRA A instruction is used to clear the contents of the Accumulator
and store the value 00H.
36. Compare CALL and PUSH instructions
CALL PUSH
When CALL is executed the microprocessor automatically stores the
16-bit address of the instruction next to CALL on the stack. The programmer uses the
instruction PUSH to save the contents of the register pair on the stack
When CALL is executed the stack pointer is decremented by two
When PUSH is executed the stack pointer register is decremented by two

PART B

1. Explain the Architecture of 8085.
ALU
Timing and control unit
Instruction Register & Decoding
Interrupt control
Serial I/O control
Ref diagram page no 59 Gaonkar
2..Explain instruction sets of8085.
Data transfer group MOV, MVI, LXI.
Arithmetic group ADD, SUB, INR.
Logical group ANA, XRA, CMP.
Branch group JMP, JNZ, CALL.
Stack I/O and Machine control group PUSH, POP, IN, HLT.

3.Explain Interrupts of 8085.
Maskable interrupt
Non maskable interrupt
Vectored interrupt
Hardware interrupt
Software interrupt

4.Explain signal description of 8085
Address bus
Control and status signal
Address latch enable
77
Read ,write signal
S1,S0 status signals
Power supply and clock frequency
Externally initiated signals ,Including interrupts
Serial I/O ports

5.Explain addressing modes of 8085.
Immediate addressing
Register addressing
Direct addressing
Indirect addressing
Implicit addressing

UNIT-II 8086 SOFTWARE ASPECTS

PART A

1.What is the purpose of segment registers in 8086?
There are 4 segment registers present in 8086. They are
1. Code Segment (CS ) register
2. Data Segment (DS ) register
3. Stack Segment (SS ) register
4. Extra Segment (ES ) register
The code segment register gives the address of the current code segment. ie.It
will points out where the instructions, to be executed, are stored in the memory.
The data segment register points out where the operands are stored in the
memory.
The stack segment registers points out the address of the current stack, which is
used to store the temporary results.
f the amount of data used is more the Extra segment register points out
where the large amount of data is stored in the memory.
2. Define pipelining?
In 8086, to speedup the execution of program, the instructions fetching and
execution of instructions are overlapped each other. This technique is known as
pipelining.
In pipelining, when the n th instruction is executed, the n+1 th instruction is
fetched and thus the processing speed is increased.
3. Discuss the function of instruction queue in 8086?
In 8086, a 6-byte instruction queue is presented at the Bus Interface Unit
(BIU). It is used to pre fetch and store at the maximum of 6 bytes of instruction
code from the memory. Due to this, overlapping instruction fetch with instruction
execution increases the processing speed.
4. What is the maximum memory size that can be addressed by 8086?
In 8086, an memory location is addressed by 20 bit address and the address bus is
20 bit address and the address bus is 20 bits. So it can address up to one mega byte (2^20)
of memory space.
78
5. What is the function of the signal in 8086?
BHE signal means Bus High Enable signal. The BHE signal is made low when
there is some read or write operation is carried out. ie . When ever the data bus of the
system is busy i.e. whenever there is some data transfer then the BHE signal is made low.
6.What are the predefined interrupts in 8086?
The various predefined interrupts are,
DIVISION BY ZERO (type 0) Interrupt.
SINGLE STEP (type 1) Interrupt.
NONMASKABLE (type2) Interrupt.
BREAK POINT (type 3) Interrupt.
OVER FLOW (type 4) Interrupt.
7. What are the different flag available in status register of 8086?
There are 6 one bit flags are present. They are,
AF - Auxiliary Carry Flag
CF - Carry Flag
OF - Overflow Flag
SF - Sign Flag
PF - Parity Flag
ZF - Zero Flag
8. List the various addressing modes present in 8086?
There are 12 addressing modes present in 8086. They are,
(a) Register and immediate addressing modes
_ Register addressing modes
_ Immediate addressing mode
(b) Memory addressing modes.
Direct addressing modes
Register indirect addressing modes
Based addressing modes
Indexed addressing modes
Based Indexed addressing modes
String addressing modes
(c) I/O addressing modes
Direct addressing mode
Indirect addressing mode
(d) Relative addressing mode
(e) Implied addressing mode
9. How single stepping can be done in 8086?
By setting the Trace Flag (TF) the 8086 goes to single-step mode. In this mode,
after the execution of each instruction s 8086 generates an internal interrupt and by
writing some interrupt service routine we can display the content of desired registers and
memory locations. So it is useful for debugging the program.
10. State the significance of LOCK signal in 8086?
If 8086 is working at maximum mode, there are multiprocessors are
present. If the system bus is given to a processor then the LOCK signal is made
low. That means the system bus is busy and it cannot be given of any other
processors. After the use of the system bus again the LOCK signal is made high.
79
That means it is ready to give the system bus to any processor.
11. What are the functions of bus interface unit (BIU) in 8086?
(a) Fetch instructions from memory.
(b) Fetch data from memory and I/O ports.
(c) Write data to memory and I/O ports.
(d) To communicate with outside world.
(e) Provide external bus operations and bus control signals.
12. What is the clock frequency of 8086?
Internal clock Frequency 5 MHz 8MHz
External Clock Frequency 15MHZ 24MHZ
13. What are the two modes of operations present in 8086?
i. Minimum mode (or) Uniprocessor system
ii. Maximum mode (or) Multiprocessor system
14. Explain the process control instructions
STC It sets the carry flag & does not affect any other flag
CLC it resets the carry flag to zero &does not affect any other flag
CMC It complements the carry flag & does not affect any other flag
STD It sets the direction flag to 1 so that SI and/or DI can be decremented
automatically after execution of string instruction & does not affect other flags
CLD It resets the direction flag to 0 so that SI and/or DI can be incremented
automatically after execution of string instruction & does not affect other flags
STI Sets the interrupt flag to 1. Enables INTR of 8086.
CLI Resets the interrupt flagto0. 8086 will not respond to INTR.
15. Compare Procedure & Macro
Accessed by CALL & RET instruction Accessed during assembly with name given
during program execution to macro when defined Machine code for instruction is put
only once in the memory Machine code is generated for instruction each time when
macro is called With procedures less memory is required With macro more memory is
required Parameters can be passed in registers, memory locations or stack
Parameters passed as part of statement which calls macro.
16. Define BIOS
The IBM PC has in its ROM a collection of routines, each of which performs
some specific function such as reading a character from keyboard, writing character to
CRT. This collection of routines is referred to as Basic Input Output System or BIOS.
17. Explain PUBLIC
For large programs several small modules are linked together. In order that the
modules link together correctly any variable name or label referred to in other modules
must be declared public in the module where it is defined. The PUBLIC directive is used
to tell the assembler that a specified name or label will be accessed from other modules.
Format PUBLIC Symbol.
18. What are the 8086 interrupt types?
Dedicated interrupts
Type 0: Divide by zero interrupt
Type 1: Single step interrupt
Type 2:Non maskable interrupt
Type 3: Breakpoint
Type 4: Overflow interrupt
80
Software interrupts
19. What is interrupt service routine?
Interrupt means to break the sequence of operation. While the CPU is executing a
program an interrupt breaks the normal sequence of execution of instructions & diverts
its execution to some other program. This program to which the control is transferred is
called the interrupt service routine.

20. What are Macros?
Macro is a group of instruction. The macro assembler generates the code in the
program each time where the macro is called. Macros are defined by MACRO & ENDM
directives. Creating macro is similar to creating new opcodes that can be used in the
program
INIT MACRO
MOV AX, data
MOV DS
MOV ES, AX
ENDM
21. What are procedures?
Procedures are a group of instructions stored as a separate program in memory
and it is called from the main program whenever required. The type of procedure depends
on where the procedures are stored in memory. If it is in the same code segment as that of
the main program then it is a near procedure otherwise it is a far procedure.

22. What are the functions of status pins in 8086?
S2 S1 S0
0 0 0 ---- Interrupt acknowledge
0 0 1 ---- Read I/O
0 1 0 ---- Write I/O
0 1 1 ---- Halt
1 0 0 ---- Code access
1 0 1 ---- Read memory
1 1 0 ---- Write memory
1 1 1 ---- inactive
S4 S3
0 0 --I/O from extra segment
0 1 --I/O from Stack Segment
1 0 --I/O from Code segment
1 1 --I/O from Data segment
S5 --Status of interrupt enable flag
S6 --Hold acknowledge for system bus
S7 --Address transfer
PART-B

1. Explain the signal description of 8086.
Common signals
Bus high enable signals/Status
81
Ready,INTR,TEST,NMI,RESET,CLK,
Minimum mode signals
maximum mode signals
Ref diagram page no 9 A.K.Ray
2. Explain the Architecture of 8086
i. special purpose registers
ii. General data register
iii. Segment registers
iv. Pointers and index registers
v. Bus interface unit
vi. Execution unit
vii. memory segmentation
3..Explain instruction sets of 8086.
Data transfer group MOV,
.Arithmetic group ADD, SUB, INR.
Logical group AND, XOR, .
Branch group JP, JZ, CALL.
Stack I/O and Machine control group PUSH, POP, , HLT
Processor control-CLC,CMC,STC,CLD
String Manipulations.-MOVS,CMPS,SCAS
4. . List the various addressing modes present in 8086?
There are 12 addressing modes present in 8086. They are,
(a) Register and immediate addressing modes
_ Register addressing modes
_ Immediate addressing mode
(b) Memory addressing modes.
Direct addressing modes
Register indirect addressing modes
Based addressing modes
Indexed addressing modes
Based Indexed addressing modes
String addressing modes
(c) I/O addressing modes
Direct addressing mode
Indirect addressing mode
(d) Relative addressing mode
(e) Implied addressing mode

5.Explain assembler Directives of 8086
DB,DW,DQ,DT
END,ENDP,ENDS,EVEN,EQU,EXTRN
GROUP,LABEL,LENGTH,LOCAL
OFFSET,ORG,PROCEDURE
PUBLIC,SEGMENT,SHORT,TYPE,GLOBAL

82
UNITIII: MULTIPROCESSOR CONFIGURATIONS

PART A

1. What are tightly coupled systems or closely coupled systems?
In a tightly coupled systems the microprocessor (either coprocessor or independent
processors)may share a common clock and bus control logic.. The two processors in a
closely coupled system may communicate using a common system bus or common
memory.
2. What are loosely coupled systems?
In loosely coupled systems each CPU may have its own bus control logic. The bus
arbitration is handled by an external circuit, common to all processors.. The loosely
coupled system configuration like LAN & WAN can be spreaded over a large area.
3. Write some advantages of loosely coupled systems over tightly coupled
systems
More number of CPUs can be added in a loosely coupled systems to improve the
system performance.. The system structure is modular and hence easy to maintain and
troubleshoot.
A fault in a single module does not lead to a complete system breakdown.
Due to the independent processing modules used in the system, it is more fault
tolerant.
more suitable to parallel applications due to its modular organizations.
4. Write some disadvantages of loosely coupled systems
More complicated due to the required additional communication hardware.
They are less portable and more expensive due to the additional hardware and the
communication media requirement.
5.Name some general purpose registers available in 8089processor.
Registers GA,GB,GC,BC,IX,MC

5. What is meant by Daisy Chaining method?
It does not require any priority resolving network, rather the priorities of all the
devices are essentially assumed to be in sequence.
All the masters use a single bus request line for requesting the bus access. The
controller sends a bus grant signal ,in response to the request ,if the busy signal is inactive
when the bus is free. .The bus grant pulse goes to each of the masters in the sequence till
it reaches a requesting master .The master then receives the grant signal, activates the
busy line and gains the control of the bus. The priority is decided by the position of the
requesting master in the sequence.
6. What is independent bus request scheme?
Each of the masters requires a pair of request and grant pins which are connected
to the controlling logic. The busy line is common for all the masters. . f the controlling
logic receives a request on a bus request line, it immediately grants the bus access using
the corresponding bus grant signal, provided the BUSY line is inactive, and then grants
the request.
This is quite fast ,because each of the masters can independently communicate with the
controller.
7. What is meant by polling?
83
In polling schemes ,a set of address lines is driven by the controller to address
each of the masters in sequence. When a bus request is received from a device by the
controller, it generates the address on the address lines. .If the generated address matches
with that of the requesting masters, the controller activates the BUSY line..
Once the busy line is activat3Write some advantages of loosely coupled systems ed ,the
controller stops generating further address.
8. Explain numeric processor 8087.
Numeric processor 8087 is a coprocessor which has been designed to work under
the control of the processor 8086 and offer it additional numeric processing capabilities.
What are CU and NEU in 8087?
CU-Control unit
NEU- Numeric extension unit. The numeric extension unit executes all the
numeric processor instructions while the control unit receives ,decodes instructions ,reads
and writes memory operands and executes 8087 control instructions. .These two units
may work asynchronously with each other.

PART-B

1. Explain the architecture of 8087
control unit
Numeric extension unit
Register set of 8087

2. Explain the Signal description of 8087

3. Explain the architecture of 8089
Architecture diagram
Bus arbitration and control
Daisy chaining
Independent request
polling

UNIT IV: I/O INTERFACING

PART-A

1.What are the different types of methods used for data transmission?
84
The data transmission between two points involves unidirectional or bi-directional
transmission of meaningful digital data through a medium. There are basically there
modes of data transmission
(a) Simplex
(b) Duplex
(c) Half Duplex
In simplex mode, data is transmitted only in one direction over a single communication
channel. For example, a computer (CPU is received by the computer (i.e the computer is
receiver). However, it is not possible to transmit data from the computer to terminal and
from terminal to the computer simultaneously.
2.What are the various programmed data transfer methods?
ii) Synchronous data transfer
iii) Asynchronous data transfer
iv) Interrupt driven data transfer
3. What is synchronous data transfer?
It is a data method which is used when the I/O device and the microprocessor
match in speed. To transfer a data to or from the device, the user program issues a
suitable instruction addressing the device. The data transfer is completed at the end of the
execution of this instruction.
4. What is asynchronous data transfer?
It is a data transfer method which is used when the speed of an I/O device
does not match with the speed of the microprocessor. Asynchronous data transfer is also
called as Handshaking.
5. What are the functional types used in control words of 8251a?
The control words of 8251A are divided into two functional types.
1. Mode Instruction control word
2. Command Instruction control word
Mode Instruction control word :-This defines the general operational
characteristics of 8251A.
Command Instruction control word:-The command instruction controls the
actual operations of the selected format like enable transmit/receive, error reset and
modem control.
6. What are the basic modes of operation of 8255?
There are two basic modes of operation of 8255, viz.
1. I/O mode.
3. BSR mode.
In I/O mode, the 8255 ports work as programmable I/O ports, while
In BSR mode only port C (PC0-PC7) can be used to set or reset its individual
port bits. Under the IO mode of operation, further there are three modes of operation of 8
255, So as to support different types of applications, viz. mode 0, mode 1 and mode 2.
Mode 0 - Basic I/O mode
Mode 1 - Strobed I/O mode
Mode 2 - Strobed bi-directional I/O
7. Write the features of mode 0 in 8255?
1. Two 8-bit ports (port A and port B) and two 4-bit ports (port C upper and
lower)
85
are available. The two 4-bit ports can be combined used as a third 8-bit port.
2. Any port can be used as an input or output port.
3.Output ports are latched. Input ports are not latched.
4. A maximum of four ports are available so that overall 16 I/O configurations are
possible.
8. What are the features used mode 1 in 8255?
Two groups group A and group B are available for strobed data transfer.
1. Each group contains one 8-bit data I/O port and one 4-bit control/data port.
2. The 8-bit data port can be either used as input or output port. The inputs and
outputs both are latched.
3. Out of 8-bit port C, PC0-PC2 is used to generate control signals for port B and
PC3=PC5 are used to generate control signals for port A. The lines PC6, PC7 may
be used as independent data lines.
9. What are the signals used in input control signal & output control signal?
Input control signal
STB (Strobe input)
IBF (Input buffer full)
INTR(Interrupt request)
Output control signal
OBF (Output buffer full)
ACK (Acknowledge input)
INTR(Interrupt request)
10. What are the features used mode 2 in 8255?
The single 8-bit port in-group A is available.
1. The 8-bit port is bi-directional and additionally a 5-bit control port is available.
2. Three I/O lines are available at port C, viz PC2-PC0.
3. Inputs and outputs are both latched.
4. The 5-bit control port C (PC3=PC7) is used for generating/accepting handshake
signals for the 8-bit data transfer on port A.
11. What are the modes of operations used in 8253?
Each of the three counters of 8253 can be operated in one of the following
six modes of operation.
1. Mode 0 (Interrupt on terminal count)
2. Mode 1 (Programmable monoshot)
3. Mode 2 (Rate generator)
4. Mode 3 (Square wave generator)
5. Mode 4 (Software triggered strobe)
6. Mode 5 (Hardware triggered strobe)
12. What are the different types of write operations used in 8253?
There are two types of write operations in 8253
(1) Writing a control word register
(2) Writing a count value into a count register
The control word register accepts data from the data buffer and initializes
the counters, as required. The control word register contents are used for
(a) Initializing the operating modes (mode 0-mode4)
(b) Selection of counters (counter 0- counter 2)
86
(c) Choosing binary /BCD counters
(d) Loading of the counter registers.
The mode control register is a write only register and the CPU cannot read
its contents.
13. Give the different types of command words used in 8259a?
The command words of 8259A are classified in two groups
1. Initialization command words (ICWs)
2. Operation command words (OCWs)
14. Give the operating modes of 8259a?
(a) Fully Nested Mode
(b) End of Interrupt (EOI)
(c) Automatic Rotation
(d) Automatic EOI Mode
(e) Specific Rotation
(f) Special Mask Mode
(g) Edge and level Triggered Mode
(h) Reading 8259 Status
(i) Poll command
(j) Special Fully Nested Mode
(k) Buffered mode
(l) Cascade mode

15. What is the output modes used in 8279?
8279 provides two output modes for selecting the display options.
1.Display Scan
In this mode, 8279 provides 8 or 16 character-multiplexed displays those
can be organized as dual 4-bit or single 8-bit display units.
2.Display Entry
8279 allows options for data entry on the displays. The display data is
entered for display from the right side or from the left side.
16. What are the modes used in keyboard modes?
1. Scanned Keyboard mode with 2 Key Lockout.
2. Scanned Keyboard with N-key Rollover.
3. Scanned Keyboard special Error Mode.
4. Sensor Matrix Mode.
17. What are the modes used in display modes?
1. Left Entry mode
In the left entry mode, the data is entered from the left side of the display
unit..
2. Right Entry Mode
In the right entry mode, the first entry to be displayed is entered on the
rightmost display.
18. What is the use of modem control unit in 8251?
The modem control unit handles the modem handshake signals to coordinate the
communication between the modem and the USART.
19. Give the register organization of 8257?
87
The 8257 perform the DMA operation over four independent DMA channels.
Each of t he four channels of 8257 has a pair of two 16-bit registers. DMA address
register and terminal count register. Also, there are two common registers for all the
channels; namely, mode set registers and status register. Thus there are a total of ten
registers. The CPU selects one of these ten registers using address lines A0- A3.
20. What is the function of DMA address register?
Each DMA channel has one DMA address register. The function of this register is
to store the address of the starting memory location, which will be accessed by the
DMA channel. Thus the starting address of the memory block that will be
accessed by the device is first loaded in the DMA address register of the channel.
Naturally, the device that wants to transfer data over a DMA channel, will access
the block of memory with the starting address stored in the DMA Address
Register.
21. What is the use of terminal count register?
Each of the four DMA channels of 8257 has one terminal count register. This
16-bit register is used for ascertaining that the data transfer through a DMA
channel ceases or stops after the required number of DMA cycles.
22. What is the function of mode set register in 8257?
The mode set register is used for programming the 8257 as per the requirements
of the system. The function of the mode set register is to enable the DMA
channels individually and also to set the various modes of operation.
23. Distinguish between the memories mapped I/O peripheral I/O?
SL: NO Memory Mapped I/O Peripheral I/O Peripheral I/O

Memory Mapped I/O I/O mapped I/O

16-bit device address 8-bit device address
Data transfer between any
general-purpose register and I/O
port.

Data is transfer only between
accumulator and I.O port

The memory map (64K) is
shared between I/O device and
system memory
The I/O map is independent of the
memory map; 256 input device and
256 output device can be connected
More hardware is required to
decode 16-bit address

Less hardware is required to decode
8-bit address

Arithmetic or logic operation can
be directly performed with I/O
data

Arithmetic or logical operation
cannot be directly performed with
I/O data

24. List the operation modes of 8255
a) I.O Mode
i. Mode 0-Simple Input/Output.
ii. Mode 1-Strobed Input/Output (Handshake mode)
88
iii. Mode 2-Strobed bidirectional mode
b) Bit Set/Reset Mode.
25. What is a control word?
It is a word stored in a register (control register) used to control the operation of a
program digital device.
26. What is the purpose of control word written to control register in 8255?
The control words written to control register specify an I/O function for each
I.O port. The bit D7 of the control word determines either the I/O function of the
BSR function.
27.What is the size of ports in 8255?
Port-A : 8-bits
Port-B : 8-bits
Port-CU : 4-bits
Port-CL : 4-bits
28. What is interfacing?
An interface is a shared boundary between the devices which involves sharing
information. Interfacing is the process of making two different systems communicate
with each other.
29. What is memory mapping?
The assignment of memory addresses to various registers in a memory chip is
called as memory mapping.
30. What is I/O mapping?
The assignment of addresses to various I/O devices in the memory chip is
called as I/O mapping.
31. What is an USART?
USART stands for universal synchronous/Asynchronous Receiver/
Transmitter. It is a programmable communication interface that can communicate by
using either synchronous or asynchronous serial data.
32.What is the use of 8251 chip?
8251 chip is mainly used as the asynchronous serial interface between the
processor and the external equipment.
33. The 8279 is a programmable __________ interface.
Keyboard/Display
34. List the major components of the keyboard/Display interface.
a. Keyboard section
b. Scan section
c. Display section
d. CPU interface section
35. What is Key bouncing?
Mechanical switches are used as keys in most of the keyboards. When a key is
pressed the contact bounce back and forth and settle down only after a small time
delay (about 20ms). Even though a key is actuated once, it will appear to have
been actuated several times. This problem is called Key Bouncing.
36.Define HRQ?
The hold request output requests the access of the system bus. In
non- cascaded 8257 systems, this is connected with HOLD pin of CPU. In cascade
89
mode, this pin of a slave is connected with a DRQ input line of the master 8257,
while that of the master is connected with HOLD input of the CPU.
37. What is the use of stepper motor?
A stepper motor is a device used to obtain an accurate position control of
rotating shafts. A stepper motor employs rotation of its shaft in terms of steps,
rather than continuous rotation as in case of AC or DC motor.
38. What is TXD?
TXD- Transmitter Data Output
This output pin carries serial stream of the transmitted data bits along with other
information like start bit, stop bits and priority bit.
39. What is RXD?
RXD- Receive Data Input
This input pin of 8251A receives a composite stream of the data to be received by
8251A.

PART-B

1. Explain Programmable Interrupt controller with neat diagram.
Features
Block diagram
Initialisation command word
Interrupt sequence
Interrupt Request Register
In service register
Priority Resolver
Interrupt mask register
Data bus buffer

2. Explain 8253/8254 Timer
Operation modes
Mode0-Interrupt on terminal count
Mode1-HW triggered /programmable one shot
Mode2-Rate generator
Mode3-Squre wave generator
Mode4-software triggered strobe

Mode5 -Hardware triggered strobe
Ref diagram page no A.K.Ray

3. Explain DMA controller 8237
8237 DMA controller
Signal description of 8237
Register organizations of 8257
DMA address registers
Terminal count registers
90
Mode set registers
Status registers
Data bus buffer ,priority resolver
Ref diagram page no268 A.K.Ray
4. 8279 programmmable keyboard/Display interface
Pin configuration
Block diagram of 8279
Keyboard section,scan section ,display section,MPU interface
section
Programming 8279
Parallel communication interface
Pin configuration Architecture of 8255
control logic, control word
Ref diagram page no 240 A.K .Ray
5 .Serial communication interface((8251 USART)
Architecture of 8251
Operating modes
Asynchronous mode
Synchronous mode

UNIT V: MICROCONTROLLERS

PART-A

1. What is meant by microcontroller?
A device which contains the microprocessor with integrated peripherals like
memory, serial ports, parallel ports, timer/counter, interrupt controller, data
acquisition interfaces like ADC,DAC is called microcontroller.
2. Explain DJNZ instructions of intel 8051 microcontroller?
a) DJNZ Rn, rel
Decrement the content of the register Rn and jump if not zero.
b) DJNZ direct , rel
Decrement the content of direct 8-bit address and jump if not zero.
3. State the function of RS1 and RS0 bits in the flag register of intel 8051
microcontroller?
RS1 , RS0 Register bank select bits
RS1 RS0 BankSelection
0 0 Bank 0
0 1 Bank 1
1 0 Bank 2
1 1 Bank 3

4. Give the alternate functions for the port pins of port3?
RD Read data control output.
WR Write data control output.
91
T1 Timer / Counter1 external input or test pin.
T0 Timer / Counter0 external input or test pin.
INT1- Interrupt 1 input pin.
INT 0 Interrupt 0 input pin.
TXD Transmit data pin for serial port in UART mode.
RXD - Receive data pin for serial port in UART mode
5. Explain the function of the pins PSEN and EA of 8051.
PSEN: PSEN stands for program store enable. In 8051 based system
in which an external ROM holds the program code, this pin is connected to the
OE pin of the ROM.
EA :EA stands for external access. When the EA pin is connected to Vcc,
program fetched to addresses 0000H through 0FFFH are directed to the internal
ROM and program fetches to addresses 1000H through FFFFH are directed to
external ROM/EPROM. When the EA pin is grounded, all addresses fetched by
program are directed to the external ROM/EPROM.
6. Explain the 16-bit registers DPTR and SP of 8051.
DPTR:
DPTR stands for data pointer. DPTR consists of a high byte (DPH) and a
low byte (DPL). Its function is to hold a 16-bit address. It may be manipulated as
a 16-bit data register or as two independent 8-bit registers. It serves as a base
register in indirect jumps, lookup table instructions and external data transfer.
SP:
SP stands for stack pointer. SP is a 8- bit wide register. It is incremented
before data is stored during PUSH and CALL instructions. The stack array can
reside anywhere in on-chip RAM. The stack pointer is initialised to 07H after a
reset. This causes the stack to begin at location
08H.
7. Name the special functions registers available in 8051.
Accumulator
B Register
Program Status Word.
Stack Pointer.
Data Pointer.
Port 0
Port 1
Port 2
Port 3
Interrupt priority control register.
8. Compare Microprocessor and Microcontroller.
Microprocessor Microcontroller
Microprocessor contains
ALU, general purpose
registers, stack pointer,
program counter, clock timing
circuit and interrupt circuit.

Microcontroller contains the circuitry
of microprocessor and in addition it
has built- in ROM, RAM, I/O
devices, timers and counters.

92
It has many instructions to
move data between memory
and CPU
It has one or two instructions to move
data between memory and CPU.

It has one or two bit handling
Instructions
It has many bit handling instructions.

4 Access times for memory and I/O
devices are more.

Less access times for built-in memory
and I/O devices
Microprocessor based system
requires more hardware.

Microcontroller based system requires
less hardware reducing PCB size and
increasing the reliability.
9.Name the five interrupt sources of 8051?.
The interrupts are:
Vector address
External interrupt 0 : IE0 : 0003H
Timer interrupt 0 : TF0 : 000BH
External interrupt 1 : IE1 : 0013H
Timer Interrupt 1 : TF1 : 001BH
Serial Interrupt
Receive interrupt : RI : 0023H
Transmit interrupt: TI : 0023H
Interrupt enable control register.

PART-B

1.Explain architecture of 8051
Accumulator, B regisrer, PSW, Stack pointer
Data pointer,port0to 3 latches and drives, serial data buffer
Timer, Registers,control register,Timing and control
unit,oscillator,ALU,SFR Reg
PSW,8051 registerbank,stack in 8051,TMOD,TCON,SCON,PCON

2.Explain instruction sets of 8051
Data transfer group
Arithmetic group
Logical group .
Branch group .
Stack I/O and Machine control group

3. Applications of 8051
Stepper motor interfacing
Length measurement
Square wave generator

93

UNIVERSITY QUESTION PAPER

B.E/B.TECH DEGREE EXAMINATION NOV/DEC 2006

PART-A

1.Name the flag bits available in 8085 microprocessors.
The 8085 microprocessor has five flags to indicate five different types of data
conditions .they are zero(Z),carry(CY),Sign (S),Parity(P) and auxillary carry(AC)
flags.The most commonly used flags are sign ,zero and carry.
2.Give the significance of SIM and RIM instruction available in 8085.
Instruction SIM: Set Interrupt Mask. this is a 1 byte instruction and can be used
three different functions as follows
i)to set mask for RST 7.5,6.5 AND 5.5 INTERRUPTS.
ii) to reset RST 7.5 Flip Flop.
iii)to implement serial I/O operation.
Instruction RIM: Read Interrupt Mask .this is a 1 byte instruction and can be used for the
following three functions.
i)to read interrupt masks.
ii)to identify pending interrupts.
iii)to receive serial data.
3.What do you mean by pipelining in an 8086 processor?
The computer is composed of two parts that operate asynchronously one part
called a BIU in the 8086,fetches instruction from code memory whenever the memory is
free .another part called EU in the 8086 executes instructions on a continuous basis. the
BIU gets instruction bytes and shifts them in an internal memory called instruction queue
or pipe line.
4.How the 20 bit effective address is calculated in an 8086 processor?
5.What is the purpose of clock signal in an 8086 system?
8086 require clock signal with 33%duty cycle from some external
operations.8086 processor requires 5 MHZ clock signal.
6.What is the use of latch signal on the AD0-AD15 bus in an 8086 system?
Latch signal is used to load the data those are fetched from memory to bus.
7.Name the three modes used by the DMA processor to transfer data?
Signal transfer mode(cycling stealing mode)
Block transfer mode
Demand transfer mode
8.Name the 6 modes of operations of an 8253 programmable interval timer.
Mode 0:interrupt on terminal count
Mode 1:hardware re -triggerable one-shot
Mode 2 :rate generator
Mode3:square wave rate generator
Mode 4:software triggered strobe
Mode 5:hardware triggered strobe

94
9.Differentiate a Microprocessor and a Microcontrollers
Microprocessor Microcontroller
1.Chip on computer
2.8 bit data bus
8 bit address bus
3.It cant perform any task without external
device.
4.No internal memory &interfacing
devices.
1.It is a mini computer
2. 16 bit data bus
16bit address bus
3.It contains microprocessor to perform any
task.
4.Internal memory &some interfacing
devices within the chip.

10.Differentiate RRA and RRCA in 8051 microcontroller.
RRA RRCA
1.Rotate Accumulator Right.
2.The 8 bits in accumulator are rotated one
bit to right.
3.No flags are affected
1.Rotate Accumulator Right through carry
flag.
2.The 8 bits in accumulator and carry flag
are together rotated one bit to the right.bit 0
moves into the carry flag,the original value
of carry flag moves to bit 7 position.
3.No flags are affected

PART B

11(a)Explain 8085 microprocessor with functional block diagram
Ref diagram page no 59 Microprocessor,Architecture,Programming and Applications
RAMESH.S.GAONKAR

or
(b)Explain programming techniques of 8085.
12 (a) write about instruction set of 8086.
Ref page no 44&45 Advanced Microprocessors and Peripherals A.K RAY

or
(b)Describe the addressing mode of 8086
Ref page no 36 Advanced Microprocessors and Peripherals A.K RAY

14(a)Describe DMA controller 8257 internal architecture.
Ref diagram page no268 Advanced Microprocessors and Peripherals A.K RAY
or

14(b)Explain mode of operation and command words of 8279
Ref diagram page no 240 Advanced Microprocessors and Peripherals A.K RA

95
15(a)Explain the operations of 8051
Ref diagram page no 604 Advanced Microprocessors and Peripherals A.K RAY
or
(b)Describe interrupts and instruction set of 8051.
Data transfer group
Arithmetic group
Logical group .
Branch group .
Stack I/O and Machine control group

B.E/B.TECH DEGREE EXAMINATION MAY/JUNE 2007

MICROPROCESSOR AND MICROCONTROLLER

PART-A
1.How address and data lines are demultiplexed in 8085?
AD0-AD7 lines are multiplexed and the lower half of address A0-A7 is available
only during T1 of the machine cycle. this lower half of address is also necessary during
T2 and T3 of the machine cycle lower half of address is also necessary during T2 &T3
of machine cycle to access specific location in memory or I/O part .this means that the
lower half of an address bus must be latched in T1 of the machine cycle. the latching of
lower half of an address is done by using external latch and ALE signal from 8085.
2.what is the function performed by SIM instruction in 8085?
SIM Set Interrupt Mask. This instruction masks the interrupts as desired .it also
sends out serial data through the serial output data (SOD) pin .For this instruction
command byte must be loaded in the accumulator.
3.what is pipelined architecture?
The computer is composed of two parts that operate asynchronously one part
called a BIU, fetches instruction from code memory whenever the memory is free.
another part called EU in the 8086 executes instruction on a continuous basis .the BIU
gets instruction bytes and stuffs memory in an internal memory called instruction queue
or pipeline.
4.how the interrupts can be masked/unmasked in 8086?
The 8086 interrupt priorities are concerned, software interrupts have the highest
priority, followed by NMI followed by INTR. The lowest priority signals are un
maskable interrupts.
5.what are the signals involved in memory bank selection in 8086 microprocessor?
The 8086 based system will have two sets of memory ICs.One set for even bank
and another for odd bank. The data lines D0-D7 are connected to even bank and the data
lines D8-D15 are connected to odd bank .the even memory bank is selected by address
line A0and odd memory bank is selected by control signal BHE .The memory banks are
selected ahen these signals are active low.
6.how clock signal is generated in 8086?what is the maximum internal clock
frequency of 8086?
96
Clock input 33% square wave from external clock generator .the external clock
generator is used to provide timing for all CPU function .the 8086 requires one phase
clock with a 33%duty cycle to provide internal timing .the maximum internal frequency
required by 8086 is 5 MHZ.
7.What is the function of gate signal in 8254 timer?
The 8254 has three independent 16-bit counters, which can be programmed to.
work in any one of possible six modes .each counter has a clock input gate input and
counter output .to operate a counter ,a count value has to be loaded in count register, gate
should be tied high and a clock signal should be applied through clock input .the counter
counts by decrementing the count value by one in each cycle of clock signal and
generates output.
8.write the format of ICW1 in 8259?

9.list the interrupts of 8051 microcontroller.
External interrupts-INT0 &INT1
Timer interrupts-TF0&TF1
10.what are register banks banks in 8051 microcontroller?
RS1 RS0 BAND
SELECTION
0 0 BANK 0
0 1 BANK 1
1 0 BANK 2
1 1 BANK 3

PARTB

11) A)(i) Explain the various logical and arithmetic instructions available in 8085
microprocessor.
Ref page no 48 Microprocessor,Architecture,Programming and Applications
RAMESH.S.GAONKAR

ii) Explain the function of various flags of 8085 microprocessor.
RAMESH.S.GAONKAR

Or
B()i) Differentiate I/O mapped I/O and memory mapped I/O
RAMESH.S.GAONKAR

(ii) Write an 8085 assembly language program to convert an 8 bit binary to ASCII
code.
12 (a).Describe the action taken by 8086 when INTR pin is activated.
Ref page no 44&45 Advanced Microprocessors and Peripherals A.K RAY
97
(ii) write an assembly language program in 8086 to search the largest data in an array.
Or
B (i) Discuss the various addressing modes of 8086 microprocessor
(ii) Explain the following assembler directives used in 8086
1)ASSUME
2)EQU
3)DW

13(a) Explain in detail about memory access mechanism in 8086
Ref page no 15& 613 Advanced Microprocessors and Peripherals A.K RAY

Or
(b)(i) Draw and explain a block diagram showing 8086 in maximum mode configuration

(ii) What are the advantages of the multiprocessor systems?

14(a) With the help of block diagram explain the operation of USART

(ii) Discuss the salient features of 8259 programmable interrupt controller.

Or
(b)(i)Describe the various modes of operation in 8253 programmable interval timer.

(ii)Explain the operation of DMA controller(8237)

15.(a) With suitable diagram the architecture of 8051 microcontroller.
Ref page no 54 The 8051 Microcontroller-KENNETH.J.AYALA

Or
(b) Discuss in detail about 8051 based stepper motor control along with necessary
hardware and software.

98

B.E/B.TECH DEGREE EXAMINATION NOV/DEC 2007

PART-A

1.List the different types of flags affected by the arithmetic and logic operations.
Carry flag, auxillary carry flag ,parity flag, sign flag, zero flag
2.Draw the contents of the stack and the regist ers after a push instruction.
3.What do these 8086 instructions do?
STD-Set Direction Flag. when the instruction is executed ,the direction flag of
8086 is set to 1.
IRET-Interrupt Return. this instruction is used to terminate an interrupt service procedure
and transfer the program control back to main program.
4.What is macro?
A macro is a group of instructions written within brackets and identified by a
name .this is used when a repeated group of instructions is too short or not appropriate to
be written as a subroutine.
5.Draw a simple block diagram of a microprocessor based water-level indicator.
6.What is a coprocessor?
It is a specially designed microprocessor which take care of mathematical calculations
involving integer and floating point data .it is designed to work in parallel with a
processor.
7.List the uses of USART.
USART-Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitters.
It is used to transmit and receive the data in serial communication mode.
It is used to convert parallel data into serial data or vice-versa
It is used to interface MODEM and establish serial communication MODEM over
telephone lines.
8.Calculate how many devices can be addressed by 8086.
9.Draw the format of PSW of 8051.
10.List the addressing modes supported by 8051.
1.Register addressing
2.Direct addressing
3.Register indirect addressing
4.Immediate addressing
5.Register addressing
6.Index addressing

PART B

11(a)(I) Draw the timing diagram for SHLD 16bit address
RAMESH.S.GAONKAR

(ii)Write an 8085 ALP to convert hexadecimal value to decimal value.
Or
99
(ii) Draw and discuss the internal architecture of 8085 in detail
RAMESH.S.GAONKAR

12(a)(i) Discuss in detail the data related addressing modes of 8086 with an example.
(ii) Write an 8086 ALP to reverse a string
Or
b).Discuss in detail the interrupts and interrupt service routine

14. a)Discuss how the DMA controller is interfaced with 8085 processor.
RAMESH.S.GAONKAR
or
b) Discuss in detail about programmable interrupt controller and its cascading mode of
operation.
RAMESH.S.GAONKAR

15(a)Discuss the register set of 8051 and also discuss how memory and I/O addressing is
done in 8051.

or
b)Discuss in detail the internal architecture of an 8051 microcontroller.

100
CS 2253 COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE

SYLLABUS

1. Basic Structure of Computers 9
Functional units Basic operational concepts Bus structures Performance and
metrics Instructions and instruction sequencing Hardware Software Interface
Instruction set architecture Addressing modes RISC CISC. ALU design Fixed
point and floating point operations.

2. Basic Processing Unit 9
Fundamental concepts Execution of a complete instruction Multiple bus organization
Hardwired control Micro programmed control Nano programming.

3. Pipelining 9
Basic concepts Data hazards Instruction hazards Influence on instruction sets
Data path and control considerations Performance considerations Exception
handling.

4. Memory System 9
Basic concepts Semiconductor RAM ROM Speed Size and cost Cache
memories Improving cache performance Virtual memory Memory management
requirements Associative memories Secondary storage devices.

5. I/O Organization 9
Accessing I/O devices Programmed Input/Output -Interrupts Direct Memory Access
Buses Interface circuits Standard I/O Interfaces (PCI, SCSI, USB), I/O devices and
processors.

Text Book:

1. Carl Hamacher, Zvonko Vranesic and Safwat Zaky, Computer Organization,
Fifth Edition, Tata McGraw Hill, 2002.

References:

1. David A. Patterson and John L. Hennessy, Computer Organization and Design:
The Hardware/Software interface, Third Edition, Elsevier, 2005.
2. William Stallings, Computer Organization and Architecture Designing for
Performance, Sixth Edition, Pearson Education, 2003.
3. John P. Hayes, Computer Architecture and Organization, Third Edition, Tata
McGraw Hill, 1998.
4. V.P. Heuring, H.F. Jordan, Computer Systems Design and Architecture,
Second Edition, Pearson Education, 2004.

101
PART A QUESTIONS

UNIT-I

1 .What is cache memory?

The small and fast RAM units are called as caches. When the execution of an instruction
calls for data located in main memory, the data are fetched and a copy is placed in the
cache. Later if the same data is required it is read directly from the cache.

2. What is the function of ALU?

Most of the computer operations(arithmetic and logic)are performed in ALU. The data
required for the operation is brought by the processor and the operation is performed by
ALU.

3. What is the function of CU?

The control unit acts as the nerve center, that coordinates all the computer operations. It
issues timing signals that governs the data transfer.

4. What are the basic operations of a computer?

The basic operations are READ and WRITE.

5. What are the registers generally contained in the processor?

MAR-memory address register
MDR-memory data register
IR-Instruction Register
RO-Rn-General purpose register
PC-Program counter

6. What are the steps in executing the program?

1.fetch
2.decode
3.execute
4.store

7. Define interrupt and ISR?

An interrupt is a request from an I/O device for service by the processor. The processor
provides the requested service by executing the interrupt service routine.

8. Define bus?
102

A group of lines that serves as a connecting path for several devices is called a bus.
9. What is the use of buffer register?

The buffer register is used to avoid speed mismatch between the I/O device and the
processor.

10. Compare single bus structure and multiple bus structure?

A system that contains only one bus(i.e only one transfer at a time) is called as a single
bus structure. A system is called as multiple bus structure if it contains multiple buses.

11. What is system software? Give an example.

It is a collection of program that are executed as needed to perform functions such as
I. receiving and interpreting user commands
II. entering and editing application programs and storing them as files in
secondary storage devices.
Eg. assembler, linker, compiler etc

12. What is application software? Give example.

Application programs are usually written in a high level programming language, in which
the programmer specifies mathematical or text processing operations. These operations
are described in a format that is independent of the particular computer used to execute
the program.
Ex: C,C++,JAVA

13. What is compiler?

A system software program called a compiler translates the high-level language program
into a suitable machine language program containing instruction such as the Add and
Load instructions.

14. what is text editor?

It is used for entering and editing application programs. The user of this program
interactively executes command that allow statements of a source program entered at a
keyboard to be accumulated in a file.

15. Discuss about OS as system software?

OS is a large program or actually a collection of routines, that is used to control the
sharing of and interaction among various computer units as they execute application
programs. The OS routines perform the tasks required to assign computer resources to
individual application programs.
103
16. What is multiprogramming or multitasking?

The operating system manages the concurrent execution of several application programs
to make the best possible uses of computer resources. This pattern of concurrent
execution is called multiprogramming or multitasking.

17. What is elapsed time of computer system?

The total time to execute the total program is called elapsed time. it is affected by the
speed of the processor, the disk and the printer.

18. What is processor time of a program?

The periods during which the processor is active is called processor time of a program it
depends on the hardware involved in the execution of individual machine instructions.

19. Define clock rate?

The clock rate is given by, R=1/P, where P is the length of one clock cycle.

20. Write down the basic performance equation?

T=N*S/R
T=processor time
N=no.of instructions
S=no of steps
R=clock rate

21. What is pipelining?

The overlapping of execution of successive instructions is called pipelining.

22. What is byte addressable memory?

The assignment of successive addresses to successive byte locations in the memory is
called byte addressable memory.

23. What is big endian and little endian format?

The name big endian is used when lower byte addresses are used for the more significant
of the word. The name little endian is used for the less significant bytes of the word.

24. What is branch instruction?

As a result of branch instruction is a type of instruction which loads a new values into the
program counter.
104

25. What is branch target?

As a result of branch instruction, the processor fetches and executes the instruction at a
new address called branch target, instead of the instruction at the location that follows the
branch instruction in sequential address order.

26. What are condition code flags?

The processor keeps track of information about the results of various operations for use
by subsequent conditional branch instructions. This is accomplished by recording the
required information in individual bits, often called condition code flags.

27. Define addressing modes.

The different ways in which the location of an operand is specified in an instruction are
referred to as addressing modes.

28. What is a pointer?

The register or memory location that contains the address of an operand is called a
pointer.

29. What is index register?

In index mode the effective address of the operand is generated by adding a constant
value to the contents of a register. The register used may be either a special register or
may be any one of a set of general purpose register in the processor. This register is
referred to as an index register.

30. What is assembly language?

A complete set of symbolic names and rules for the use of machines constitute a
programming language, generally referred to as an assembly language.

31. What is assembler directive?

SUM EQU 200
Assembler directives are not instructions that will be executed. It simply informs the
assembler that the name SUM should be replaced by the value 200 wherever it appears in
the program, such statements are called as assembler directives.

32. What is loader?

Loader is a system software which contains a set of utility programs. It will load the
object program to the memory.
105

33. Define device interface.

The buffer registers DATAIN and DATAOUT and the status flags SIN and SOUT are
part of circuitry commonly known as a device interface.

34. Briefly explain the floating point representation with an example?

The floating point representation has 3 fields
1.sign bit
2.siginificant bits
3.exponent
For example consider 1.11101100110*105.
Mantissa=11101100110
Sign=0
Exponent =5

35. What are the 2 IEEE standards for floating point numbers?

1.single
2.double

36. What is overflow, underflow case in single precision(sp)?

Underflow-In SP it means that the normalized representation requires an exponent less
than -126.
Overflow-In SP it means that the normalized representation requires an exponent greater
than +127.

37. What are the exceptions encountered for FP operation?

The exceptions encountered for FP operation are overflow, underflow. /0, inexact and
invalid values.

38. What is guard bits?

guard bits are extra bits which are produced during the intermediate steps to yield
maximum accuracy in the final results.

39. What are the ways to truncate guard bits?

1.chopping
2.von Neumann rounding
3.rounding procedure.

106

UNIT II

1. Explain MDR and MAR.

The data and address lines of the external memory bus connected to the internal processor
bus via the memory data register, MDR,and the memory address register , MAR,
respectively. Register MDR has two inpits and two outputs. Data may be loaded into
MDR either from the memory bus or from the internal processor bus the data stored in
MDR may be placed on either bus. The input of MAR is connected to the internal bus
and its output is connected to the external bus.

2. Name two special purpose registers.

Index register
Stack pointer

3. Define data path.

The registers, the ALU, and the interconnecting bus are collectively referred to as the
data path.

4. Define processor clock.

Processor clock is defined as the time periods in which all operations and data transfer
with in the processor take place.

5. What is known as multiphase clocking?

When edge-triggered flip flops are not used, two or more clock signals may be needed to
guarantee proper transfer of data. This is known as multiphase clocking.

6. Define MFC.

To accommodate the variability in response time, the processor waits until it receives an
indication that the requested read operation has been completed. The control signal used
for this purpose is known as memory-function-completed(MFC).

7. What is WMFC?
WMFC if the control signal that causes the processors control circuitry to wait for the
arrival of the MFC signal.

8.What is meant by branch instruction?
107
A branch instruction is an instruction which replaces the contents of the PC with
the branch target address. This address is usually obtained by adding offset X, which is
given in the branch instruction is called a branch delay slot.
9. Define register file.
All general purpose registers are combined into a single block called the register
file.

10. What are the two approaches used for generating the control signals in proper
sequence?
Hardwired control
Microprogrammed control

11. What are the factors determine the control signals?
Contents of the control step counter
Contents of the instruction register
Contents of the condition code flag
External input signals such as MFC & interrupt requests
12. Explain hardwired control.
The control hardwire can be viewed as the state machine that changes from one
state to another in every clock cycle, depending on the contents of the instruction register,
the condition codes and the external inputs. The outputs of the state machine are the
control signals. The sequence of operations carried out by this machine is determined by
the writing of the logic elements, hence the name hardwired.

13. What are the features of the hardwired control?
A controller that uses this approach can operate at high speed. It has little
flexibility and the complexity of the instruction set it can implement is limited.

14. What is micro programmed control?
Micro programmed control is a scheme in which control signals are generated by
a program similar to machine language program.
108
15. What is control word?
A control word is a word whose individual bits represent the various control
signals.
16. Define microroutine and microinstruction.
A sequence of control words corresponding to the control sequence of a machine
instruction constitutes the microroutine for that instruction and the individual control
words in this microroutine are referred to as microinstructions.

17. What is control store?
The microroutines for all the instructions in the instruction set of a computer are
stored in a special memory called the control store.

18. What is the draw back of assigning one bit position to each control signals?
Assigning individual bits to each control signal results in long microinstructions
because the number of required signals is usually large.
Moreover, only a few bits are set to 1 in any given microinstruction, which means the
available bit space is poorly used.

19. Name some register output control signals.
Pc
out
, MDR
out
, Z
out
, Offset
out
, R1
out
, R2
out
, R3
out
and TEMP
out
.

20. What is vertical organization and horizontal organization?
Highly encoded schemes that use compact codes to specify only a small number
of control functions in each microinstruction are referred to as vertical organization. On
the other hand, the minimally encoded scheme in which many resources can be controlled
with single microinstructions is called a horizontal organization.

21. Compare vertical organization and horizontal organization
Vertical organization Horizontal organization
Highly encoded schemes.
Specify only a small number of
Minimally encoded schemes.
Many resources can be controlled.
109
control signals.
Operating speed is high.

Operating speed is low.

22. Explain bit-O-Ring technique.
The micro program shows that branches are not always made to a single branch
address. This is a direct consequence of combining simple micro routines by sharing
common parts. Consider a point in the microprogram sequencing. At this point, it is
necessary to choose between actions required by direct and indirect addressing modes. If
the indirect mode is specified in the instruction, then the microinstruction in the location
170 is performed to fetch the operand from the memory. If the direct mode is specified,
this fetch must be bypassed by branching immediately to location 171. the most efficient
way to bypass microinstruction 170 is to have the preceding branch microinstructions
specify the address 170 and then use an OR gate change the least significant bit of this
address to 1 if the direct addressing mode is involved. This is known as the bit-O-ring
technique for modifying branch address.

23. What is the draw back of micro programmed control?
It leads to a slower operating speed because of the time it takes to fetch
microinstructions from the control store.

24. Define emulation.
Given a computer with a certain instruction set, it is possible to define additional
machine instructions and implement them with extra micro routines. Emulation allows us
to replace obsolete equipment with more up to date machines. If the replacement
computer fully emulates the original one, then no software changes have to be made to
run existing programs. Thus, emulation facilitates transitions to new computer systems
with minimal distribution.

UNIT III
1. Define pipelining.
110
Pipelining is an effective way of organizing concurrent activity in a computer
system. The processor executes the program by fetching and executing instructions, one
after another.

2. What are the major characteristics of a pipeline?

Ans: The major characteristics of a pipeline are:
a) Pipelining cannot be implemented on a single task, as it works by splitting multiple
tasks into a number of subtasks and operating on them simultaneously.
b) The speedup or efficiency achieved by suing a pipeline depends on the number of pipe
stages and the number of available tasks that can be subdivided.
c) If the task that can be subdivided has uneven length of execution times, then the
speedup of the pipeline is reduced.
d) Though the pipeline architecture does not reduce the time of execution of a single task,
it reduces the overall time taken for the entire job to get completed.

3. What are the types of pipeline hazards?

Ans: The various pipeline hazards are:
1. Data hazard
2. Structural Hazard
3. Control Hazard.

4. What is a pipeline hazard?
Ans: Any condition that causes the pipeline to stall is called hazard. They are also called
as stalls or bubbles.

5. Name the four steps in pipelining.
Fetch : Read the instruction from the memory.
Decode : Decode the instruction and fetch the source operand.
Execute : Perform the operation specified by the instruction.
Write : Store the result in the destination location.

6. What is the use of cache memory?
The use of the cache memories solves the memory access problem. In particular,
when a cache is included on the same chip as the processor, access time to cache is
usually the same as the tine needed to perform other basic operations inside the
processor. This makes it possible to divide instruction fetching and processing into steps
111
that are more or less equal in duration. Each of these steps is performed by a different
pipeline stages, and the clock period is chosen to correspond to the longest one.

7. What is data hazard?
Any condition that causes the pipeline to stall is called a hazard. A data hazard is
any condition in which either the source or destination operands of instruction are not
available at the time expected in the pipeline. As a result some operation has to be
delayed, and the pipeline stalls.

8. What are instruction hazards?
The pipeline may also be stalled because of a delay in the availability of an
instruction. For example, this may be a result of a miss in the cache, requiring the
instruction to be fetched from the main memory. Such hazards are often called control
hazards or instruction hazards.

9. What are called stalls?
An alternative representation of the operation of a pipeline in the case of a cache
miss gives the function performed by each pipeline stage in each clock cycle. The periods
in which the decode unit, execute unit and the write unit are idle are called stalls. They
are also referred to as bubbles in the pipeline.

10. What is structural hazard?
Structural hazard is the situation when two instructions require the use of a given
hardware resource at the same time. The most common case in which this hazard may
arise is in access to memory.

11. What is said to be side effect?
When a location other than one explicitly named in an instruction as a destination
operand is affected, the instruction is said to have a side effect.
12. What is dispatch unit?
112
A separate unit which we call the dispatch unit takes instructions from the front of
the queue and sends them to the execution unit. The dispatch unit also performs the
decoding function.

13. What is branch folding?
The instruction fetch unit has executed the branch instruction concurrently with
the execution of other instructions. This technique is referred to a branch folding.

14. What are the two types of branch prediction techniques available?

Ans: The two types of branch prediction techniques are
1) Static branch prediction
2) Dynamic branch prediction

15. What is delayed branching?
A technique called delayed branching can minimize the penalty incurred as a
result of conditional branch instructions. The idea is simple. The instructions in the delay
slots are always fetched. Therefore, we would like to arrange for them to be fully
executed whether or not the branch is taken. The objective is to be able to place useful
instructions in these slots. If no useful instructions can be placed in the delay slots, these
slots must be filled with NOP instructions.

16. Define speculative execution.
Speculative execution means that instructions are executed before the processor is
certain that they are in the correct execution sequence. Hence, care must be taken that no
processor registers or memory locations are updated until it is confirmed that these
instructions should indeed be executed. If the branch decision indicates otherwise, the
instructions and all their associated data in the execution units must be purged, and the
correct instruction fetched and executed.

17. What is called static and dynamic branch prediction?
113
The branch prediction decision is always the same every time a given instruction
is executed. Any approach that has this characteristic is called static branch prediction.
Another approach in which the prediction decision may change depending on execution
history is called dynamic branch prediction.

18. What are condition codes?
In many processors, the condition code flags are stored in the processor status
register. They are either set are cleared by many instructions, so that they can be tested by
subsequent conditional branch instructions to change the flow of program execution.

19. What are superscalar processors?
Several instructions start execution in the same clock cycle, and the processor is
said to use multiple issue. Such processors are capable of achieving an instruction
execution throughput of more than one instruction per cycle. They are known as
superscalar processors.

20. What is imprecise and precise exception?
Situation in which one or more of the succeeding instructions have been executed
to completion is called imprecise exception. Situation in which all subsequent
instructions that may have been partially executed are discarded. This is called a precise
exception.

21. What is commitment unit?

When out-of-order execution is allowed, a special control unit is needed to
guarantee in-order commitment. This is called the commitment unit. It uses queue called
the recorder buffer to determine which instruction should be committed next. Instructions
are entered in the queue strictly in program order as they are dispatched for execution.

114
22. What is a deadlock?
A deadlock is a situation that can arise when two units, A and B use a shared
resource. Suppose that unit B cannot complete its task until unit A completes its task. At
the same time, unit B has been assigned a resource that unit A needs. If this happens,
neither unit can complete its task. Unit A is waiting for the resource it needs, which is
being held by unit B at the same time, unit B is waiting for unit A to finish before it can
release that resource.

UNIT IV
1. What is the maximum size of the memory that can be used in a 16-bit computer
and 32 bit computer?
The maximum size of the memory that can be used in a 16-bit computer is 2
memory locations. The maximum size of the memory that can be used in a 32-bit
computer is 2 memory locations.
2. Define memory access time?
The time required to access one word is called the memory access time. Or It is
the time that elapses between the initiation of an operation and the completion of that
operation
3. Define memory cycle time?
It is the time delay required between the initiations of two successive memory
operations.
Eg. The time between two successive read operations.
4. When is a memory unit called as RAM?
A memory unit is called as RAM if any location can be accessed for a read or
writes operation in some fixed amount of time that is independent of the locations
address.
5. What is MMU?
MMU is the Memory Management Unit. It is a special memory control circuit
used for implementing the mapping of the virtual address space onto the physical
memory.
6. Define memory cell?
115
A memory cell is capable of storing one bit of information. It is usually organized
in the form of an array.
7. What is a word line?
In a memory cell, all the cells of a row are connected to a common line called as
word line.
8.Define static memories?
Memories that consists of circuits capable of retaining their state as long as power
is applied is called static memories
9.What are the characteristics of semiconductor RAM memories?
They are available in a wide range of speeds.
Their cycle time range from 100ns to less than 10ns.
They replaced the expensive magnetic core memories
They are used for implementing memories.
10.Why SRAM are said to be volatile?
Because their contents are lost when power is interrupted. So SRAM are said to
be volatile.
11.What are the characteristics of SRAM?
SRAM are fast
They are volatile
They are of high cost
Less density
12. What are the characteristics of DRAM?
Low cost
High density
Refresh circuitry is needed
13. Define Refresh Circuits?
It is a circuit which ensures that the contents of a DRAM are maintained when
each row of cells are accessed periodically.
14. Define Memory Latency?
It is used to refer to the amount of tile it takes to transfer a word of data to or from
the memory.
116
15. What is asynchronous DRAM?
In asynchronous DRAM, the timing of the memory device is controlled
asynchronously. A specialized memory controller circuit provides the necessary control
signals RAS and CAS that govern the timing. The processor must take into account the
delay in the response of the memory such memories are asynchronous DRAM.
16. What is synchronous DRAM?
Synchronous DRAMs are those whose operation is directly synchronized with a
clock signal.
17. Define Bandwidth?
When transferring blocks of data, it is of interest to know how much time is
needed to transfer an entire block, since blocks can be variable in size it is useful to
define performance measure in terms of number of bits or bytes that can be transferred in
one second. This measure is often referred to as the memory bandwidth.
18. What is double data rate SDRAM?
Double data rates SDRAM are those which can transfer data on both edges of the
clock and their bandwidth is essentially doubled for long burst transfers.
19. Want is mother board?
Mother Board is a main system printed circuit board which contains the
processor. It will occupy an unacceptably large amount of space on the board.
20. What are SIMM and DIMM?
SIMM are Single In-Line Memory Module.DIMM is Dual In-Line Memory
Modules. Such modules are an assembly of several memory chips on a separate small
board that plugs vertically into a single socket on the motherboard.
21. What is memory controller?
A memory controller is a circuit which is interposed between the processor and
the dynamic memory. It is used for performing multiplexing of address bits. It provides
RAS-CAS timing. It also sends R/W and CS signals to the memory. When used with
DRAM chips, which do not have self refreshing capability, the memory controller has to
provide all the information needed to control the refreshing process.
22. Differentiate static RAM and dynamic RAM?

117
S.NO STATIC RAM DYNAMIC RAM
1 They are fast They are slow
2 They are very expensive They are less expensive
3 They retain their state indefinitely They do not retain their state indefinitely
4 They require several transistors They require less no transistors
5 Low density High density

23. What is RAM Bus technology?
The key feature of RAM bus technology is a fast signaling method used to
transfer information between chips. Instead of using signals that have voltage levels of
either 0 or V supply to represent the logic values the signals consists of much smaller
voltage swings around a reference voltage, vref, small voltage swings make it possible to
have short transition times, which allows for a high speed of transmission.
24. What are RDRAM?
RDRAM are Rambus DRAM. Rambus require specially designed memory chips.
These chips use cell arrays based on the standard DRAM technology. Multiple banks of
cell arrays are used to access more than one word at time. Circuitry needed to interface to
the Rambus channel is included on the chip. Such chips are known as RDRAM.
25. What are the special features of Direct RDRAM?
It is a two channel Rambus
It has 18 data lines intended to transfer two bytes of data at a time
There are no separate address lines
26. What are RIMM?
RDRAM chips can be assembled into larger modules called RIMM. It can hold up
to 16 RDRAM
27. Define ROM?
It is a non-volatile memory. It involves only reading of stored data.
28. What are the features of PROM?
They are programmed directly by the user.
Faster
118
Less expensive
More Flexible
29. Why EPROM chips are mounted in packages that have transparent window?
Since the erasure requires dissipating the charges trapped in the transistors of
memory cells. This can be done by exposing the chip to UV light.
30. What are disadvantages of EPROM?
The chip must be physically removed from the circuit for reprogramming and its
entire contents are erased by the UV light.
31. What are advantages and disadvantages of using EEPROM?
The Advantages are that EEPROM do not have to be removed for erasure. Also it
is possible to erase the cell contents selectively. The only disadvantage is that different
voltages are needed for erasing, writing and reading the stored data.

32. Differentiate Flash devices and EEPROM devices.

S.NO FLASH DEVICES EEPROM DEVICES
1 It is possible to read the contents of a single cell,
but it is only possible to write an entire block of
cells
It is possible to read and
write the contents of single
cell
2 Greater density which leads to higher capacity Relatively lower density
3 Lower cost per bit Relatively more cost
4 Consumes less power in their operations and
makes it more attractive for use in portable
equipments that is battery driven
Consumes more power

33. What is cache memory?
It is a small, fast memory that is inserted between large, slower main memory and
the processor. It reduces the memory access time

Processor

Cache

Main Memory
119

34. Define Flash Memory.
It is an approach similar to EEPROM technology. A flash cell is based on a single
transistor controlled by trapped charge just like an EEPROM cell.

35. What is locality of reference?
Analysis of program shows that many instructions ion localized areas of the
program are executed repeatedly during some time period, and the remainder of the
program, accessed relatively infrequently. This is referred to as locality of reference. This
property leads to the effectiveness of cache mechanism.
36. What are the two aspects of locality of reference? Define them.
Two aspects of locality of reference are temporal aspects and spatial aspect.
Temporal aspect is that a recently executed instruction is likely to be executed
again very soon.
The spatial aspect is that instructions in close proximity to recently executed
instructions are also to be executed soon
37. Define cache line.
Cache block is used to refer to a set of contiguous address location of some size.
Cache block is also referred to as cache line.
38. What are the two ways in which the system using cache can proceed for a write
operation?
Write through protocol technique
Writeback or Copyback protocol technique
39. What is write-through protocol?
For a write operation using write-through protocol during write-hit: The cache
location and the main memory location are updated simultaneously.
For a write-miss: For a write-miss, the information is written directly to the main
memory
120
40. What is write-back or copy-back protocol?
For a write operation using this protocol during write-hit: the technique is to
update only the cache and to mark it as updated with an associated flag bit, often called
the dirty or modified bit. The main memory location of the word is updated later, when
the block containing this marked word is to be removed from the cache to make room for
a new block.
For a write-miss: the block containing the addressed word is first brought into the
cache, and then the deserved word in the cache is overwritten with the new information.
41. What is load-through or early restart?

When a read miss occurs for a system with cache the required word may be sent
to the processor as soon as it is read from the main memory instead of loading in to the
cache. This approach is called load through or early restart and it reduces the processors
waiting period.

42. What are the mapping techniques?

Direct mapping
associative mapping
Set associative mapping

43. What is hit?

A successful access to data in cache memory is called hit.

44. Define hit rate?

The number of hit states as a fraction of all attempted access.

45. What are the two ways of constructing a larger module to mount flash chips on a
small card?

Flash cards
Flash drivers.

46. Describe the memory hierarchy.

121

48. Define miss rate?

It is the number of misses states as a fraction of attempted accesses.
49. Define miss penalty?

The extra time needed to bring the desired information into the cache is called
miss penalty.

50. Define access time for magnetic disk.

The sum of seek time and rotational delay is called as access time for disks.

Seek Time:
Seek time is the time required to move the read/write head to the proper
track.

Rotational latency:
Rotational latency is the amount of time that elapses after the head is
positioned over the correct track until the stating position of the addressed sector
passes under the read/write head.

51. What is phase encoding or Manchestor encoding?

It is the technique for combining clock information with data. It is a scheme in
which changes in magnetization occur for each data bit. Its disadvantage is poor bit-
storage density.

52. What is the formula for calculating the average access time experienced by the
processor?

T avg = h c + (1-h) M
122

Where
h- Hit Rate
M Miss Penalty
C Time to access information in the cache.

53. What is the formula for calculating the average access time experienced by the
processor in a system with two levels of cache?

T avg = h
1
c
1
+(1-h
1
) h
2
c
2
+ (1-h
1
) (1-h
2
) M

h 1 Hit rate in L1 cache
h 2 Hit rate in L2 cache
c 1 Time to access information in the L1 cache
c 2 Time to access information in the L2 cache

54. What are prefetch instructions?

Prefetch instructions are those instructions which can be inserted into a program
either by the programmer or by the compiler.

55. Define system space.

Management routines are part of the operating system of the computer. It is
convenient to assemble the OS routines into a virtual address space.

56. Define user space?

The system space is separated from virtual address space in which the user
application programs reside. The letter space is called user space.

57. What are pages?

All programs and date are composed of fixed length units called pages. Each
consists of blocks of words that occupy contiguous locations in main memory.

58. What is replacement algorithm?

When the cache is full and a memory word that is not in the cache is referenced,
the cache control hardware must decide which block should be removed to create space
for the new block that contains the reference word. The collection of rules for making this
decision constitutes the replacement algorithm.

123
59. What is write miss?

During the write operation if the addressed word is not in cache then said to be
write miss.

60. What is associative search?

The cost of an associative cache is higher that the cost of a direct mapped cache
because of the need to search all 128 bit tag patterns to determine whether a given block
is in the cache. A search of this kind is called an associative search.

61. What is virtual memory?

Technique that automatically move program and datablocks into the physical
main memory when they are required for execution are called as virtual memory.

62. What is virtual address?

The binary address that the processor used for either instruction or data called as
virtual address.
63. What is page frame?

An area in the main memory that can hold one page is called as page frame.

64. What is Winchester technology?

The disk and the read/write heads are placed in a sealed air-filtered enclosure
called Winchester technology.

65. What is a disk drive?

The electro mechanical mechanism that spins the disk and moves the read/write
heads called disk drive.

66. What is disk controller?

The electronic circuit that controls the operation of the disk called disk controller.

67. What is word count?

The number of words in the block to be transferred.

68. What is error checking?

It computes the error correcting code (ECC) value for the data read from the given
sector and compares it with the corresponding ECC value read from the disk.
124
69. What is booting?

When the power is turned on, the OS has to be loaded into the main memory
which is taken place as part of a process called booting. To initiate booting a tiny part of
main memory is implemented as a nonvolatile ROM.

70. Draw static RAM cell.

UNIT V

1. Why IO devices cannot be directly be connected to the system bus?

Ans: The IO devices cannot be directly connected to the system bus because
i. The data transfer rate of IO devices is slower that of CPU.
ii. The IO devices in computer system has different data formats and
work lengths that of CPU.
So it is necessary to use a module between system bus and IO device called IO module or
IO system

2. What are the various mechanisms for implementing I/O operations?
Program controlled I/O
Interrupts
DMA
3. What are the major functions of IO system?
Ans: i. Interface to the CPU and memory through the system bus.
ii. Interface to one or more IO devices by tailored data link.

1. What is memory mapped I/O?
When the I/O devices share the same address space, the arrangement is
called memory mapped I/O.
125
2. What is program controlled I/O?
In program controlled I/O the processor repeatedly checks a status flag to
achieve the required synchronization between the processor and an input
and output device.

4. What is an I/O Interface?
Ans: Input-output interface provides a method for transferring binary information
between internal storage, such as memory and CPU registers, and external I/O devices

5. Write the factors considered in designing an I/O subsystem?
Ans:
1. Data Location: Device selection, address of data with in device( track,
sector etc)
2. Data transfer: Amount, rate to or from device.
3. Synchronization: Output only when device is ready, input only when
data is available.
4. I/O operation: refers to a data transfer between an I/O device and
Memory or between an I/O device and CPU.
6. Explain Direct Memory Access.
Ans: A modest increase in hardware enables an IO device to transfer a block of
information to or from memory without CPU intervention. This task requires the IO
device to generate memory addresses and transfer data through the bus using interface
controllers.

7. Define DMA controller.
Ans: The I/O device interface control circuit that is used for direct memory access is
known as DMA controller.
8. What is polling?
Ans: Polling is a scheme or an algorithm to identify the devices interrupting the
processor. Polling is employed when multiple devices interrupt the processor through one
interrupt pin of the processor.

9. What is the need of interrupt controller?
Ans: The interrupt controller is employed to expand the interrupt inputs. It can handle the
interrupt requests from various devices and allow one by one to the processor.

10. What are the two independent mechanisms for controlling interrupt request?
At the device end, an interrupt enable bit in a control register determines whether
the device is allowed to generate an interrupt request At the processor end, either an
126
interrupt enable nit in the PS or a priority structure determines whether a given interrupt
request will be accepted.

11. What is a Priority Interrupt?
Ans: A priority interrupt is an interrupt that establishes a priority over the various sources
to determine which condition is to be serviced first when two or more requests arrive
simultaneously.

12. What are vectored interrupts?
To reduce the time involved in the polling process, a device requesting an
interrupt may identify itself directly to the processor. Then the processor can immediately
start the executing the corresponding ISR. The schemes based on this approach are called
vectored interrupts.

13. Define bus.
Ans: When a word of data is transferred between units, all the bits are transferred in
parallel over a set of lines called bus. In addition to the lines that carry the data, the bus
must have lines for address and control purposes.

14. Define synchronous bus.
Ans: Synchronous buses are the ones in which each item is transferred during a time
slot(clock cycle) known to both the source and destination units. Synchronization can be
achieved by connecting both units to a common clock source.

15. Define asynchronous bus.
Ans: Asynchronous buses are the ones in which each item being transferred is
accompanied by a control signal that indicates its presence to the destination unit. The
destination can respond with another control signal to acknowledge receipt of the items.

16. What do you mean by memory mapped I/O?
Ans: In Memory mapped I/O, there are no specific input or output instructions. The CPU
can manipulate I/O data residing in interface registers with the same instructions that are
used to manipulate memory words i.e. the same set of instructions are used for reading
and writing memory can be used to input and output.

17. What is program-controlled I/O?
Ans: In program controlled I/O the processor repeatedly checks a status flags to achieve
the required synchronization between the processor and an input and output device.

18. Define interrupt.
Ans: An interrupt is any exceptional event that causes a CPUU to temporarily transfer
control from its current program to another program , an interrupt handler that services
the event in question.
127

19. Define exception.
Ans: The term exception is used to refer to any event that causes an interruption

20. What are the different methods used for handling the situation when multiple
interrupts occurs?
Ans: 1) Vectores interrupts
2) Interrupt nesting
3) Simultaneous Requests.

21. What is a privileged instruction?
Ans: To protect the operating system of a computer from being corrupted by user
programs, certain instructions can be executed only while the processor is in the
supervisor mode. These are called privileged instruction.

22. What is bus arbitration?
Ans: it is process by which the next device to become the bus master is selected and bus
mastership is transferred to it. There are two ways for doing this:
1. Centralized arbitration
2. Distributed arbitration.

23. What is port? What are the types of port available?

Ans: An I/O interface consists of circuitry required to connect an I/O device to computer
bus. One side consists of a data path with its associated controls to transfer data between
the interface and I/O device. This is called port. It is classified into:
1) Parallel port
2) Serial port.

24. What is a parallel port?
Ans: A parallel port transfers data in the form a number of bits, typically 8 to 16,
simultaneously to or from the device.

25. What is a serial port?
Ans: A serial port transfers and receives data one bit at a time.

26. What is PCI bus?
Ans: The Peripheral component interconnect(PCI) bus is a standard that supports the
functions found on a processor bus but in a standardized format that is independent of
any particular processor.
27. What is SCSI?
Ans: It is the acronym for small computer system interface. It refers to a standard bus
defined ANSI. Devices such as disks are connected to a computer via 50-wire cable,
which can be upto 25 meters in length and can transfer data at rate up to 55 megabytes/s.
128

28. Define USB.
Ans: The Universal Serial Bus(USB) is an industry standard developed to provide two
speed of operation called low-speed and full-speed. They provide simple, low cost and
easy to use interconnection system.

29. What are the objectives of USB?
Simple
Low cost
Easy to use
Supports wide range of data transfer characteristics
Plug and play mode of operation

30. What is time slicing?
With this technique each program runs for a short period called a time slice, and
then another program runs for its time slice and so on.

PART B QUESTIONS
UNIT-I

1. Explain the various addressing modes.

Register mode
Absolute mode
Immediate mode
Indirect mode
Indexed mode
Relative mode
Auto increment mode
Auto decrement mode

2. Discuss the following:

(i)Basic operational concept of a computer
Instructions
Operational details of processor
Registers
Operating steps
129
(ii)Basic instruction types
Zero address instruction
One address instruction
Two address instruction
Three address instruction

3. Discuss in detail the various measures of performance of a computer.

Processor clock
Pipelining and super scalar operation
Clock rate
Instruction set
Compiler

4. Discuss the following

(i) Instruction execution & straight line sequencing
Execution steps
Diagram
(ii) Branching
Explanation
Diagram

5. Explain in detail the data transfer between the memory & I/O unit.

Program controlled I/O
Flags (SIN, SOUT)
Buffers (DATAIN, DATAOUT)
Coding
Diagram

6. Explain the various functional units of a computer

Input unit
Output unit
ALU
CU
MU

UNIT-II

1. Give the basic organization of a micro programmed control unit. Draw a
flowchart of a
Micro routine for the instruction Add src, Rdst.
130

Diagram for basic organization
Explanation
Flowchart for Add src, Rdst

2. Describe the micro programmed control unit in detail.
Hints: A micro programmed control unit is built around a storage unit is called a control
store where all the control signals are stored in a program like format. The control store
stores a set of micro programs designed to implement the behavior of the given
instruction set.
Refer page no. 429-445

3. Explain the organization of a Hardwired control unit. Mention its advantages and
disadvantages.

Diagram for basic organization
Explanation
Advantages
Disadvantages

4. Describe the Hardwired control method for generating the control signals
Hints: Hard-wired control can be defined as sequential logic circuit that generates
specific sequences of control signal in response to externally supplied instruction
Refer page no. 425- 429
5. Draw the organization of a single bus processor and give the control sequences for
fetching a word from memory, storing a word in memory, executing a complete
instruction and unconditional branch.

Diagram
Control sequences

6. Explain the multiple bus organization structure with neat diagram.
Hints: The multiple bus organization is using more buses instead of one bus to reduce the
number of steps needed and to provide multiple paths that enable several transfers to take
place in parallel.
Refer page no. 423-425.

UNIT III

1. Explain the various types of hazards in pipelining.

Instruction hazard
Data hazard
Structural hazard
131
Control hazard

2. Write notes on super scalar operation?

Explanation
Diagram

3. Give the organization of the internal data path of a processor that supports a 4-
stage pipeline for instructions and uses a 3- bus structure and discuss the same.
Hints: The speed of execution of programs can be improved by arranging the hardware
so that more than one operation can be performed at the same time.
Explain about the 4- stage pipeline.
For 3- bus structure refer page no. 479-481.

4. What is pipelining? What are the various hazards encountered in pipelining?
Explain in detail.
Hints: The major characteristics of a pipeline are:
a) Pipelining cannot be implemented on a single task, as it works by splitting multiple
tasks into a number of subtasks and operating on them simultaneously.
b) The speedup or efficiency achieved by suing a pipeline depends on the number of pipe
stages and the number of available tasks that can be subdivided.
c) If the task that can be subdivided has uneven length of execution times, then the
speedup of the pipeline is reduced.
d) Though the pipeline architecture does not reduce the time of execution of a single task,
it reduces the overall time taken for the entire job to get completed.
The various pipeline hazards are:
1. Data hazard
2. Structural Hazard
3. Control Hazard.

UNIT-IV

1. Write notes on semiconductor RAM memories

Internal organization of memory chips
Static memories
Asynchronous DRAMs
Synchronous DRAMs
2. Write notes on various types of ROMs.

ROM
PROM
EPROM
132
EEPROM
Flash memory

3. What are the various types of cache mapping mechanisms? Explain in detail.

Direct mapping
Associated mapping
Set associative mapping
Explanation

4. Describe the three mapping techniques used in cache memories with suitable
Example.
Hints: The cache memory is a fast memory that is inserted between the larger slower
main memory and the processor. It holds the currently active segments of a program and
their data.
i) Associative mapping.
ii) Direct mapping.
iii) Set-associative mapping

5. Explain with neat diagram the internal organization of bit cells in a memory
chip.
Hints: Memory cells are usually organized in the form of an array, in which each cell is
capable of storing one bit of information. Each row consists a memory word, and all cells
of a row are connected to a common line referred to as word line, which is driven by he
address decoder on the chip.
Refer Page no. 295-297.

6. Discuss the virtual memory management technique in detail
Hints: The data is to be stored in physical memory locations that have addresses different
from those specified by the program. The memory control circuitry translates the address
specified by the program into an address that can be used to access the physical memory.

7. Explain the various secondary storage devices in detail.
Hints: The various secondary storage devices are:
1. Magnetic hard disks
2. Optical disks
3. Magnetic tape systems Refer page no. 344-359

8. What is memory interleaving? Explain with neat diagram.
Hints: The main memory of a computer is structure as a collection of physically separate
modules each with its own address buffer register and data buffer register, memory
access operations may proceed in more than one module at the same time. Thus the
aggregate rate of transmission of words to and from the main memory system can be
increased.
133

UNIT-V

1. Describe the data transfer method using DMA.

Hints: A modest increase in hardware enables an IO device to transfer a block of
information to or from memory without CPU intervention. This task requires the IO
device to generate memory addresses and transfer data through the bus using interface
controllers.


2. Explain about the interrupts in detail
Hints: An interrupt is any exceptional event that causes a CPUU to temporarily transfer
control from its current program to another program , an interrupt handler that services
the event in question.

3. Explain the different types of buses with neat diagram.
Hints: When a word of data is transferred between units, all the bits are transferred in
parallel over a set of lines called bus. In addition to the lines that carry the data, the bus
must have lines for address and control purposes.The different types of buses are:
1. Synchronous Buses:
Synchronous buses are the ones in which each item is transferred during a time slot(clock
cycle) known to both the source and destination units. Synchronization can be achieved
by connecting both units to a common clock source.
2. Asynchronous buses
Asynchronous buses are the ones in which each item being transferred is accompanied by
a control signal that indicates its presence to the destination unit. The destination can
respond with another control signal to acknowledge receipt of the items.

4. Explain the various interface circuits.

Hints: An I/O interface consists of circuitry required to connect an I/O device to
computer bus. One side consists of a data path with its associated controls to transfer data
between the interface and I/O device. This is called port. It is classified into:
1) Parallel port
134
2) Serial port.

5. Explain in details the various standard I/O interfaces.

Hints: The various standard I/O interfaces are:
1. The Peripheral component interconnect(PCI) bus is a standard that supports the
functions found on a processor bus but in a standardized format that is independent of
any particular processor
2. It is the acronym for small computer system interface. It refers to a standard bus
defined ANSI. Devices such as disks are connected to a computer via 50-wire cable,
which can be upto 25 meters in length and can transfer data at rate up to 55 megabytes/s.
3. The Universal Serial Bus(USB) is an industry standard developed to provide two speed
of operation called low-speed and full-speed. They provide simple, low cost and easy to
use interconnection system.
Refer Page no. 259-281.

6. Explain the various methods available to handle multiple devices using
interrupts?

Vectored interrupt
Interrupt nesting
Simultaneous requests

7. Write notes on interrupts in operating system?

Explanation

8. Explain DMA and the different types of bus arbitration mechanisms.

Diagram
Explanation
Centralized arbitration
Decentralized arbitration

9. Explain synchronous and asynchronous bus.

Explanation
Diagram

10. Write notes on the following

i.PCI
ii.SCSI
iii.USB
135
Explanation
Diagram

B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION,NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2007.
Fourth Semester
(Regulation 2004)
CS1251- COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

Time:Three hours Maximum:100 marks
Answer ALL questions.
PART A-(10*2=20 marks)

1. A memory byte location contains the pattern 00101100.What does this pattern
represent when interpreted as a number? What does it represent as an ASCII
Code?
Interpreted number is 44
ACCII code is NULL/idle
2. What is the information conveyed by addressing modes?
The information conveyed by the addressing mode is to specify the location of an
operand in an instruction
3. Draw the full Adder circuit using two half adders.
4. What are the various ways of representing signed integers in the system?
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of hardwired and micro
programmed control?
Advantages of hardwired control
i.operate at high speed
ii. each state of this counter corresponds to one control step
disadvantages
i.little flexibility
136
ii.complexity of the instruction set can implement is limited
advantages of microprogram control
i. control signals are generated by program itself
ii.high flexibility
disadvantages
i.slower operating speed
6. What is data hazard in pipelining? What are the solutions?
A data hazard is a situation in which the pipeline is stalled because the data to be
operated on are delayed for some reason.
The solution for data hazard is
i.operand forwading
ii. handled by software
iii. to stall
7. What is virtual memory? How is it implemented?
A technique that automatically move program and data blocks into the physical main
memory when they are required for execution. This memory when they are required
for execution. This memory is termed as virtual memory. And it is implemented by
MMU.
8. What will be the width of address and data buses for a 512k*8 memory chip?
Width of address bus 19
Data bus 8
9. Why do we need DMA?
DMA is used to transfer the block of data directly between an external device and the
main memory without the continuous intervention by the processor.
10. What is the difference between subroutine and interrupt service routine?
Subroutine or the sub program is the routine which could be called by another
subroutine or main routine under program control.
137
Interrupt service routine is called automatically on the occurance of an interrupt
which is predefined.

PART B-(5*16=80marks)

11 (a) (i) Explain how the processor is interfaced with the memory with a
neat block diagram and explain how they communicate. (10)

Page No: 7
(ii) What do you know about bit,bytes,nibbles and word?What are
big-endian and little-endian assignments of addresses? (6)

Page No: 33
OR

(b) (i) Write notes on instruction formats. (4) Page No: 37
(ii) List the various addressing modes.Give a brief explanation of
each of them with an example. (8) Page No: 68
(iii) Describe the organization of a stack. (4) Page No: 68

12. (a) (i) Design a 4-bit carry look ahead adder and explain its operation
with an example. (8) Page No: 372

(ii) Design a binary multiplier using sequential adder.Explain its
operation (8) Page No: 376
OR

(b) (i) Write about the CSA method of fast multiplication.prove how it
is faster with an example. (8) Page No: 383

(ii) Draw the circuit for integer division and explain(8)
Page No: 390

13. (a) (i) Explain the instructon cycle highlighting the sub-cycles and
sequence of steps to be followed.(8)

(ii) Draw the single bus and three bus organization of the data path
inside a processor. (4) Page No: 412
(iii) Describe the organization of micro programmed control
unit. (4) Page No: 429

OR

(b) (i) Design a 4-stage instruction pipeline and show how its
performance is improved over sequential execution. (8)
138
Page No: 454

(ii) Highlight the solutions of instruction hazards. (8)
Page No: 465

14. (a) (i) Write notes on static memories. (8)
Page No: 297
(ii) Explain the concept of memory hierarchy (8)

OR
(b) (i) Write notes on :
(i) ROM Technologies. Page No: 310
(ii) Memory Inter Leaving. Page No: 330
(iii) Set associative mapping of cache. Page No: 318
(iv) RAID Disk arrays. Page No: 351

15. (a) (i) Explain how I/Odevices can be interfaced with a block diagram.
Page No: 204 (8)

(ii) How do you connect multiple I/Odevices to a processor using
interrupts?Explain with suitable diagrams. (8)
Page No: 208

OR
(b) Write notes on:
(i) DMA. Page No: 239
(ii) Bus Arbitration. Page No: 237
(iii) Printer processor Communication. Page No: 251
(iv) USB. Page No: 272

B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION,MAY/JUNE 2007.
Fourth Semester
(Regulation 2004)



1. Why data bus is bidirectional and address bus is unidirectional in most
microprocessors?
139
The data bus is bidirectional because the data bus has to transfer data between the
CPU and memory/I/O device, whereas the address bus is used to send out memory
address from the CPU , hence it is unidirectional.
2. What are limitations of assembly language?
i.it is converted to machine language using assembler which is time consuming when
compared with machine language.
ii.it is difficult to solve the complex problems
iii.a set of symbolic names and rules has to be followed
3. Why floating point number more difficult to represent and process than integer?
In floating point numbers we have to represent any number in three fields sighn,
exponent and mantissa. The IEEE 754 standard gives the format for these fields and
according to the format th numbers are to be represented. In case of any process we have
to consider mantissa and exponent separately. Therefore, floating point numbers are more
difficult to represent and process than integer.
4. Draw a full adder circuit and give the truth table.
5. Define pipeline speedup.
S(m)=T(l)/T(m)
Where T(m) is the execution time for some target workload on an m-stage pipeline.
T(l) is the execution time for some workload an a similar non pipelined processor.
6. State the differences between hardwired and micro programmed control unit.

Hardwired control Microprogrammed control
-- It is implemented using the
gates, flip flop and hardwired
circuits.
--No control memory is used.
--Execution is faster.
--It is implemented using the
micro program stored in the
control memory.
--Control memory is used.
--Execution is slower.
140
--Modification is difficult.

--RISC machines
--Modification is simple by
modifying the
micro program in the control
memory.
--CISC Machines.

7. List the factors that determine the storage device performance.
i.Access time
ii.Cycle time
iii.Transfer Rate.
8. How many 128*8 RAM chips are needed to provide a memory capacity of 2048
bytes?
128*8=1024 bytes.
One 128*8 chip can store 1024 bytes, hence to have memory capacity of 2048 bytes
we need two 128*8 RAM chip.
9. Why does DMA have priority over the CPU when both request a memory
transfer?
The data transfer monitored by DMA controller which is known as DMA channel.
The CPU is involved only at the beginning and end of the transfer, when the CPU
wishes to read or write a block of data, it issues a command to DMA Channel by
sending read/write operation, address of I/O, number of words to be read or written,
hence DMA have priority over the CPU when both request a memory transfer.
10. What is the advantage of using interrupt initiated data transfer over transfer
under program control without interrupt?
In the interrupt initiated data transfer, the processor identifies the request and transfer
the control ISR to perform the task and its resumes back with the useful task whereas,
the processor has to waste its time by performing all the task, for example when a
print command is given in the interrupt initiated , it gives control over to ISR and
resumes the work back where as without interrupt the processor has to wait until the
print document is transferred to the printer.
141

PART B-(5*16=80 marks)

11. (a) (i) What is a stack?illustrate the use of stack in subroutine processing
with suitable diagram. (8)
Page No: 68
(ii). Describe different types of addressing modes in detail (8)
Page No: 48
OR

(b). (i) Briefly explain any six I/O operations with an example (9)
Page No: 64
(ii) Illustrate memory read and write operations. (7)
Page No: 65

12. (a) (i). Give the block diagram of the hardware implementation of
addition and subtraction of signed number and explain the
operation with flowchart. (10) Page No: 368

(ii) Explain the representation of floating point numbers in detail.
Page No: 393 (6)

OR

(b) (i). Design a multiplier that multiplies two 4 bit numbers. (8)
Page No: 376
(ii) Describe the algorithm for integer division with suitable example.
Page No: 390 (8)

13 (a) (i) Explain the execution an instruction with diagram. (8)
Page No: 421
(ii) Explain the functions of a six segment pipeline and draw a
space diagram for a six segment pipeline showing the time it
takes to process eight tasks. (8)
Page No: 454
OR

(b) (i) Explain how the performance of the instruction pipeline can be
improved. (10) Page No: 465
(ii) Explain multiple bus organization in detail.(6)

14. (a) (i). What is virtual memory?Explain how the logical addres is
translated into physical address in the virtual memory system
with a neat diagram. (10)
Page No: 337
(ii) Describe the organization of a typical RAM chip. (6)
142
Page No : 295
OR

(b) (i) Explain the organization of magnetic disk in detail (6)
Page No: 344
(ii) A digital computer has a memory unit of 64 k*16 and a cache
memory of 1 k words.The cache uses direct mapping with a
block size of four words.How many bits are there in the
tag,index,block and word fields of the address format ?How
many blocks can the cache accommodate? (10)

15. (a) (i) Design a parallel priority interrupt hardware for a system with
eight interrupt sources. (8)
Page No: 208
(ii). describe the functions of SCSI with a neat diagram (8)
Page No: 266
OR

(b) (i) What is the importance of an I/O interface compare features of
SCSI and PCI interfaces. (6)
Page No: 259
(ii) What are different input and output signals of DMA controller?
Why are the read and write control signals are bidirectional?Under
what condition and for what purpose they are used as inputes and
outputs? (10)
Page No: 234

B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION,APRIL/MAY 2008.
Fourth Semester
(Regulation 2004)

143

1. What are tri-state gate?
2. Why is the data bus in most microprocessors bidirectional while the address
bus is unidirectional?

Data Bus: These lnes are used to send data to memory via output ports and to
receive data from memory via input ports. Therefore, data bus lines are bi-
directional.

Address Bus: On these lines the CPU send out the address of the memory
location or I/O port that is to be written to or read from. Here, the communiation
is one-way, the address is send from CPU to memory and I/O port and hence these
lines are unidirectional.

3. Perform 1010100 1000100 using 1s and 2s complement.

4. Define underflow and overflow.

Underflow: If the result the arithmetic operation involving n-bit numbers is too
small to represent by n-bits, underflow is said to occur.

Overflow: If the result of an arithmetic operation is outside the representable
range, then overflow is said to occur.

5. What is pipelining and what are the advantages of pipelining?

Pipelining is a technique of decomposing a sequential process into
suboperations, with each subprocess being executed in a special dedicated segment
that operates concurrently with all other segments.

Advantages: i. Increases computer processing capability
ii. Increased throughput

6. What is the difference between hardwired control and micro programmed
control?
7. List the differences between static RAM and dynamic RAM.

SRAM: Static Random Access Memory. It tends to be faster. They require no
refreshing.
DRAM: Dyanamic Random Access Memory. Data is stored in the form of
charges. So continuous refreshing is needed.

8. Define the terms : spatial locality and temporal locality.
144

Spatial Locality: The spatial aspect means that instructions in close
proximity to a recently executed instruction are closely likely to be executed soon.

Temporal Locality: Temporal means that instructions that are recently
executed, are likely to be executed again very soon.

9. What factors influences the bus design decisions?
1. Data Location: Device selection, address of data with in device( track,
sector etc)
2. Data transfer: Amount, rate to or from device.
3. Synchronization: Output only when device is ready, input only when
data is available.
4. I/O operation: refers to a data transfer between an I/O device and
Memory or between an I/O device and CPU.

10. What is priority interrupt?
A priority interrupt is an interrupt that establishes a priority over the
various sources to determine which condition is to be serviced first when two or
more requests arrive simultaneously.

PART B (516=80 marks)

11. (a) (i) With a neat diagram explain Von-Neumann computer architecture.
(12)
(ii) What are the major instruction design issues? (4)
Page No: 37
Or

(b) (i) Explain various instruction formats in detail. (10)
Page No: 37
(ii) What is a stack and what are the operations on stack? Give any
three applications of stack. (6)
Page No: 68
12. (a) (i) Design a 4-bit binary adder/subtractor and explain its functions.
Page No: 372 (8)

(ii) Give the algorithm for multiplication of signed 2s complement
numbers and illustrate with an example. (8)
Page No: 380
OR

(b) (i) Design an array multiplier that multiplies two 4-bit numbers and
explain its operation. (8)
145
Page No: 376
(ii) Write the algorithm for division of floating point numbers and
illustrate with an example. (8)

13. (a) (i) What is branch hazard? Describe the methods for dealing with the
branch hazards. (10)
Page No: 465

(ii) With a suitable diagram describe the sequence of micro operations
involved in fetching and executing a typical instruction. (6)

OR

(b) What is data hazard? Explain the methods for dealing with the data
hazards. (16) Page No : 461

14. (a) (i) Describe the functional characteristics that are common to the
devices used to build main and secondary computer memories. (6)
Page No: 295
(ii) Explain various mechanisms of mapping main memory address
into cache memory addresses. (10)
Page No: 314
Or

(b) (i) Explain how the virtual address is converted into real address in a
paged virtual memory system. (10) Page No: 337
(ii) Describe the working principle of a typical magnetic disk. (6)
Page No: 344

15. (a) Draw the typical block diagram of a DMA controller and explain how it is
used for direct data transfer between memory and peripherals. (16)
Page No: 234
Or

(b) (i) Describe the working principles of USB. (8)
Page No: 272
(ii) Briefly compare the characteristics of SCSI with PCI. (8)
Page No: 261 & 266

146

B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION,NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2006.
Fourth Semester
(Regulation 2004)
CS1251-COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE



1. What is a bus? What are the different buses in a CPU?
Ans: A group of lines that serve as a connecting path for several devices is
called bus.
The different buses in a CPU are
Data bus
Address bus
Control bus
2. What are the four basic types of operations that need to be supported by an
instructor set?
i. Data transfer between memory and the processor register.
ii. Arithmetic and logic operations on Data.
iii. Program sequencing and control
iv. I/O transfer
3. Draw the symbolic representation of the full adder and give the expression for
the sum.
4. In confirming to the IEEE standard mention any four situations under which a
processor sets exception flag.
i. Underflow
147
ii. Overflow
iii. Divide by zero
iv. Invalid
5. What are the address-sequencing capabilities required in a control memory?
i. Increamenting the control address register
ii. Unconditional branch as specified by address field of the microinstruction.
iii. Conditional branch depending on status bits in register of computer
iv. A facility for sub-routine calls and retuns.
6. What is meant by super scalar processor?
Super scalar processors are designed to exploit more instruction level parallelism
in user programs. This means that multiple functional units are used. With such an
arrangement it is possible to start the execution of several instruction in every clock
cycle. This mode operation is called super scalar execution.
7. What do you understand by Hit ratio?
Whan a processor refers a data item from a cache, if the referenced item is in the
cache, then such a reference is called hit. If the referenced data is not in the cache, then it
is called miss (or cache miss). Hit ratio is defined as the ratio of number of hits to
number of refernces.

8. Define locality of reference? What are its types?
During the course of execution of a program memory references by the processor
for both the instruction and the data tends to cluster. There are two types,
i. Spatial Locality
ii. Temporal Locality
9. What is DMA operations? State its advantages.
148
In order to transfer bulk amount of data between memory and I/O device without
involvement of CPU, the Direct Memory Access technique is used. The advantage is, fasr
data transfer.
10. What is the necessity of an interface?
Any device that has to be connected to a CPU require an intrface. Which takes
care of the mismatch in speed, data and electrical characteristics between the CPU to the
decvice.
PART B-(5*16=80marks)

11. (a) (i) Give the difference instruction formats of a CPU in general. (6)
Page No: 37
(ii) Define addressing mode.Classify addressing modes and explain
each type with examples. (10)

Page No: 48

OR

(b) (i) Write an assembly language to find the biggest number among
given three numbers (6) Page No: 58

(ii) Explain instruction set and instruction sequencing (10).
Page No: 37

12. (a) (i) What is the advantage in using ripple carry adder (4)
Page No: 385
(ii) Draw the diagram of a carry look ahead adder and explain the
carry lookahead principle. (12) Page No: 372

OR

(b) (i) Give the IEEE standard double precision floating point
format. (3) Page No: 394

(ii) Explain the floating point add/subtract rules.With a detailed
flow chart explain how floatin point additional subtraction is
performed (13) Page No: 398

13. (a) With a neat diagram explain the basic organization of a
microprogrammmed control unit.Explain the operation of this control unit
with a typical set of micro instructions. (16) Page No: 429
149

OR

(b) (i) Explain the various design methods of hardwired control
unit. (8) Page No: 425

(ii) Explain the basic concepts of pipelining and comparing it with
sequential processing.Draw needed diagrams. (8)
Page No: 454

14. (a) (i) Draw a neat sketch of memory hierarchy and explain the need
of cache memory. (8) Page No: 314

(ii) Explain the various mapping functions used for mapping main
memory blocks in to cache memory. (8) Page No: 316

OR

(b). (i) Explain the virtual memory address translation and TLB with
necessary diagram. (10) Page No: 337

(ii) Dicuss the concept of memory interleaving and give its
advantages. (6) Page No: 330

15. (a) (i) Discuss the general steps involved in interrupt driven data
transfer. (6) Page No: 208

(ii) Explain how DMA transfer is accomplished with a neat
diagram (10) Page No: 234

OR

(b) Write short notes on:
(i) PCI (8) Page No: 261
(ii) Advantages of USR over older I/O bus architectures (8)

B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION,MAY/JUNE 2006.
Fourth Semester
(Regulation 2004)
CS1251-COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE


150
1. Give an example each of zero-address, one address, two-address, and three-
address instructions.
i. Zero address Instruction: locations of all operands are defined
implicitly
ii. One address Instruction: Add A
iii. Two address Instruction: Add A , B
iv. Three address Instruction: Add A , B , C

2. Which data structures can be best supported using (a) indirect addressing
mode (b) indexed addressing mode?
(a) Indirect Addressing mode Pointer data structure
(b) Indexed Addressing mode Array data structure

3. What is the purpose of guard bits used in floating point operations?
The guard bits are the extra bits which is used to retain the intermediate
steps to increase the accuracy in the final result.

4. Give the booths recording and bit pair recording of the number
1000111101000101.

5. Why is the Wait-For-Memory-Function-Completed step needed when
reading from or writing to the main memory?

WMFC step is required for the write control signal / read control signal
caause the memory bus interface hardware to issue write command / read command
on the memory bus. The processor wait in this process until the memory operation is
completed and an WMFC response is received.

6. How do you control instructions like branch, cause problems in a pipelined
processor?
Pipelined processor gives the best throughput for sequenced line
instruction. In branch instruction, as it has to calculate the target address, whether the
instruction jump from one memory location to other. In the mean time, before
calculating the larger, the next sequence instructions are got into the pipelines, which
are rolled back when target is calculated.

7. What is the function of a TLB (translation look-aside buffer)?
A small cache called the TLB is interporated into MMU, which consists of
the page table entries that corresponding to the most recently accessed page.

151
8. An eight-way set-associative cache consists of a total of 256 blocks. The main
memory, contains 8192 blocks, each consisting of 128 words.
(a) How many bits are there in the main memory address?
(b) How many bits are there in the TAG, SET and WORD fields?

The main memory contains of 256 blocks and each block consists of 128
words.
(a) Total words in MM = 8192 * 128 = 1048576.
(b) To address 32768 words we require ( 2
20
= 1048576) 20 bits

9. Why are interrupt masks provided in any processor?
Interrupt mask enable the higher priority devices comes first and there for
lower priority devices comes last. The interrupt enable bits as a bit vector is called as
interrupt mask. Which enables / disables the devices according to the correct
configuration of the mask.

10. How does bus arbitration typically work?
i. A bus master waiting to use the bus asserts by the bus request.
ii. A bus master cannot be the bus until its request is granted.
iii. A bus master must signal to the arbitor at the end of the bus utilization.

PART B (516=80 marks)

11. (i) Explain in detail the different types of instructions that are supported in a
typical processor. (10) Page No: 38
(ii) Registers R1 and R2 of a computer contain the decimal values 1200 and
2400 respectively. What is the effective address of the memory operand in
each of the following instructions?
(1) Load 20(R1), R5
(2) Add (R2), R5
(3) Move #3000, R5
(4) Sub (R1)+, R5 (6)
Or
12. (a) (i) Explain in detail the principle of carry-look-ahead adder. Show how
16-bit CLAs can be constructed from 4-bit adders. (12)
Page No: 372
(ii) Perform the division on the following 5-bit unsigned integer using non-
restoring division: 10101 / 00101. (4) Page No: 390
OR
(b) (i) Explain the working of a floating point adder/subtractor. (12)
Page No: 393
(ii) Multiply the following pair of signed 2s complement numbers using
bit-pair recording of the multipliers : A = 010111, B = 101100. (4)
Page No: 384
152

13. (a) (i) Explain how pipelining helps to speed-up the processor. Discuss the
hazards that have to be taken care of in a pipe-lined processor. (12)
Page No: 454
(ii) Give the sequence of control signals to be generated to fetch an
instruction from memory in a single-bus organization. (4)
OR
(b) Explain in detail the working of a micro-programmed control unit. (16)
Page No: 429

14. (a) (i) Discuss the address translation mechanism and the different page
replacement policies used in virtual memory system. (10)
Page No: 337
(ii) A byte addressable computer has a small data cache capable of holding
eight 32-bit words. Each cache block contains 132-bit word. When a
given program is executed, the processor reads data from the following
sequence of hex addresses 200, 204, 208, 20C, 2F4, 2F0, 200, 204,
218, 21C, 24C, 2F4. The pattern is repeated four times. Assuming that
the cache is initially empty, show the contents of the cache at the end of
each pass, and compute the hit rate for a direct mapped cache. (6)
OR

14 (b) (i) Discuss the various mapping schemes used in cache design.Comare the
schemes in terms of cost and performance.(10)
Page No: 316
(ii) Consider a two level cache with access times of 5 ns, and 8-0 ns
respectively.If the hit rates are 95%and 75% respectively in the two
caches,and the memory access time is 250ns,what is the average access
time?
15 (a) (i) Explain the use of vectored interrupts in processors.Why is priority
handling desired in interrupt controllers?How do the different priority
schemes work ? (10) Page No: 208

(ii) Discuss the data transfer mechanism of the PCI bus.(6) Page No: 261
OR
(b) (i) Explain how data may be transferred from a hard disk to memory using
DMA including arbitration for the bus.Assume a synchronous bus,and
draw a timing diagram showing the data transfer.(10)
Page No: 234
(ii) Discuss the salient features of the USB operation(6) Page No: 272

153

CS 2254 OPERATING SYSTEMS

SYLLABUS

Unit I Processes and threads 9
Introduction to operating systems review of computer organization operating system
structures system calls system programs system structure virtual machines.
Processes: Process concept Process scheduling Operations on processes
Cooperating processes Interprocess communication Communication in client-server
systems. Case study: IPC in Linux. Threads: Multi-threading models Threading issues.
Case Study: Pthreads library

Unit II Process Scheduling and Synchronization 10
CPU Scheduling: Scheduling criteria Scheduling algorithms Multiple-processor
scheduling Real time scheduling Algorithm Evaluation. Case study: Process
scheduling in Linux. Process Synchronization: The critical-section problem
Synchronization hardware Semaphores Classic problems of synchronization
critical regions Monitors. Deadlock: System model Deadlock characterization
Methods for handling deadlocks Deadlock prevention Deadlock avoidance
Deadlock detection Recovery from deadlock.

Unit III Storage Management 9
Memory Management: Background Swapping Contiguous memory allocation
Paging Segmentation Segmentation with paging. Virtual Memory: Background
Demand paging Process creation Page replacement Allocation of frames
Thrashing. Case Study: Memory management in Linux

Unit IV File Systems 9
File-System Interface: File concept Access methods Directory structure File-
system mounting Protection. File-System Implementation : Directory implementation
Allocation methods Free-space management efficiency and performance recovery
log-structured file systems. Case studies: File system in Linux file system in
Windows XP

Unit V I/O Systems 8
I/O Systems I/O Hardware Application I/O interface kernel I/O subsystem
streams performance. Mass-Storage Structure: Disk scheduling Disk management
Swap-space management RAID disk attachment stable storage tertiary storage.
Case study: I/O in Linux
TOTAL: 45
TEXT BOOK:
154
1. Silberschatz, Galvin, and Gagne, Operating System Concepts, Sixth Edition, Wiley
India Pvt Ltd, 2003.
REFERENCES:
1. Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems, Second Edition, Pearson
Education/PHI 2001.
2. Gary Nutt, Operating Systems, Third Edition, Pearson Education, 2004.
3. Harvey M. Deital, Operating Systems, Third Edition, Pearson Education, 2004.
155
UNIT 1 - INTRODUCTION

2 MARKS

1. What is an operating system?
Answer:
An operating system is a program that manages the computer hardware. it
act as an intermediate between a users of a computer and the computer
hardware. It controls and coordinates the use of the hardware among the
various application programs for the various users.

2. What is the kernel?
Answer:
A more common definition is that the OS is the one program running at all
times on the computer usually called the kernel, with all else being
application programs.

3. What are batch systems?
Answer:
Batch systems are quite appropriate for executing large jobs that need little
interaction. The user can submit jobs and return later for the results. It is not
necessary to wait while the job is processed.

4. What is graceful degradation?
Answer:
In multiprocessor systems, failure of one processor will not halt the system,
but only slow it down by sharing the work of failure system by other
156
systems. This ability to continue providing service is proportional to the
surviving hardware is called graceful degradation.

5. Differentiate tightly coupled systems and loosely coupled systems?
Answer:
Loosely coupled systems:-
Each processor has its own local memory
Each processor can communicate with other all through communication
lines
Tightly coupled systems:-
Common memory is shared by many processors
No need of any special communication lines

6. What is real time system?
Answer:
A real time system has well defined, fixed time constraints. Processing must
be done within the defined constraints, or the system will fail. It is often
used as a control device in a dedicated application.

7. What are privileged instructions?
Answer:
Some of the machine instructions that may cause harm to a system are
designated as privileged instructions. The hardware allows the privileged
instructions to be executed only in monitor mode.

8. What do you mean by system calls?
Answer:
157
System calls provide the interface between a process and the operating
system. When a system call is executed, it is treated as by the hardware as
software interrupt.

10. What is a process?
Answer:
A process is a program in execution. It is an active entity and it includes the
process stack, containing temporary data and the data section contains global
variables.

11. What is process control block?
Answer:
Each process is represented in the OS by a process control block. It contain
many pieces of information associated with a specific process.

12. What is scheduler?
Answer:
A process migrates between the various scheduling queues through out its
life time. The OS must select processes from these queues in some fashion.
This selection process is carried out by a scheduler.

13. What are the use of job queues, ready queues and device queues?
Answer:
As a process enters a system they are put in to a job queue. This queues
consist of all jobs in the system. The processes that are residing in main
memory and are ready and waiting to execute are kept on a list called ready
queue. The list of processes waiting for particular I/O devices kept in the
device queue.
158

14. What is meant by context switch?
Answer:
Switching the CPU to another process requires saving the state of the old
process and loading the saved state for the new process. This task is known
as context switch.

15. What is independent process?
Answer:
A process is independent it cannot affect Or be affected by the other
processes executing in the system. Any process does not share data with
other process is a independent process.

16. What is co-operative process?
Answer:
A process is co-operating if it can affect or be affected by the other
processes executing in the system. Any process that share data with other
process is a co-operating process.

17. What is the benefits OS co-operating process?
Answer:
**Information sharing.
** Computation speeds up.
**Modularity.
**Convenience.

18. How can a user program disturb the normal operation of the
system?
159
Answer:
**Issuing illegal I/O operation.
**By accessing memory locations with in the OS itself.
**Refusing to relinquish the CPU.

19. State the advantage of multiprocessor system?
Answer:
# Increased throughput.
# Economy of scale.
# Increased reliability.

20. What is the use of inter process communication.
Answer:
Inter process communication provides a mechanism to allow the co-
operating process to communicate with each other and synchronies their
actions without sharing the same address space. It is provided a message
passing system.

21. What is spooling?
Answer:
Spooling overlaps the I/O of one job with the computation of other jobs.
22. Classify Real time systems.
Answer:
Soft real time systems
Hard real time systems

23. Discuss difference between symmetric and asymmetric
multiprocessing
160
Answer:
Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP), in which each processor runs an identical
copy of the operating system and these copies, communicate with one
another as needed.
Asymmetric multiprocessing, in which each processor is assigned a specific
task. The master processor controls the system; the other processor looks the
master.
24. What are the three main purposes of an operating system?
Answer:
_ To provide an environment for a computer user to execute programs on
computer hardware in a convenient and efficient manner.
_ To allocate the separate resources of the computer as needed to solve the
problem given. The allocation process should be as fair and efficient as
possible.
_ As a control program it serves two major functions: (1) supervision of the
execution of user programs to prevent errors and improper use of the
computer, and (2) management of the operation and control of I/O devices.
25. List the four steps that are necessary to run a program on a
completely dedicated machine.
Answer:
a. Reserve machine time.
b. Manually load program into memory.
c. Load starting address and begin execution.
d. Monitor and control execution of program from console.
26. What is the main advantage of multiprogramming?
Answer: Multiprogramming makes efficient use of the CPU by overlapping
the demands for the CPU and its I/O devices from various users. It attempts
161
to increase CPU utilization by always having something for the CPU to
execute.
27. What are the main differences between operating systems for
mainframe computers and personal computers?
Answer: The design goals of operating systems for those machines are quite
different. PCs are inexpensive, so wasted resources like CPU cycles are
inconsequential. Resources are wasted to improve usability and increase
software user interface functionality. Mainframes are the opposite, so
resource use is maximized, at the expensive of ease of use.
28. In a multiprogramming and time-sharing environment, several
users share the system simultaneously.
This situation can result in various security problems.
a. What are two such problems?
b. Can we ensure the same degree of security in a time-shared machine
as we have in a dedicated machine? Explain your answer.
Answer:
a. Stealing or copying ones programs or data; using system resources (CPU,
memory, disk space, peripherals) without proper accounting.
b. Probably not, since any protection scheme devised by humans can
inevitably be broken by a human, and the more complex the scheme, the
more difficult it is to feel confident of its correct implementation.
29. Define the essential properties of the following types of operating
systems:
a. Batch
b. Interactive
c. Time sharing
d. Real time
162
e. Network
f. Distributed
Answer:
a. Batch. Jobs with similar needs are batched together and run through the
computer as a group by an operator or automatic job sequencer. Performance
is increased by attempting to keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
through buffering, off-line operation, spooling, and multiprogramming.
Batch is good for executing large jobs that need little interaction; it can be
submitted and picked up later.
b. Interactive. This system is composed of many short transactions where the
results of the next transaction may be unpredictable. Response time needs to
be short (seconds) since the user submits and waits for the result.
c. Time sharing. This systems uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming
to provide economical interactive use of a system. The CPU switches rapidly
from one user to another. Instead of having a job defined by spooled card
images, each program reads its next control card from the terminal, and
output is normally printed immediately to the screen.
d. Real time. Often used in a dedicated application, this system reads
information from sensors and must respond within a fixed amount of time to
ensure correct performance.
e. Network.
f. Distributed. This system distributes computation among several physical
processors. The processors do not share memory or a clock. Instead, each
processor has its own local memory. They communicate with each other
through various communication lines, such as a high-speed bus or telephone
line.
163
30. We have stressed the need for an operating system to make efficient
use of the computing hardware. When is it appropriate for the
operating system to forsake this principle and to waste resources?
Why is such a system not really wasteful?
Answer: Single-user systems should maximize use of the system for the
user. A GUI might waste CPU cycles, but it optimizes the users
interaction with the system.
31. Under what circumstances would a user be better off using a time-
sharing system, rather than a personal computer or single-user
workstation?
Answer: When there are few other users, the task is large, and the hardware
is fast, timesharing makes sense. The full power of the system can be
brought to bear on the users problem. The problem can be solved faster than
on a personal computer. Another case occurs when lots of other users need
resources at the same time.
A personal computer is best when the job is small enough to be executed
reasonably on it and when performance is sufficient to execute the program
to the users satisfaction.
32. Describe the differences between symmetric and asymmetric
multiprocessing. What are three advantages and one disadvantage of
multiprocessor systems?
Answer: Symmetric multiprocessing treats all processors as equals and I/O
can be processed on any CPU. Asymmetric multiprocessing has one master
CPU and the remainder CPUs are slaves. The master distributes tasks among
the slaves, and I/O is usually done by the master only. Multiprocessors can
save money by not duplicating power supplies, housings, and peripherals.
They can execute programs more quickly and can have increased reliability.
164
They are also more complex in both hardware and software than
uniprocessor systems.
33. What is the main difficulty that a programmer must overcome in
writing an operating system for a real-time environment?
Answer: The main difficulty is keeping the operating system within the
fixed time constraints of a real-time system. If the system does not complete
a task in a certain time frame, it may cause a breakdown of the entire system
it is running. Therefore when writing an operating system for a real-time
system, the writer must be sure that his scheduling schemes dont allow
response time to exceed the time constraint.
34. What are the five major activities of an operating system in regard
to process management?
Answer:
_ The creation and deletion of both user and system processes
_ The suspension and resumption of processes
_ The provision of mechanisms for process synchronization
_ The provision of mechanisms for process communication
_ The provision of mechanisms for deadlock handling
35. What are the three major activities of an operating system in regard
to memory management?
Answer:
_ Keep track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by
whom.
_ Decide which processes are to be loaded into memory when memory space
becomes available.
_ Allocate and deallocate memory space as needed.
165
36. What are the three major activities of an operating system in regard
to secondary-storage management?
Answer:
_ Free-space management.
_ Storage allocation.
_ Disk scheduling.
37. What are the five major activities of an operating system in regard
to file management?
Answer:
_ The creation and deletion of files
_ The creation and deletion of directories
_ The support of primitives for manipulating files and directories
_ The mapping of files onto secondary storage
_ The backup of files on stable (nonvolatile) storage media
38. What is the purpose of the command interpreter? Why is it usually
separate from the kernel?
Answer: It reads commands from the user or from a file of commands and
executes them, usually by turning them into one or more system calls. It is
usually not part of the kernel since the command interpreter is subject to
changes.
39. What is the purpose of system calls?
Answer: System calls allow user-level processes to request services of the
operating system.
40. What is the purpose of system programs?
Answer: System programs can be thought of as bundles of useful system
calls. They provide basic functionality to users and so users do not need to
write their own programs to solve common problems.
166
41. What is the main advantage of the layered approach to system
design?
Answer: As in all cases of modular design, designing an operating system in
a modular way has several advantages. The system is easier to debug and
modify because changes affect only limited sections of the system rather
than touching all sections of the operating system. Information is kept only
where it is needed and is accessible only within a defined and restricted area,
so any bugs affecting that data must be limited to a specific module or layer.
42. What are the main advantages of the microkernel approach to
system design?
Answer: Benefits typically include the following
(a) adding a new service does not require modifying the kernel,
(b) it is more secure as more operations are done in user mode than in kernel
mode, and
(c) a simpler kernel design and functionality typically results in a more
reliable operating system.

16 MARKS

1. List five services provided by an operating system. Explain how each
provides convenience to the users. Explain also in which cases it would
be impossible for user-level programs to provide these services.
Answer:
_ Program execution. The operating system loads the contents (or sections)
of a file into memory and begins its execution. A user-level program could
not be trusted to properly allocate CPU time.
167
_ I/O operations. Disks, tapes, serial lines, and other devices must be
communicated with at a very low level. The user need only specify the
device and the operation to perform on it, while the system converts that
request into device- or controller-specific commands. User-level programs
cannot be trusted to only access devices they should have access to and to
only access them when they are otherwise unused.
_ File-system manipulation. There are many details in file creation, deletion,
allocation, and naming that user should not have to perform. Blocks of disk
space are used by files and must be tracked. Deleting a file requires
removing the name file information and freeing the allocated blocks.
Protections must also be checked to assure proper file access. User programs
could neither ensure adherence to protection methods nor be trusted to
allocate only free blocks and deallocate blocks on file deletion.
_ Communications. Message passing between systems requires messages be
turned into packets of information, sent to the network controller,
transmitted across a communications medium, and reassembled by the
destination system. Packet ordering and data correction must take place.
Again, user programs might not coordinate access to the network device, or
they might receive packets destined for other processes.
_ Error detection. Error detection occurs at both the hardware and software
levels. At the hardware level, all data transfers must be inspected to ensure
that data have not been corrupted in transit. All data on media must be
checked to be sure they have not changed since they were written to the
media. At the software level, media must be checked for data consistency;
for instance, do the numbers of allocated and unallocated blocks of storage
match the total number on the device. There, errors are frequently process-
independent (for instance, the corruption of data on a disk), so there must be
168
a global program (the operating system) that handles all types of errors.
Also, by having errors processed by the operating system, processes need
not contain code to catch and correct all the errors possible on a system.
2. Describe the differences among short-term, medium-term, and long-
term scheduling.
Answer:
_ Short-term (CPU scheduler)selects from jobs in memory those jobs that
are ready to execute and allocates the CPU to them.
_ Medium-termused especially with time-sharing systems as an
intermediate scheduling level. A swapping scheme is implemented to
remove partially run programs from memory and reinstate them later to
continue where they left off.
_ Long-term (job scheduler)determines which jobs are brought into
memory for processing.

3. Explain the various types of computer systems.
Answer:
Mainframe systems
Large Number of CPU with Greatest Processing Power:
Huge Memory Capacity:
Increased Performance by Sharing workload:
Centralized Computing:
Ability to Run in Multiple Operating System:
Supports Time Sharing Ability:
Supports Sophisticated Operating system:
Reliability:
Availability:
169
Serviceability:
Supports Maximum I/O connectivity
Have capability of providing Maximum I/O bandwidth
Have the greatest ability of producing fault tolerant computing.
Capacity to manage Large Users

Desktop systems
Personal computers computer system dedicated to a single user.
I/O devices keyboards, mice, display screens, small printers.
User convenience and responsiveness.
Can adopt technology developed for larger operating system often
individuals have sole use of computer and do not need advanced CPU
utilization of protection features.
May run several different types of operating systems (Windows,
MacOS, UNIX, Linux)

Multiprocessor systems
Multiprocessor systems with more than on CPU in close
communication.
Tightly coupled system processors share memory and a clock;
communication usually takes place through the shared memory.
Advantages of parallel system:
Increased throughput
Economical
Increased reliability
graceful degradation
fail-soft systems
170
Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP)
Each processor runs and identical copy of the operating system.
Many processes can run at once without performance
deterioration.
Most modern operating systems support SMP
Asymmetric multiprocessing
Each processor is assigned a specific task; master processor
schedules and allocated work to slave processors.
More common in extremely large systems

Distributed systems
Distribute the computation among several physical processors.
Loosely coupled system each processor has its own local memory;
processors communicate with one another through various
communications lines, such as high-speed buses or telephone lines.
Advantages of distributed systems.
Resources Sharing
Computation speed up load sharing
Reliability
Communications

Clustered systems
Clustering allows two or more systems to share storage.
Provides high reliability.
Asymmetric clustering: one server runs the application while other
servers standby.
Symmetric clustering: all N hosts are running the application.
171

Real-time systems
Often used as a control device in a dedicated application such as
controlling scientific experiments, medical imaging systems,
industrial control systems, and some display systems.
Well-defined fixed-time constraints.
Real-Time systems may be either hard or soft real-time.
Hard real-time:
Secondary storage limited or absent, data stored in short term
memory, or read-only memory (ROM)
Conflicts with time-sharing systems, not supported by general-
purpose operating systems.
Soft real-time
Limited utility in industrial control of robotics
Useful in applications (multimedia, virtual reality) requiring
advanced operating-system features.

Handheld systems
Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)
Cellular telephones
Issues:
Limited memory
Slow processors
Small display screens.
Time-sharing Systems
Time sharing (or multitasking) is a logical extension of
multiprogramming. The
172
CPU executes multiple jobs switching among them, but
the switches occurs so frequently that the users can
interact with each program while it is running.
An interactive (or hands-on) computer system provides
direct communication between the user and the system.
A time-shared operating system allows many users to
share the computer simultaneously. As the system
switches rapidly from one user to the next, each user is
given an imprison that the entire system is dedicated to
one user.
Time-shared operating system uses CPU scheduling and
multiprogramming to provide each user with a small
portion of a time-shared computer. A program loaded
into memory and executing is commonly referred to as a
process.
Time-sharing operating systems are even more complex
than multiprogrammed operating system. To obtain a
reasonable response time, jobs may have to be swapped
in and out of main memory to the disk. A common
method for achieving this goal is virtual memory. It is a
technique that allows the execution of a job that may
have not be completely in memory. The main advantage
of the virtual-memory scheme is that programs can be
larger than physical memory.
Time-sharing systems must also provide a file system
that resides on a collection of disks. Time-sharing system
173
provides a mechanism for concurrent execution. To
ensure orderly execution, the system must provide
mechanism for job synchronization and communication.

4. Explain how protection is provided for the hardware resources by the
operating system.
Answer:
Dual mode operation
Sharing system resources requires operating system to ensure that an
incorrect program cannot cause other programs to execute incorrectly.
Provide hardware support to differentiate between at least two modes
of operations.
1. User mode execution done on behalf of a user.
2. Monitor mode (also kernel mode or system mode) execution done on
behalf of operating system.

Mode bit added to computer hardware to indicate the current mode:
monitor (0) or user (1).
When an interrupt or fault occurs hardware switches to monitor mode.

Monito
r
user
Interrupt/fault
set user mode
174
I/O protection with diagram
All I/O instructions are privileged instructions.
Must ensure that a user program could never gain control of the
computer in monitor mode (I.e., a user program that, as part of its
execution, stores a new address in the interrupt vector).

Memory protection with diagram
Must provide memory protection at least for the interrupt vector and
the interrupt service routines.
In order to have memory protection, add two registers that determine
the range of legal addresses a program may access:
Base register holds the smallest legal physical memory
address.
Limit register contains the size of the range
Memory outside the defined range is protected.

175

CPU protection
Timer interrupts computer after specified period to ensure operating
system maintains control.
Timer is decremented every clock tick.
When timer reaches the value 0, an interrupt occurs.
Timer commonly used to implement time sharing.
Time also used to compute the current time.
Load-timer is a privileged instruction.

5. What are the system components of an operating system and explain
them?
Answer: Explain all the topics in detail
Process management
Main-memory management
File management
I/O management
Secondary storage management
Networking
176
Protection system
Command-interpreter system
6. What are the various process scheduling concepts?
Answer: Explain all the topics in detail
Scheduling queues with diagram
Queuing diagram
Schedulers
Context switch with diagram

7. Explain about interprocess communication. (AU-nov/dec 2006)
Answer:
The cooperating processes communicate with each other via an interprocess
communication facility. IPC provides a mechanism to allow processes to
communicate and to synchronize their actions without sharing the same
address space. It is particularly useful in a distributed environment.
Message passing system:-
The function of message system is to allow processes to communicate with
one another without the need to resort (option) to shared data.
Communication among the user processes is accomplished through the
passing of messages. An IPC facility provides at least two operations: send
and receive.
If processes P and Q want to communicate, they must send messages to and
receive messages from each other; a communication link must exist between
them.
Methods for logically implementing links
o Direct or indirect communication.
o Symmetric or asymmetric communication.
177
o Automatic or explicit buffering.
o Sent by copy or send by reference.
o Fixed-sized or variable-sized messages.

Naming
To refer the processes involved in communication.

Direct communication
With direct communication each process that wants to communicate must
explicitly name the recipient or sender of the communication. The send and
receive primitives are
o Send (P,message) Send a message to process P.
o Receive (Q,message) Receive a message from process Q.
A communication link has the following properties.
._ A link is established automatically between every pair of processes that
want to communicate.
_ A link is associated with exactly two processes.
_ Exactly one link exists between each pair of processes.
Another scheme in communication employs asymmetry in addressing. Only
the sender names the recipient; the recipient is not required to name the
sender. The send are receive primitives in this scheme are
o Send (P,message) Send a message to process P.
o Receive (id,message) Receive a message from any process; the variable
id is the name of the processes with which the communication has taken
place.

Indirect communication
178
With indirect communication, the messages are sent to and received from
mailboxes or ports. A mailbox can be viewed abstractly as an object into
which messages can be placed by processes and from which messages can
be removed. Each mailbox has a unique identification. Two processes can
communicate only if they share a mailbox. The primitives are
o Send (A, message) Send a message to mailbox A.
o Receive (A, message) Receive a message from mailbox A.
A communication link has the following properties.
._ A link is established between a pair of processes only if both members of
the pair have a shared mailbox.
_ A link may be associated with more than two processes.
_ Each link corresponding to one mailbox.
A mailbox may be owned either by processes or by the operating system. If
the mailbox is owned by the process then we distinguish between the owner
(receive message) and the user (send message).
Mailbox owned by the operating system is independent and is not attached
to any particular process. The OS allows the process to do the following
o Create a new mailbox
o Send and receive messages through the mailbox.
o Delete a mailbox.
The process that creates a new mailbox is that mailboxs owner by default.

Synchronization
In communication between processes messages passed may be blocking or
nonblocking also known as synchronous and asynchronous.
o Blocking send : The sending process is blocked until the message is
received.
179
o Nonblocking send: The sending process sends the message and resumes
operation.
o Blocking receive: The receiver blocks until a message is available.
o Nonblocking receive: The receiver retrieves either a valid message or a
null.

Buffering
Messages exchanged by communication processes reside in a temporary
queue. Such a queue can be implemented in three ways.
Zero capacity: The queue length is 0. In this case, the sender must
block until the recipient receives the message.
Bounded capacity: The queue has finite length n, at most n message
can reside in it.
If the link is full, the sender must block until space is available in the
queue.
Unbounded capacity: The queue has potentially infinite length. The
sender never blocks.
8. List and discuss the various services provided by the operating
system. Nov/dec 2007
Answer:
Program execution system capability to load a program into memory
and to run it.
I/O operations since user programs cannot execute I/O operations
directly, the operating system must provide some means to perform
I/O.
File-system manipulation program capability to read, write, create,
and delete files.
180
Communications exchange of information between processes
executing either on the same computer or on different systems tied
together by a network.
Error detection ensure correct computing by detecting errors in the
CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, or in user programs.
Additional functions exist not for helping the user, but rather for ensuring
efficient system operations.
Resource allocation allocating resources to multiple users or
multiple jobs running at the same time.
Accounting keep track of and record which users use how
much and what kinds of computer resources for account billing
or for accumulating usage statistics.
Protection ensuring that all access to system resources is
controlled.

9. What are the operations of processes?
Answer:
Process creation
A process may create several new processes. The creating process is called a
parent process, where as the new process is called the children processes.
When a processes creates a sub processes, the parent may have to partition
its resources among its children.
When a process creates new processes, two possibilities exist in terms of
execution.
1. The parent continues to execute concurrently with its children.
2. The parent waits until some or all of its children have terminated.
In regarding the address space
181
1. The child process is a duplicate of the parent process.
2. The child process has a program loaded into it.
In UNIX, each process is identified by its process identifier, which is a
unique integer. A new process is created by the fork system call. The new
process consists of a copy of the address space of the original process. The
execlp system call is used to replace the processes memory space with a new
program.
Process termination
A process terminates when it finishes executing its final statement and asks
the operating system to delete it by using the exit system call. At that time
the process may return data to its parent processes. All the resources are
deallocated by the operating system.
A parent may terminate the execution of one of its childrens for a variety of
reasons.
._ The child has exceeded its usage of some of the resources that it has been
allocated.
._ The task assigned to the child is no longer required.
._ The parent is exiting. On such systems, if processes terminates, then all its
children must also be terminated. This phenomenon, referred to as cascading
termination.
In UNIX we can terminate processes by using exit system call.

182
UNIT 2 THREADS, CPU SCHEDULING, PROCESS
SYNCHRONIZATION

2 MARKS

1. What is a thread?
Answer:
A thread otherwise called a lightweight process (LWP) is a basic unit of
CPU utilization, it comprises of a thread id, a program counter, a register set
and a stack. It shares with other threads belonging to the same process its
code section, data section, and operating system resources such as open files
and signals.
2. What are the benefits of multithreaded programming?
Answer:
The benefits of multithreaded programming can be broken down into four
major categories:
Responsiveness
Resource sharing
Economy
Utilization of multiprocessor architectures
3. Compare user threads and kernel threads.
Answer:
User threads:-
User threads are supported above the kernel and are implemented by a
thread library at the user level. Thread creation & scheduling are done in the
user space, without kernel intervention. Therefore they are fast to create and
manage blocking system call will cause the entire process to block
183
Kernel threads:-
Kernel threads are supported directly by the operating system .Thread
creation, scheduling and management are done by the operating system.
Therefore they are slower to create & manage compared to user threads. If
the thread performs a blocking system call, the kernel can schedule another
thread in the application for execution
4. What is the use of fork and exec system calls?
Answer:
Fork is a system call by which a new process is created. Exec is also a
system call, which is used after a fork by one of the two processes to place
the process memory space with a new program.
5. Define thread cancellation & target thread.
Answer:
The thread cancellation is the task of terminating a thread before it has
completed. A thread that is to be cancelled is often referred to as the target
thread. For example, if multiple threads are concurrently searching through a
database and one thread returns the result, the remaining threads might be
cancelled.
6. What are the different ways in which a thread can be cancelled?
Answer:
Cancellation of a target thread may occur in two different scenarios:
Asynchronous cancellation: One thread immediately terminates the target
thread is called asynchronous cancellation.
Deferred cancellation: The target thread can periodically check if it should
terminate, allowing the target thread an opportunity to terminate itself in an
orderly fashion.
7. Define CPU scheduling.
184
Answer:
CPU scheduling is the process of switching the CPU among various
processes. CPU scheduling is the basis of multiprogrammed operating
systems. By switching the CPU among processes, the operating system can
make the computer more productive.
8. What is preemptive and nonpreemptive scheduling?
Answer:
Under nonpreemptive scheduling once the CPU has been allocated to a
process, the process keeps the CPU until it releases the CPU either by
terminating or switching to the waiting state. Preemptive scheduling can
preempt a process which is utilizing the CPU in between its execution and
give the CPU to another process.
9. What is a Dispatcher?
Answer:
The dispatcher is the module that gives control of the CPU to the process
selected by the short- term scheduler. This function involves:
Switching context
Switching to user mode
Jumping to the proper location in the user program to restart that program.
10. What is dispatch latency?
Answer:
The time taken by the dispatcher to stop one process and start another
running is known as dispatch latency.
11. What are the various scheduling criteria for CPU scheduling?
Answer:
The various scheduling criteria are
CPU utilization
185
Throughput
Turnaround time
Waiting time
Response time
12. Define throughput?
Answer:
Throughput in CPU scheduling is the number of processes that are
completed per unit time. For long processes, this rate may be one process per
hour; for short transactions, throughput might be 10 processes per second.
13. What is turnaround time?
Answer:
Turnaround time is the interval from the time of submission to the time of
completion of a process. It is the sum of the periods spent waiting to get into
memory, waiting in the ready queue, executing on the CPU, and doing I/O.
14. Define race condition.
Answer:
When several process access and manipulate same data concurrently, then
the outcome of the execution depends on particular order in which the access
takes place is called race condition. To avoid race condition, only one
process at a time can manipulate the shared variable.
15. What is critical section problem?
Answer:
Consider a system consists of 'n' processes. Each process has segment of
code called a critical section, in which the process may be changing common
variables, updating a table, writing a file. When one process is executing in
its critical section, no other process can allowed executing in its critical
section.
186
16. What are the requirements that a solution to the critical section
problem must satisfy?
Answer:
The three requirements are
Mutual exclusion
Progress
Bounded waiting
17. Define entry section and exit section.
Answer:
The critical section problem is to design a protocol that the processes can use
to cooperate. Each process must request permission to enter its critical
section. The section of the code implementing this request is the entry
section. The critical section is followed by an exit section. The remaining
code is the remainder section.
18. Give two hardware instructions and their definitions which can be
used for implementing mutual exclusion.
Answer:
TestAndSet
boolean TestAndSet (boolean &target)
{
boolean rv = target;
target = true;
return rv;
}
Swap
void Swap (boolean &a, boolean &b)
{
187
boolean temp = a;
a = b;
b = temp;
}
19. What is a semaphore?
Answer:
A semaphore 'S' is a synchronization tool which is an integer value that,
apart from initialization, is accessed only through two standard atomic
operations; wait and signal .Semaphores can be used to deal with the n-
process critical section problem. It can be also used to solve various
Synchronization problems.
20. Define busy waiting and spinlock.
Answer:
When a process is in its critical section, any other process that tries to enter
its critical section must loop continuously in the entry code. This is called as
busy waiting and this type of semaphore is also called a spinlock, because
the process while waiting for the lock.
21. Provide two programming examples of multithreading giving
improved performance over a single-threaded solution.
Answer:
(1) A Web server that services each request in a separate thread.
(2) A parallelized application such as matrix multiplication where different
parts of the matrix may be worked on in parallel.
(3) An interactive GUI program such as a debugger where a thread is used to
monitor user input, another thread represents the running application, and a
third thread monitors performance.
188
22. What are two differences between user-level threads and kernel-
level threads? Under what circumstances is one type better than the
other?
Answer:
(1) User-level threads are unknown by the kernel, whereas the kernel is
aware of kernel threads.
(2) User threads are scheduled by the thread library and the kernel schedules
kernel threads.
(3) Kernel threads need not be associated with a process whereas every user
thread belongs to a process.
23. Define the difference between preemptive and nonpreemptive
scheduling. State why strict nonpreemptive scheduling is unlikely to be
used in a computer center.
Answer: Preemptive scheduling allows a process to be interrupted in the
midst of its execution, taking the CPU away and allocating it to another
process. Nonpreemptive scheduling ensures that a process relinquishes
control of the CPU only when it finishes with its current CPU burst.

189
16 MARKS

1. Consider the following set of processes, with the length of the CPU-
burst time given in milliseconds:
Process Burst Time Priority
P1 10 3
P2 1 1
P3 2 3
P4 1 4
P5 5 2
The processes are assumed to have arrived in the order P1, P2, P3, P4,
P5, all at time 0.
a. Draw four Gantt charts illustrating the execution of these processes
using FCFS, SJF, a nonpreemptive priority (a smaller priority number
implies a higher priority), and RR (quantum = 1) scheduling.
b. What is the turnaround time of each process for each of the
scheduling algorithms in part a?
c. What is the waiting time of each process for each of the scheduling
algorithms in part a?
d. Which of the schedules in part a results in the minimal average
waiting time (over all processes)?
Answer:
190

2. Suppose that the following processes arrive for execution at the times
indicated. Each process will run the listed amount of time. In answering
the questions, use nonpreemptive scheduling and base all decisions on
the information you have at the time the decision must be made.
Process Arrival Time Burst Time
P1 0.0 8
P2 0.4 4
191
P3 1.0 1
a. What is the average turnaround time for these processes with the
FCFS scheduling algorithm?
b. What is the average turnaround time for these processes with the SJF
scheduling algorithm?
c. The SJF algorithm is supposed to improve performance, but notice
that we chose to run process P1 at time 0 because we did not know that
two shorter processes would arrive soon. Compute what the average
turnaround time will be if the CPU is left idle for the first 1 unit and
then SJF scheduling is used. Remember that processes P1 and P2 are
waiting during this idle time, so their waiting time may increase. This
algorithm could be known as future-knowledge scheduling.
Answer:
a. 10.53
b. 9.53
c. 6.86
Remember that turnaround time is finishing time minus arrival time, so you
have to subtract the arrival times to compute the turnaround times. FCFS is
11 if you forget to subtract arrival time.
3. What are the multithreading models?
Answer:
There are three common types of threading implementations.
Many-to-One model
The many-to-one model maps many user-level threads to one kernel thread.
Thread management is done in user space. One thread can access the kernel
at a time. Green threads a thread library available for Solaris 2.
One-to-One model
192
It maps each user thread to a kernel thread. It provides more concurrency
than the many-to-one model. It allows multiple threads to run in parallel on
multiprocessors.
Drawback is creating a user thread requires creating the corresponding
kernel thread.
Windows NT, Windows 2000, and OS/2 implement the one-to-one model.
Many-to-Many model
It multiplexes many user-level threads to a smaller or equal number of
kernel threads.
It allows the developer to create as many user threads as possible.
The shortcomings of this model are
1. Developers can create as many user threads as necessary, and the
corresponding kernel threads can run in parallel on a multiprocessor.
2. When a thread performs a blocking system call, the kernel can schedule
another thread for execution.
Solaris 2, IRIX, HP-UX, and Tru64 UNIX support this model.
4. Explain about threading issues?
Answer:
The fork and exec system calls
In a multithreaded program of some UNIX systems have chosen to have two
versions of fork, one that duplicates all threads and another that duplicates
only the thread that invoked the fork system call. If a thread invokes the exec
system call, the program specified in the parameter to exec will replace the
entire process.
Cancellation
193
Thread cancellation is the task of terminating a thread before it has
completed. A thread that is to be cancelled is often referred to as the target
thread. Cancellation of a target thread may occur in two scenarios.
1. Asynchronous cancellation: One thread immediately terminates the target
thread.
2. Deferred cancellation: The target thread can periodically check if it should
terminate.
Signal handling
A signal is used in UNIX systems to notify a process that a particular event
has occurred.
1. A signal is generated by the occurrence of a particular event.
2. A generated signal is delivered to a process.
3. Once delivered, the signal must be handled.
Every signal may be handled by one of two possible handlers
1. A default signal handler.
2. A user-defined signal handler.
Every signal has a default signal handler that is run by the kernel when
handling the signal. This default action may be overridden by user-defined
signal handler function.
Delivering signals is more complicated in multithreaded programs, as a
process may have several threads. In general the following options exist
1. Deliver the signal to the thread to which the signal applies.
2. Deliver the signal to every thread in the process.
3. Deliver the signal to certain threads in the process.
4. Assign a specific thread to receive all signals for the process.
194
Solaris 2 implements the fourth option. Although Windows 2000 does not
explicitly provide support for signals, they can be emulated using
asynchronous procedure calls
(APCs). The APC facility allows a user thread to specify a function that is to
be called when the user thread receives notification of a particular event.
Thread pools
Creating a separate thread is superior to create a separate process.
Multithreaded server has potential problems.
a) The amount of time required to create the thread prior to serving the
request.
b) If we allow all concurrent requests to be serviced in a new thread, we
have not placed a bound on the number of threads concurrently active in the
system.
Unlimited threads could exhaust system resources, such as CPU time or
memory. One solution to this issue is to use thread pools.
The benefits of thread pools are
1. It is usually faster to service a request with an existing thread than waiting
to create a thread.
2. A thread pool limits the number of threads that exists at any one point.
Thread-specific data
Threads belonging to a process share the data of the process. Indeed, this
sharing of data provides one of the benefits of multithreaded programming.
However, each thread might need its own copy of certain data in some
circumstances. We will call such data thread-specific data.

195
5. Briefly discuss on realtime scheduling?
Answer:
It is divided into two types.
Hard real-time systems are required to complete a critical task within a
guaranteed amount of time. The scheduler then either admits the process,
guaranteeing that the process will complete on time, or rejects the request as
impossible.
This is known as resource reservation. Therefore, hard real-time systems are
composed of special-purpose software running on hardware dedicated to
their critical process.
Software real-time computing is less restrictive. It requires that critical
processes receive priority over less fortune ones.
There are several ways to achieve preemptible to keep dispatch latency low.
One is to insert preemption points in long-duration system calls that check to
see whether a high priority process needs to run. Another method for dealing
with preemption is to make the entire kernel preemptible.
In real-time scheduling, the high-priority process would be waiting for a
lower priority one to finish. This situation is known as priority inversion. A
chain of processes could all be accessing resources that the high-process
needs. This problem can be solved vial the priority-inheritance protocol, in
which all these processes inherit the high priority until they are done with
the resource in question.
The conflict phase of dispatch latency has two components
1. Preemption of any process running in the kernel.
2. Release by low-priority processes resources needed by the high-priority
process.

196
6. Explain multilevel feedback queue in detail
Answer:
A process can move between the various queues; aging can be
implemented this way
Multilevel-feedback-queue scheduler defined by the following
parameters:
number of queues
scheduling algorithms for each queue
method used to determine when to upgrade a process
method used to determine when to demote a process
method used to determine which queue a process will enter
when that process needs service
EXAMPLE:
Three queues:
Q0 RR with time quantum 8 milliseconds
Q1 RR time quantum 16 milliseconds
Q2 FCFS
Scheduling
A new job enters queue Q0 which is served FCFS. When it
gains CPU, job receives 8 milliseconds. If it does not finish in
8 milliseconds, job is moved to queue Q1.
At Q1 job is again served FCFS and receives 16 additional
milliseconds. If it still does not complete, it is preempted and
moved to queue Q2.
197
7. State the dining philosophers problem and show how to allocate the
several resources among several processors in a deadlock and starvation
free manner.
Answer: Also refer book for theory

goal: to allocate several resources among several processes in a
deadlock- and starvation-free manner
Shared data
Bowl of rice (data set)
Semaphore chopstick [5] initialized to 1

allow at most four philosophers to be sitting simultaneously at the
table
o a spare resource
allow a philosopher to pick up chopsticks only if both are available,
and pick up them simultaneously
198
use a asymmetric solution: an odd philosopher picks up first the left
chopstick and then the right chopstick, whereas an even one picks up
first the right and then the left
a deadlock-free solution does not eliminate the possibility of
starvation
The structure of Philosopher i:

while (true) {
wait ( chopstick[i] );
wait ( chopstick[ (i + 1) % 5] );

// eat

signal ( chopstick[i] );
signal (chopstick[ (i + 1) % 5] );

// think

}

Solution to DINING philosopher problem
monitor DP
{
enum { THINKING; HUNGRY, EATING) state [5] ;
condition self [5];

void pickup (int i) {
199
state[i] = HUNGRY;
test(i);
if (state[i] != EATING) self [i].wait;
}

void test (int i) {
if ( (state[(i + 4) % 5] != EATING) &&
(state[i] == HUNGRY) &&
(state[(i + 1) % 5] != EATING) ) {
state[i] = EATING ;
self[i].signal () ;
}
}
void putdown (int i) {
state[i] = THINKING;
// test left and right neighbors
test((i + 4) % 5);
test((i + 1) % 5);
}

initialization_code() {
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
state[i] = THINKING;
}
}
Each philosopher I invokes the operations pickup()
and putdown() in the following sequence:
200

dp.pickup (i)

EAT

dp.putdown (i)

8. State critical section problem? Discuss three solutions to solve the
critical section problem.
Answer:
C-S Problem:-
n processes all competing to use some shared data
each process has a code segment, called critical section, in which the
shared data is accessed
problem ensure that when one process is executing in its critical
section, no other process is allowed to execute in its critical section
Solution to the C-S problem
1. Mutual Exclusion No two processes eat simultaneously
2. Progress - If no process eats forever, and some process is hungry,
then some (potententially different) hungry process eventually eats.
3. Bounded Waiting - A bound exists on the number of times that other
processes are allowed to eat after a process P becomes hungry and before
process P eats.
Assume that each process executes at a nonzero speed
No assumption concerning relative speed of the N processes
201

9. Describe an algorithm which satisfies all the conditions of critical
section problem and also prove how it satisfies all the conditions.
Answer:
while (true) {
flag[i] = TRUE;
turn = j;
while ( flag[j] && turn == j);

CRITICAL SECTION

flag[i] = FALSE;

REMAINDER SECTION

}
The two processes share two variables:
o int turn;
o Boolean flag[2]
The variable turn indicates whose turn it is to enter the critical section.
The flag array is used to indicate if a process is ready to enter the
critical section. Flag[i] = true implies that process Pi is ready!
Claim: Mutual exclusion is preserved
o Proof:
1. Assume Pi and Pj in CS at the same time
2. flag[i] & flag[j] == True
(I) flag[j] & turn == j False turn = i
202
(II) flag[i] & turn == i False turn = j
3. turn cannot be i and j at the same time

Claim: Progress is met.
Proof:
Pi stuck at flag[j] == true & turn == j while loop
(case 1) Pj is not ready to enter
flag[j] == false Pi can enter
(case 2) Pj is ready to enter
Pj : set flag[j] to true and at its while
Observation: turn == i XOR turn == j
(case 2.1) turn == i Pi will enter
(case 2.2) turn == j Pj will enter
(case 2.2.1) Pj leaves CS; sets flag[j] to false Pi
enters
(case 2.2.2) Pj leaves CS; sets flag[j] to true ;
then sets turn to i Pi enters
(Pi at while cannot change turn)

Pi (Pj) will enter the CS (progress) after at most one entry by Pj (Pi)
(bounded waiting)
10. What is critical section problem and explain two process solutions
and multiple process solutions?
Answer:
Critical section problem definition
Two process solutions
Algorithm 1, 2 & 3
203
Multiple-process solution with algorithm
11. Explain what semaphores are, their usage, implementation given to
avoid busy waiting and binary semaphores.
Answer:
Semaphore definition
Usage for mutual exclusion and process synchronization
Implementation to avoid spinlock using block and wakeup
Binary semaphores
12. Write about critical regions and monitors.
Answer:
Critical region definition
Implementation of the conditional-region construct
Monitor definition
Syntax of monitor
Schematic view of monitors
Monitor with condition variables
Monitor solution to dining-philosopher problem

204
UNIT 3 DEADLOCK AND MEMORY MANAGEMENT
2 MARKS

1. Define deadlock.
Answer: A process requests resources; if the resources are not available at
that time, the process enters a wait state. Waiting processes may never again
change state, because the resources they have requested are held by other
waiting processes. This situation is called a deadlock.
2. What is the sequence in which resources may be utilized?
Answer: Under normal mode of operation, a process may utilize a resource
in the following sequence:
Request: If the request cannot be granted immediately, then the requesting
process must wait until it can acquire the resource.
Use: The process can operate on the resource.
Release: The process releases the resource.
3. What are conditions under which a deadlock situation may arise?
Answer: A deadlock situation can arise if the following four conditions
hold simultaneously in a system:
a. Mutual exclusion
b. Hold and wait
c. No pre-emption
4. What is a resource-allocation graph?
Answer: Deadlocks can be described more precisely in terms of a directed
graph called a system resource allocation graph. This graph consists of a set
of vertices V and a set of edges E. The set of vertices V is partitioned into
two different types of nodes; P the set consisting of all active processes in
the system and R the set consisting of all resource types in the system.
205
5. Define request edge and assignment edge.
Answer: A directed edge from process Pi to resource type Rj is denoted by
Pi->j; it signifies that process Pi requested an instance of resource type Rj
and is currently waiting for that resource. A directed edge from resource
type Rj to process Pi is denoted by Rj->Pi, it signifies that an instance of
resource type has been allocated to a process Pi. A directed edge Pi->Rj is
called a request edge. A directed edge R->Pi is called an assignment edge.
6. What are the methods for handling deadlocks?
Answer: The deadlock problem can be dealt with in one of the three ways:
a. Use a protocol to prevent or avoid deadlocks, ensuring that the system will
never enter a deadlock state.
b. Allow the system to enter the deadlock state, detect it and then recover.
c. Ignore the problem all together, and pretend that deadlocks never occur in
the system.
7. Define deadlock prevention.
Answer: Deadlock prevention is a set of methods for ensuring that at least
one of the four necessary conditions like mutual exclusion, hold and wait, no
preemption and circular wait cannot hold. By ensuring that that at least one
of these conditions cannot hold, the occurrence of a deadlock can be
prevented.
8. Define deadlock avoidance.
Answer: An alternative method for avoiding deadlocks is to require
additional information about how resources are to be requested. Each request
requires the system consider the resources currently available, the resources
currently allocated to each process, and the future requests and releases of
each process, to decide whether the could be satisfied or must wait to avoid
a possible future deadlock.
206
9. What are a safe state and an unsafe state?
Answer: A state is safe if the system can allocate resources to each process
in some order and still avoid a deadlock. A system is in safe state only if
there exists a safe sequence. A sequence of processes <P1,P2,....Pn> is a safe
sequence for the current allocation state if, for each Pi, the resource that Pi
can still request can be satisfied by the current available resource plus the
resource held by all the Pj, with j<i. if no such sequence exists, then the
system state is said to be unsafe.
10. What is bankers algorithm?
Answer: Bankers algorithm is a deadlock avoidance algorithm that is
applicable to a resource-allocation system with multiple instances of each
resource type. The two algorithms used for its implementation are:
a. Safety algorithm: The algorithm for finding out whether or not a system is
in a safe state.
b. Resource-request algorithm: if the resulting resource allocation is safe,
the transaction is completed and process Pi is allocated its resources. If the
new state is unsafe Pi must wait and the old resource-allocation state is
restored.
11. Define logical address and physical address.
Answer: An address generated by the CPU is referred as logical address.
An address seen by the memory unit that is the one loaded into the memory
address register of the memory is commonly referred to as physical address.
12. What is logical address space and physical address space?
Answer: The set of all logical addresses generated by a program is called a
logical address space; the set of all physical addresses corresponding to these
logical addresses is a physical address space.
13. What is the main function of the memory-management unit?
207
Answer: The runtime mapping from virtual to physical addresses is done
by a hardware device called a memory management unit (MMU).
14. Define dynamic loading.
Answer: To obtain better memory-space utilization dynamic loading is
used. With dynamic loading, a routine is not loaded until it is called. All
routines are kept on disk in a relocatable load format. The main program is
loaded into memory and executed. If the routine needs another routine, the
calling routine checks whether the routine has been loaded. If not, the
relocatable linking loader is called to load the desired program into memory.
15. Define dynamic linking.
Answer: Dynamic linking is similar to dynamic loading, rather that loading
being postponed until execution time, linking is postponed. This feature is
usually used with system libraries, such as language subroutine libraries. A
stub is included in the image for each library-routine reference. The stub is a
small piece of code that indicates how to locate the appropriate memory-
resident library routine, or how to load the library if the routine is not
already present.
16. What are overlays?
Answer: To enable a process to be larger than the amount of memory
allocated to it, overlays are used. The idea of overlays is to keep in memory
only those instructions and data that are needed at a given time.
When other instructions are needed, they are loaded into space occupied
previously by instructions that are no longer needed.
17. Define swapping.
Answer: A process needs to be in memory to be executed. However a
process can be swapped temporarily out of memory to a backing store and
208
then brought back into memory for continued execution. This process is
called swapping.
18. What are the common strategies to select a free hole from a set of
available holes?
Answer: The most common strategies are
a. First fit
b. Best fit
c. Worst fit
19. What do you mean by best fit?
Answer: Best fit allocates the smallest hole that is big enough. The entire
list has to be searched, unless it is sorted by size. This strategy produces the
smallest leftover hole.
20. What do you mean by first fit?
Answer:
First fit allocates the first hole that is big enough .Searching can either start
at the beginning of the set of holes or where the previous first-fit search
ended. Searching can be stopped as soon as a free hole that is big enough is
found.
21. List three examples of deadlocks that are not related to a computer-
system environment.
Answer:
_ Two cars crossing a single-lane bridge from opposite directions.
_ A person going down a ladder while another person is climbing up the
ladder.
_ Two trains traveling toward each other on the same track.

209

16 MARKS
1. Consider the following resource-allocation policy. Requests and
releases for resources are allowed at any time. If a request for resources
cannot be satisfied because the resources are not available, then we
check any processes that are blocked, waiting for resources. If they have
the desired resources, then these resources are taken away from them
and are given to the requesting process. The vector of resources for
which the waiting process is waiting is increased to include the
resources that were taken away.
For example, consider a system with three resource types and the vector
Available initialized to (4,2,2). If process P0 asks for (2,2,1), it gets them.
If P1 asks for (1,0,1), it gets them. Then, if P0 asks for (0,0,1), it is
blocked (resource not available). If P2 now asks for (2,0,0), it gets the
available one (1,0,0) and one that was allocated to P0 (since P0 is
blocked).
P0s Allocation vector goes down to (1,2,1), and its Need vector goes up
to (1,0,1).
a. Can deadlock occur? If so, give an example. If not, which necessary
condition cannot occur?
b. Can indefinite blocking occur?
Answer:
a. Deadlock cannot occur because preemption exists.
b. Yes. A process may never acquire all the resources it needs if they are
continuously preempted by a series of requests such as those of process C.
2. Explain the difference between internal and external fragmentation.
Answer:
210
Internal Fragmentation is the area in a region or a page that is not used by
the job occupying that region or page. This space is unavailable for use by
the system until that job is finished and the page or region is released.
3. Describe the following allocation algorithms:
a. First fit
b. Best fit
c. Worst fit
Answer:
a. First-fit: search the list of available memory and allocate the first block
that is big enough.
b. Best-fit: search the entire list of available memory and allocate the
smallest block that is big enough.
c. Worst-fit: search the entire list of available memory and allocate the
largest block.
(The justification for this scheme is that the leftover block produced would
be larger and potentially more useful than that produced by the best-fit
approach.)
4. Given memory partitions of 100K, 500K, 200K, 300K, and 600K (in
order), how would each of the First-fit, Best-fit, and Worst-fit
algorithms place processes of 212K, 417K, 112K, and 426K (in order)?
Which algorithm makes the most efficient use of memory?
Answer:
a. First-fit:
b. 212K is put in 500K partition
c. 417K is put in 600K partition
d. 112K is put in 288K partition (new partition 288K = 500K - 212K)
e. 426K must wait
211
f. Best-fit:
g. 212K is put in 300K partition
h. 417K is put in 500K partition
i. 112K is put in 200K partition
j. 426K is put in 600K partition
k. Worst-fit:
l. 212K is put in 600K partition
m. 417K is put in 500K partition
n. 112K is put in 388K partition
o. 426K must wait
In this example, Best-fit turns out to be the best.
5. Consider a paging system with the page table stored in memory.
a. If a memory reference takes 200 nanoseconds, how long does a paged
memory reference take?
b. If we add associative registers, and 75 percent of all page-table
references are found in the associative registers, what is the effective
memory reference time? (Assume that finding a page-table entry in the
associative registers takes zero time, if the entry is there.)
Answer:
a. 400 nanoseconds; 200 nanoseconds to access the page table and 200
nanoseconds to access the word in memory.
b. Effective access time = 0.75 _ (200 nanoseconds) + 0.25 _ (400
nanoseconds) = 250 nanoseconds.
6. Why are segmentation and paging sometimes combined into one
scheme?
Answer: Segmentation and paging are often combined in order to improve
upon each other. Segmented paging is helpful when the page table becomes
212
very large. A large contiguous section of the page table that is unused can be
collapsed into a single segment table entry with a page-table address of zero.
Paged segmentation handles the case of having very long segments that
require a lot of time for allocation. By paging the segments, we reduce
wasted memory due to external fragmentation as well as simplify the
allocation.
7. Consider the following segment table:
Segment Base Length
0 219 600
1 2300 14
2 90 100
3 1327 580
4 1952 96
What are the physical addresses for the following logical addresses?
a. 0,430
b. 1,10
c. 2,500
d. 3,400
e. 4,112
Answer:
a. 219 + 430 = 649
b. 2300 + 10 = 2310
c. illegal reference, trap to operating system
d. 1327 + 400 = 1727
e. illegal reference, trap to operating system
8. Explain about deadlock prevention?
213
Answer: In order for the occurrence of deadlock, the four conditions such as
mutual exclusion, hold and wait, no preemption and circular wait must
occur. By ensuring that one of these conditions cannot hold, we can prevent
the occurrence of deadlock.
Mutual exclusion
It must hold for non-sharable resources. For example a printer cannot be
simultaneously shared by several processes. Sharable resources do not
require mutually exclusive access, and thus cannot be involved in deadlock.
Read-only files are a good example of a sharable resource.
Hold and wait
To ensure that hold and wait condition never occurs in the system, we must
guarantee that, whenever a process requests a resource, it does not hold any
other resources. The protocols used are
1. Each process is to be request and be allocated all its resources before it
begins execution.
2. Allows a process to request some resources only when the process has
none (no other resources).
Example: A process copies data from a tape drive to a disk file, sorts the
disk file and then prints the result.
These protocols have two main disadvantages.
1. Resource utilization may be low, since many of the resources may be
allocated but unused for a long period.
2. Starvation (need) is possible. A process that needs several popular
resources may have to wait indefinitely, because at least one of the resources
that it needs is always allocated to some other processes.
No preemption
214
There is no preemption of resources that have already been allocated. The
protocols used are
1. 1. If a process is holding some resources and requests another resource
that cannot be immediately allocated to it, then all resources currently being
held are preempted. In other words, these resources are implicitly released.
The process will be restarted only when it can regain its old resources, as
well as the new one that it is requesting.
2. If a process requests some resources, we first check whether they are
available. If they are, we allocate them. If they are not available, we check
whether they are allocated to some other process that is waiting for
additional resources. If so, we preempt the desired resources from the
waiting process and allocate them to the requesting process. If both
conditions are not satisfied, the requesting process must wait.
Circular wait
One way to ensure that that this condition never holds is to impose a total
ordering of all resource types, and to require that each process requests
resources in an increasing ordering of enumeration. The protocols used to
prevent deadlock are
1. Each process can request resources only in an increasing order of
enumeration.
2. Whenever a process requests an instance of resource type Rj, it has
released any resources Ri such that F(Ri)>=F(Rj)
If these two protocols are used, then the circular-wait condition cannot hold.
The function F should be defined according to the normal order of usage of
the resources in a system.
9. Briefly discuss on Bankers algorithm?
215
Answer: The resource-allocation graph algorithm is not applicable to a
resource-allocation system with multiple instances for each resource type.
So we go for bankers algorithm but is less efficient that resource allocation
graph scheme.
When a new process enters it must declare the maximum number of
instances of each resource type that it may need. When a user request a set
of resources, the system must determine whether the allocation of these
resource will leave the system in a safe state. If it will the resources are
allocated; otherwise the process must wait until some other process releases
enough resources.
Let n be the number of processes in the system and m be the number of
resource type. The data structure is

Safety algorithm
This algorithm is for finding out whether or not a system is in a safe state.
216

10. Explain about deadlock detection?
Answer: In deadlock situation, the system must provide
An algorithm that examines the state of the system to determine
whether a deadlock has occurred.
An algorithm to recover from the deadlock.
Single instance of each resource type
If all resources have only a single instance, then we can define a deadlock
detection algorithm that uses a variant of the resource-allocation graph,
called a wait-for graph.
An edge from Pi to Pj in a wait-for graph implies that process Pi is waiting
for process Pj to release a resource that Pi needs. An edge Pi -> Pj exists in a
wait-for graph if and only if the corresponding resource-allocation graph
contain two edges Pi -> Rq and Rq -> Pj for some resource Rq.
A deadlock exists in the system if and only if the wait-for graph contains a
cycle.
Several instance of a resource
The algorithm for this employs several time-varying data structures. They
are
._Available: A vector of length m indicates the number of available
resources of each type.
217
._Allocation: A matrix defines the number of resources of each type
currently allocated to each process.
._Request: An n x m matrix indicates the current request of each process.
The algorithm is as follows

11. Explain about paging?
Answer: Paging is a memory-management scheme that permits the
physical-address space of process to be noncontiguous. Paging avoids the
considerable problem of fitting the varying-sized memory chunks onto the
backing store.
Recent designs have implement paging by closely integrating the hardware
and other operating system.
Basic method
Physical memory is broken into fixed-sized blocks called frames. Logical
memory is also broken into blocks of the same size called pages. When a
process is to be executed, its pages are loaded into any available memory
frames.
Every address generated by the CPU is divided into two parts: a page
number (p) and a page offset (d). The page number is used as an index into a
218
page table. The page table contains the base address of each page in physical
memory. This base address is combined with the page offset to define the
physical memory address that is sent to the memory unit.
The page size is defined by the hardware. The size of page is typically a
power of 2, varying between 512 bytes and 16 MB per page. The logical
address is as follows

m-n denotes the high order bits of a logical address. n low order bits.
Example
If pages are 2,048 bytes, a process of 72,766 bytes would need 35 pages plus
1,086 bytes.
Some CPUs and kernels even support multiple page sizes. For instance,
Solaris uses 8 KB and 4MB page sizes, depending on the data stored by the
pages.
The operating system is aware of the allocation details of physical memory:
which frames are allocated, which frames are available, how many total
frames there are and so on. This information is generally kept in a data
structure called a frame table.
If a user makes a system call and provides to produce the correct physical
address. The operating system maintains a copy of the page table for each
processes, just as it maintains a copy of instruction counter and register
contents. This copy is used to translate logical addresses to physical address.
Paging therefore increases the context-switch time.
Hardware support
219
The hardware implementation of the page table can be done in several ways.
The simplest case, the page table is implemented as a set of dedicated
registers. These registers should be built with very high-speed logic to make
the paging-address translation efficient.
The usage of registers for the page table is satisfactory if the page table is
reasonably small. Most computes must allow page table to be very large. For
these machines the page table is kept in main memory, and a page table base
register (PTBR) points to the page table. The problem with this approach is
the time required to access a user memory location.
A solution to this problem is to use a special, small, fast-lookup hardware
cache, called translation look-aside buffer (TLB). The TLB is associative,
high-speed memory. Each entry in the TLB consists of two parts: a key and
a value. The TLB contains a few of the page-table entries. When a logical
address is generated by the CPU, its page number is presented to the TLB. If
the page number is found, its frame number is immediately available and is
used to access memory.
If the page number is not in the TLB, a memory reference to the page table
must be made. When the frame number is obtained, we can use it to access
memory.
The percentage of times that a particular page number is found in the TLB is
called hit ratio. To find effective memory-access time, we must weight each
case by its probability.
Protection
Memory protection is accomplished by protection bits that area associated
with each frame. Normally, these bits are kept in the page table. One bit can
define a page to be read-or write or read only. One more bit is generally
attached to each entry in the page table: a valid-invalid bit. When the bit is
220
set to valid, this value indicates that the associated page is in the process
logical-address space, and is thus a legal page. If the bit is set to invalid,
this value indicates that the page is not the process logical-address space.
Some system provides hardware in the form of a page-table length register
(PTLR) to indicate the size of the page table.
12. Briefly discuss on the structure of page table?
Answer: 1. Hierarchical paging
One way is to use a two-level paging algorithm, in which the page table
itself is also paged. A logical address is divided into a page number and a
page offset. The page number is further divided into a 10-bit page number
and a 10 bit page offset. Thus a logical address is

The address translation method for this architecture works from the outer
page table inwards, this scheme is also known as forward-mapped page
table. The Pentium II uses this architecture.
2. Hashed page tables
A common approach for handling address spaces larger than 32 bits is to use
a hashed page table. Each entry in the hash table contains a linked list of
elements that hash to the same location.
Each element consist of three fields
a) The virtual page number
b) The value of the mapped page frame
c) A pointer to the next element in the linked list.
221
The algorithm works as follows: The virtual page number in the virtual
address is hashed into the hash table. The virtual page number is compared
to field (a) in the first element in the linked list.
If there is a match, the corresponding page frame is used to form the desired
physical address. If there is no match, subsequent entries in the linked list
are searched for a matching virtual page number.
A variation to this scheme that is favorable for 64-bit address spaces has
been proposed.
Clustered page tables are similar to hashed page tables except that each entry
in the hash table refers to several pages rather than single page.
3. Inverted page table
In page table the page table has one entry for each page that the process is
using. The operating system must translate this reference into a physical
memory address. One of the drawbacks of this method is that each page
table may consist of millions of entries.
To solve this problem, we can use an inverted page table. An inverted page
table has one entry for each real page of memory. Each entry consists of the
virtual address of the page stored in that real memory location; with
information about the process that owns that page.
Each virtual address in the system consists of a triple < process-id, page-
number, offset>
Each inverted page-table entry is a pair <process-id, page-number> where
the process-id assumes the role of the address-space identifier. Although this
scheme decreases the amount of memory needed to store each page table, it
increases the amount of time needed to search the table when a page
reference occurs.

222
13. Illustrate Bankers algorithm with example
Answer: Bankers Algorithm - Example

Given: 5 processes: p0, p1, p2, p3, p4
3 resource types: A, B, C
A has 10 instances
B has 5 instances
C has 7 instances

Total Resource Vector = TRV = [10, 5, 7]

Resource-Allocation State:
MAX -
Allocation =
Process Allocation MAX Available Need
ABC ABC ABC ABC
p0 0 1 0 7 5 3 3 3 2 7 4 3
p1 2 0 0 3 2 2 = [10, 5, 7] - [7, 2, 5] 1 2 2
p2 3 0 2 9 0 2 6 0 0
p3 2 1 1 2 2 2 0 1 1
p4 0 0 2 4 3 3 4 3 1
------
Total Alloc: 7 2 5

Show that this is a Safe State using the safety algorithm:
Initialization:
work = available = [3 3 2]
finish = 0 0 0 0 0
Notation: > means NOT <=

Search for a safe sequence:
p0: need0 = 7 4 3 > work = 3 3 2, doesnt work - try later, finish = 0 0 0 0 0
p1: need1 = 1 2 2 <= work = 3 3 2, finish = 0 1 0 0 0, work = 3 3 2 + 2 0 0 = 5 3 2
p2: need2 = 6 0 0 > work = 5 3 2, doesnt work - try later, finish = 0 1 0 0 0
p2: need2 = 6 0 0 <= work = 7 4 5, finish = 0 1 1 1 1, work = 7 4 5 + 3 0 2 = 10, 4, 7
p0: need0 = 7 4 3 <= work = 10,4,7 finish = 1 1 1 1 1, work = 10 4 7 + 0 1 0 = 10, 5, 7

State is Safe:
Sequence is <p1, p3, p4, p2, p0>
Solution is not unique:
Alternate Safe Sequence: <p1, p3, p4, p0, p2> ... reverse p0 and p2

223
14. Explain the basic concepts of segmentation.
Answer: User view of program
Segmentation definition
Hardware used with diagram-segment table, base, limit & offset
Protection and sharing with diagram
Fragmentation

224
UNIT 4 VIRTUAL MEMORY, FILE SYSTEM INTERFACE
2 MARKS

1. What is virtual memory?
Answer: Virtual memory is a technique that allows the execution of
processes that may not be completely in memory. It is the separation of user
logical memory from physical memory. This separation provides an
extremely large virtual memory, when only a smaller physical memory is
available.
2. What is Demand paging?
Answer: Virtual memory is commonly implemented by demand paging. In
demand paging, the pager brings only those necessary pages into memory
instead of swapping in a whole process. Thus it avoids reading into memory
pages that will not be used anyway, decreasing the swap time and the
amount of physical memory needed.
3. Define lazy swapper.
Answer: Rather than swapping the entire process into main memory, a lazy
swapper is used. A lazy swapper never swaps a page into memory unless
that page will be needed.
4. What is a pure demand paging?
Answer: When starting execution of a process with no pages in memory, the
operating system sets the instruction pointer to the first instruction of the
process, which is on a non-memory resident page, the process immediately
faults for the page. After this page is brought into memory, the process
continues to execute, faulting as necessary until every page that it needs is in
memory. At that point, it can execute with no more faults. This schema is
pure demand paging.
225
5. Define effective access time.
Answer: Let p be the probability of a page fault (0p1). The value of p is
expected to be close to 0; that is, there will be only a few page faults. The
effective access time is Effective access time = (1-p) * ma + p * page fault
time. ma : memory-access time
6. Define secondary memory.
Answer: This memory holds those pages that are not present in main
memory. The secondary memory is usually a high speed disk. It is known as
the swap device, and the section of the disk used for this purpose is known
as swap space.
7. What is the basic approach of page replacement?
Answer: If no frame is free is available, find one that is not currently being
used and free it. A frame can be freed by writing its contents to swap space,
and changing the page table to indicate that the page is no longer in memory.
Now the freed frame can be used to hold the page for which the process
faulted.
8. What are the various page replacement algorithms used for page
replacement?
Answer:
FIFO page replacement
Optimal page replacement
LRU page replacement
LRU approximation page replacement
Counting based page replacement
Page buffering algorithm.
9. What are the major problems to implement demand paging?
226
Answer: The two major problems to implement demand paging is
developing
a. Frame allocation algorithm
b. Page replacement algorithm
10. What is a reference string?
Answer: An algorithm is evaluated by running it on a particular string of
memory references and computing the number of page faults. The string of
memory reference is called a reference string.
11. What is a file?
Answer: A file is a named collection of related information that is recorded
on secondary storage. A file contains either programs or data. A file has
certain "structure" based on its type.
12. List the various file attributes.
Answer: A file has certain other attributes, which vary from one operating
system to another, but typically consist of these: Name, identifier, type,
location, size, protection, time, and date and user identification
13. What are the various file operations?
Answer:
The six basic file operations are
Creating a file
Writing a file
Reading a file
Repositioning within a file
Deleting a file
Truncating a file
14. What is the information associated with an open file?
227
Answer: Several pieces of information are associated with an open file
which may be:
File pointer
File open count
Disk location of the file
Access rights
15. What are the different accessing methods of a file?
Answer: The different types of accessing a file are:
Sequential access: Information in the file is accessed sequentially
Direct access: Information in the file can be accessed without any
particular order.
Other access methods: Creating index for the file, indexed sequential
access method (ISAM) etc.
16. What is Directory?
Answer: The device directory or simply known as directory records
information-such as name, location, size, and type for all files on that
particular partition. The directory can be viewed as a symbol table that
translates file names into their directory entries.
17. What are the operations that can be performed on a directory?
Answer: The operations that can be performed on a directory are
Search for a file
Create a file
Delete a file
Rename a file
List directory
Traverse the file system
228
18. What are the most common schemes for defining the logical
structure of a directory?
Answer: The most common schemes for defining the logical structure of a
directory
Single-Level Directory
Two-level Directory
Tree-Structured Directories
Acyclic-Graph Directories
General Graph Directory
19. Define UFD and MFD.
Answer: In the two-level directory structure, each user has her own user file
directory (UFD). Each UFD has a similar structure, but lists only the files of
a single user. When a job starts the system's master file directory (MFD) is
searched. The MFD is indexed by the user name or account number, and
each entry points to the UFD for that user.
20. What is a path name?
Answer:
A pathname is the path from the root through all subdirectories to a specified
file. In a two-level directory structure a user name and a file name define a
path name.

21. Under what circumstances do page faults occur? Describe the
actions taken by the operating system when a page fault occurs.
Answer: A page fault occurs when an access to a page that has not been
brought into main memory takes place. The operating system verifies the
memory access, aborting the program if it is invalid. If it is valid, a free
frame is located and I/O is requested to read the needed page into the free
229
frame. Upon completion of I/O, the process table and page table are updated
and the instruction is restarted.
22. Consider the following page-replacement algorithms. Rank these
algorithms on a five point scale from bad to perfect according to
their page-fault rate. Separate those algorithms that suffer from
Beladys anomaly from those that do not.
a. LRU replacement
b. FIFO replacement
c. Optimal replacement
d. Second-chance replacement
Answer:
Rank Algorithm Suffer from Beladys anomaly
1 Optimal - no
2 LRU - no
3 Second-chance - yes
4 FIFO - yes
23. What is a file?
Answer: A named collection of related data defined by the creator, recorded
on secondary storage.
24. List sample file types, based on use, on the VAX under VMS.
Answer:
_ source programs (.BAS, .FOR, .COB, .PLI, .PAS, .MAR)
_ data files (.DAT)
_ text files (.TXT)
_ command procedures (.COM)
_ mail files (.MAI)
_ compiler-listing files (.LIS, .LST)
230
_ object files (.OBJ)
_ executable image files (.EXE)
_ journal files (.JOU)
25. What is a sequential file?
Answer: A file that is read one record or block or parameter at a time in
order, based on a tape model of a file.
26. What is direct access?
Answer: A file in which any record or block can be read next. Usually the
blocks are fixed length.
27. How does user specify block to be fetched in direct access?
Answer: By specifying the relative block number, relative to first block in
file, which is block 0.
28. Can a direct access file be read sequentially? Explain.
Answer: Yes. Keep a counter, cp, initially set to 0. After reading record cp,
increment cp.
29. How can an index file be used to speed up the access in direct-access
files?
Answer: Have an index in memory; the index gives the key and the disk
location of its corresponding record. Scan the index to find the record you
want, and then access it directly.
30. Explain what ISAM is.
Answer: Indexed sequential access method. The file is stored in sorted
order. ISAM has a master index file, indicating in what part of another index
file the key you want is; the secondary index points to the file records. In
both cases, a binary search is used to locate a record.
31. List two types of system directories
Answer:
231
a. Device directory, describing physical properties of files.
b. File directory, giving logical properties of the files.
32. List operations to be performed on directories.
Answer: Search for a file, create a file, delete a file, list a directory, rename
a file, traverse the file system.
33. List disadvantages of using a single directory.
Answer: Users have no privacy. Users must be careful in choosing file
names, to avoid names used by others. Users may destroy each others work.
34. What is the MFD? UFD? How are they related?
Answer: MFD is master-file directory, which points to the UFDs. UFD is
user-file directory, which points to each of users files.
35. What advantages are there to this two-level directory?
Answer: Users are isolated from each other. Users have more freedom in
choosing file names.
36. What disadvantages are there to this two-level directory?
Answer: Without other provisions, two users who want to cooperate with
each other are hampered in reaching each others files, and system files are
inaccessible.
37. How do we overcome the disadvantages of the two-level directory?
Answer: Provide links from one user directory to another, creating path
names; system files become available by letting the command interpreter
search your directory first, and then the system directory if file needed is not
in first directory.
38. What is a file path name?
Answer: A list of the directories, subdirectories, and files we must traverse
to reach a file from the root directory.
39. What is an acyclic graph?
232
Answer: A tree that has been corrupted by links to other branches, but does
not have any cyclic paths in it.
40. List ways to share files between directories in operating systems.
Answer:
a. Copy file from one account into another.
b. Link directory entry of copied file to directory entry of original file.
c. Copy directory entry of file into account file is copied into.
41. What is a general graph?
Answer: A tree structure where links can go from one branch to a node
earlier in the same branch or other branch, allowing cycles.
42. What problems arise if the directory structure is a general graph?
Answer: Searching for a particular file may result in searching the same
directory many times. Deletion of the file may result in the reference count
to be nonzero even when no directories point to that file.

16 MARKS
1. Consider the following page reference string:
1, 2, 3, 4, 2, 1, 5, 6, 2, 1, 2, 3, 7, 6, 3, 2, 1, 2, 3, 6.
How many page faults would occur for the following replacement
algorithms, assuming one, two, three, four, five, six, or seven frames?
Remember all frames are initially empty, so your first unique pages will
all cost one fault each.
_ LRU replacement
_ FIFO replacement
_ Optimal replacement
Answer:
Number of frames LRU FIFO Optimal
233
1 20 20 20
2 18 18 15
3 15 16 11
4 10 14 8
5 8 10 7
6 7 10 7
7 7 7 7
2. A page-replacement algorithm should minimize the number of page
faults. We can do this minimization by distributing heavily used pages
evenly over all of memory, rather than having them compete for a small
number of page frames. We can associate with each page frame a
counter of the number of pages that are associated with that frame.
Then, to replace a page, we search for the page frame with the smallest
counter.
a. Define a page-replacement algorithm using this basic idea.
Specifically address the problems of
(1) What the initial value of the counters is,
(2) When counters are increased,
(3) When counters are decreased, and
(4) How the page to be replaced is selected.
b. How many page faults occur for your algorithm for the following
reference string, for four page frames?
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 3, 4, 1, 6, 7, 8, 7, 8, 9, 7, 8, 9, 5, 4, 5, 4, 2.
c. What is the minimum number of page faults for an optimal page-
replacement strategy for the reference string in part b with four page
frames?
Answer:
234
a. Define a page-replacement algorithm addressing the problems of:
i. Initial value of the counters0.
ii. Counters are increasedwhenever a new page is associated with
that frame.
iii. Counters are decreasedwhenever one of the pages associated
with that frame is no longer required.
iv. How the page to be replaced is selectedfinds a frame with the
smallest counter.
Use FIFO for breaking ties.
b. 14 page faults
c. 11 page faults
3. What is the cause of thrashing? How does the system detect
thrashing?
Once it detects thrashing, what can the system do to eliminate this problem?
Answer: Thrashing is caused by under allocation of the minimum number of
pages required by a process, forcing it to continuously page fault. The
system can detect thrashing by evaluating the level of CPU utilization as
compared to the level of multiprogramming.
It can be eliminated by reducing the level of multiprogramming.
4. Consider a system that supports 5000 users. Suppose that you want to
allow 4990 of these users to be able to access one file.
a. How would you specify this protection scheme in UNIX?
b. Could you suggest another protection scheme that can be used more
effectively for this purpose than the scheme provided by UNIX?
Answer:
a. There are two methods for achieving this:
i. Create an access control list with the names of all 4990 users.
235
ii. Put these 4990 users in one group and set the group access accordingly.
This scheme cannot always be implemented since user groups are restricted
by the system.
b. The universe access information applies to all users unless their name
appears in the access-control list with different access permission. With this
scheme you simply put the names of the remaining ten users in the access
control list but with no access privileges allowed.
5. Explain about directory structure?
Answer:
Some systems store millions of files on terabytes of disk. To manage all
these data, we need to organize them. This organization is usually done in
two parts. First, disks are split into one or more partitions, also known as
minidisks in the IBM world or volumes in the PC and Macintosh. Partitions
can be thought of as virtual disks. Partitions can also store multiple operating
systems, allowing a system to boot and run more than one.
Second, each partition contains information about files within it. This
information is kept in entries in a device directory or volume table of
contents. The device directory records information such as name, location,
size, and type- for all files on that partition.
The directory can be viewed as a symbol table that translates file names into
their directory entries.
Operations that are to be performed on a directory are
o Search for a file: We are able to find all files whose names match a
particular pattern.
o Create a file: New files need to be created and added to the
directory.
o Delete a file: We want to remove it from the directory.
236
o List a directory: List the files along with the content of the directory
entry.
o Rename a file: The name of the file is changed.
o Traverse the file system: We may wish to access every directory,
and every file within a directory structure.
Single-level Directory
All files are constrained in the same directory, which is easy to support and
understood. One limitation is when the number of files increases or when the
system has more than one user. We must use a unique name.
Two-level directory
In the two-level directory structure each user has own user file directory
(UFD). When a user jobs starts or a user logs in, the systems master file
directory (MFD) is searched. The MFD is indexed by user name or account
number, and each entry points to the UFD for the user.
Although the two-level directory structure solves the name-collision
problem, still have disadvantages. This structure isolates one user form
another. A two-level directory can be thought of as a tree, or at least an
inverted tree, of height 2.
A special case of file name situation occurs in regard to the system files such
as loaders, assemblers, compilers, utility routines, libraries and so on.
Copying all the system files would waste an enormous of space.
The standard solution is to complicate the search procedure slightly. A
special user directory is defined to contain the system files. Whenever a file
name is given to be loaded, the operating system first searches the local
UFD. IF the file is found it is used. If it is not found, the system
automatically searches the special user directory that contains the file system
237
files. The sequence of directories searched when a file is named is called the
search path.
Tree-structured directories
We can generalize the directory structure to a tree of arbitrary height. This
allows the user to create their own sub directories and to organize their files
accordingly. The tree has a root directory. Every file in the system has a
unique path name. A path name is the path from the root, through all the
subdirectories, to a specified file. Each user has a current directory. The
current directory should contain most of the files that are of current interest
to the user. To change directories, a system call is provided that takes a
directory name as a parameter and uses it to redefine the current directory.
Path name can be of two types: absolute path names or relative path names.
An absolute path name begins at the root and allows a path down to the
specified file, giving the directory name on the path. A relative path name
defines a path from the current directory.
If a directory is empty, its entry in its containing directory can simply be
deleted.
Thus to delete a directory, the user must first delete all the files in that
directory.
Another approach taken by the UNIX rm command is, when a request is
made to delete a directory, that entire directory s files and subdirectories are
also to be deleted. With a tree structure directory system, users can access, in
addition to their files, the files of other users.
A path to a file in a tree-structured directory can be longer than that in a two-
level directory. To allow users to access programs without having to
remember these long paths, the Macintosh operating system maintains a file
238
called the Desktop file, containing the name and location of all executable
programs.
Acyclic-graph directories
An acyclic graph allows directories to have shared subdirectories and files.
The same file or subdirectory may be in two different directories. A shared
file is not the same as two copies of the file. With the shared file, only one
actual file exists, so any changes made by one person are immediately
visible to other. Shared files and subdirectories can be implemented in
several ways. In UNIX shared files are implemented by create a new
directory entry called a link. A link is effectively a pointer to another file or
subdirectory.
Another common approach to implementing shared files is simply to
duplicate all information about them in both sharing directories.
Several problems are a file may now have multiple absolute path names.
Distinct file names may refer to the same file. To traverse the entire file
this problem becomes significant. Another problem involves deletion. When
can the space of shared file is reallocated and reused.
In some situation where link is used, the deletion of a link doses not need to
affect the original file. Another approach to deletion is to preserve the file
until all references to it are deleted. When a link or directory entry is deleted,
we remove its entry on the list. The file is deleted when its file-reference list
is empty.
The UNIX operating system uses this approach for non symbolic links (or
hard links), keeping a reference count in the file information block.
General graph directory
One serious problem with using an acyclic-graph structure is ensuring that
there are no cycles. When we add links to an existing tree-structured
239
directory, the tree structure is destroyed, resulting in a simple graph
structure.
If cycles are allowed to exist in the directory, we likewise want to avoid
searching any component twice, for reasons of correctness as well as
performance. When cycle exists, the reference count may be nonzero, even
when it is no longer possible to refer to a directory or file. This anomaly
results from the possibility of self-referencing in directory structure. In this
case we generally need to use a garbage collection. Garbage collection
involves traversing the entire file system marking everything that can be
accessed.
6. Explain the various page replacement strategies.
Answer:
Page replacement-basic scheme with diagram
Optimal page replacement
LRU page replacement
LRU approximation page replacement
Counting-based page replacement
Page buffering algorithm
7. What are files and explain the access methods for files?
Answer:
File definition
Attributes, operations and types
Sequential access with diagram
Direct access
Other access methods-index with diagram
8. Explain about demand paging?
240
Answer:
A demand paging system is similar to a paging system with swapping.
Processes reside on secondary memory. When we want to execute a process,
we swap it into memory.
Rather than swapping the entire processes into memory, we use a laze
swapper. A lazy swapper never swaps a page into memory unless that page
will be needed.
Basic concepts
When a process is to be swapped in, the pager guesses which pages will be
used before the process is swapped out again. Instead of swapping in a
whole process, the pager brings only those necessary pages into memory.
The valid-invalid bit scheme can be used to distinguish between pages that
are in memory and those pages that are on the disk. Access to a page marked
invalid causes a page-default trap. This trap is the result of the operating
systems failure to bring the desired page into memory.
The procedure for handling the page fault is as follows
1. We check the internal table to determine whether the reference was valid
or invalid.
2. If the reference was invalid, we terminate the process.
3. We find a free frame.
4. We schedule a disk operation to read the desired page into the newly
allocated frame.
5. When the disk read is complete, modify the internal table to indicate that
the page is now in memory.
6. We restart the instruction.
The hardware to support demand paging is as follows
241
o Page table: This table has the ability to mark an entry invalid though a
valid-invalid bit or special value of protection bit.
o Secondary memory: This memory holds those pages that are not present in
main memory. It is a high-speed disk. It is known as swap device, and the
section of disk used for this purpose is known as swap space.
The major difficulty occurs when one instruction may modify several
different locations.
This problem can be solved in two different ways.
In one solution, the microcode computes and attempts to access both ends of
both blocks. If a page fault going to occur, it will happen at this step before
anything is modified.
The other solution uses temporary registers to hold the values of overwritten
locations. If there is a page fault, all the old values are written back into
memory before the trap occurs.
A similar architectural problem occurs in machine that uses special
addressing modes, including auto decrement and auto increment. These
addressing modes use a register as a pointer and automatically decrement or
increment the register as indicated.
One solution is to create a new special status register to record the register
number and amount modified for any register that is changed during the
execution of an instruction.
Performance of demand paging
Demand paging can have a significant effect on the performance of a
computer system. As long as we have no page faults, the effective access
time is equal to the memory access time. The memory access time is denoted
by ma, now ranges from 10 to 200 nanoseconds.
242
Let p be the probability of page fault. We could expect p to be close to zero;
that is there will be only a few page faults. The effective access time is then
Effective access time = (1 p) * ma + p * page fault time.
A page fault causes the following sequence to occur.
1. Trap (shut in) to the operating system.
2. Save the process registers and process state.
3. Determine that the interrupt was a page fault.
4. Check that the page reference was legal and determine the location of the
page on the disk.
5. Issue a read from the disk to a free frame
6. While waiting, allocate the CPU to some other user.
7. Interrupt fro the disk.
8. Save the registers and process state for the other user.
9. Determine that the interrupt was from disk.
10. Correct the page table and other tables to show that the desired page is
now in memory.
11. Wait for the CPU to be allocated to this process again.
12. Restore the registers, process state, and new page table, then resume the
interrupted instruction.
We are faced with three major components of the page-fault service time.
1. Service the page-fault interrupts.
2. Read in the page.
3. Restart the processes.
If we take an average page-fault service time of 25 milliseconds and a
memory-access time of 100 nanoseconds, then the effective access time in
nanoseconds is
243

9. Explain the various file types and structures?
Answer:
A common technique for implementing file types is to include the type as
part of the file name. The name is split into two parts a name and an
extension, usually separated by a period character. The file with a .com,
.exe, or .bat extension can be executed. Assembler expects source files to
have an .asm extension.
The UNIX system uses a crude magic number stored at the beginning of
some files to indicate roughly the type of the file executable program ,
batch file (or shell script) , postscript file, and so on.
File structure
Certain files must conform to a required structure that is understood by the
operating system. The operating system may require that an executable file
have a specific structure so that it can determine where in memory to load
the file and what location of the first instruction is.
Some operating system imposes a minimal number of file structures. This
approach has been adopted in UNIX, MS-DOS and others. UNIX considers
each file to be a sequence of 8-bit bytes; no interpretation of these bits is
made by the operating system.
The Macintosh operating system supports minimal number of file structures.
It expects files to contain two parts: a resource fork and a data fork. The
resource fork contains information of interest to the user. Example it holds
the labels of any buttons displayed by the program. A foreign user may want
to modify these buttons. The data fork contains program code or data.
244
Internal file structure
All disk I/O is performed in units of one block, and all blocks are the same
size. It is unlikely that the physical record size will exactly match the length
of the desired logical record. Logical record may even vary in length.
Packing a number of logical records into physical blocks is a common
solution to this problem.
The logical record size, physical block size, and packing technique
determine how many logical records are in each physical block. Because
disk space is always allocated in blocks, some portion of the last block of
each file is generally wasted. The wasted byte allocated to keep everything
in units of blocks is internal fragmentation. All file system suffer from
internal fragmentation; the larger the block size, the greater the internal
fragmentation.
10. Discuss on LRU approximation page replacement?
Answer:
This algorithm uses reference bit. The reference bit is set by the hardware,
whenever that page is referenced.
1. Additional-reference-bits algorithm
We can keep an 8-bit byte for each page in a table in memory. The operating
system shifts the reference bits right 1 bit, discarding the low-order bit.
These 8 bits sift register contain the history of page used for last eight time
periods. A page with a history value of 11000100 has been used more
recently than has one with 01110111. The page with the lowest number is
the LRU page, and it can be replaced.
2. Second-Chance algorithm
When a page has been selected, we inspect its reference bit. If the value is 0,
we proceed to replace this page. If the reference bit is set to 1, however, we
245
give that page a second chance and move on to select the next FIFO page.
Thus pages that given the second chance will not be replaced until all other
pages are replaced. One way to implement the second-chance algorithm is as
a circular queue. A pointer indicates which page is replaced next. When a
frame is needed, the pointer advances until it finds a replaced next. Once a
victim page is found, the page is replaced, and the new page is inserted in
the circular queue in that position.
3. Enhanced second-chance algorithm.
When we enhance the second-chance algorithm by considering both the
reference bit and the modify bit as an order pair. We have the following four
possible classes.
a) (0,0) neither recently used nor modified best page to replace.
b) (0,1) not recently used but modified not quite as good.
c) (1,0) recently used but clean it probably will be used again soon.
d) (1,1) recently used and modified it probably will be used again soon,
and the page will be need to be written out to disk before it can be replaced.
This algorithm is used in the Macintosh virtual-memory-management
scheme.
11. Briefly discuss on page replacement?
Answer:
Page replacement approach is stated as follows. If no frame is free, we find
one that is not currently being used and free it. We can free a frame by
writing its contents to swap space, and changing the page table to indicate
that the page is no longer in memory. We now use the freed frame. We
modify the page-fault service routine
1. Find the location of the desired page on the disk.
2. Find a free frame:
246
a. If there is a free frame, use it
b. If there is no free frame, uses a page-replacement algorithm to select a
victim frame.
c. Write the victim page to the disk; change the page and frame tables
accordingly.
3. Read the desired page into the free frame; change the page and frame
tables.
4. Restart the user process.
If no frames are free, two page transfers are required. This situation
effectively doubles the page-fault service time and increase the effective
access time. We can reduce this overhead by using a modify bit ( or dirty
bit). The modify bit for a page is set by the hardware whenever any word or
byte in the page is written into indicating that the page has been modified.
If the bit is set, we know that the page has been modified since it was read in
from the disk.
In this case we must write that page to the disk. If the modify bit is not set,
however, the page has not been modified since it was read into memory.
Page replacement is basic to demand paging. It completes the separation
between logical memory and physical memory. With this mechanism, an
enormous virtual memory can be provided for programmers on a smaller
physical memory. With demand paging the size of the logical address space
is no longer constrained by physical memory.
We must solve two major problems to implement demand paging: we must
develop a frame-allocation algorithm and a page-replacement algorithm.
We evaluate an algorithm by running it on a particular string of memory
reference and computing the number of page faults. The string of memory
references is called a reference string.
247
A FIFO replacement algorithm associates with each page the time when that
page was brought into memory. When a page must be replaced, the oldest
page is chosen. We can create a FIFO queue to hold all pages in memory.
We replace the page at the head of the queue. Insert page at the last of the
queue.
The FIFO page-replacement algorithm is easy to understand and program.
However its performance is not always good. Even if we select for
replacement a page that is in active use, everything still works correctly.
After we page out an active page to bring in a new one, a fault occurs almost
immediately to retrieve the active page. Some other pages will be needed to
be replaced to bring the active page back into memory. Thus, a bad
replacement choice increases the page-fault rate and slows process
execution.
When plotting on a graph the page faults versus the number of available
frames. We notice that the number of faults for four frames is greater than
the number of faults for three frames. This most unexpected result is known
as Beladys anomaly. That is for some page replacement algorithm, the
page fault rate may increase as the number of allocated frames increases.

248

UNIT 5 FILE SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION, DISK SCHEDULING
2 MARKS

1. What are the various layers of a file system?
Answer:
The file system is composed of many different levels. Each level in the
design uses the feature of the lower levels to create new features for use by
higher levels.
Application programs
Logical file system
File-organization module
Basic file system
I/O control
Devices
2. What are the structures used in file-system implementation?
Answer:
Several on-disk and in-memory structures are used to implement a file
system
a. On-disk structure include
Boot control block
Partition block
Directory structure used to organize the files
File control block (FCB)
b. In-memory structure include
In-memory partition table
In-memory directory structure
249
System-wide open file table
Per-process open table
3. What are the functions of virtual file system (VFS)?
Answer:
a. It separates file-system-generic operations from their implementation
defining a clean VFS interface. It allows transparent access to different types
of file systems mounted locally.
b. VFS is based on a file representation structure, called a vnode. It contains
a numerical value for a network-wide unique file .The kernel maintains one
vnode structure for each active file or directory.
4. Define seek time and latency time.
Answer:
The time taken by the head to move to the appropriate cylinder or track is
called seek time. Once the head is at right track, it must wait until the desired
block rotates under the read-write head. This delay is latency time.
5. What are the allocation methods of a disk space?
Answer:
Methods of allocating disk space which are widely in use are
a. Contiguous allocation
b. Linked allocation
c. Indexed allocation
6. What are the advantages of Contiguous allocation?
Answer:
The advantages are
a. Supports direct access
b. Supports sequential access
c. Number of disk seeks is minimal.
250
7. What are the drawbacks of contiguous allocation of disk space?
Answer:
The disadvantages are
a. Suffers from external fragmentation
b. Suffers from internal fragmentation
c. Difficulty in finding space for a new file
d. File cannot be extended
e. Size of the file is to be declared in advance
8. What are the advantages of Linked allocation?
Answer:
The advantages are
a. No external fragmentation
b. Size of the file does not need to be declared
9. What are the disadvantages of linked allocation?
Answer:
The disadvantages are
a. Used only for sequential access of files.
b. Direct access is not supported
c. Memory space required for the pointers.
d. Reliability is compromised if the pointers are lost or damaged
10. What are the advantages of Indexed allocation?
Answer:
The advantages are
a. No external-fragmentation problem
b. Solves the size-declaration problems.
c. Supports direct access
251
11. How can the index blocks be implemented in the indexed allocation
scheme?
Answer:
The index block can be implemented as follows
a. Linked scheme
b. Multilevel scheme
c. Combined scheme
12. Define rotational latency and disk bandwidth.
Answer:
Rotational latency is the additional time waiting for the disk to rotate the
desired sector to the disk head. The disk bandwidth is the total number of
bytes transferred, divided by the time between the first request for service
and the completion of the last transfer.
13. How free-space is managed using bit vector implementation?
Answer:
The free-space list is implemented as a bit map or bit vector. Each block is
represented by 1 bit. If the block is free, the bit is 1; if the block is allocated,
the bit is 0.
14. Define buffering.
Answer:
A buffer is a memory area that stores data while they are transferred between
two devices or between a device and an application. Buffering is done for
three reasons
a. To cope with a speed mismatch between the producer and consumer of a
data stream
b. To adapt between devices that have different data transfer sizes
c. To support copy semantics for application I/O
252
15. Define caching.
Answer:
A cache is a region of fast memory that holds copies of data. Access to the
cached copy is more efficient than access to the original. Caching and
buffering are distinct functions, but sometimes a region of memory can be
used for both purposes.
16. Define spooling.
Answer:
A spool is a buffer that holds output for a device, such as printer, that cannot
accept interleaved data streams. When an application finishes printing, the
spooling system queues the corresponding spool file for output to the printer.
The spooling system copies the queued spool files to the printer one at a
time.
17. What are the various disk-scheduling algorithms?
Answer:
The various disk-scheduling algorithms are
a. First Come First Served Scheduling
b. Shortest Seek Time First Scheduling
c. SCAN Scheduling
d. C-SCAN Scheduling
f. LOOK scheduling
18. What is low-level formatting?
Answer:
Before a disk can store data, it must be divided into sectors that the disk
controller can read and write. This process is called low-level formatting or
physical formatting. Low-level formatting fills the disk with a special data
253
structure for each sector. The data structure for a sector consists of a header,
a data area, and a trailer.
19. What is the use of boot block?
Answer:
For a computer to start running when powered up or rebooted it needs to
have an initial program to run. This bootstrap program tends to be simple. It
finds the operating system on the disk loads that kernel into memory and
jumps to an initial address to begin the operating system execution. The full
bootstrap program is stored in a partition called the boot blocks, at fixed
location on the disk. A disk that has boot partition is called boot disk or
system disk.
20. What is sector sparing?
Answer:
Low-level formatting also sets aside spare sectors not visible to the operating
system. The controller can be told to replace each bad sector logically with
one of the spare sectors. This scheme is known as sector sparing or
forwarding.
21. List three ways of allocating storage, and give advantages of each.
Answer:
a. Contiguous allocation. Fastest, if no changes are to be made. Also easiest
for random access files.
b. Linked allocation. No external fragmentation. File can grow without
complications.
c. Indexed allocation. Supports direct access without external fragmentation.
22. What is contiguous allocation?
Answer: Allocation of a group of consecutive sectors for a single file.
23. What is preallocation? Why do it?
254
Answer: Allocating space for a file before creating the file to allow for
expansion. This reserves space for a particular file so that other files cant
grab it. The new file may initially use only a small portion of this space.
24. What is linked allocation, as detailed in text?
Answer: Directory contains pointers to first and last blocks of file. Each
block of file (except last) has pointer to the next block.
25. What is indexed allocation?
Answer: Each file has its own block of pointers to the sectors of the file.
26. Components of LINUX system?
Answer:

16 MARKS

1. Consider a file currently consisting of 100 blocks. Assume that the file
control block (and the index block, in the case of indexed allocation) is
already in memory. Calculate how many disk I/O operations are
required for contiguous, linked, and indexed (single-level) allocation
strategies, if, for one block, the following conditions hold. In the
contiguous allocation case, assume that there is no room to grow in the
255
beginning, but there is room to grow in the end. Assume that the block
information to be added is stored in memory.
a. The block is added at the beginning.
b. The block is added in the middle.
c. The block is added at the end.
d. The block is removed from the beginning.
e. The block is removed from the middle.
f. The block is removed from the end.
Answer:
Contiguous Linked Indexed
a. 201 1 1
b. 101 52 1
c. 1 3 1
d. 198 1 0
e. 98 52 0
f. 0 100 0
2. Suppose that a disk drive has 5000 cylinders, numbered 0 to 4999.
The drive is currently serving a request at cylinder 143, and the
previous request was at cylinder 125. The queue of pending requests, in
FIFO order, is 86, 1470, 913, 1774, 948, 1509, 1022, 1750, 130 Starting
from the current head position, what is the total distance (in cylinders)
that the disk arm moves to satisfy all the pending requests, for each of
the following disk scheduling algorithms?
a. FCFS
b. SSTF
c. SCAN
d. LOOK
256
e. C-SCAN
Answer:
a. The FCFS schedule is 143, 86, 1470, 913, 1774, 948, 1509, 1022, 1750,
130. The total seek distance is 7081.
b. The SSTF schedule is 143, 130, 86, 913, 948, 1022, 1470, 1509, 1750,
c. The SCAN schedule is 143, 913, 948, 1022, 1470, 1509, 1750, 1774,
4999, 130, 86. The total seek distance is 9769.
d. The LOOK schedule is 143, 913, 948, 1022, 1470, 1509, 1750, 1774, 130,
e. The C-SCAN schedule is 143, 913, 948, 1022, 1470, 1509, 1750, 1774,
f. (Bonus.) The C-LOOK schedule is 143, 913, 948, 1022, 1470, 1509, 1750,
3. Compare the performance of C-SCAN and SCAN scheduling,
assuming a uniform distribution of requests. Consider the average
response time (the time between the arrival of a request and the
completion of that requests service), the variation in response time, and
the effective bandwidth. How does performance depend on the relative
sizes of seek time and rotational latency?
Answer:
There is no simple analytical argument to answer the first part of this
question. It would make a good small simulation experiment for the
students. The answer can be found in Figure 2 of Worthington et al. [1994].
(Worthington et al. studied the LOOK algorithm, but similar results obtain
for SCAN. Figure 2 in Worthington et al. shows that C-LOOK has an
average response time just a few percent higher than LOOK but that C-
257
LOOK has a significantly lower variance in response time for medium and
heavy workloads. The intuitive reason for the difference in variance is that
LOOK (and SCAN) tends to favor requests near the middle cylinders,
whereas the C-versions do not have this imbalance. The intuitive reason for
the slower response time of C-LOOK is the circular seek from one end of
the disk to the farthest request at the other end. This seek satisfies no
requests.
It only causes a small performance degradation because the square-root
dependency of seek time on distance implies that a long seek isnt terribly
expensive by comparison with moderate length seeks.
For the second part of the question, we observe that these algorithms do not
schedule to improve rotational latency; therefore, as seek times decrease
relative to rotational latency, the performance differences between the
algorithms will decrease.
4. Is disk scheduling, other than FCFS scheduling, useful in a single-
user environment? Explain your answer.
Answer: In a single-user environment, the I/O queue usually is empty.
Requests generally arrive from a single process for one block or for a
sequence of consecutive blocks. In these cases, FCFS is an economical
method of disk scheduling. But LOOK is nearly as easy to program and will
give much better performance when multiple processes are performing
concurrent I/O, such as when a Web browser retrieves data in the
background while the operating system is paging and another application is
active in the foreground.
5. Explain why SSTF scheduling tends to favor middle cylinders over
the innermost and outermost cylinders.
258
Answer: The center of the disk is the location having the smallest average
distance to all other tracks. Thus the disk head tends to move away from the
edges of the disk. Here is another way to think of it. The current location of
the head divides the cylinders into two groups. If the head is not in the center
of the disk and a new request arrives, the new request is more likely to be in
the group that includes the center of the disk; thus, the head is more likely to
move in that direction.
6. Requests are not usually uniformly distributed. For example, a
cylinder containing the file system FAT or inodes can be expected to be
accessed more frequently than a cylinder that only contains files.
Suppose you know that 50 percent of the requests are for a small, fixed
number of cylinders.
a. Would any of the scheduling algorithms discussed in this chapter be
particularly good for this case? Explain your answer.
b. Propose a disk-scheduling algorithm that gives even better
performance by taking advantage of this hot spot on the disk.
c. File systems typically find data blocks via an indirection table, such as
a FAT in DOS or inodes in UNIX. Describe one or more ways to take
advantage of this indirection to improve the disk performance.
Answer:
a. SSTF would take greatest advantage of the situation. FCFS could cause
unnecessary head movement if references to the high-demand cylinders
were interspersed with references to cylinders far away.
b. Here are some ideas. Place the hot data near the middle of the disk.
Modify SSTF to prevent starvation. Add the policy that if the disk becomes
idle for more than, say, 50 ms, the operating system generates an
259
anticipatory seek to the hot region, since the next request is more likely to be
there.
c. Cache the metadata in primary memory, and locate a files data and
metadata in close physical proximity on the disk. (UNIX accomplishes the
latter goal by allocating data and metadata in regions called cylinder
groups.)
7. Why is rotational latency usually not considered in disk scheduling?
How would you modify SSTF, SCAN, and C-SCAN to include latency
optimization?
Answer: Most disks do not export their rotational position information to
the host. Even if they did, the time for this information to reach the
scheduler would be subject to imprecision and the time consumed by the
scheduler is variable, so the rotational position information would become
incorrect. Further, the disk requests are usually given in terms of logical
block numbers, and the mapping between logical blocks and physical
locations is very complex.
8. Explain about file system structure?
Answer:
File system structure have two characteristics they are
1. They can be rewritten in place.
2. They can access directly any given block of information on the disk.
To provide an efficient and convenient access to the disk, the operating
system imposes one or more file systems to allow the data to be stored,
located and retrieved easily.
A file system poses two quite different design problems. The first problem is
defining how the file system should look to the user. The second problem is
260
creating algorithms and data structures to map the logical file system onto
the physical secondary-storage devices.
The file system is composed of many different levels. The structure is
Application programs
Logical file system
File-organization module
Basic file system
I/O control
Devices
The lowest level, the I/O control consists of device drivers and interrupts
handlers to transfer information between the main memory and the disk
systems. A device driver can be thought of as a translator. Its input consists
of high-level commands such as retrieve block 123.
The basic file system needs only to issue generic commands to the
appropriate device driver to read and write physical blocks on the disk.
The file-organization module knows about files and their logical blocks, as
well as physical blocks. It also includes a free-space manager, which tracks
unallocated blocks and provides these blocks to the file-organization module
when requested.
The logical file system manages metadata information. Metadata includes
all of the file-system structure, excluding actual data. It maintains file
structure via file control blocks.
A file control block (FCB) contains information about the file, including
ownership, permission, and location of the file contents. The logical file
system is also responsible for protection and security.
261
Most operating systems support more than one file system. Windows NT
supports disk file-system formats of FAT, FAT32 and NTFS as well as CD-
ROM, DVD and floppy disk file system formats.
9. Briefly explain about file system implementation?
Answer:
Several on-disk and in-memory structures are used to implement a file
system. On disk, the file system may contain information about how to boot
an operating system stored there, the total number of blocks, the number and
the location of free blocks, the directory structure, and individual files.
The on-disk structures include
o A boot control block can contain the information needed by the system to
boot an operating from that partition. If the disk does not contain an
operating system, this block can be empty. It is typically the first block of a
partition. In UFS this is called boots block. In NTFS it is the partition boot
sector.
o A partition control block contains partitions details, such as the number of
blocks in the partition, size of the blocks, free-blocks and free-block pointers
and free FCB count and FCB pointers. In UFS this is called a super block.
In NTFS it is the Master File Table.
o A directory structure is used to organize the files.
o An FCB contains many of the file s details, including file permissions,
ownership, size, and location of the data blocks. In UFS this is called the
inode.
The in-memory information is used for both file-system management and
performance improvement via caching. The structure can include
o An in-memory partition table containing information about each mounted
partition.
262
o An in-memory directory structure that holds the directory information of
recently accessed directories.
o The system-wide open-file table contains a copy of the FCB of each open
file, as well as other information.
o The per-process open-file table contains a pointer to the appropriate entry
in the system wide open-file table as well as other information.
To create a new file, an application program calls the logical file system.
The logical file system knows the format of the directory structures. To
create a new file, it allocates a new FCB, reads the appropriate directory into
memory, and updates it with the new file name and FCB, and writes it back
to the disk. A typical file control block is as shown below

The open call passes a file name to the file system. Parts of the directory
structure are cached in memory to speed directory operations. Next an entry
is made in the per-process open-file table, with a pointer in the system-wide
open-file table and some other fields. The open call returns a pointer to the
appropriate entry in the per-process file system table. All the file operations
are performed via this pointer. The name given to the index varies. UNIX
system refers to it as a file descriptor. Windows 2000 refers to it as a file
handle.
When a process closes the file, the per-processes table entry is removed, and
the system-wide entrys open count is decremented.
263
Using the caching aspects, all information about the open file, except for its
actual data blocks is in memory.
Partitions and mounting
A disk can be sliced into multiple partitions, or a partition can span multiple
disks.
Each partition can be either raw, containing no file system, or cooked
containing a file system. Raw disk is used where no file system is
appropriate. Raw disk can also hold information needed by disk RAID
systems, such as bit maps indicating which blocks are mirrored and which
have changed and needed to be mirrored.
Boot information can be stored in a separate partition. It has its own format.
Execution of the image stars at a predefined location, such as the first byte.
This boot image contain more than the instructions for how to boot a specific
operating system. PCs and other systems can be dual-booted. Multiple
operating systems can be installed on such system.
The root partition, which contains the operating-system kernel and
potentially other system files, is mounted at boot time. In successful mount
operation, operating system verifies that the device contains a valid file
system. Finally the operating system notes in its in-memory mount table
structure that a file system is mounted, and the type of the file system.
On UNIX file systems can be mounted at any directory. This is implemented
by setting a flag in the in-memory copy of the inode for that directory.
Virtual file systems
The file-system implementation consists of three major layers. The first
layer is the file-system interface, based on the open, read, write and close
calls and file descriptors.
264
The second layer is called the Virtual File System (VFS). It serves two
important functions.
1. It separates file-system-generic operations from their implementation by
defining a clean VFS interface.
2. The VFS is based on a file-representation structure called a vnode, which
contains a numerical designator for a network-wide unique file. This
network-wide uniqueness is required for support of network file systems.
10. Explain about file allocation methods?
Answer:
The main problem in direct-access nature is how to allocate space to these
files so that disk space if utilized effectively and files can be accessed
quickly. Three major methods are used; they are contiguous, linked and
indexed.
Contiguous allocation
The contiguous-allocation method requires each file to occupy a set of
contiguous blocks of the disk. Disk addresses define a linear ordering on the
disk. Thus the number of disks seeds required for accessing contiguously
allocated files is minimal. The IBM VM/CMS operating system uses
contiguous allocation because it provides such good performance.
Contiguous allocation of a file is defined by the disk address and length of
the first block. The directory entry for each file indicates the address of the
starting block and the length of the area allocated for this file.
Contiguous allocation has some problems. One difficulty is finding space for
a new file. The contiguous disk-space-allocation problem can be seen to be a
particular application of the general dynamic storage-allocation problem.
First fit and best fit are the most common strategies used to select a free hole
from the set of available holes.
265
These algorithms suffer from the problem of external fragmentation.
Linked allocation
With linked allocation, each file is a linked list of disk blocks; the disk
blocks may be scattered anywhere on the disk. The directory contains a
pointer to the first and last blocks of the file.
Indexed allocation
Indexed allocation bringing all the pointers together into one location: the
index block. Each file has its own index block, which is an array of disk-
block addresses. The ith entry in the index block points to eh ith block of the
file. The directory contains the address of the index block.
11. Briefly discuss on I/O hardware?
Answer:
A controller is a collection of electronics that can operate a port, a bus, or a
device. A serial-port controller is a simple controller. It is a single chip in the
computer that controls the signals the signal on the wires of a serial port.
The device control registers are mapped into the address space of the
processor. The CPU executes i/o requests using the standard data transfer
instructions to read and write the device-control registers.
An I/O port consist of
a. Status register
b. Control register
c. Data-in register
d. Data-out register
Polling (also refer book)
Interrupts
The hardware mechanism that enables a device to notify the CPU is called
an interrupt. The basic interrupt mechanism works as follows. The CPU
266
hardware has a wire called the interrupt-request line that the CPU senses
after executing every instruction. When the CPU detects that a controller has
asserted a signal on the interrupt request line, the CPU saves a small amount
of state, such as the current value of instruction pointer, and jumps to the
interrupt-handler routine at a fixed address in memory.
Direct memory access
Many computers avoid burdening the main CPU with programmed I/O by
offloading sine if this work to a special-purpose processor called a direct
memory address controller.
12. Explain about disk scheduling with neat diagram? (Also refer book)
Answer:
FCFS Scheduling
SSTF scheduling
SCAN scheduling
C-SCAN scheduling
LOOK Scheduling
13. Discuss Disk management and swap space management?
Answer: REFER BOOK
14. The Linux scheduler implements soft real-time scheduling. What
features are missing that is necessary for some real-time programming
tasks? How might they be added to the kernel?
Answer:
Linuxs soft real-time scheduling provides ordering guarantees concerning
the priorities of runnable processes: real-time processes will always be given
a higher priority by the scheduler than normal time-sharing processes, and a
real-time process will never be interrupted by another process with a lower
real-time priority.
267
However, the Linux kernel does not support hard real-time functionality.
That is, when a process is executing a kernel service routine, that routine
will always execute to completion unless it yields control back to the
scheduler either explicitly or implicitly (by waiting for some asynchronous
event). There is no support for preemptive scheduling of kernel mode
processes. As a result, any kernel system call that runs for a significant
amount of time without rescheduling will block execution of any real-time
processes.
Many real-time applications require such hard real-time scheduling. In
particular, they often require guaranteed worst-case response times to
external events. To achieve these guarantees and to give user-mode real time
processes a true higher priority than kernel mode lower-priority processes, it
is necessary to find a way to avoid having to wait for low-priority kernel
calls to complete before scheduling a real-time process. For example, if a
device driver generates an interrupt that wakes up a high-priority real-time
process, then the kernel needs to be able to schedule that process as soon as
possible, even if some other process is already executing in kernel mode.
Such preemptive rescheduling of kernel-mode routines comes at a cost. If
the kernel cannot rely on non-preemption to ensure atomic updates of shared
data structures, then reads of or updates to those structures must be protected
by some other, finer-granularity locking mechanism. This fine-grained
locking of kernel resources is the main requirement for provision of tight
scheduling guarantees.
Many other kernel features could be added to support real-time
programming. Dead line based scheduling could be achieved by making
modifications to the scheduler. Prioritization of IO operations could be
implemented in the block-device IO request layer.
268
15. The Linux kernel does not allow paging out of kernel memory. What
effect does this restriction have on the kernels design? What are two
advantages and two disadvantages of this design decision?
Answer:
The primary impact of disallowing paging of kernel memory in Linux is that
the non-preemptability of the kernel is preserved. Any process taking a page
fault, whether in kernel or in user mode, risks is being rescheduled while the
required data is paged in from disk. Because the kernel can rely on not being
rescheduled during access to its primary data structures, locking
requirements to protect the integrity of those data structures are very greatly
simplified. Although design simplicity is a benefit in itself, it also provides
an important performance advantage on uni-processor machines due to the
fact that it is not necessary to do additional locking on most internal data
structures.
There are a number of disadvantages to the lack of pageable kernel memory,
however. First of all, it imposes constraints on the amount of memory that
the kernel can use. It is unreasonable to keep very large data structures in
non-pageable memory, since that represents physical memory that absolutely
cannot be used for anything else. This has two impacts: first of all, the kernel
must prune back many of its internal data structures manually, instead of
being able to rely on a single virtual memory mechanism to keep physical
memory usage under control. Second, it makes it infeasible to implement
certain features that require large amounts of virtual memory in the kernel,
such as the /tmpfilesystem (a fast virtual memory based file-system found on
some UNIX systems).
Note that the complexity of managing page faults while running kernel code
is not an issue here. The Linux kernel code is already able to deal with page
269
faults: it needs to be able to deal with system calls whose arguments
reference user memory which may be paged out to disk.

MODEL AND UNIVERSITY QUESTION PAPERS

MODEL QUESTION PAPER # 1
V SEMESTER
CS1252 OPERATING SYSTEMS

Time: Three Hours Maximum : 100 Marks
Answer All The Questions
PART A (10 x 2 = 20 Marks)
1. List the responsibilities of the operating system in connection with disk
management.
2. Differentiate between tightly coupled and loosely coupled system.
3. State what does a thread share with peer threads?
4. What is a context switching? Discuss
5. Define internal fragmentation.
6. What data type is a file?
7. List the four conditions for deadlock.
8. Discuss the terms: Logical address; Physical address.
9. In the context of disk scheduling define seek time.
10. In the context of disk reliability define mirroring.

PART B (5 x 16 = 80 Marks)

11.a) i) Explain how hardware protection can be achieved.(7)
ii) Explain long term, medium and short term scheduler. (6)
iii) What is a real time system? (3)
OR
11.b) i) Discuss in detail about inter process communication. (8)
ii) Explain how parameters can be passed to system calls. (8)

12.a) Discuss the critical section problem, solving the dining philosopher problem
using semaphores.
OR
270
12.b) Consider the following set of processes, with the length of the CPU-burst time
given in milliseconds

Process Burst Time Priority
P1 10 3
P2 1 1
P3 2 3
P4 1 4
P5 5 2

The processes are assumed to have arrived in the order P1, P2, P3, P4, and P5 all at time
0.
a. Draw four Gantt charts illustrating the execution of these processes using FCFS,
SJF, a nonpreemptive priority (a smaller priority number implies a higher
priority), and RR (quantum=1) scheduling.
b. What is the turnaround time of each process for teach of the scheduling
algorithms in part a?
c. What is the waiting time of each process for each of the scheduling algorithms in
part a?
d. Which of the schedules in part a results in the minimal average waiting time(over
all processes)?

13.a) Consider the following snapshot of a system. Execute Bankers algorithm
answer the following:
Allocation Max Available
P
0
001 001 152
P
1
100 175
P
2
135 235

P
3
063 065
P
4
001 065
Is the system in a safe state? If the system is safe, show how all the
process could
complete the execution successfully. Explain.
OR
13.b) Explain the difference between external fragmentation and internal
fragmentation? How to solve the fragmentation problem using paging?

14a) Explain the concept of demand paging in detail.
OR
14.b) Consider the following page reference string:
2, 3, 4, 5, 3, 2, 6, 7, 3, 2, 3, 4, 1, 7, 1, 4, 3, 2, 3, 4, 7
271
Calculate the number of page faults would occur for the following page
replacement algorithm with frame size of 3 and 5.
i) LRU ii) FIFO iii) Optimal

15 a) Explain the various allocation methods used in file systems.
OR
15.b) Explain the different disk scheduling algorithms with neat diagrams.


V SEMESTER


1. Classify real time systems.
2. Processes call the operating system with system call interrupt instructions. Why
cant processes make ordinary procedure calls to the operating systems?
3. What is meant by the context of a process?
4. Mention the methods for deadlock recovery in a system.
5. Consider the following set of processes, with the length of the CPU-burst time
and the arrival time given in milliseconds:
_____ ___________ __________
P1 0 75
P2 10 40
P3 10 25
P4 80 20
P5 85 45

a. Draw a Gantt chart illustrating the execution of these processes using
preemptive SJF scheduling algorithm.
6. What is the relationship between program locality and TLB hit rate?
7. What is pre-paging?
8. What is thrashing?
9. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of continuous allocation of files.
10. List the main components of a Linux system.
PART-B 5x16 = 80 marks
272
11. a)(i) List and discuss the various services provided by the operating
system.(8)
(ii) Write notes on Hardware protection. (8)
OR
11. b) i) In what ways is the modular kernel approach similar to the layered
approach? In what ways does it differ from the layered approach? (4)
ii) How do clustered systems differ from multiprocessor systems? What is
required for two machines belonging to a cluster to cooperate to provide a
highly available service?(4)
iii) Compare batch operating system and time sharing operating system. (8)

12. (a) (i)Describe the actions taken by a kernel to context switch
between kernel-level threads.
(6)
(ii) Consider the following snapshot of a system:
__________ ____ ________
A B C D A B C D A B C D
P0 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 2 1 5 2 0
P1 1 0 0 0 1 7 5 0
P2 1 3 5 4 2 3 5 6
P3 0 6 3 2 0 6 5 2
P4 0 0 1 4 0 6 5 6

Answer the following questions using the bankers algorithm.
a. What is the content of matrix Need? (4)
b. Is the system in a safe state? If yes, give the safe sequence. (2)
c. If a request from process P1 arrives for (0,4,2,0) can the request
be granted immediately?
(4)
OR
12 b. (i) Given memory partitions of 100K, 500 K, 200 K, and 600K (in
order), how would each of the First-fit, Best-fit, and Worst-fit algorithms
place processes of 212K, 417K, 112K, and 426K (in order)? Which
algorithm makes the most efficient use of memory? (10)
(ii) Why are segmentation and paging sometimes combined into one
scheme? (6)
273

13. a. (i) Explain the Paged Memory Management Scheme. Indicate how
the address translation is done. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of this scheme? (10)
(ii) Discuss the hardware support required to support demand
paging. (6)
OR
b) (i) How does a semaphore solve the critical section problem? Discuss
whether semaphores satisfy the three requirements for a solution to the
critical section problem. (8)
(ii) Explain the structure of a semaphore, wait and signal to overcome busy
waiting.(8)
14. a. What is the cause of thrashing? Explain the methods by which thrashing could
be controlled. (16)
OR
b. Describe different schemes for defining the logical structure of a directory. (16)
15. a. Discuss on the following disk scheduling algorithms:
Shortest Seek Time First, First Come First Served, SCAN, C- LOOK.(16)
OR
b. i) List and discuss the various methods for implementing a directory.(8)
ii) Some file systems allow disk storage to be allocated at different levels of granularity.
For instance, a file system could allocate 4KB of disk space as a single 4 KB block or as
8 512 byte blocks. How could we take advantage of the flexibility to improve
performance? What modifications would have to be made to the free-space management
scheme in order to support this feature? (8)

V SEMESTER

1. What is an Operating System?
2. What are the advantages of Multiprocessor Systems?
3. Name the various process states.
4. Define context switching.
5. Distinguish between pre emptive and non pre emptive scheduling.
6. What is TLB?
8. Mention the various file attributes.
9. What are the various free space management methods?
274
10. What are the various LINUX components?

PART B (5 x 16 = 80 Marks)
.
11.a)i) Explain the features of real time system and time sharing system. (8)
ii) Explain how hardware protection is achieved? (8)
OR
11.b) i) state the purpose of short-term, medium-term, and long term schedules. Also
discuss the differences among them. (6)
ii) List and discuss three general methods for passing parameters to the OS. (10)

12.i) Discuss in detail the various multithreading models.
OR
ii) Consider the following set of processes, with the length of the CPU-
burst time given in milliseconds
Process Burst Time
P1 10
P2 29
P3 3
P4 7
P5 12
The processes are assumed to have arrived in the order P1,P2,P3,P4,P5 all at time 0.
Consider the FCFS, Non preemptive SJF, Round Robin (quantum = 10ms) scheduling
algorithms. Illustrate the scheduling using Gantt Chart. Which algorithm will give the
minimum average waiting time? Discuss.

13.a) Discuss in detail the solutions to the Critical-Section problem.
OR
13.b) Write short notes on :
i) Deadlock Avoidance
ii) Deadlock Detection

14.a) i)Give an example of an application that could benefit from operating system
support for random access to indexed files.(4)
ii) List and briefly discuss the most common schemes for defining the logical structure of
a directory (12)
OR
14.b) Explain how paging technique is implemented in memory.

15.a) Explain the various allocation methods used in file systems.
OR
15.b) Explain in detail about process scheduling in Linux systems.

--------------- ALL THE BEST ----------------

275

B.E/B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, APRIL/MAY 2008
CS 1252-OPERATING SYSTEMS

Answer all the questions.
PART A-(10X2=20 marks)

1. Specify the critical factor to be strictly followed in real time systems.
2. List out the three main advantages of multiprocessor system.
3. What is co-operating process?
4. What is bounded waiting in critical section?
5. What are the four necessary conditions a system should possess in order to be termed
as deadlock?
6. What is segmentation?
7. Why should we use virtual memory?
8. What is meant by thrashing?
9. Name the entries that make up a File Control Block (FCB).
10. State any two distinguishing features of UNIX and Windows.

PART B (5 X 16=80 marks)

11.(a).(i).Explain the facilities by the following operating systems
(1).Clustered system and
(2).Real-Time system
(ii).List out the services provided by operating system to programs and to the user of the
program.
(Or)
11.(b).(i).Explain the process creation and process termination process on process.
(ii).Write short notes on co-operating processors and schedulers.

12.(a)Describe the following scheduling algorithms
(i).Shortest job first scheduling
(ii).Round robin scheduling
(iii).Real time scheduling
(iv).Priority scheduling
(Or)
12.(b).What is the important feature of critical section? State the dining philosophers
problem and show how to allocate the several resources among several processors in a
deadlock and starvation free manner.

13.(a).(i).How can deadlock be detected? Explain.
(ii).Write short notes on swapping.
(Or)
276
13.(b).Discuss the advantages of paging memory management and the conversion of
logical address into physical address with necessary hardware.
14.(a).Discuss the following page replacement algorithms, giving a suitable page
reference string (i).LRU (ii).FIFO and (iii).Optimal.
(Or)
14.(b).(i).State the various attributes of a file and their purpose. Discuss the various file
operations.
(ii).Discuss about demand paging.

15.(a).Discuss in detail any three methods of implementing the file system.
(Or)
15.(b).Write short notes on:
(i).Disk structure
(ii).Indexed allocation
(iii).Shortest Seek Time First (SSTF) scheduling.


Time: 3 hours Max. Marks: 100
Answer ALL Questions

PART-A 10x2 = 20 marks

1. Mention any two essential properties of real time systems.
2. Processes call the operating system with system call interrupt instructions. Why cant
processes make ordinary procedure calls to the operating systems?
3. What is meant by the context of a process?
4. Mention the methods for deadlock recovery in a system.
5. Consider the following set of processes, with the length of the CPU-burst time and the
arrival time given in milliseconds:
______ ___________ __________

P1 0 75
P2 10 40
277
P3 10 25
P4 80 20
P5 85 45

a. Draw a Gantt chart illustrating the execution of these processes using preemptive SJF
scheduling algorithm.

6. What is the relationship between program locality and TLB hit rate?
7. What is Beladys anomaly?
9. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of continuous allocation of files.
10. List the main components of a Linux system.

PART-B 5x16 = 80 marks

11. (i) Explain the MS-DOS system structure with a neat diagram. (8)
(ii) Write notes on Hardware protection. (8)

12. (a) (i)Describe the actions taken by a kernel to context switch between kernel-level
threads. (4)
(ii) Consider the following snapshot of a system:

A B C D A B C D A B C D

P0 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 2 1 5 2 0
P1 1 0 0 0 1 7 5 0
P2 1 3 5 4 2 3 5 6
P3 0 6 3 2 0 6 5 2
P4 0 0 1 4 0 6 5 6

Answer the following questions using the bankers algorithm.

a. What is the content of matrix Need? (2)
b. Is the system in a safe state? If yes, give the safe sequence. (2)
c. If a request from process P1 arrives for (0,4,2,0) can the request be granted
immediately? (4)

(iii)Distinguish between short term, long term and medium term scheduling.(4)

OR
b) (i) How does a semaphore solve the critical section problem? Discuss whether
semaphores satisfy the three requirements for a solution to the critical section problem.
(8)
(ii) A barbershop consists of a waiting room with n chairs and the barber room containing
the barber chair. If there are no customers to be served, the barber goes to sleep. If a
278
customer enters the barbershop and all chairs are occupied, then the customer leaves the
shop. If the barber is busy but chairs are available, then the customer sits in one of the
free chairs. If the barber is asleep, the customer wakes up the barber. Write a program to
coordinate the barber and the customers. (8)
13. a. (i) Given memory partitions of 100K, 500 K, 200 K, and 600K (in order), how
would each of the First-fit, Best-fit, and Worst-fit algorithms place processes of 212K,
417K, 112K, and 426K (in order)? Which algorithm makes the most efficient use of
memory? (8)
(ii) Write down the different issues in real time scheduling. (8)
OR
b. (i) Explain segmentation with a neat diagram. (8)
(ii) Consider a variation of round-robin we will call progressive round-robin. In
progressive round-robin, each process has its own time quantum. This starts out at 50 ms,
and increases by 50 ms each time it goes through the round-robin queue. Give the
advantages and disadvantages of this variant over ordinary round-robin. (8)
14. a. What is the cause of thrashing? Explain the methods by which thrashing could be
controlled. (16)
OR
b. Describe different schemes for defining the logical structure of a directory. (16)
15. a. Discuss on the following disk scheduling algorithms:
Shortest Seek Time First, First Come First Served, SCAN, and C- LOOK.
(16)
OR
b. Explain briefly how process management is done in Linux. (16)

B.E/B.Tech.DEGREE
EXAMINATION,NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2004.

Time: Three hours Maximum:100 marks

Answer ALL questions

PART A (10* 2= 20 marks)

1. What is Time Sharing System?

2. What is the main advantage of the layered approach to system design.

3. What is job scheduler? What is CPU scheduler?

4. What are the various process states?Depict process state diagram.
279

5. Explain any four scheduling criteria involved in CPU scheduling.

6. Consider a logical address space of eight pages of 1024 words each, mapped
onto a physical memory of 32 Frames. How many bits are there in logical
address?

7. What is sequential address method? Mention its merits and demerits.

8. Define single level directory structure. Give one example.

9. What is a bit vector?

10. Mention any two features of linux file system.

PART B - ( 5 * 16 = 80 marks )

11. (i) Describe Working-Set model. (10)

(ii) Describe paging with illustrative example. (6)

12. (a) (i) Consider the following set of processes , with the length of the CPU
burst time given in milliseconds.

Process Burst time Priority

P1 8 3
P2 3 1
P3 4 4
P4 2 2
P5 6 5

The processes are assumed to have arrived in the order P1, P2, P3,
P4 and P5 all at time 'O'.

(1) Draw four Gantt charts illustrating the execution of these
processes using FCFS, SJF, A nonpreemptive priority (a
smaller priority number implies a higher priority) and RR
(quantum = 2) scheduling.

(2) What is the turn around time of each process for each of the
scheduling algorithms in part (1).

(3) What is the waiting time of each process for each of the
280
scheduling algorithms in part (1).

(4) Which of the schedules in part (1) results in the minimal
average waiting time(over all processes) (12)

(ii) Explain the three requirements that a solution to critical-section
problem must satisfy. (4)

Or

(b) (i) Describe an algorithm which satisfies all the conditions of critical
section problem and also prove how it satisfies all the conditions.
(6)

(ii) Describe deadlock prevention methods

(1) Hold and wait

(2) Circular wait

(3) No preemption. (10)

13. (a) (i) Describe internal and external fragmentation with illustrative
examples. (8)

(ii) Describe segmentation with its hardware. (8)

Or

(b) (i) Describe multilevel paging with example. (8)

(ii) Describe hardware support of paging with TLB. (8)

14. (a) Describe place replacement algorithms

(i) FIFO algorithm

(ii) Optimal algorithm

(iii) LRU algorithm with illustrative example. (16)

Or

(b) (i) Describe the layered design of file-system organization. (10)

(ii) Describe the file system mounting. (6)
281

15. (a) Describe the following methods for allocating disk space.

(i) Linked allocation.

(ii) Contiguous allocation. (16)

Or

(b) (i) Describe components of a Linux system. (8)

(ii) Describe process scheduling in Linux system. (8)
B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, MAY/JUNE 2009.
Fifth Semester
Information Technology
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 marks
PART A (10 X 2 = 20 MARKS)
1. Write pros and cons of Hard Real time system and Soft Real Time system.
2. What are cooperating processes? Give an example.
3. State the resources that are used when a thread is created? How do they differ
from those used when a process is created?
4. State why a swapping scheme is implemented in a medium term scheduler.
5. Mention the necessary conditions for Deadlock occurrence.
6. If a computer system has 16-bit address line and supports 1 K page size, what will
be the maximum page number supported by this system.
7. How does the system detect thrashing? Briefly state.
8. What are immutable shared files?
9. State the major goal for the design and implementation of swap space.
10. List the components of on-disk structure of file system.
PART B - (5 X 16 = 80 MARKS)
282
11. (a) Explain the message passing inter processes communication and the
various methods for logically implementing them. (16)
Or
(b) (i) What is the need for system calls? How system calls are used? Explain with an
example. (10)
(ii) Explain the process state diagram. (6)
12. (a) (i) Write the C implementation of semaphores and the operations on it.
(ii) Define the critical section problem and discuss the three requirements that a
solution to the critical section problem must satisfy. (8)
Or
(b) (i) What are the advantages of threads? Describe the multi-threaded models.(8)
(ii) What is the advantage of having different time-quantum sizes at different levels
Multi-level Feedback Queue (MFQ) based scheduling? (8)
13. (a) Explain the difference between External Fragmentation and Internal
Fragmentation. How to solve the fragmentation problem using paging? (6+10)
Or
(b) (i) Explain Bankers algorithm for deadlock avoidance. (8)
(ii) With relevant diagrams and examples discuss the advantages and disadvantages
of continuous memory allocation schemes. (8)
14. (a) What are the causes of thrashing? Explain working-set model with an
example.
(16)
Or
(b) Consider the following page reference string:
1, 2, 3, 4, 2, 1, 5, 6, 2, 1, 2, 3, 7, 6, 3, 2, 1, 2, 3, 6.
How many page faults would occur for the following replacement algorithms,
assuming one, two, three and four frames?
(i) LRU replacement
(ii) FIFO replacement
(iii) Optimal replacement
283
Remember that all frames are initially empty, so your first unique pages will all cost
one fault each. (16)
15. (a) (i) Explain the linked allocation and indexed allocation methods used in file
systems. (8)
(ii) Compare and contrast free-space management and swap space management.
(8)
Or
(b) Discuss the various techniques through which files can be allocated space on disk.
Give relevant example and diagrammatic illustration. (16)

ALL THE BEST

284

IT 2251 SOFTWARE ENGINEERING AND QUALITY ASSURANCE

SYLLABUS

1. Software Product And Process 9
Introduction S/W Engineering Paradigm Verification Validation Life Cycle Models
System Engineering Computer Based System Business Process Engineering
Overview Product Engineering Overview.

2. Software Requirements 9
Functional and Non-Functional Software Document Requirement Engineering
Process Feasibility Studies Software Prototyping Prototyping in the Software
Process Data Functional and Behavioral Models Structured Analysis and Data
Dictionary.

3. Analysis, Design Concepts And Principles 9
Systems Engineering - Analysis Concepts - Design Process And Concepts Modular
Design Design Heuristic Architectural Design Data Design User Interface
Design Real Time Software Design System Design Real Time Executives Data
Acquisition System Monitoring And Control System.

4. Testing 9
Taxonomy Of Software Testing Types Of S/W Test Black Box Testing Testing
Boundary Conditions Structural Testing Test Coverage Criteria Based On Data Flow
Mechanisms Regression Testing Unit Testing Integration Testing Validation
Testing System Testing And Debugging Software Implementation Techniques
5. Software Quality Assurance 9
Process and Product Quality Quality Assurance and Standards Quality Planning and
Control Software metrics Process Improvement Software configuration
Management.
TOTAL = 45
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Ian Sommerville, Software engineering, Seventh Edition, Pearson Education Asia,
2007.
2. Roger S. Pressman, Software Engineering A practitioners Approach, Sixth
Edition, McGraw-Hill International Edition, 2005.

REFERENCES:
1. Watts S.Humphrey,A Discipline for Software Engineering, Pearson Education, 2007.
2. James F.Peters and Witold Pedrycz,Software Engineering, An Engineering Approach,
Wiley-India, 2007.
3. Stephen R.Schach, Software Engineering, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company
Limited, 2007.
4. S.A.Kelkar,Software Engineering, Prentice Hall of India Pvt, 2007.

285
TWO MARKS
UNIT 1
1. What is software engineering?
Software engineering is a discipline in which theories, methods and tools
are applied to develop professional software.

2. What is Software ?
Software is nothing but a collection of computer programs that are related
documents that are indented to provide desired features, functionalities and better
performance.

3. What are the characteristics of the software?
Software is engineered, not manufactured.
Software does not wear out.
Most software is custom built rather than being assembled from components.

4. What are the various categories of software?
System software Application
software Engineering/Scientific software
Embedded software
Web Applications
Artificial Intelligence software

5. What are the challenges in software?
Copying with legacy systems.
Heterogeneity challenge
Delivery times challenge

6. Define software process.
Software process is defined as the structured set of activities that are required to develop
the software system.

7. What are the fundamental activities of a software process?
Specification
Design and implementation
Validation
Evolution
8. What are the umbrella activities of a software process?
Software project tracking and control.
Risk management.
Software Quality Assurance.
Formal Technical Reviews.
Software Configuration Management.
Work product preparation and production.
Reusability management. Measurement.

286
9. What are the merits of incremental model?
i. The incremental model can be adopted when there are less number of people involved
in the project.
ii. Technical risks can be managed with each increment.
iii. For a very small time span, at least core product can be delivered to the
customer.

10. List the task regions in the Spiral model.
Customer communication In this region it is suggested to establish customer
communication.
Planning All planning activities are carried out in order to define resources timeline
and other project related activities.
Risk analysis The tasks required to calculate technical and management risks.
Engineering In this the task region, tasks required to build one or more representations
of applications are carried out.
Construct and release All the necessary tasks required to construct, test, install the
applications are conducted.
Customer evaluation Customers feedback is obtained and based on the customer
evaluation required tasks are performed and implemented at installation stage.

11. What are the drawbacks of spiral model?
i. It is based on customer communication.If the communication is not proper then the
software product that gets developed will not be the up to the mark.
ii. It demands considerable risk assessment.If the risk assessment is done properly then
only the successful product can be obtained.

12. What is System Engineering?
System Engineering means designing, implementing, deploying and operating systems
which include hardware, software and people.

13. List the process maturity levels in SEIs CMM.
Level 1:Initial Few processes are defined and individual efforts are taken.
Level 2:Repeatable To track cost schedule and functionality basic project management
processes are established.
Level 3:Defined The process is standardized, documented and followed.
Level 4:Managed Both the software process and product are quantitatively understood
and controlled using detailed measures.
Level 5:Optimizing Establish mechanisms to plan and implement change.

14. What is an effector process?
The effector process is a process that verifies itself.The effector process exists in certain
criteria.

15. Define the computer based system.
The computer based system can be defined as a set or an arrangement of elements that
are organized to accomplish some predefined goal by processing information.
287

16. What does Verification represent?
Verification represents the set of activities that are carried out to confirm that the
software correctly implements the specific functionality.

17. What does Validation represent?
Validation represents the set of activities that ensure that the software that has been built
is satisfying the customer requirements.

18. What are the steps followed in testing?
i. Unit testing The individual components are tested in this type of testing.
ii. Module testing Related collection of independent components are tested.
iii. Sub-system testing This is a kind of integration testing.Various modules are
integrated into a subsystem and the whole subsystem is tested.
iv. System testing The whole system is tested in this system.
v. Acceptance testing This type of testing involves testing of the system with customer
data.If the system behaves as per customer need then it is accepted.

19. What is the use of CMM?
Capability Maturity Model is used in assessing how well an organisations processes
allow to complete and manage new software projects.

20. Name the Evolutionary process Models.
i. Incremental model
ii. Spiral model
iii. WIN-WIN spiral model
iv. Concurrent Development

288
UNIT 2:

21. What is requirement engineering?
Requirement engineering is the process of establishing the services that the customer
requires from the system and the constraints under which it operates and is developed.

22. What are the various types of traceability in software engineering?
i. Source traceability These are basically the links from requirement to stakeholders
who propose these requirements.
ii. Requirements traceability These are links between dependant requirements.
iii. Design traceability These are links from requirements to design.

23. Define software prototyping.
Software prototyping is defined as a rapid software development for validating the
requirements.

24. What are the benefits of prototyping?
i. Prototype serves as a basis for deriving system specification.
ii. Design quality can be improved.
iii. System can be maintained easily.
iv. Development efforts may get reduced.
v. System usability can be improved.

25. What are the prototyping approaches in software process?
i. Evolutionary prototyping In this approach of system development, the initial
prototype is prepared and it is then refined through number of stages to final stage.
ii. Throw-away prototyping Using this approach a rough practical implementation of
the system is produced. The requirement problems can be identified from this
implementation. It is then discarded. System is then developed using some different
engineering paradigm.

26. What are the advantages of evolutionary prototyping?
i. Fast delivery of the working system.
ii. User is involved while developing the system.
iii. More useful system can be delivered.
iv. Specification,design and implementation work in co-ordinated manner.

27. What are the various Rapid prototyping techniques?
i. Dynamic high level language development.
ii. Database programming.
iii. Component and application assembly.

28. What is the use of User Interface prototyping?
This prototyping is used to pre-specify the look and feel of user interface in an effective
way.

289
29. What are the characteristics of SRS?
i. Correct The SRS should be made up to date when appropriate requirements are
identified.
ii. Unambiguous When the requirements are correctly understood then only it is
possible to write an unambiguous software.
iii. Complete To make SRS complete, it should be specified what a software designer
wants to create software.
iv. Consistent It should be consistent with reference to the functionalities identified.
v. Specific The requirements should be mentioned specifically.
vi. Traceable What is the need for mentioned requirement? This should be correctly
identified.

30. What are the objectives of Analysis modeling?
i. To describe what the customer requires.
ii. To establish a basis for the creation of software design.
iii. To devise a set of valid requirements after which the software can be built.

31. What is data modeling?
Data modeling is the basic step in the analysis modeling. In data modeling the data
objects are examined independently of processing. The data model represents how data
are related with one another.
32. What is a data object?
Data object is a collection of attributes that act as an aspect, characteristic, quality, or
descriptor of the object.

33. What are attributes?
Attributes are the one, which defines the properties of data object.

34. What is cardinality in data modeling?
Cardinality in data modeling, cardinality specifies how the number of occurrences of one
object is related to the number of occurrences of another object.

35. What does modality in data modeling indicates?
Modality indicates whether or not a particular data object must participate in the
relationship.

36. What is ERD?
Entity Relationship Diagram is the graphical representation of the object relationship
pair. It is mainly used in database applications.

37. What is DFD?
Data Flow Diagram depicts the information flow and the transforms that are applied on
the data as it moves from input to output.

38. What does Level0 DFD represent?
290
Level0 DFD is called as fundamental system model or context model. In the context
model the entire software system is represented by a single bubble with input and output
indicated by incoming and outgoing arrows.

39. What is a state transition diagram?
State transition diagram is basically a collection of states and events. The events cause
the system to change its state. It also represents what actions are to be taken on the
occurrence of particular event.

40. Define Data Dictionary.
The data dictionary can be defined as an organized collection of all the data elements of
the system with precise and rigorous definitions so that user and system analyst will have
a common understanding of inputs, outputs, components of stores and intermediate
calculations.

41. What are the elements of Analysis model?
i. Data Dictionary
ii. Entity Relationship Diagram
iii. Data Flow Diagram
iv. State Transition Diagram
v. Control Specification
vi. Process specification

291

UNIT 3:

42. What are the elements of design model?
i. Data design
ii. Architectural design
iii. Interface design
iv. Component-level design

43. Define design process.
Design process is a sequence of steps carried through which the requirements are
translated into a system or software model.

44. List the principles of a software design.
i. The design process should not suffer from tunnel vision.
ii. The design should be traceable to the analysis model.
iii. The design should exhibit uniformity and integration.
iv. Design is not coding.
v. The design should not reinvent the wheel.

45. What is the benefit of modular design?
Changes made during testing and maintenance becomes manageable and they do not
affect other modules.

46. What is a cohesive module?
A cohesive module performs only one task in software procedure with little interaction
with other modules. In other words cohesive module performs only one thing.

47. What are the different types of Cohesion?
i. Coincidentally cohesive The modules in which the set I\of tasks are related with each
other loosely then such modules are called coincidentally cohesive.
ii. Logically cohesive A module that performs the tasks that are logically related with
each other is called logically cohesive.
iii. Temporal cohesion The module in which the tasks need to be executed in some
specific time span is called temporal cohesive.
iv. Procedural cohesion When processing elements of a module are related with one
another and must be executed in some specific order then such module is called
procedural cohesive.
v. Communicational cohesion When the processing elements of a module share the
data then such module is called communicational cohesive.

48. What is Coupling?
Coupling is the measure of interconnection among modules in a program structure. It
depends on the interface complexity between modules.

49. What are the various types of coupling?
292
i. Data coupling The data coupling is possible by parameter passing or data interaction.
ii. Control coupling The modules share related control data in control coupling.
iii. Common coupling The common data or a global data is shared among modules.
iv. Content coupling Content coupling occurs when one module makes use of data or
control information maintained in another module.

50. What are the common activities in design process?
i. System structuring The system is subdivided into principle subsystems components
and communications between these subsystems are identified.
ii. Control modeling A model of control relationships between different parts of the
system is established.
iii. Modular decomposition The identified subsystems are decomposed into modules.

51. What are the benefits of horizontal partitioning?
i. Software that is easy to test.
ii. Software that is easier to maintain.
iii. Propagation of fewer side effects.
iv. Software that is easier to extend.

52. What is vertical partitioning?
Vertical partitioning often called factoring suggests that the control and work should be
distributed top-down in program structure.

53. What are the advantages of vertical partitioning?
i. These are easy to maintain changes.
ii. They reduce the change impact and error propagation.

54. What are the various elements of data design?
i. Data object The data objects are identified and relationship among various data
objects can be represented using ERD or data dictionaries.
ii. Databases Using software design model, the data models are translated into data
structures and data bases at the application level.
iii. Data warehouses At the business level useful information is identified from various
databases and the data warehouses are created.

55. List the guidelines for data design.
i. Apply systematic analysis on data.
ii. Identify data structures and related operations.
iii. Establish data dictionary.
iv. Use information hiding in the design of data structure.
v. Apply a library of useful data structures and operations.

56. Name the commonly used architectural styles.
i. Data centered architecture.
ii. Data flow architecture.
iii. Call and return architecture.
293
iv. Object-oriented architecture.
v. Layered architecture.

57. What is Transform mapping?
The transform mapping is a set of design steps applied on the DFD in order to map the
transformed flow characteristics into specific architectural style.

58. What is a Real time system?
Real time system is a software system in which the correct functionalities of the system
are dependent upon results produced by the system and the time at which these results are
produced.

59. What is SCM?
Software Configuration Management is a set of activities carried out for identifying,
organizing and controlling changes throughout the lifecycle of computer software.

60. What is SCI?
Software Configuration Item is information that is carried as part of the software
engineering process.

294

UNIT 4:

61. Define software testing?
Software testing is a critical element of software quality assurance and represents the
ultimate review of specification, design, and coding.

62. What are the objectives of testing?
i. Testing is a process of executing a program with the intend of finding an error.
ii. A good test case is one that has high probability of finding an undiscovered error.
iii. A successful test is one that uncovers as an-yet undiscovered error.

63. What are the testing principles the software engineer must apply while
performing the software testing?
i. All tests should be traceable to customer requirements.
ii. Tests should be planned long before testing begins.
iii. The pareto principle can be applied to software testing-80% of all errors uncovered
during testing will likely be traceable to 20% of all program modules.
iv. Testing should begin in the small and progress toward testing in the large.
v. Exhaustive testing is not possible.
vi. To be most effective, an independent third party should conduct testing.

63. What are the two levels of testing?
i. Component testing
Individual components are tested. Tests are derived from developer s experience.
ii. System Testing
The group of components is integrated to create a system or sub-system is done. These
tests are based on the system specification.

64. What are the various testing activities?
i. Test planning
ii. Test case design
iii. Test execution
iv. Data collection
v. Effective evaluation

65. Write short note on black box testing.
The black box testing is also called as behavioral testing. This method fully focus on the
functional requirements of the software. Tests are derived that fully exercise all
functional requirements.

66. What is equivalence partitioning?
Equivalence partitioning is a black box technique that divides the input domain into
classes of data. From this data test cases can be derived. Equivalence class represents a
set of valid or invalid states for input conditions.

295
67. What is a boundary value analysis?
A boundary value analysis is a testing technique in which the elements at the edge of the
domain are selected and tested. It is a test case design technique that complements
equivalence partitioning technique. Here instead of focusing on input conditions only, the
test cases are derived from the output domain.

68. What are the reasons behind to perform white box testing?
There are three main reasons behind performing the white box testing.
1. Programmers may have some incorrect assumptions while designing or implementing
some functions.Due to this there are chances of having logical errors in the program.To
detect and correct such logical errors procedural details need to be examined.
2. Certain assumptions on flow of control and data may lead programmer to make design
errors. To uncover the errors on logical path, white box testing is must.
3. There may be certain typographical errors that remain undetected even after syntax and
type checking mechanisms. Such errors can be uncovered during white box testing.

69. What is cyclomatic complexity?
Cyclomatic complexity is a software metric that gives the quantitative measure of logical
complexity of the program.
The Cyclomatic complexity defines the number of independent paths in the basis set of
the program that provides the upper bound for the number of tests that must be conducted
to ensure that all the statements have been executed at least once.

70. How to compute the cyclomatic complexity?
The cyclomatic complexity can be computed by any one of the following ways.
1. The numbers of regions of the flow graph correspond to the cyclomatic complexity.
2. Cyclomatic complexity,V(G),for the flow graph,G,is defined as: V(G)=E-N+2,
E -- number of flow graph edges,
N -- number of flow graph nodes
3. V(G)=P+1
Where P is the number of predicate nodes contained in the flow graph.
71. Distinguish between verification and validation.
Verification refers to the set of activities that ensure that software correctly implements a
specific function. Validation refers to a different set of activities that ensure that the
software that has been built is traceable to the customer requirements.
According to Boehm, Verification: Are we building the product right? Validation:
Are we building the right product?

72. What are the various testing strategies for conventional software?
i. Unit testing
ii. Integration testing.
iii. Validation testing.
iv. System testing.

73. Write about drivers and stubs.
Drivers and stub software need to be developed to test incompatible software.
296
The driver is a program that accepts the test data and prints the
relevant results.
The stub is a subprogram that uses the module interfaces and performs the
minimal data manipulation if required.

74. What are the approaches of integration testing?
The integration testing can be carried out using two approaches.
1. The non-incremental testing.
2. Incremental testing.

75. What are the advantages and disadvantages of big-bang?
Advantages: This approach is simple.
Disadvantages: It is hard to debug. It is not easy to isolate errors while testing. In this
approach it is not easy to validate test results. After performing testing, it is impossible to
form an integrated system.

76. What are the benefits of smoke testing?
Integration risk is minimized.
The quality of the end-product is improved.
Error diagnosis and correction are simplified.
Assessment of program is easy.

77. What are the conditions exists after performing validation testing?
After performing the validation testing there exists two conditions.
The function or performance characteristics are according to the specifications
and are accepted.
The requirement specifications are derived and the deficiency list is created.
The deficiencies then can be resolved by establishing the proper communication
with the customer.

78. Distinguish between alpha and beta testing.
Alpha and beta testing are the types of acceptance testing.
Alpha test: The alpha testing is attesting in which the version of complete software is
tested by the customer under the supervision of developer. This testing is performed at
developer s site.
Beta test: The beta testing is a testing in which the version of the software is tested by the
customer without the developer being present. This testing is performed at customer s
site.

79. What are the various types of system testing?
1. Recovery testing is intended to check the system s ability to recover from failures.
2. Security testing verifies that system protection mechanism prevent improper
penetration or data alteration.
3. Stress testing Determines breakpoint of a system to establish maximum service
level.
297
4. Performance testing evaluates the run time performance of the software, especially
real-time software.

80. Define debugging.
Debugging is defined as the process of removal of defect. It occurs as a consequence of
successful testing.

81. What are the common approaches in debugging?
Brute force method: The memory dumps and run-time tracks are examined and
program with write statements is loaded to obtain clues to error causes.
Back tracking method: The source code is examined by looking backwards from
symptom to potential causes of errors.
Cause elimination method: This method uses binary partitioning to reduce the number
of locations where errors can exists.

82. What are the metrics computed during error tracking activity? Errors per
requirement specification page. Errors per component-design level Errors per component-
code level DRE-requirement analysis DRE-architectural analysis DRE-component level
design DRE-coding.

298
UNIT 5:

83. What is quality?
GQuality, simplistically, means that a product should meet its specification.
GThis is problematical for software systems
There is a tension between customer quality requirements (efficiency, reliability, etc.)
and developer quality requirements (maintainability, reusability, etc.);
Some quality requirements are difficult to specify in an unambiguous way;
Software specifications are usually incomplete and often inconsistent.

84. What are Quality management activities.
GQuality assurance
Establish organisational procedures and standards for quality.
GQuality planning
Select applicable procedures and standards for a particular project and modify these as
required.
GQuality control
Ensure that procedures and standards are followed by the software development team.
GQuality management should be separate from project management to ensure
independence.

85.What is Process and product quality?
GThe quality of a developed product is influenced by the quality of the production
process.
GThis is important in software development as some product quality attributes are hard to
assess.
GHowever, there is a very complex and poorly understood relationship between software
processes and product quality.

86.what is Quality assurance and standards?
GStandards are the key to effective quality management.
GThey may be international, national, organizational or project standards.
GProduct standards define characteristics that all components should exhibit e.g. a
common programming style.
GProcess standards define how the software process should be enacted.

87.Write the Importance of standards.
GEncapsulation of best practice- avoids repetition of past mistakes.
GThey are a framework for quality assurance processes - they involve checking
compliance to standards.
GThey provide continuity - new staff can understand the organisation by understanding
the standards that are used.

88.what is ISO 9000 certification?
GQuality standards and procedures should be documented in an organisational quality
manual.
299
GAn external body may certify that an organisations quality manual conforms to ISO
9000 standards.
GSome customers require suppliers to be ISO 9000 certified although the need for
flexibility here is increasingly recognised.

89.What is Documentation standards?
GParticularly important - documents are the tangible manifestation of the software.
GDocumentation process standards
Concerned with how documents should be developed, validated and maintained.
GDocument standards
Concerned with document contents, structure, and appearance.
GDocument interchange standards
Concerned with the compatibility of electronic documents.

90. What is Quality plans?
GQuality plan structure
Product introduction;
Product plans;
Process descriptions;
Quality goals;
Risks and risk management.
GQuality plans should be short, succinct documents
If they are too long, no-one will read them.

91.What is Quality control?
GThis involves checking the software development process to ensure that procedures and
standards are being followed.
GThere are two approaches to quality control
Quality reviews;
Automated software assessment and software measurement.

92.What is Quality reviews?
GThis is the principal method of validating the quality of a process or of a product.
GA group examines part or all of a process or system and its documentation to find
potential problems.
GThere are different types of review with different objectives
Inspections for defect removal (product);
Reviews for progress assessment (product and process);
Quality reviews (product and standards).

93. What is Software metric?
GAny type of measurement which relates to a software system, process or related
documentation
Lines of code in a program, the Fog index, number of person-days required to develop a
component.
GAllow the software and the software process to be quantified.
300
GMay be used to predict product attributes or to control the software process.
GProduct metrics can be used for general predictions or to identify anomalous
components.

94.What is Internal and external attributes?

95. What is Product metrics?
GA quality metric should be a predictor of product quality.
GClasses of product metric
Dynamic metrics which are collected by measurements made of a program in execution;
Static metrics which are collected by measurements made of the system representations;
Dynamic metrics help assess efficiency and reliability; static metrics help assess
complexity, understandability and maintainability.

96.What is Dynamic and static metrics?
GDynamic metrics are closely related to software quality attributes
It is relatively easy to measure the response time of a system (performance attribute) or
the number of failures (reliability attribute).
GStatic metrics have an indirect relationship with quality attributes
You need to try and derive a relationship between these metrics and properties such as

301
97.What is Process improvement?
GUnderstanding existing processes and introducing process changes to improve product
quality, reduce costs or accelerate schedules.
GMost process improvement work so far has focused on defect reduction. This reflects
the increasing attention paid by industry to quality.
GHowever, other process attributes can also be the focus of improvement

98.What is Quality factors?
GFor large projects with average capabilities, the development process determines
product quality.
GFor small projects, the capabilities of the developers is the main determinant.
GThe development technology is particularly significant for small projects.
GIn all cases, if an unrealistic schedule is imposed then product quality will suffer.

99.Write the Process classification.
GInformal
No detailed process model. Development team chose their own way of working.
GManaged
Defined process model which drives the development process.
GMethodical
Processes supported by some development method such as the RUP.
GSupported
Processes supported by automated CASE tools.

100. What is Process analysis and modelling?
GProcess analysis
The study of existing processes to understand the relationships between parts of the
process and to compare them with other processes.
GProcess modelling
The documentation of a process which records the tasks, the roles and the entities used;
Process models may be presented from different perspectives.

101.Draw the module testing activity.
302

102. What is Process change
GInvolves making modifications to existing processes.
GThis may involve:
Introducing new practices, methods or processes;
Changing the ordering of process activities;
Introducing or removing deliverables;
Introducing new roles or responsibilities.
GChange should be driven by measurable goals.

103.What are Process change stages?
GImprovement identification.
GImprovement prioritisation.
GProcess change introduction.
GProcess change training.
GChange tuning.

104. What is process change process?

303

105.What is CMMI framework?
GThe CMMI framework is the current stage of work on process assessment and
improvement that started at the Software Engineering Institute in the 1980s.
GThe SEIs mission is to promote software technology transfer particularly to US defence
contractors.
GIt has had a profound influence on process improvement
Capability Maturity Model introduced in the early 1990s.
Revised maturity framework (CMMI) introduced in 2001.

106.What is SEI capability maturity model?
GInitial
Essentially uncontrolled
GRepeatable
Product management procedures defined and used
GDefined
Process management procedures and strategies defined and used
GManaged
Quality management strategies defined and used
GOptimising
Process improvement strategies defined and used

107. What are CMMI model components?
GProcess areas
24 process areas that are relevant to process capability and improvement are identified.
These are organised into 4 groups.
GGoals
Goals are descriptions of desirable organisational states. Each process area has
associated goals.
GPractices
Practices are ways of achieving a goal - however, they are advisory and other approaches
to achieve the goal may be used.

108. What is CMMI assessment?
GExamines the processes used in an organisation and assesses their maturity in each
process area.
GBased on a 6-point scale:
Not performed;
Performed;
Managed;
Defined;
Quantitatively managed;
Optimizing.

304
109. What is continuous CMMI model
GThis is a finer-grain model that considers individual or groups of practices and assesses
their use.
GThe maturity assessment is not a single value but is a set of values showing the
organisations maturity in each area.
GThe CMMI rates each process area from levels 1 to 5.
GThe advantage of a continuous approach is that organisations can pick and choose
process areas to improve according to their local needs.

110.Write the Problems with the CMM.
GPractices associated with model levels
Companies could be using practices from different levels at the same time but if all
practices from a lower level were not used, it was not possible to move beyond that level
GDiscrete rather than continuous
Did not recognise distinctions between the top and the bottom of levels
GPractice-oriented
Concerned with how things were done (the practices) rather than the goals to be
achieved.

111. What is SCM?
Software Configuration Management is a set of activities carried out for identifying,
organizing and controlling changes throughout the lifecycle of computer software.

112. What is SCI?

113.What is Configuration management planning?
GAll products of the software process may have to be managed:
Specifications;
Designs;
Programs;
Test data;
User manuals.
GThousands of separate documents may be generated for a large, complex software
system.

114. What is CM plan?
GDefines the types of documents to be managed and a document naming scheme.
GDefines who takes responsibility for the CM procedures and creation of baselines.
GDefines policies for change control and version management.
GDefines the CM records which must be maintained.
GDescribes the tools which should be used to assist the CM process and any limitations
on their use.
GDefines the process of tool use.
GDefines the CM database used to record configuration information.
305
GMay include information such as the CM of external software, process auditing, etc.

115. What is Change management?
GSoftware systems are subject to continual change requests;
From users;
From developers;
From market forces.
GChange management is concerned with keeping track of these changes and ensuring
that they are implemented in the most cost-effective way.

116. What is Version and release management?
GInvent an identification scheme for system versions.
GPlan when a new system version is to be produced.
GEnsure that version management procedures and tools are properly applied.
GPlan and distribute new system releases.

117. What is Versions/variants/releases?
GVersion An instance of a system which is functionally distinct in some way from other
system instances.
GVariant An instance of a system which is functionally identical but non-functionally
distinct from other instances of a system.
GRelease An instance of a system which is distributed to users outside of the
development team.
118.Use of CASE tools in configuration management
GCM processes are standardised and involve applying pre-defined procedures.
GLarge amounts of data must be managed.
GCASE tool support for CM is therefore essential.
GMature CASE tools to support configuration management are available ranging from
stand-alone tools to integrated CM workbenches.

119.What is Change management tools?
GChange management is a procedural process so it can be modelled and integrated with a
version management system.
GChange management tools
Form editor to support processing the change request forms;
Workflow system to define who does what and to automate information transfer;
Change database that manages change proposals and is linked to a VM system;
Change reporting system that generates management reports on the status of change
requests.

120.What is Version management tools?
GVersion and release identification
Systems assign identifiers automatically when a new version is submitted to the system.
GStorage management.
System stores the differences between versions rather than all the version code.
GChange history recording
306
Record reasons for version creation.
GIndependent development
Only one version at a time may be checked out for change. Parallel working on different
versions.
GProject support
Can manage groups of files associated with a project rather than just single files.

307

SIXTEEN MARKS
UNIT 1
1. Explain iterative waterfall and spiral model for software life cycle and various
activities in each phase.
Answer: Iterative waterfall model
The iterative waterfall model is as shown in the following figure.

Requirement gathering phase in which all requirements are identified.
The deign phase is responsible for creating architectural view of the software.
The implementation phase in which the software design is transformed into coding.
Testing is a kind of phase in which the developed software component is fully tested.
Maintenance is an activity by which the software product can be maintained.
Requirements
Design
Implementation
Testing
Maintenance

SPIRAL MODEL

308

The spiral model is divided into number of frame works. These frameworks are denoted
by task regions.
Usually there are six task regions. In spiral model project entry point axis is defined.
The task regions are:
Customer communication
Planning
Risk analysis.
Engineering.
Construct and release.
Customer evaluation.
Drawbacks
It is based on customer communication.
It demands considerable risk assessment.

2. Explain about the incremental model.
Have same phases as the waterfall model.
Phases are
Analysis.
Design.
Code.
Test.
Incremental model delivers series of releases to customers called as increments.
The first increment is called as core product. Here only the document processing
facilities are available.
Second increment, more sophisticated document producing and processing facilities are
available.
Next increment spelling and grammar checking facilities are given.
Merits
309
This model can be adopted when there is less number of people involved in the project.
Technical risks can be managed with each increment.
For a very small time span, at least core product can be delivered to the customer.

RAD Model
Rapid Application Development Model is the type of incremental model.
Achieves the high speed development using component based construction.
Phases
Business modeling
Data modeling
Process modeling
Application generation.
Testing and turnover.

3. Explain in detail about the software process.
It is defined as the structured set of activities that are required to develop the software
system.
Fundamental activities
Specification
Design and implementation
Validation
Evolution
Common Process Framework
Process framework activities
Communication
Planning
Modeling
Construction
Deployment.
Task Sets
Defines the actual work to achieve the software objective.
Umbrella activities
Software project tracking and control
Risk management
Software quality assurance
Formal technical reviews
Software configuration management
Work product preparation and production
Reusability management.
Measurement.

Capability Maturity Model(CMM)
Level 1:Initial Few processes are defined and individual efforts are taken.
Level 2:Repeatable To track cost schedule and functionality basic project management
processes are established.
310
Level 3:Defined The process is standardized, documented and followed.
Level 4:Managed Both the software process and product are quantitatively understood
and controlled using detailed measures.
Level 5:Optimizing Establish mechanisms to plan and implement change.

4. Explain in detail about the life cycle process.

Fig: System engineering process
System engineering process follows a waterfall model for the parallel development of
different parts of the system.
System requirements definition
Three types of requirements
Abstract functional requirements.
System properties.
Undesirable Characteristics.
System objectives
System requirement problem.

The system design process
Process steps
Partition requirements
Identify sub-systems.
311
Assign requirements to sub-systems.
Specify sub-system functionality.
Define sub-system interfaces.

Sub-System development process
After system design it starts.
Involve use of COTS (Commercial-Off-The-Shelf).
System Integration
It is the process of putting hardware, software and people together to make a system.
System Installation
Issues are
Environmental assumptions may be incorrect.
There may be human resistance to the introduction of anew system.
System may have to coexist with alternative systems for some period.
There may arise some physical installation problems (e.g. cabling problem).
Operator training has to be identified.
System evolution
The lifetime of large systems is too long. They must evolve to meet change
requirements.
The evolution may be costly.
Existing systems that must be maintained are sometimes called as legacy systems.
System Decommissioning
Taking the system out of service after its useful lifetime is called as System
Decommissioning.

312

UNIT 2:

5. Explain the prototyping approaches in software process.
Two approaches
i. Evolutionary prototyping In this approach of system development, the initial
prototype is prepared and it is then refined through number of stages to final stage.
ii. Throw-away prototyping Using this approach a rough practical implementation of
the system is produced. The requirement problems can be identified from this
implementation. It is then discarded. System is then developed using some different
engineering paradigm.

Evolutionary prototyping
Objective:
The principal objective of this model is to deliver the working system to the end-user.
Example-AI systems.
Advantages
Fast delivery of the working system.
User is involved while developing the system.
More useful system can be delivered.
Specification, design and implementation work is co-ordinated manner.
Problems
Management problems
Maintenance problem
Verification
Incremental Development
After designing the overall architecture the system is developed and
delivered in series of increments.

Throw-away prototyping
Objective:
The principal objective of this model is to validate or to derive the system requirements.
It is developed to reduce requirement risks.
Advantages
Requirement risks are very less.
Problems
It can be undocumented.
Changes made during the software development proceed may degrade the system
structure.
Sometimes organizational quality standard may not be strictly applied.

6. Explain about rapid prototyping techniques.
Executable specification languages.
313
Used to animate the system specification.
It is expressed in a formal, mathematical language to provide a system prototype.
Very high level languages.
These are programming languages which include powerful data management facilities.
They simplify program development.
Application generators and fourth-generation languages.
These are successful languages because there is a great deal of
communality across data processing applications.

7. Explain in detail about data modeling.
Data modeling makes use of the ERD.
Consists of 3 interrelated information.
The data object.
Attributes.
Relationships.
Cardinality and Modality
Cardinality is the specification of the number of occurrences of one object that can be
related to the number of occurrences of another object.
One-to-one cardinality.
One-to-many cardinality.
Many-to-Many cardinality.
Modality of a relation is 0 if there is no explicit relationship or relation is optional.
Modality is 1 if an occurrence of relationship is mandatory.
Entity/Relationship Diagrams
Components are
Data Objects.
Attributes.
Relationships.
Various type indicators.

8. Explain in detail about Functional Modeling.
This model describes the computations that take place within a system.
This model is useful when the transformation from the inputs to outputs is complex.
The functional model of a system can be represented by a data Flow Diagram(DFD).
Data Flow Diagrams/Data Flow Graph/Bubble chart
A DFD is a graphical representation that depicts the information flow and the
transforms that are applied as the data move from input to output.
Level 0 DFD also called as fundamental system model or context model represents the
entire software as a single bubble with input and output data indicated by incoming and
outgoing arrows.
Level 1 DFD contains 5 or 6 bubbles. Each bubbles can be refined at Layers to depict
more details.
Extensions to Real Time Systems
Ward and Meller extensions
Hatley and Pirbhai extension.
314

9. Explain in detail about Structural Modeling.
Structural model includes a detail refinement of ERD,data flow model and control flow
model.
Creating an ERD.
Example: Safe Home Security System.
Developing relationships and cardinality/Modality.
Creating a data flow model using the guidelines.
Creating a control flow model which describes the structural connection of Processes
Control flows
Control stores.
State automation
Process activation table.

315

UNIT 3:

10. Explain in detail the design concepts.
Abstraction
Functional abstraction
Data abstraction
Control abstraction
Information hiding
Each module in the system hides the internal details of its processing activities and
modules communicate only through over defined interfaces.

Structure
It permits the decomposition of a large system into smaller, more manageable units
with well defined relationships to the other units in a system.
Network is the most general form of structure.
Hierarchical Structures/Structure Charts
It depicts the structure of subroutines in a system, the data passed between routines, can
be indicated on the arcs connecting routines.
Modularity
Modular system consists of well-defined, manageable units with well defined interfaces
among units.
Concurrency
Independent processes that can be activated simultaneously if multiple processors are
available.
Coupling and Cohesion
Data coupling The data coupling is possible by parameter passing or data interaction.
Control coupling The modules share related control data in control coupling.
Common coupling The common data or a global data is shared among modules.
Content coupling Content coupling occurs when one module makes use of data or
control information maintained in another module.

11. Explain the design principles.
The design process should not suffer from tunnel vision.
The design should be traceable to the analysis model.
Design should not reinvent the wheel.
The design should minimize the intellectual distance between the software and problem
as it exists in the real world.
The design should be structured to degrade gently, even when aberrant data, events or
operating conditions are encountered.
Design is not coding, coding is not design.
The design should be assessed for quality as it is being created, not after the fact.
The design should be reviewed to minimize conceptual (semantic) errors.

316
12. Explain the design steps of the transform mapping.
Review the fundamental model.
Review and refine the DFD for the software.
Determine whether the DFD has the transform or transaction mapping.
Isolate the transform center by specifying incoming and outgoing flow boundaries.
Perform first-level factoring.
Perform second-level factoring.
Refine the first iteration architecture using design heuristics for improved software
quality.

13. Explain the design steps in transaction mapping.
Review the fundamental model.
Review and refine the DFD for the software.
Determine whether the DFD has the transform or transaction mapping.
Identify transaction center and the flow characteristics along each of the action paths.
Factor and refine the transaction structure and the structure of each action path.
Refine the first iteration architecture using design heuristics for improved software
quality.

14. Explain in detail about the real time systems.
Hard and soft real time systems.
Real time and high performance.
Real-Time control.
Real time software design
Periodic Stimuli Occur at predictable time intervals.
Aperiodic Stimuli Occur regularly

317

UNIT 4:

15. Explain the types of software testing.
Unit testing
System testing
Integration testing
User-acceptance testing
End-to-End testing
Regression testing
Exception testing
Destructive testing

16. Explain in detail about Black box testing.
Black box or behavioral testing focuses on the functional requirements of the software.
It is applied during the last stage of testing.
Syntax driven testing is suitable for the specification which are described by a certain
grammar.
Decision table based testing is implemented when the original software requirement
have been formulated in the format of if-then statements.
Liquid level control is the study of a simple control problem which is designed to check
the liquid level. It has 2 sensors.
Cause effect graphs in functional testing.

17. Explain about the software testing strategies.
A strategic approach to software testing.
Verification and Validation. Verification refers to the set of activities that ensure that
software correctly implements a specific function. Validation refers to a different set of
activities that ensure that the software that has been built is traceable to the customer
requirements.
According to Boehm, Verification: Are we building the product right? Validation: Are
we building the right product?
Organization for software testing
A software testing strategy.
Criteria for completion of testing.

18. Explain in detail about Integration testing.
It is a systematic technique for constructing the program structure.
Incremental integration The program is constructed and tested in small increments.
Top-down integration
It is an incremental approach.
Modules are integrated by moving downward through the control hierarchy beginning
with the main control module(main program).
Subordinate modules are incorporated by depth-first or breadth-first manner.
318
Bottom-up integration
This testing begins construction and testing with the components at the lowest levels in
the program structure.
Regression testing
It is the re-execution of some subset of tests that have already been conducted to ensure
the changes that have not been propagated unintended side effects.
Smoke testing
It minimizes the integration risk.
Error diagnosis and correction are simplified.

19. Explain in detail about system testing.
System testing
Stress testing
Security testing.
Performance testing

319
UNIT 5:

19.Explain Process and product quality( 8marks)
GThe quality of a developed product is influenced by the quality of the production
process.
GThis is important in software development as some product quality attributes are hard to
assess.
GHowever, there is a very complex and poorly understood relationship between software
processes and product quality.

Process-based quality

GThere is a straightforward link between process and product in manufactured goods.
GMore complex for software because:
The application of individual skills and experience is particularly imporant in software
development;
External factors such as the novelty of an application or the need for an accelerated
development schedule may impair product quality.
GCare must be taken not to impose inappropriate process standards - these could reduce
rather than improve the product quality.

Practical process quality
GDefine process standards such as how reviews should be conducted, configuration
management, etc.
GMonitor the development process to ensure that standards are being followed.
GReport on the process to project management and software procurer.
GDont use inappropriate practices simply because standards have been established.

Quality assurance and standards
GStandards are the key to effective quality management.
GThey may be international, national, organizational or project standards.
GProduct standards define characteristics that all components should exhibit e.g. a
common programming style.
GProcess standards define how the software process should be enacted.

Importance of standards
GEncapsulation of best practice- avoids repetition of past mistakes.
320
GThey are a framework for quality assurance processes - they involve checking
compliance to standards.
GThey provide continuity - new staff can understand the organisation by understanding
the standards that are used.

Product and process standards
Problems with standards
GThey may not be seen as relevant and up-to-date by software engineers.
GThey often involve too much bureaucratic form filling.
GIf they are unsupported by software tools, tedious manual work is often involved to
maintain the documentation associated with the standards.

Standards development
GInvolve practitioners in development. Engineers should understand the rationale
underlying a standard.
GReview standards and their usage regularly. Standards can quickly become outdated
and this reduces their credibility amongst practitioners.
GDetailed standards should have associated tool support. Excessive clerical work is the
most significant complaint against standards.

20. Explain ISO 9000 and Documentation Standard
ISO 9000
GAn international set of standards for quality management.
GApplicable to a range of organisations from manufacturing to service industries.
GISO 9001 applicable to organisations which design, develop and maintain products.
GISO 9001 is a generic model of the quality process that must be instantiated for each
organisation using the standard.

ISO 9000 certification
GQuality standards and procedures should be documented in an organisational quality
manual.
GAn external body may certify that an organisations quality manual conforms to ISO
9000 standards.
GSome customers require suppliers to be ISO 9000 certified although the need for
flexibility here is increasingly recognised.
ISO 9000 and quality management
321

Documentation standards
GParticularly important - documents are the tangible manifestation of the software.
GDocumentation process standards
Concerned with how documents should be developed, validated and maintained.
GDocument standards
Concerned with document contents, structure, and appearance.
GDocument interchange standards
Concerned with the compatibility of electronic documents.

Documentation process

Document standards
GDocument identification standards
How documents are uniquely identified.
322
GDocument structure standards
Standard structure for project documents.
GDocument presentation standards
Define fonts and styles, use of logos, etc.
GDocument update standards
Define how changes from previous versions are reflected in a document.

Document interchange standards
GInterchange standards allow electronic documents to be exchanged, mailed, etc.
GDocuments are produced using different systems and on different computers. Even when
standard tools are used, standards are needed to define conventions for their use e.g. use
of style sheets and macros.
GNeed for archiving. The lifetime of word processing systems may be much less than the
lifetime of the software being documented. An archiving standard may be defined to
ensure that the document can be accessed in future.

21. Explain the quality control.
Quality control
GThis involves checking the software development process to ensure that procedures and
standards are being followed.
GThere are two approaches to quality control
Quality reviews;
Automated software assessment and software measurement.
Quality reviews
GThis is the principal method of validating the quality of a process or of a product.
GA group examines part or all of a process or system and its documentation to find
potential problems.
GThere are different types of review with different objectives
Inspections for defect removal (product);
Reviews for progress assessment (product and process);
Quality reviews (product and standards).
Types of review

Review type Principal purpose
Design or
program
inspections
To detect detailed errors in the requirements, design or code. A
checklist of possible errors should drive the review.
Progress reviews To provide information for management about the overall progress
of the project. This is both a process and a product review and is
concerned with costs, plans and schedules.
323
Quality reviews To carry out a technical analysis of product components or
documentation to find mismatches between the specification and the
component design, code or documentation and to ensure that
defined quality standards have been followed.

Quality reviews
GA group of people carefully examine part or all of a software system and its associated
documentation.
GCode, designs, specifications, test plans, standards, etc. can all be reviewed.
GSoftware or documents may be 'signed off' at a review which signifies that progress to
the next development stage has been approved by management.
Review functions
GQuality function - they are part of the general quality management process.
GProject management function - they provide information for project managers.
GTraining and communication function - product knowledge is passed between
development team members.
Quality reviews
GThe objective is the discovery of system defects and inconsistencies.
GAny documents produced in the process may be reviewed.
GReview teams should be relatively small and reviews should be fairly short.
GRecords should always be maintained of quality reviews.
Review results
GComments made during the review should be classified
No action. No change to the software or documentation is required;
Refer for repair. Designer or programmer should correct an identified fault;
Reconsider overall design. The problem identified in the review impacts other parts of
the design. Some overall judgement must be made about the most cost-effective way of
solving the problem;
GRequirements and specification errors may have to be referred to the client.

22.Explain Software measurement and metrics
Software measurement and metrics
GSoftware measurement is concerned with deriving a numeric value for an attribute of a
software product or process.
GThis allows for objective comparisons between techniques and processes.
GAlthough some companies have introduced measurement programmes, most
organisations still dont make systematic use of software measurement.
GThere are few established standards in this area.

Software metric
GAny type of measurement which relates to a software system, process or related
documentation
Lines of code in a program, the Fog index, number of person-days required to develop a
component.
GAllow the software and the software process to be quantified.
GMay be used to predict product attributes or to control the software process.
324
GProduct metrics can be used for general predictions or to identify anomalous
components.
Predictor and control metrics

Metrics assumptions
GA software property can be measured.
GThe relationship exists between what we can measure and what we want to know. We
can only measure internal attributes but are often more interested in external software
attributes.
GThis relationship has been formalised and validated.
GIt may be difficult to relate what can be measured to desirable external quality attributes.
Internal and external attributes

The measurement process
GA software measurement process may be part of a quality control process.
GData collected during this process should be maintained as an organisational resource.
GOnce a measurement database has been established, comparisons across projects
become possible.
Product measurement process
325

Data collection
GA metrics programme should be based on a set of product and process data.
GData should be collected immediately (not in retrospect) and, if possible, automatically.
GThree types of automatic data collection
Static product analysis;
Dynamic product analysis;
Process data collation.
Data accuracy
GDont collect unnecessary data
The questions to be answered should be decided in advance and the required data
identified.
GTell people why the data is being collected.
It should not be part of personnel evaluation.
GDont rely on memory
Collect data when it is generated not after a project has finished.
Product metrics
GA quality metric should be a predictor of product quality.
GClasses of product metric
Dynamic metrics which are collected by measurements made of a program in execution;
Static metrics which are collected by measurements made of the system representations;
Dynamic metrics help assess efficiency and reliability; static metrics help assess
Dynamic and static metrics
GDynamic metrics are closely related to software quality attributes
It is relatively easy to measure the response time of a system (performance attribute) or
the number of failures (reliability attribute).
GStatic metrics have an indirect relationship with quality attributes
You need to try and derive a relationship between these metrics and properties such as

Software product metrics
Software metric Description
326
Fan in/Fan-out Fan-in is a measure of the number of functions or methods that call
some other function or method (say X). Fan-out is the number of
functions that are called by function X. A high value for fan-in means
that X is tightly coupled to the rest of the design and changes to X
will have extensive knock-on effects. A high value for fan-out
suggests that the overall complexity of X may be high because of the
complexity of the control logic needed to coordinate the called
components.
Length of code This is a measure of the size of a program. Generally, the larger the
size of the code of a component, the more complex and error-prone
that component is likely to be. Length of code has been shown to be
one of the most reliable metrics for predicting error-proneness in
components.
Cyclomatic complexity This is a measure of the control complexity of a program. This control
complexity may be related to program understandability. I discuss
how to compute cyclomatic complexity in Chapter 22.
Length of identifiers This is a measure of the average length of distinct identifiers in a
program. The longer the identifiers, the more likely they are to be
meaningful and hence the more understandable the program.
Depth of conditional
nesting
This is a measure of the depth of nesting of if-statements in a
program. Deeply nested if statements are hard to understand and are
potentially error-prone.
Fog index This is a measure of the average length of words and sentences in
documents. The higher the value for the Fog index, the more difficult
the document is to understand.

Object-oriented metrics

Object-oriented
metric
Description
Depth of inheritance tree This represents the number of discrete levels in the inheritance
tree where sub-classes inherit attributes and operations (methods)
from super-classes. The deeper the inheritance tree, the more
complex the design. Many different object classes may have to be
understood to understand the object classes at the leaves of the
tree.
Method fan-in/fan-out This is directly related to fan-in and fan-out as described above
and means essentially the same thing. However, it may be
appropriate to make a distinction between calls from other
methods within the object and calls from external methods.
Weighted methods per
class
This is the number of methods that are included in a class
weighted by the complexity of each method. Therefore, a simple
method may have a complexity of 1 and a large and complex
method a much higher value. The larger the value for this metric,
the more complex the object class. Complex objects are more
327
likely to be more difficult to understand. They may not be
logically cohesive so cannot be reused effectively as super-
classes in an inheritance tree.
Number of overriding
operations
This is the number of operations in a super-class that are over-
ridden in a sub-class. A high value for this metric indicates that
the super-class used may not be an appropriate parent for the sub-
class.

Measurement analysis
GIt is not always obvious what data means
Analysing collected data is very difficult.
GProfessional statisticians should be consulted if available.
GData analysis must take local circumstances into account.
Measurement surprises
GReducing the number of faults in a program leads to an increased number of help desk
calls
The program is now thought of as more reliable and so has a wider more diverse market.
The percentage of users who call the help desk may have decreased but the total may
increase;
A more reliable system is used in a different way from a system where users work
around the faults. This leads to more help desk calls.
23.Explain process improvement stages.

Process improvement stages
GProcess measurement
Attributes of the current process are measured. These are a baseline for assessing
improvements.
GProcess analysis
The current process is assessed and bottlenecks and weaknesses are identified.
GProcess change
Changes to the process that have been identified during the analysis are introduced.
Process measurement
GWherever possible, quantitative process data should be collected
However, where organisations do not have clearly defined process standards this is very
difficult as you dont know what to measure. A process may have to be defined before
any measurement is possible.
GProcess measurements should be used to assess process improvements
But this does not mean that measurements should drive the improvements. The
improvement driver should be the organizational objectives.
Classes of process measurement
GTime taken for process activities to be completed
E.g. Calendar time or effort to complete an activity or process.
GResources required for processes or activities
E.g. Total effort in person-days.
GNumber of occurrences of a particular event
E.g. Number of defects discovered.
328
Goal-Question-Metric Paradigm
GGoals
What is the organisation trying to achieve? The objective of process improvement is to
satisfy these goals.
GQuestions
Questions about areas of uncertainty related to the goals. You need process knowledge
to derive these.
GMetrics
Measurements to be collected to answer the questions.
Process analysis and modelling
GProcess analysis
The study of existing processes to understand the relationships between parts of the
process and to compare them with other processes.
GProcess modelling
The documentation of a process which records the tasks, the roles and the entities used;
Process models may be presented from different perspectives.
Process analysis and modelling
GStudy an existing process to understand its activities.
GProduce an abstract model of the process. You should normally represent this
graphically. Several different views (e.g. activities, deliverables, etc.) may be required.
GAnalyse the model to discover process
problems. This involves discussing process activities with stakeholders and discovering
problems and possible process changes.
Process analysis techniques
GPublished process models and process
standards
It is always best to start process analysis with an existing model. People then may extend
and change this.
GQuestionnaires and interviews
Must be carefully designed. Participants may tell you what they think you want to hear.
GEthnographic analysis
Involves assimilating process knowledge by observation. Best for in-depth analysis of
process fragments rather than for whole-process understanding.

The module testing activity

329
Activities in module testing

Process exceptions
GSoftware processes are complex and process models cannot effectively represent how to
handle exceptions:
Several key people becoming ill just before a critical review;
A breach of security that means all external communications are out of action for several
days;
Organisational reorganisation;
A need to respond to an unanticipated request for new proposals.
GUnder these circumstances, the model is suspended and managers use their initiative to
deal with the exception.
Process change
GInvolves making modifications to existing processes.
GThis may involve:
Introducing new practices, methods or processes;
Changing the ordering of process activities;
Introducing or removing deliverables;
Introducing new roles or responsibilities.
GChange should be driven by measurable goals.
The process change process

330

Process change stages
GImprovement identification.
GImprovement prioritisation.
GProcess change introduction.
GProcess change training.
GChange tuning.

24.Explain CMMI.
The CMMI framework
GThe CMMI framework is the current stage of work on process assessment and
improvement that started at the Software Engineering Institute in the 1980s.
GThe SEIs mission is to promote software technology transfer particularly to US defence
contractors.
GIt has had a profound influence on process improvement
Capability Maturity Model introduced in the early 1990s.
Revised maturity framework (CMMI) introduced in 2001.

The CMMI model
GAn integrated capability model that includes software and systems engineering
capability assessment.
GThe model has two instantiations
Staged where the model is expressed in terms of capability levels;
Continuous where a capability rating is computed.
CMMI model components
GProcess areas
24 process areas that are relevant to process capability and improvement are
identified. These are organised into 4 groups.
GGoals
Goals are descriptions of desirable organisational states. Each process area has
associated goals.
GPractices
Practices are ways of achieving a goal - however, they are advisory and other
approaches to achieve the goal may be used.
CMMI process areas 1

331
Process management Organisational process definition
Organisational process focus
Organisational training
Organisational process performance
Organisational innovation and deployment
Project management Project planning
Project monitoring and control
Supplier agreement management
Integrated project management
Risk management
Integrated teaming
Quantitative project management

CMMI process areas 2

Engineering Requirements management
Requirements development
Technical solution
Product integration
Verification
Validation
Support Configuration management
Process and product quality management
Measurement and analysis
Decision analysis and resolution
Organisational environment for integration
Causal analysis and resolution

CMMI goals

Goal Process area
Corrective actions are managed to
closure when the projects performance
or results deviate significantly from the
plan.
Specific goal in Project
Monitoring and Control
Actual performance and progress of the
project is monitored against the project
plan.
Specific goal in project
monitoring and control
The requirements are analyzed and
validated and a definition of the required
functionality is developed.
Specific goal in requirements
development.
Root causes of defects and other
problems are systematically determined.
Specific goal in causal analysis
and resolution.
The process is institutionalized as a Generic goal
332
defined process.

CMMI practices

Practice Associated goal
Analyse derived requirements to ensure that they are
necessary and sufficient
The requirements are analysed and
validated and a definition of the
required functionality is developed.
Validate requirements to ensure that the resulting
product will perform as intended in the users
environment using multiple techniques as
appropriate.
Select the defects and other problems for analysis. Root causes of defects and other
problems are systematically determined.
Perform causal analysis of selected defects and other
problems and propose actions to address them.
Establish and maintain an organisational policy for
planning and performing the requirements
development process.
The process is institutionalised as a
defined process.
Assign responsibility and authority for performing
the process, developing the work products and
providing the services of the requirements
development process.

CMMI assessment
GExamines the processes used in an organisation and assesses their maturity in each
process area.
GBased on a 6-point scale:
Not performed;
Performed;
Managed;
Defined;
Quantitatively managed;
Optimizing.

The staged CMMI model
GComparable with the software CMM.
GEach maturity level has process areas and goals. For example, the process area
associated with the managed level include:
Requirements management;
Project planning;
Project monitoring and control;
Supplier agreement management;
Measurement and analysis;
333
Process and product quality assurance.
The staged CMMI model

Institutional practices
GInstitutions operating at the managed level should have institutionalised practices that
are geared to standardisation.
Establish and maintain policy for performing the project management process;
Provide adequate resources for performing the project management process;
Monitor and control the project planning process;
Review the activities, status and results of the project planning process.

The continuous CMMI model
GThis is a finer-grain model that considers individual or groups of practices and assesses
their use.
GThe maturity assessment is not a single value but is a set of values showing the
organisations maturity in each area.
GThe CMMI rates each process area from levels 1 to 5.
GThe advantage of a continuous approach is that organisations can pick and choose
process areas to improve according to their local needs.
A process capability profile

334

25. Explain in detail about SCM.
Software Configuration Management is an umbrella activity that is applied throughout
the software process.

SCM Activities
Identify change.
Control change.
Ensure the change is properly implemented.
Report change to others.
Need for SCM
When you build computer software change happens, you need to control it effectively.
SCI

335

MODEL QUESTION PAPER
SOFTWARE ENGINEERING
Time : Three hours Maximum : 100 marks
PART A - (10 x 2 = 20 marks)

1. Distinguish between Verification and Validation?
2. Define a system and computer-based system?
3. What is cardinality and modality?
4. Create a data dictionary that provides with a precise definition of telephone number, it
should indicate, where and how this data item is used and any supplementary information
that is relevant to it?
5. What is an architectural style?
6. Describe principles of management?
7. Define Cyclomatic complexity?
8. Difference between White box and Black box testing?
9. List out any two functions of a CASE tool?
10. What is reverse engineering?

PART B - (5 x 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) Explain the spiral model? 'What are the task regions in the spiral model?
Or
(b) Explain the system engineering hierarchy? What does a System Engineering model
accomplish?
12. (a) Explain software prototyping? What are the various prototyping methods and tools?
OR
(b) Explain with example diagram the functional and behavioral modeling.

13. (a) Describe Transform and Transactional mapping by applying design steps to an
example system.
OR
(b) Explain Architecture styles.(8)
(ii) Explain the two qualitative criteria - Coupling and Cohesion. (8)

14. (a) (i) Explain cyclomatic complexity. (8)
(ii) Explain integration testing. (8)
OR
(b) Explain the various types of black-box testing methods.

15. Explain in detail about SCM.
OR
Explain CMMI.

336

337

15. Explain ISO 9000 and Documentation Standard
OR
Explain the quality control

PQT Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PQT Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PQT Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1

JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE

=1 ) ( j p where j represents all possible values that x can have

You might also like