Basic Engine Edition (Common to all work ranks)

Structure of Textbook

Basics of an Engine 1. Chapter 1 Basics of an Engine 2. Chapter 5 Cooling System 3. Chapter 8 Lubrication System 4. Chapter 9 Electronic System of an Engine 5. Chapter 11 Other Units Performance of an Engine 6. Chapter 1 Performance of an Engine 7. Chapter 4 Diesel Engine 8. Chapter 5 LPG Engine

Chapter 1 Basics of an Engine

1. Internal Combustion Engine: An Overview
As an example of automobiles having engines utilizing thermal energy, the steam engine (external combustion engine) was used previously. However, from the viewpoint of performance, safety, ease of handling, etc., it has been gradually replaced by internal combustion engines using petroleum as fuel; and at present, the internal combustion engine forms the mainstream of engines driving automobiles. The internal combustion engine basically utilizes thermal energy as a driving power and converts it to mechanical energy, and it is considered that the engine made by Gottlieb Daimler in 1885 was the first gasoline engine for use in automobiles. Since then, the gasoline engine has greatly improved aiming to realize small-sizing and high performance. Especially, from the technological viewpoint, recent innovations in the exhaust emission control system and energy saving technology have established great milestones in the development history of gasoline engines through fundamental renovation of engine itself as well as introduction of newer ideas and mechanisms. There are different types of gasoline engines include reciprocal type (reciprocal engine) and rotary type (rotary engine, gas turbine engine, etc.); however, in this document, the reciprocal engine will be mainly described.

2. Types of engines used in automobiles

The engines used in automobiles can be categorized into the following types depending on the fuel utilized. 1) Gasoline engine Using gasoline as fuel, this type is widely employed in passenger vehicles and small trucks because of its compact, high-revolution, high-power, and light-weight nature. 2) Diesel engine Using diesel oil (light oil) as fuel, this type is mostly employed in buses and big trucks that require economic efficiency because this type consumes less fuel and diesel oil and is less expensive than gasoline. Although small diesel engines are utilized in a few passenger vehicles, they fall short in highrevolution, power, weight, and noise, etc. when compared to gasoline engines. 3) Gas engine Using LP gas or natural gas as fuel, this type is widely used in taxis because it works with high fuel efficiency even though the output power is lower than gasoline engines.

3Features required for an engine

(1) Output power Its needless to say that high power is better. Even if power is not completely used, remaining power becomes a margin. (2) Driveability An engine that operates smoothly over the whole range of engine speed and is easy-todrive is enjoyable for drivers. (3) Durability Even if the other features of an engine are excellent, it is useless if it breaks down easily.

(4) Maintainability It is not good if there is no room to insert hands into the engine room for adjusting or fixing it. An engine that requires frequent adjustment is also bad. Too narrow!

(5) Light weight A compact and light weight engine is required for good driving performance and gas mileage.

(6) Design For the present and future engines, high level performance as well as visual appeal is required.

(7) Calmness It is needless to say that noise and vibration of an engine should be low.

(8) Cost Even if an engine is excellent, it poses a problem if it is too expensive.

(9) Economic efficiency Economic efficiency of maintenance, including gas and mileage is an important factor for engines used in vehicles.

In addition, it also requires an appropriate balance of these conditions. * VG-type engine VG-type engine is an excellent V-type, 6-cylinder engine developed by Nissan to obtain highperformance and calmness features applicable for small-to-mid range passenger vehicles while improving gas mileage and being small-sized and light-weight in order to meet the demands of todays resource/energy saving age.

4. Operation principle of a gasoline engine

1) Reciprocal engine
Piston

Gasoline engines intake gasoline-air-mixed gas that is compressed and exploded by electric spark inside a cylinder, and the pressure generated by this rapid fuel combustion is transferred to the piston to make the crank-shaft rotate. * Reciprocal engine converts reciprocal motion of the piston caused by explosive combustion of fuel-air-mixed gas to rotational motion of crank-shaft to generate the driving power. (1) 4-cycle engine A case when the piston is at the highest position inside the cylinder is called top dead center and a case when the piston is at the lowest position inside the cylinder is called bottom dead center. The distance covered by the piston while moving between the top dead center and the bottom dead center positions is called stroke. When the piston is at the top dead center, the remaining room in the cylinder is called combustion chamber. In order to operate the engine continuously, it is necessary to repeat a series of actions in a fixed order. That is, this type of engine intakes mixed-air into the cylinder, compresses it, explodes the compressed gas, and finally, discharges the combusted gas outside the cylinder. In this way, a series of actions comprising intake, compression, combustion, and exhaustion are repeated. This process is called cycle. A 4-cycle engine is an engine in which 1 cycle is completed by 4 strokes of the pistons motion, or by 2 rotations of the crankshafts motion.

Con rod

Crankshaft

Rotation of engine

Combustion room Top dead center Stroke

Bottom dead center

Top dead center and bottom dead center

Intake

Exhaustion

Compression

Combustion

1 cycle of engine

(2) Operation of a 4-cycle engine (i) Intake process As shown in Fig-1, when an intake valve is opened, the piston goes down and negative pressure is generated inside the cylinder due to which fuel-air-mixed gas is sucked into the cylinder. In order to increase the intake efficiency of the mixed-gas, the intake valve is opened before the piston reaches to the top dead center and closed after the piston passes the bottom dead center. In this process, the piston moves 1 stroke, and the crankshaft completes 1/2 rotation. (ii) Compression process As shown in Fig-2, in this process, exhaust valve remains closed. When the intake valve is closed and the piston goes upward, the mixed-gas is compressed inside the cylinder and the pressure increases. The fuel produced by the mixed-gas is completely vaporized by the increased temperature due to high pressure. By the end of this process, the piston has moved 2 strokes and the crankshaft has completed 1 rotation. (iii) Explosion (combustion) process As shown in Fig-3, in this process, mixed-gas combustion is induced by ignition by the spark plug, and the combusted and inflated gas due to the rapidly increased temperature and pressure presses the piston downward to rotate the crankshaft. By the end of this process, the piston has moved 3 strokes, and the crankshaft has completes 1.5 rotations. Power is actually generated only in this process. (iv) Exhaustion process As shown in Fig-4, in this process, the exhaust valve is opened. When the piston goes upward, combusted gas is exhausted from the cylinder by the piston. When the ascent of piston is almost stopped, next intake of mixed-gas begins. Here, in order to speed-up the exhaustion of combusted gas, the exhaust valve is opened before the piston reaches to the bottom dead center and closed just after the piston passes the top dead center. By the end of this process, the piston has moved 4 strokes, and the crankshaft has completed 2 rotations. During all other processes other than combustion process, the piston moves up and down due to the inertial force of the flywheel.

Intakevalve

Mixed air Piston

Cylinder

Fig-1 Operation of a 4-cycle engine (Intake)

Exhaust valve

Fig-2 Operation of a 4-cycle engine (compression)

Spark plug

Connecting rod

Crankshaft

Fig-3 Operation of 4-cycle engine (Combustion)

Exhaust valve

Exhaust gas

Fig-4 Operation of a 4-cycle engine (exhaustion)

(3) Valve timing of a 4-cycle engine Top dead center Inlet valve opened Exhaust valve closed Valve timing means the open/close timing of the valve for each piston stroke. Intake valve opens before mixed-gas absorption, or before the piston reaches the top dead center and closes after the inlet process, or some time after the piston passes the bottom dead center. This is to enable absorption of as much gas as possible into the cylinder by utilizing the inertia of inhalation. Inlet valve Bottom dead Exhaust valve opened Exhaustion valve is opened before the exhaustion process, closed center Relation between valve timing and or before the piston reaches the bottom dead center to stroke in a 4-cycle engine rapidly exhaust the combusted gas, and it is closed just after the exhaustion process is finished and the inlet process begins, or just after the piston passes the top dead center. (4) 2-cycle engine A 2-cycle engine completes 1 cycle with 2 strokes of piston movement or 1 rotation of crankshaft. Since the number of times of combustion is more, engine structure is simpler, and it is smaller and lighter, as well as can possibly generate a higher power compared to a 4-cycle engine with a similar cylinder capacity. A 2-cycle engine is used in light motor vehicles and motorcycles as a compact engine.
Scavenging hole Exhaust hole Spark plug

Lead valve

Crankcase (1) Scavenging (2) Compression (3) Combustion (4) Exhaustion Operation of a 2-cycle engine

(5) Operation of a 2-cycle engine (i) Scavenging and inhaling process Scavenging (inhaling) port and exhaust port are closed, and the piston goes upward. At this time, the pressure within the crank chamber decreases, and when this negative pressure overcomes the reactive force of the lead valve, the intake valve opens and mixed-gas flows into the crank chamber. On the other hand, mixed-gas within the cylinder is in the compression process. (ii) Compression process Compressed mixed-gas is ignited by the spark plug slightly before the piston reaches the top dead center, and high-pressure gas generated by the combustion presses down the piston. On the other hand, as the piston goes down, the gas within the crank chamber is compressed. (The lead valve is closed by this pressure and prevents the backward flow of the gas.)

(iii) Explosion process The piston goes down and the exhaustion port is opened to discharge the combustion gas. (iv) Exhaustion process When the piston goes down further and the scavenging (inhaling) port is opened, mixed-gas from the crank chamber flows into the cylinder from this port and fills the cylinder chamber while scavenging the residual combustion gas to the exhaust port. This gas exchanging cycle is completed when the piston passes the bottom dead center, goes upward, closes the exhaustion port again, and returns to the start point.

5. Specifications and units of an engine

In this chapter, of the specifications of an engine listed in the catalog, air volume displacement, compression ratio, output power, torque, and gas mileage are described. 1) Air volume displacement As shown in the diagram, air volume displacement is defined as the volume of gas that is discharged while the piston moves from the top dead center to the bottom dead center. A value obtained by multiplying the number of cylinders to this volume is called total piston displacement and is denoted by cc. Total piston displacement is expressed by following formula:

Top dead center

Bottom dead center

Total piston displacement =

Air volume displacement

Where, V (cc) is the air volume displacement, D (cm) is inner diameter, L (cm) is the stroke, and N is the number of cylinders. [Example] In a situation when D is 73.6 mm, L is 88 mm, and N is 4, total piston displacement is given as: Total piston displacement (cc) =

2) Compression ratio As shown in this diagram, compression is the ratio of the volume present above the piston when it is at the bottom dead center to the volume present above the piston when it is at the top dead center. The volume present above the piston when it is at the top dead center is called combustion chamber volume. The volume present above the piston when it is at the bottom dead center corresponds to the sum of air volume displacement and combustion chamber volume. Compression ratio is given by the following expression: V+N Compression ratio (P) = v

Top dead center

Bottom dead center

Compression ratio

Where, P is Compression ratio, V (cc) is air volume displacement, and v (cc) is combustion chamber volume. [Example] In a case when V is 374 cc and v is 45 cc, the total piston displacement is given as: 374 + 45 P= 9.3 45 When mixed-gas is combusted, its pressure varies depending on the degree of compression. In order to obtain enough rotation power, the compression ratio should be set rather higher so as to obtain higher combustion gas pressure. By making the combustion gas pressure high, it becomes possible to increase the output power in the case with the same amount of mixed-gas; that is, to make thermal efficiency higher. 3) Torque and horse power Torque is a force required to rotate something; that is, a rotational power. In the case of bolt tightening with a spanner, the longer the length of the spanner, the smaller is the tightening force. Torque is given as the product of the length of spanner and applied force. (1) Torque (rotational power) Torque (T) = Force x Length = F (kg) x r (m)
1 Horsepower (PS)

Torque (rotational power)

F(force)

It is expressed in the units of kg-m. Output power is defined as the product of the amount of work and speed. That is, the output power is the amount of work done per unit time and is expressed in

1m 1s

Torque and Horsepower

horsepower in the case of engines. One horsepower corresponds to the amount of power that can move something by 1 m/s with a force of 75 kg.

(1) Air-fuel ratio Ratio of air to fuel required for combustion is called air-fuel ratio, which is denoted by a weight ratio and not by volume ratio as shown in the following expression. Perfect combustion Inhaled air (g) Air-fuel ratio = Inhaled fuel (g)

Air 14.7 g

Air is mainly composed of oxygen and nitrogen, each of which exists in the following ratio of weight and volume. Weight ratio Volume ratio (%) (%) Oxygen (O2) 23.2 20.9 Nitrogen (N2) 76.8 79.1

Fuel

Theoretical air-fuel ratio

Theoretically, to make 1 g of gasoline to combust perfectly, 14.7 g of air is required. Air-fuel ratio at this Economical air-fuel ratio condition is called theoretical air-fuel ratio. An actual engine generally uses various air-fuel ratios corresponding to the driving conditions. Power air-fuel For example, an economical air-fuel ratio is used at ratio normal driving conditions, while a power air-fuel ratio is used at driving conditions requiring power. However, in recent engines, theoretical air-fuel ratio is mostly utilized from comprehensive viewpoint, including usage of 3-way catalyst, exhaust emission regulation, or gas mileage, etc. When air and fuel are mixed perfectly, mixed-gas can be Economical air-fuel ratio and Power air-fuel ratio perfectly combusted at an air-fuel ratio of 14.7. However, Strong Power air-fuel ratio since it is not possible to realize perfect and uniform Torque Theoretical air-fuel ratio mixing of air and fuel in actual engines, quasi-perfect (kg-m) combustion is realized by increasing the amount of air by Torque Economical 10% more than the theoretical air-fuel ratio. This ratio air-fuel Specific fuel consumption Specific fuel (approximately 16) is called economical air-fuel ratio. consumption (g/PS-h) High (dense) Air-fuel ratio Low (thin) Power air-fuel ratio is an air-fuel ratio at which (approximately 12.5) maximum power can be obtained Air-fuel ratio and Torque by increasing the amount of fuel by 20% more than the theoretical air-fuel ratio. Incidentally, possible air-fuel ratio of combustible gasoline is generally in range of 810.

(2) Ignitability and inflammability When fuel is heated in air atmosphere, it is naturally ignited and combusted at some temperature without the need of Gasoline Light-oil an external flame or electric spark. This nature of fuel is Diesel engine called ignitability, and the temperature at which it gets ignited naturally is called ignition temperature or firing point. As shown in the diagram, when light-oil and gasoline are dropped on a heated iron plate, light-oil combusts instantaneously, whereas gasoline does not combust that Heated iron plate faster. This is because of the difference in ignition Ignitability and inflammability temperature between light-oil and gasoline, which is 350C and 550C, respectively. Diesel engine was developed by focusing attention to this fact that ignition temperature of light-oil is low. While heating fuel in air, vapor is heavily generated, and by an additional flame or electric spark this vapor gets ignited and begins to combust. This nature is called inflammability and the temperature at which ignition takes place is called inflammation point. Inflammation points of gasoline and light-oil are lower than -40C and higher than 50C, respectively. Therefore, gasoline is easily ignited at normal room temperature. 2) Combustion of a gasoline engine (1) Normal combustion When mixed-gas inhaled and compressed inside a cylinder is ignited by an electric spark, initially combustion starts at the ignited position and when this flash point grows to some extent, combustion will rapidly expand to the whole chamber and the pressure will reach maximum level. The time delay from the point of ignition to actual inflammation is called ignition lag. The adjacent figure shows a relation between the rotation angle of crankshaft and pressure inside a cylinder in a gasoline engine. When mixed-gas is ignited at point-A, flame is generated at point-B, and it expands rapidly within the cylinder. Pressure and temperature are rapidly increased and reach maximum levels at point-C, and then, combustion finishes at point-D. (Time lag between the points A and B is called ignition lag) If we look virtually inside the cylinder, we will see that the flame surface expands radially starting from the spark plug as shown in this Figure. The speed with which the flame expands is called combustion speed. This speed is generally 1525 m/sec.

High

Pressure within a cylinder

When not ignited

Crankshaft angle

Compression top dead center

Firing pressure within a cylinder

Spark plug

Piston

Firing pressure within a cylinder

(2) Abnormal combustion (i) Knocking In a gasoline engine, when we quickly accelerate the speed or charge excess load on the engine to go up steep Combustion speed at knocking state 1,000 m/sec slope, we may sometimes hear a sound such as the one that is generated when a cylinder is knocked with a hammer. This phenomenon is called knocking. Loss of energy Kin Kin Low gas Knocking occurs due to the following reason. When mixedmileage gas is compressed and ignited naturally by the high temperature and high pressure of the combusted gas before the flame plane is fully expanded within the combustion chamber after ignition, the pressure wave generated knocks the cylinder wall or piston head and Knocking produces a metallic sound. Inhaling temperature Ignition timing Air-fuel ratio When the knocking occurs heavily, since pressure and Cooling water EGR temperature increase rapidly, piston head, head gasket, or valve may get damaged. The common methods for avoiding knocking are as follows: To lower compression ratio Knocking To use high-octane fuel* To delay ignition timing In addition, knocking may occur due to other causes such as inadequacies of air-fuel ratio, inhaled air temperature, cooling water temperature, and amount of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), etc. * Octane rating is a value showing an anti-knocking capability of gasoline. The higher this value, the lesser is the knocking.

(ii) Pre-ignition Mixed-gas may unexpectedly get ignited by hot areas inside the combustion chamber such as top edge of Engine doesnt stop! spark plug or exhaust valve before it is ignited by the Why? spark plug. This phenomenon is called pre-ignition. Although it resembles the knocking phenomenon in that Broon Brroon mixed air is ignited naturally by increased temperature pre-ignition differs in that mixed-gas is ignited spontaneously before the ignition produced by a spark plug. Run on In case an engine enters into the pre-ignition state when ignition was stopped by turning off the key switch, the engine may not stop and continue to rotate. This status is called run on.

(iii) Backfiring A phenomenon when mixed-gas in an inlet pipe is ignited and combusted by flames blown back from the cylinder is called backfiring. This is an abnormal combustion phenomenon that is generated in such a way that mixed-gas in an inlet pipe is ignited and combusted by the combusted gas blown back from a cylinder at the time when the inlet- and exhaustvalve open incorrectly or when combustion continues for a longer time since the mixed-gas is thin.

Backfiring (within inlet pipe)

High speed combustion gas

Afterburning (within exhaust pipe)

(iv) Afterburning When the mixed-gas is too thin or too little, it may not be ignited within the cylinder but may be combusted within the exhaust pipe. This phenomenon is called afterburning. In adverse cases of afterburning, a loud sound may be generated, and when it occurs within a muffler, the muffler may get damaged.

Backfiring and Afterburning

2. Cylinder and Cylinder Block

A cylinder comprises a combustion chamber, cylinder head, and piston, in which the piston moves reciprocally. Inside the cylinder is a part in which the piston moves reciprocally to generate power, to which the most complex force is applied, compared to any other parts of the engine. This structure is most heavily affected by pressure and temperature generated due to combusted gas. A structure consisting of cylinder, cooling water conduit, oil conduit, and crankshaft bearing is called cylinder block.

VG cylinder block

1) Cylinder (1) Categorization by liner There are 2 types of cylinders, one is of the liner type in which a liner (cylinder) is pressed into the cylinder block, and another is a monocoque type in which the cylinder block is directly molded. (i) Liner type Liner type is used in diesel engine and Al-alloy cylinder block, etc. that require wear proof capability of cylinders. There is a wet-liner type in which the outer surface of the liner contacts with water, and a dry-liner type in which the outer surface does not contact with water. (MAC-type engine is used in the dry-liner type, and FDtype engine is used in the wet-liner type) (ii) Monocoque type Most gasoline engines and some diesel engines use the monocoque-type cylinder that is manufactured by processing a single steel cylinder block itself. (CA, RB, VG engine, etc.)
Monocoque type Liner type

Cylinder

(2) Categorization on the basis of cylinder arrangement On the basis of the typical arrangement of cylinders, they are classified as series type, V type, and horizontally opposed type, and each type has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Series type

V-type

Horizontally opposed type

Types of cylinder arrangement (i) Series type This is the most common type of engines in which cylinders are arranged in line. The width of the engine is rather narrow, and the total length becomes longer depending on the number of cylinders. (e.g., CA and RB type engine) (ii) V type Since cylinders are arranged in V shape, V-type engines are compact as compared to the series-type engines even if a number of cylinders are accommodated. (e.g., VG and VH type engine) (iii) Horizontally opposed type In this type of engines, cylinders are arranged horizontally, opposing to each other, and centering around the crankshaft. Height of an engine can be lowered, but it is wider. It is a feature of this type of engine that generates less vibration than the other types.

2) Cylinder block Name and role of each part of a cylinder block are shown in this diagram.
Cylinder head tightening hole Oil gallery Cylinder bore

Cooling water path (water jacket)

Water pump mounting position

Reinforcing rib Crankshaft bearing part

Cylinder block

Water jacket Cooling water path for lowering the heat generated by an engine. Oil gallery Lubrication oil path for replenishing oil that is soaked up by an oil pump. Crankshaft bearing part Holds the crankshaft using bearing. Besides the abovementioned elements, an engine is composed of other elements such as oil-panmounting part, oil-level-gauge-mounting part, distributor-mounting part, fuel-pump-mounting part, water-pump-mounting part, oil-filter-mounting part, etc. (In some engines, these elements are mounted as separate parts other than the cylinder block.)

3) Category of cylinder blocks Cylinder block can be categorized into deep-skirt type and half-skirt type depending on the position of the blocks bottom. (1) Deep-skirt type Since the strength in the longitudinal direction of such cylinder block is higher, this type is used in many engines. (GA, RB type engine, etc.) (2) Half-skirt type This type has an advantage that it is light in weight. (CA, VG type engine, etc.)
Deep-skirt type Half-skirt type

Types of cylinder block

3. Cylinder head
The cylinder head is mounted on the upper surface of a cylinder block. The combustion chamber consists of the cylinder head, cylinder, and piston head. The cylinder head has mounting holes for mounting a water jacket, which cools the combustion chamber and its periphery, and has inlet and exhaust ports, intake and exhaust manifolds, and lubrication oil path. The structure of a cylinder head differs greatly Cylinder head depending on the shape of a combustion chamber, position of camshaft, and valve mechanism. The material of cylinder head castings are either of cast iron or aluminum. However, aluminum casting is mostly utilized because of its light-weight feature and good thermal conductivity.

1) Structure of cylinder head (1) Intake port (path for inhaled gas) This is a path for inhaled mixed-gas between the intake manifold and combustion chamber. Its shape is designed such that the gas-flow resistance is as small as possible. (2) Exhaust port (path for exhaust gas) This is a path between the combustion chamber and exhaust manifold through which combusted gas flows out.

Rocker shaft Rocker arm Valve lifter guide Hydraulic valve lifter

Camshaft Intake valve Exhaust valve

Intake port
Structure of a cylinder head

Exhaust port

(3) Valve seat In order to maintain hermetic condition of the combustion chamber together with the valve, which operates within high-temperature and high-pressure environment, the valve seat is made from sintered cast iron or heat resistant steel. This is a seating face for a ring-shaped valve, and is pressed into the cylinder head from the combustion chamber side.

Valve seat

(4) Valve guide Valve guide, in which valve stem slides up and down, is made from sintered iron alloy and pressed into the cylinder head. Since the valve receives a great lateral pressure, it supports this lateral pressure with length corresponding to 6 10 times of the valve stems diameter.

Valve collet Valve spring (inner)

Valve stem Valve spring retainer Valve spring (outer) Oil seal

Valve guide

Water jacket

Valve seat

Valve guide

2) Shape of a combustion chamber Combustion chamber requires a shape that makes it possible to effectively combust mixed-gas. Therefore, in order to completely convert inhaled mixed-gas (fuel is mostly in particle state) to gaseous state, the shape of combustion chamber is designed such that it can generate a swirling current during inlet and compression processes. Since swirling current within the combustion chamber makes combustion of mixed-gas faster and generates higher combustion pressure, it is helpful in generating power effectively in a short time.

Combustion chamber

(i) Bath-tab type

(ii) Wedge type

(iii) Hemisphere type

(iv) Bent-roof type

Shape of combustion chamber

(1) Bath-tab type combustion chamber Bath-tab type chamber is simple in shape, easy to manufacture, and can possibly allow longer movements (length of up/down) of valve. However, since the bend of inlet/exhaust port is large, the efficiency of inhaling and exhaustion becomes relatively low. Therefore, it is not expectable to obtain higher output power. (e.g., TB engine)

5. Piston
In order to execute inlet, compression, explosion, and exhaustion in good condition, it is necessary to seal the piston and cylinder closely at all times for any operation. In addition, materials with low thermal expansion coefficient, structure, and strength that can tolerate high pressure and temperature conditions are required for making the piston. Furthermore, since the piston executes high-speed reciprocal motion, light weight and ideal shape are required to reduce the inertial force. 1) Structure of a piston Basic structure of a piston is shown in this diagram. (1) Ring groove Ring groove is a part in which the piston ring is inserted. The most common type is the 3-groove type. (2) Oil discharging hole Oil discharging hole opens into the oil ring insertion groove. Oil swept down by the piston ring is dropped down to the oil pan through this hole. (3) Skirt Lower part from the center of a piston pin is called skirt.
Pin boss

Light-weight, strength, and low thermal expansion required.

Going to be burned out!

Piston

Ring land

Piston head Ring groove Rib

Oil discharging hole

Skirt

Structure of a piston

The material mostly used for making piston is aluminum alloy. Since thermal expansion is higher, various shapes and structures of pistons have been devised. For example, as shown in Fig-1, since the piston head is heated and it expands greatly, it is designed such that it is smaller than the skirt part. Since the pin boss part has thick walls and thermal expansion of this part is greater than the other parts, as shown in Fig-2, diameter in the pin boss direction is generally less than that of the perpendicular direction (ellipsoid piston).

Short

Long

Shape of piston (1)

Long

Short

Pin boss

Shape of a piston (2)

2) Types of piston Piston can be categorized on the basis of the structure of each part. However, there are no clear and simple categorizations. Instead, all the categorizations are combined. (1) Categorization by shape of skirt

Solid-skirt-type piston

Split-skirt-type piston

Slipper-skirt-type piston

Shape of skirt-type piston

On the basis of the shape of the skirt, there are 3 types of pistons as shown in Table 2-1. At present, slipper-skirt type is mostly utilized. Type Solid-skirt type piston Split-skirt type piston Slipper-skirt type piston Feature Pressure tightness is prioritized rather than thermal expansion. No slits in the skirt part. This type is utilized in severe operating conditions. There is a slit between the ring groove and skirt part to absorb thermal expansion or lateral pressure. Skirt in the pin direction is cut off. Since this is light-weight and has small frictional resistance, this is utilized in most passenger vehicles.

Table 2-1 Categorization on the basis of shape of skirt (2) Categorization on the basis of shape of oil discharging hole Depending on the shape of oil discharging hole, ability to transfer heat from piston head to lower part (skirt part) differs. On the basis of the shape of oil discharging hole, there are 2 types of piston as shown in Table 2-2. Type Feature Slit-type piston Shape of the oil discharging hole is slit-like. Abnormal change in the shape by thermal expansion of piston is Slit-type suppressed by appropriately piston controlling the thermal conduction to the lower part. Thermal-flow-type Shape of the oil discharging Oil Thermal-flow- discharging piston hole is circular. Thermal hole type piston conduction to the lower part is good. In case of engines where the piston head temperature becomes very Shape of oil discharging hole in a piston high, this type of piston is utilized to lower the piston head temperature. Table 2-2 Categorization on the basis of the shape of oil discharging hole 3) Auto-thermic piston This is a piston made from a different alloy of steel which can suppress the thermal expansion of a piston. On the basis of the difference of thermal expansion coefficients between steel and aluminum, this is devised so as to make the shape of piston to become perfect circle in a thermally expanded state.
Auto-thermic piston

a-a cross section

Recently, a piston known as auto-thermatech piston is also used. Although this is similar to autothermic piston in structure, oil ring groove is not slit-like, but is of the drill-hole type. This type has excellent performance, i.e., thermal resistance and noiseless. (4) Offset piston Piston pin position is slightly shifted from the center. Since this is effective to suppress generation of tapping sound of piston, this type is widely utilized.

Offset

Piston pin center line

Piston center line

Offset pin

3) Clearance between piston and cylinder It is necessary to keep a specified clearance (in gasoline engine, 0.030.06 mm) between the piston and cylinder. If this clearance is too small, burn out occurs caused by thermal expansion. While, if clearance is too large, problems such as insufficient compression, bad heat radiation, increase of lubrication oil consumption, or generation of tapping sound on piston may occur. To avoid these troubles, a piston with appropriate outer diameter has to be combined with the inner diameter of cylinders finished inner surface. 4) Material of piston Since the material required for making a piston must have small thermal expansion coefficient and high thermal conductivity, and must be easy-to-process, aluminum alloy is generally utilized. Aluminum alloy that comprises aluminum, copper, silicon, nickel, etc. has good thermal conductivity and is light weight.

Cylinder

Piston clearance 0.030.06 mm

Gap between a piston and cylinder

6. Piston ring
Piston is designed to have a slight clearance against the inner surface of the cylinder considering the thermal expansion that occurs during operation. It is a piston ring that closes this clearance, inhibits compressed mixed-gas and combusted gas leak out from combustion chamber to lower part of cylinder block, and smoothen the inner surface of the cylinder by maintaining an appropriate thickness of oil film. Piston ring having the former role is called compression ring, and that having the latter role is called oil ring. Piston ring also has an important function to transfer heat generated within the piston to the cylinder wall; that is, a heat radiation function to cool the piston. Since the piston ring must always closely contact the inner surface of the cylinder, it is designed so as to generate a force (tensile force) that pushes itself to the inner surface of the cylinder. Hence, the piston ring must have the following features. should not be easily worn out should not abrade cylinder wall should be able to transfer heat properly to the cylinder wall to suppress thermal expansion of the piston should have a small thermal expansion coefficient should fit rapidly with the cylinder wall and have good hermetic ability should not generate change of tensile force during longer operation times should not get damaged by the substances generated during combustion should not cause oil shortage even at startup time when oil is not supplied

Top ring

Compression

Second ring ring

Oil ring

Piston rings role

Piston ring

1) Shape of a piston ring (1) Compression ring

Plain type

Taper-face type

Inner-bevel type

Undercut type

Taper-undercut type

One-side-keystone type

Both-side-keystone type

Barrel-face type

Compression ring

Compression ring can be categorized as follows depending on the difference in cross sectional shape. Plain type: This is the most basic type. Hermetic ability and thermal conductivity are good. Taper-face type: Since the outer surface is tapered, this type contacts with the cylinder wall in line, and easily fits with the surface. Hermetic ability and thermal conductivity are good. Top ring is mostly plated with chrome. Inner-bevel type, undercut type, and taper-undercut type: These types change shape so that the lower edge contacts with the cylinder wall working similarly like the taper-face type. Keystone type: Upper and lower surfaces are tapered. This type is good for preventing sticky phenomenon (ring does not work because of hardened carbon and the performance of ring becomes low). Barrel-face type: Since a part of the curved surface contacts with the cylinder in line, this type offers stable hermetic ability against deformation. (2) Oil ring There are various types such as: Stand-alone type: This type of oil ring has an in-built lubrication oil feeding hole. Expander type: This type is equipped with an Cutter type Spacer expander behind the ring to enhance the contact expander force against the cylinder wall. Side rail Combined-ring type: This type has a high oil Bevel-cutter type scraping performance, and is commonly used in recent years. Aided by a wave-like spring, the Combined ring Stand-alone type tensile force of the side rail for conditioning by the oil ring lubrication oil is kept optimal, and it is possible to Types of oil ring make the area of the oil feeding hole to be large. As a result, oil-up phenomenon (scraping oil is insufficient and oil goes up to the combustion chamber) may not occur.

2) Parts of a piston ring Names of each part of a piton ring are shown in this figure. Since a piston ring is designed such that it contacts closely the cylinder wall with an appropriate tensile force, the outer diameter of the piston in free state becomes larger than the diameter of the cylinder. It has a cutout of appropriate length to absorb thermal expansion. 3) Material of piston ring
Thickness (T) Upper/Lower surface

Nominal diameter

Cutout

Slip surface

Width (B)

Name of each part of a piston ring

Since a piston ring should have features such as wear resistivity, heat resistivity, impact resistivity, and oil retention capacity, special cast iron is generally utilized for making a piston ring. For combined ring, spring steel, etc. are utilized. For improving wear resistivity, chrome may be plated on the surface that is in contact with the cylinder wall.

7. Connecting rod
Connecting rod is a part that connects the piston to the crankshaft, and has a role to transform the reciprocal motion of the piston to a rotational motion of crankshaft. Since it receives strong compression and tension during engine operation, enough strength is required. In addition, since it contains a heavily moving part like piston, it has to be light-weight. In order to meet these requirements, forged irons such as carbon steel and chrome-molybdenum steel are utilized for making connecting rods. 1) Structure and name of each part of the connecting rod As shown in this figure, connecting rod consists of small end part that connects the piston through the piston pin, large end part that connects the pin part of crankshaft and can be divided into 2 parts (upper/lower parts), and a rod that connects large end part and small end part.

Small end part

Piston

Rod

Bearing

Connecting rod cap

Reamer bolt Piston pin Nut

Large end part

Components of a connecting rod

2) How to connect the piston and connecting rod There are 3 types of connections between the piston and connecting rod. Fix type (Lock type) Piston pin is fixed to the piston with a screw. Snap-ring Screw Bolt Semi-floating type Fixed type Semi-floating Full-floating type type Piston pin is fixed to the connecting rod. Although (Bolt type) there is a type such that the piston pin is fixed with bolt, at present, a press fit type by press-fitting is Method for connecting the piston and mostly utilized. connecting rod Full-floating type Movement in the axial direction is inhibited by snap-ring, etc., and movement in rotation direction is free from both of piston and connecting rod.

8. Crankshaft
Crankshaft receives the pressure that the piston received via the connecting rod and Crank pin Arm converts the reciprocal motion of piston to rotational motion. Crankshaft has a complex shape as shown in this diagram. In order to operate each cylinder in good order Balance weight Crank journal depending on the number of cylinders, etc., such complex shape is required. In addition, it Shape of a crankshaft (in case of 4-cylinder engine) changes depending on the bearing that holds the crankshaft and number of journal part. After the pressure from the piston passes to the crankshaft, the crankshaft generates bend or twist during rotation and tends to generate vibration of engine caused by an unbalance of each moving part. Vibration is suppressed as much as possible by optimizing combustion order of each cylinder, or by devising bearing and balance weight.

1) Crankshaft of each engine (1) Serial 4-cylinder engine In 4-cycle engine, crankshaft rotates twice during each cycle (intake, compression, combustion, and exhaustion). While crankshaft rotates twice (720), combustion occurs 1 time in each cylinder of 4-cylinder engine. That is, while the crankshaft rotates 180, combustion occurs 1 time in a 4- cylinder engine. As shown in Fig-A, cylinders are called 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th starting from the front cylinder. The order of ignition is either 1-34-2 (in case of Nissan vehicles) or 1-2-4-3. In either case, pistons of 1st and 4th cylinders and 2nd and 3rd cylinders move in pairs. As shown in Fig-B, there are 2 types of methods for supporting crankshaft; 5bearing type and 3-bearing type. At present, 5-bearing type that is strong against the bend generated by high-speed revolution is mostly utilized. (2) Series 6-cylinder engine In the case of 6-cylinder engine, combustion occurs 6 times while the crankshaft rotates 2 times. Since combustion is executed at each 120, crank pins are arranged with an interval of 120. As a result, 6-cylinder engine generates less vibration and operates more smoothly than 4-cylinder engine. Although it is possible to select various orders of ignition, order of 1-5-3-6-2-4 (in case of Nissan vehicle) and 1-4-2-6-3-5 are mostly utilized.

Center of crankshaft

Front

Fig-A. Example of serial cylinder engine

Piston Bearing

5-bearing support

Balance weight 3-bearing support

Fig-B. Method for supporting crankshaft of serial 4-cylinder engine

Example of serial 6-cylinder engine (Nissan vehicle)

(3) V6 cylinder engine Like serial 6-cylinder engine, in V6 cylinder engine, combustion is executed 6 times while crankshaft rotates 2 times. Since the total length of V6 cylinder engine is short, 4 bearing support in which 2 crank pins are equipped between the bearings is utilized. The 1-2-3-4-5-6 order of ignition is used in the case of Nissans VG series engine.

Example of V6 cylinder

(4) V8 cylinder engine In V8 cylinder engine, since 2 connecting rods are connected to 1 crank pin, 5 bearings are used. Because combustion is executed 8 times during 1 cycle in this engine, vibration is very weak and noise is low. The order of ignition of 1-8-4-3-6-5-7-2 and 1-8-7-3-6-5-4-2 are used in Nissans Y44-type engine and VH45-type engine, respectively.

2) Oil path in crankshaft In crankshaft, an oil path is provided from the journal part to each crank pin. Lubrication oil sent from the oil pump passes through the oil gallery in the cylinder block and goes into oil pass and lubricates each bearing.
Cross section A-A

Oil path in crankshaft

3) Material of crankshaft Because crankshaft receives strong impact or torsion generated by explosion, material with excellent rigidity must be selected. There are 2 types of material; the one is cast type and another is forged type. Although cast type is easier to manufacture than the forged type, the former is inferior in strength and rigidity. So, in general, forged product of carbon steel or alloy steel is utilized. Reference Cast product: Forged product: A product manufactured by a method in which the metal is heated, melted, and casted into mold to form a desired shape. A product manufactured by a method in which the metal is heated and beaten out to form a desired shape using a press machine. By beating out metal, the tissue structure of metal is changed and its strength is enhanced.

9. Bearing
Since crank journal and crank pin, which are major rotational parts in an engine, rotate while always receiving strong fluctuating load, bearing is used in shaft bush so as to smoothen the rotation of crank pin and journal as well as to protect the shaft bush from wear. 1) Type and shape of bearing Bearings for automobile engine such as plain bearings, are mostly utilized in the upper/lower parts divided system. Plain bearing is the one manufactured such that, as shown in this diagram, metal material is deposited or sintered (flour of metal is combined and hardened at temperature below melting point) on the surface of circular steel plate (back metal). Central groove is the oil path for supplying lubrication oil to the bearing and a hole in the center is an oil feeding hole. On the back side of a bearing, fixing nail is set so that the bearing does not rotate along with the crankshaft.
Oil feeding hole Fixing nail Back metal Metal layer Oil groove

Plain bearing

(1) Name of bearing Bearing may be called by the following names depending on the part for which it is used. (i) Crank journal part Main bearing or parent metal (ii) Crank pin part Connecting rod bearing or child metal (there is also a bearing that has no oil path)

(2) Thrust bearing The thrust bearing that receives axial direction force of crankshaft and defines axial direction allowance (end play) is used for the main bearing. Such main ring (flange metal) is used at single location such as the center part of the crankshaft. There is also a type wherein the thrust bearing is independent.
Flange (3) Characteristics necessary for bearing Bearing requires the following characteristics: Thrust bearing should have good affinity with sliding surface should be possible to bury tiny extraneous substances within the lubrication oil under the surface of the bearing should be hard to generate burn out should not cause oil shortage even at start-up time when oil is not supplied should have appropriate strength and hardness and not get damaged should not get affected by lubrication oil in which the substances generated by combustion, etc. are mixed. should have good thermal conductivity and small thermal expansion coefficient should have good lubricity and strong resistance against wear.

2) Material of bearing The material of bearing can be of white metal of tin/lead series and kelmet metal of copper/lead series. Although white metal has good affinity with sliding surface and ability to burry extraneous substance, it has lower load bearing ability and is not suitable for todays high revolution engines. While, kelmet metal has high load bearing ability, but it has low affinity with sliding surface. So, a material called three layer metal that was made by combining good features of these materials is widely utilized as material for making bearings.
Copper/Lead 3-layer metal
1. Steel back 2. Copper-lead alloy layer generated
by combustion

3. Nickel plated layer 4. White metal plated layer

(iv) Thickness: 2m

about

(iii) Thickness: about 8m

Structure of bearing

(3) Double overhead camshaft type (DOHC type) This is a type in which the inlet valve and Intake exhaust valve have a respective camshaft, camshaft and have no locker arm. Since camshaft Exhaust pushes the valve directly, the structure of camshaft valve system is simple. As a result, it is possible to let valve Hydraulic valve lifter open/close in accordance with the cam Exhaust valve profile (good followability) even even when an engine rotates at higher r.p.m. Hence, this Intake valve type suits most to high-revolution engines. In some engines, because it is possible to DOHC type secure the amount of valve lifting, locker arm is utilized. Since this type has 2 camshafts, it is easily possible to equip it with 2 inlet and exhaust valves per cylinder; that is, to equip with total 4 valves per cylinder. As a result, opening area for intake/exhaustion becomes large and inhalation efficiency can be improved. DOHC type is utilized in high output power engine. (e.g., CA-series, RB-series, VG-series)

2. Camshaft
Cam of the camshaft operates to let the inlet/exhaust valves open and close with the most appropriate Cam is the timing driven by pistons moving up and down so as to key of valve enable complete functioning of an engine. Even if the air mechanism volume displacement of an engine, shape of combustion chamber, shape and size of inlet/exhaust port, etc. have been determined, performance and nature of an engine are still subject to changes depending on the determination of the shape and Camshaft relative position with reference to the camshaft and cam. Therefore, it can be said that cam of camshaft is a key part of the valve open/close mechanism and has a decisive impact on the performance of an engine.

1) Valve timing The time required to make the inlet/exhaust valve to open/close is denoted by before top dead center, after top dead center, before bottom dead center, and after bottom dead center, for rotational angle against the position of piston. This open/close timing is called Valve timing, and the one that illustrates this timing relationship, as shown in this diagram, (in the case of 4-cycle engine) is called timing diagram. In the following paragraphs, the open/close of valve is described.

Intake valve open

Intake Compressio n Combustion Exhaustion

Top dead center Exhaust valve open

Exhaust valve closed

Intake valve closed Bottom dead center

Valve timing diagram

(1) Open/Close of intake valve Since the intake of mixed-gas delays slightly from the open timing of intake valve, the intake valve is opened at A (1020) before the top dead center so as to enable inhaling of mixed-gas as much as possible using momentum (inertia) of the mixed-gas that is moving inside . Even after the piston passes over the bottom dead center and begins to ascend, mixed-gas flows in by inertia, so the intake valve is closed at B (4060) after the bottom dead center after the complete intake of the mixed-gas. (2) Open/Close of exhaust valve In order to remove combusted gas perfectly from the cylinder, exhaust valve is opened at C (around 50) before the bottom dead center when the internal pressure of the piston is still high, sacrificing a part of the explosion pressure. Exhaust valve is closed when the piston ascends and next cycles inhalation starts, and the combusted gas is completely exhausted; that is, at point D (1020) after the top dead center. (3) Overlapping of valve (overlapping of opening time of intake/exhaust valves) While the intake and exhaust valve are both opened around the top dead center of exhaustion and when the exhaustion process was almost completed and inhalation started, that phenomenon is called overlapping of valve. This setting is done so that the intake and exhaustion can be fully executed even when the engine operates at high-revolution. The timing is determined appropriately depending on purpose of the engine. When overlapping is too small, intake/exhaustion is not enough in high-revolution range and output power is decreased. On the other hand, when overlapping is too large, combusted gas leaks back to the mixed-gas side, or exhausted gas goes back to intake port side, which creates a problem. Recently, a system is available, in which while compensating intake/exhaustion performance in highrevolution range by using turbo charger, etc., it is possible to enhance power (torque) in low to middle speed range by setting the overlapping of valve to be small or zero.

2) Structure of a camshaft (1) Shape of cam Profile of cam is designed so as to open the valve at exact (Valve opening range) (Operation timing with large lift and close the valve softly. (Cam lift) angle) Profile of cam that is generally utilized is shown in this diagram. A is called base circle. In this area, valve is closed. (Total height) H is the overall height of cam and h corresponds to the lift Rotational direction height of cam. (Base circle) corresponds to the range in which the valve is opens. During this range, ab act to open the valve and bc act Shape of cam to close the valve. Since the range a b and b c are equal in generally used cams, 1/2 of is called operation angle. In addition, a cam in which the operation angle of the intake valve is 60 and that of exhaust valve is 62 is called 6062 cam. Features that affect the performance of an engine are an opening height (lift) and opening time (operation angle) of the valve. For example, if the operation angle was set to large values, overlapping becomes large, intake/exhaust efficiency in Large high-revolution range is improved, and output power Small becomes large. However, inversely, revolution becomes unstable and performance decreases in low-speed revolution range. On the other hand, if the operation angle was set to small values, adverse results may be obtained (Low-speed type) (High-speed type) to enhance the performance in low speed range. The actual profile of cam is designed such that collision Operation angle and feature between cam and valve lifter and its related parts as well as valve and valve seat may occur always at low speed by providing a low speed buffer part to rise and closing phases of lift. Therefore, adjustment of valve clearance must be executed avoiding this buffer part. (2) Name of each part of a camshaft Names of each part of the camshaft are shown in this diagram. There are some camshafts to which driving gear or driving cam for driving oil pump, fuel pump, or distributor are equipped, or to which oil feeding hole as a path to feed lubrication oil is created.

Journal

Cam

Oil pump drive gear

Fuel pump drive gear

Distributor drive gear

Names of each part of camshaft

2) Hydraulic calve lifter Hydraulic valve lifter is used to keep the valve clearance to 0 by the action of oil pressure. This is used in some engines. By using this hydraulic valve lifter, noise can be reduced because of 0 valve clearance.

Hydraulic valve lifter

Locker shaft Locker arm Lifter guide

Camshaft Exhaust valve Intake valve

Mounting position of a hydraulic valve lifter

(1) Structure and operation of a hydraulic valve lifter In case of OHC engine, hydraulic valve lifter is used in between camshaft and locker arm or locker arm and valve supported by valve lifter guide. In valve lifter guide, there is an oil path for feeding lubrication oil to hydraulic valve lifter. [Operation principle] (a) Before starting of cam-lift ((a) in diagram) Plunger is pushed up by return spring and valve clearance becomes 0. At this time, high-pressure chamber is filled with oil. (b) During cam-lift ((b) in diagram) Load from the valve locker acts on the plunger, and oil pressure in the highpressure chamber is increased. As a result, oil slightly leaks from the gap between the plunger and body. Due to this the plunger descends.

Body

Plunger

Relief spring

Check ball

High-pressure chamber

Return spring

Structure of hydraulic valve lifter

Check ball Return spring Relief spring

Leak

(c) When cam-lift just finished ((c) in diagram) Since there is a slight leak, as described in (b), valve reaches to valve seat just before cam-lift becomes 0. Next, the plunger ascends by an amount just corresponding to the leak by the Operation of hydraulic valve lifter action of return spring and returns to the original position. At this time, the relief spring is pushed to open check ball and oil is refilled. By repeating (a)(c), the valve clearance is always kept to 0.

4. Valve and valve spring

As shown in this diagram, valve is assembled on the cylinder head using a valve spring, valve spring retainer, and valve collet, and it moves up and down to close/open the inlet and exhaust valves.

Valve Valve spring (inner)

Valve collet Valve spring retainer Valve spring (outer) Valve spring retainer Separate collet

Valve guide

Water jacket

Valve sheet

Cross sectional view of valve mechanism

1) Valve (1) Names of each part of a valve

Valve stem end

Valve stem Seat width Valve face

Valve seat

Valve head Seat angle

Angle of valve face

Note: Intake valve seat is processed with multiple steps having a different angle to lower the intake resistance

Names of each part of a valve

Names of each part of a valve are shown in the above diagram. Valve consists mainly of valve stem and valve, and a surface that closely contacts with the valve seat of the cylinder head is called valve face. As shown in above-right diagram, the angles of valve face are 30, 45, or 60 in both the intake and exhaust valves.

(2) Material of valve Since the valve receives repetitive impact of being exposed to high-temperature gas, following properties of the material for making valves are required. Should be bearable against high-temperature and have good heat conductivity Should not get eroded by high-temperature gas Should be strong against impact even at high-temperature Should be abrasion-resistant Accordingly, it is required that the valve should be a forged product of special steel with high heat resistance. The exhaust valve is often manufactured by attaching a special alloy (Stellite) on the valve face part. In addition, there is a case in which heat radiation ability of the valve is improved by making molten sodium to flow within the cavity that has been bored inside the valve stem. 2) Valve spring Valve spring operates to close or open the valve definitely according to the movement of cam with its spring force. In the case of single spring, it may often generate undesirable vibration during intensive movement of cam while the engine is running at high-revolution and does not follow the movement of cam (this phenomenon is called surging). To avoid this surging phenomenon, double-spring type in which reversely-wound spring is inserted into the spring is also utilized.

Single spring

Double spring

Valve spring

3) Aerodynamic port By narrowing a part of the intake port, since it is possible to secure an appropriate fluid speed of the inhaled mixed-gas even if the piston speed is slowed down, inhalation efficiency in low-to-middle speed range can be improved.
Wide

Fluid speed is Narrow low

Inhaled air

Air intake system (AD port)

4) Method for heating intake manifold In order to aid the vaporization of mixed-air that passes through the intake manifold, the riser part of the intake manifold is heated externally. There are 2 types of methods for heating; one is to utilize exhaust gas and another is to utilize cooling water (hot water) of engine. (1) Exhaust gas heating method This is a method for heating mixed-gas by guiding exhaust gas to pass under the riser part, as shown in the Carburetor diagram on the right. When the engine starts, since the temperature of the riser part goes up in a short time, it is desirable that the engine is not hot. However, as the engine is heated, the degree of heating may become Heat control valve very high and the output power may be decreased. Exhaust manifold Exhaust gas Hence, such a structure that is possible to stop heating by the action of bimetal when the temperature reaches a Exhaust gas heating system specified value by providing heat control valve to exhaust manifold is used. This method can be adopted only in such type of engines in which intake/exhaust system is located in the same side as the cylinder head (turn flow system). (2) Hot water heating method Since this method executes heating by guiding the cooling water (hot water) into a jacket under the riser Carburetor part, the absolute value of the temperature is not high and the rising speed of temperature is slower than that in the exhaust gas heating method. Temperature does not go up beyond the boiling point of water in any operating conditions and complex structure is not Riser Intake manifold required. Hence, even though this method is not Engine cooling water effective when the engine is not hot, i.e., just after the Hot water heating system engine has started up, this is widely utilized. In addition, this method has an advantage that it can be adopted independent of the type of intake/exhaust system.

* Riser: Heating device

5. Exhaust manifold
Exhaust manifold has a role that combines the exhaust gas discharged from each cylinder and guides it smoothly to the exhaust tube so that there is no resistance to the flow of Basic type exhaust gas. In this case, a shape that Dual type does not obstruct the flow of exhaust gas by interacting with the discharged gas is required. If the exhaust gas does Collected not flow smoothly, combusted gas type remains inside the cylinder, and makes the intake of mixed-gas insufficient in the next inhaling process, which results Examples of exhaust manifold in the decrease of power. Length and shape of the collected exhaust manifold also affects the output performance of an engine. The material of exhaust manifold is mostly cast iron; however, stainless sheet metal is also utilized in such engines that place great importance on performance; for example, a racing vehicle. Typical examples of exhaust manifold are shown in the above diagram.

6. Exhaust tube and muffler

When high temperature and pressure of combusted gas exhausted from a cylinder is emitted directly to air, it expands rapidly to generate explosive roaring sound. A device for muffling the sound by making the exhausted gas to expand and cool gradually inside a chamber is called muffler. A pipe that guides the combusted gas from the exhaust manifold to the muffler and further from the muffler to behind the vehicle for discharging the cooled exhaust gas to air is called exhaust tube.

Detonating sound

Muffler

Mufflers role

Chapter 5 Cooling system

1. Overview
Since the combustion of mixed-gas within the combustion chamber is executed at temperatures as greater than 2,000C during engine operation, the temperature of each part of the engine rises. If nothing is done about it, the temperature of the cylinder wall, piston, and valve, etc., will become very high, and it would become impossible to operate the engine any further. Therefore, it is necessary to always cool each part of the engine to maintain them at an appropriate temperature. This is what the cooling system does. There are 2 types of cooling systems for automobile engines, one is the air cooling type and another is the water cooling type. Except for motorcycles and some light-vehicles, water cooling system is generally utilized.
Air-cooling

Oil will be burned! Engine may be deformed by thermal expansion!

Water-cooling

Cooling system

Water pump

Thermostat

Cooling fan

To heater Water jacket

Fan belt

Cooling water removes heat from engine.

Radiator

Cooling water emits heat here.

Structure of water-cooling system

1) Structure of water-cooling system

From radiator Thermostat
To radiator

Block

VG series

Blow-by control valve Water pump From heater Collector Air drain cock

Return pipe Throttle chamber From head

AAC valve

Surge tank Reserve tank Radiator Water outlet Thermostat

(Valve opens at 76.5)

Throttle chamber AAC valve (air cut valve) Throttle chamber Heater

Water pump

Cylinder block (left) Cylinder head (left)

Cylinder block (right) Cylinder head (right)

Water-cooled engine cools down the heat generated by an engine and emits the heat of the cooling water from the radiator to air. For circulating cooling water, a forced circulation system that uses a water pump, which forcibly circulates cooling water, is used. Heat dissipation from the radiator is executed by forcibly inhaling external air by a cooling fan or by using natural air during motion. In the above diagram, when the engine is in a low temperature state, in order to facilitate warming up of an engine, cooling water path to the radiator is closed by a thermostat to circulate cooling water within the engine only. When the engine gets warmed, the thermostat opens the cooling water path to the radiator. Next, the cooling water enters into the radiator through the top inlet and goes inside the radiator while being cooled down by the wind blown by a cooling fan or by natural wind, following which it goes out from the bottom outlet to be returned to the engine again for recirculation to each part of the engine. In addition, some part of the cooling water is circulated to the intake manifold and carburetor in order to heat and boost vaporization of inhaled mixed-gas, or to facilitate automatic choking mechanism of the carburetor, as well as it is circulated to the heater core in order to heat the interior of a vehicle.

4. Water pump

Pulley Bearing Fan Packing Pump cover Impeller Pump shaft Seal unit

Impeller (convolution type) Pump body

Water pump

This is a pump that is used to circulate cooling water uniformly to complex water jacket of each cylinder. Water pump rotates at a speed of 0.8 1.5 times that of engine revolution driven by V-belt from the crank pulley. As shown in this diagram, when the impeller is rotated by the V-belt, cooling water is inhaled from the radiator by the impeller and sent from the outlet port to the water jacket of the cylinder block.

To water jacket of cylinder

From lower tank of radiator

Circulation in a water pump

5. Fan belt

Canvas
Rubber Rubber

Canvas

Rubber Rubber

Cord Rubber Canvas (Cross-section) Poly V-belt

Cord

(Cross-section) Low edge belt

(Outlook) Cog type belt

Structure of belt

To drive water pump, cooling fan, or alternator, a V-belt is generally utilized. The V-belt is named such because the cross-section of the belt is formed in a V-shape in order to increase the power transmission efficiency. There are various types of V-belts. The most appropriate V-belt for a required application is selected. Poly V-belt has a cross-sectional shape such that multiple V-shapes are connected. Since poly V-belt has a wide contact area with the pulley, it operates with less slip. Moreover, since poly V-belt is thinner and more flexible than conventional V-belts, it generates less heat. Cog-type belt has a cog-like inner surface. Since cog-type belt has good flexibility, it is highly durable. Recently, low-maintenance-type belt that does not require frequent adjustment is mostly used. Low-maintenance belt is a belt that includes a thermally contractible cord that, when slipping occurs, contacts by heat generated provides restoration of its tensile strength. Note: Poly means many and cog means gear.

6. Thermostat
Thermostat is a device that is mounted to the outlet or inlet port of cooling water to automatically maintain constant temperature of cooling water. The optimum temperature of cooling water to extract maximum performance of an engine is in the range of 80C and 90C, and it is not desirable that the temperature is very high or very low. Thus, it is required to maintain appropriate temperature by stopping the circulation of cooling water to the radiator when the temperature of the cooling water is low so that the engine heats up as soon as possible; i.e., by circulating cooling water only when its temperature is high. Thermostat plays a role keeping maintaining constant

Case

Spindle

Jiglu valve

Pellet

Spring

Wax-pellet-type thermostat

cooling water temperature by changing the amount of water circulating through the radiator.

There are 2 types of thermostats that are categorized by the difference of expanding/contracting part depending on temperature; one is wax-pellet type and another is bellows type. Since cooling system mostly utilizes the pressurization method, bellows type in which the valve opening force is weak is not utilized.

1) Operation of a thermostat For controlling the circulation of cool water through the radiator, there are 2 methods; one is by mounting a thermostat to the outlet port of cooling water and another is by mounting a thermostat to the inlet port of cooling water. Recently, there also is a system that utilizes bottom bypass type thermostat that controls not only cooling water that circulates through engine but also cooling water flowing inside the engine at the same time. In general, thermostat is mounted to the outlet port of cooling water of an engine. However, in the case of bottom bypass system, there are 2 methods; one is a type in which thermostat is mounted to the inlet port and another is a type in which thermostat is mounted to the outlet port. (1) Thermostat without bypass valve Here, an example in which a thermostat is Spindle Case mounted to the outlet port of cooling water of an engine is described. The diagram on the right shows an operating state of wax-pellet type thermostat. Inside the pellet (vessel), solid Pellet Synthetic wax, rubber, and bar-piston are Wax rubber High temperature, opened assembled, and a part of the piston is Low temperature, closed state state fixed to the external case. A valve controls Structure and operation of thermostat the amount of fluid present outside the pellet, and when the thermostat is not working, it closes the water path by Thermostat springs force. When the temperature Water jacket of cooling water rises, the wax melts and its volume expands. Bar-piston is pushed by the force generated by this expansion, but since one end of the Engine bar-piston is fixed to case, the pellet Water Radiator is moved down prevailing against the pump (Low temperature state) (High temperature state) spring force to open the valve. When cooling water that was cooled by Flow of cooling water passing through the radiator is returned to the thermostat, the valve closes again.

In this way, the thermostat maintains the temperature of cooling water by controlling the amount of fluid while repeating the open and close actions. This diagram (previous page) shows how cooling water circulates. When the temperature of cooling water is lowsince thermostat is closedcooling water is not sent to the radiator but it circulates within the engine. When the temperature rises, the thermostat is opened and cool water begins to circulate even through the radiator. (2) Bottom-bypass type thermostat Here, an example in which a From radiator thermostat is mounted on the inlet port of cooling water of the Valve engine is described. The diagram on the right shows an operating state of a bottombypass type thermostat. To water Bypass This type has a structure with an pump valve additional bypass valve that controls the circulation of cooling High temperature state water that is mounted to the From cylinder head Low temperature state bottom of a conventional thermostat. When the temperature of cooling Structure and operation of bottom-bypass type thermostat water is low, radiator side valve is closed while bypass valve is opened and cooling water circulates through the radiator. When the temperature of cooling water is high, radiator side valve is opend to permit cooling water to Water jacket circulate through the radiator. In this case, since the bypass valve is closed, circulation of cooling water through the engine is limited. In thermostats other than bottomEngine bypass type, even when it is fully Radiator Water pump opened, circulation of cooling water (High temperature state) (Low temperature state) Thermostat through the engine is executed in parallel; however, in the case of bottomFlow of cooling water bypass type, since circulation of cooling water through the engine is stopped and whole cooling water is circulated the radiator instead, thereby improving cooling performance. In addition, since this type of a thermostat has a function to control water circulation through the engine, it is possible to widen the circulation path within the engine, and as a result, fluid resistance becomes less when the temperature of cooling water is low compared to that in the conventional thermostats. Thus, load on the water pump reduces and the output loss of engine can be decreased.

2) Jiglu valve When we drain cooling water for the purpose of changing, it is required to introduce air into the cooling water path within the engine. In addition, when we refill cooling water, it is required to remove the residual air from the water path. Jiglu valve is used for securing the air path. When an Air path engine is not running, the valve is opened by its own Water pressure weight, whereas when the engine is running, the valve is When engine is not When engine is running (close) running (open) closed by the water pressure generated by the water pump. Operation of Jiglu valve In modern engines, air-drain plug is provided. The position where the radiator is mounted is lower than the engine body for lowering air resistance and styling. As a result, since it is not easy to drain air that is remaining in the top of engine, Air-drain plug air-drain plug is provided.
Head drop

Radiator

Thermostat

Position relationship between radiator and engine

3) Cooling fluid Water is mostly used as a cooling fluid for automobile that have water-cooling engine. Water is considered to be optimum cooling fluid because its specific heat and evaporative latent heat are both greater than other liquids. However, there are many kinds of water, such as water containing lot of iron and impurities, water containing salt, water containing sulfur trioxide or hydrogen sulfide that is found in thermal region, etc. Since these substances may lead to the deposition of water stain, corrosion of metal, hardening of rubber hose, etc., when an engine is used for a long time, the use of such water should be avoided. Especially, since modern engines use many light alloy metals that are easily affected by such impurities, it is strongly recommended to use softened water as cooling fluid. One of the weak points of water is that it freezes at 0C. If water freezes inside the engine, it may cause destruction of the engine due to expansion. Since vehicles may be used at low temperature environment (under -20C), cooling fluid that has a freezing temperature corresponding to such a low temperature conditions is required.

Chapter 6 Lubrication system

1. Overview
There are many sliding parts in engine. When 2 metals move while relatively contacting with each other, heat or scratch may be generated at the contacting surface, and may finally result in a burn-out. The lubrication system protects metals from burn-out by creating an oil layer on the sliding surface between the metals. 1) Role of lubrication oil Lubrication oil has many roles such as to decrease wear on sliding surface (smoothing action), to maintain hermetic ability of moving parts (sealing action), to absorb and disperse impact (buffering action), to prevent rusting (anti-rusting action), to clean up extraneous substances (cleaning action), etc. 2) Circulation of lubrication oil (1) Positions requiring lubrication Positions requiring lubrication are: (i) Surface of piston and cylinder wall (ii) Piston pin part of connecting rod (iii) Journal and crank-pin parts of crankshaft (iv) Valve opening/closing mechanism (camshaftvalve stem) (v) Timing chain mechanism
Hydraulic valve lifter

Locker shaft

Valve locker

Valve lifter guide Camshaft

Main gallery

Oil filter Oil pump Pressure regulator

Crankshaft

Oil strainer

2. Oil pan and oil level gauge

(1) Oil pan Oil pan is a tank for storing lubrication oil. It is generally made by press molding of a thin sheet of steel or aluminum with good heat radiation performance. Inside the oil pan, a screen board for preventing fluctuation of oil is provided, and a drain plug for draining oil is provided at the bottom of the oil pan. Usually, the capacity of oil pan is in the range of 35 liters.

Screen board Drain hole

Oil pan

(2) Oil level gauge Oil level gauge is a bar-like gauge used for checking the amount of oil in the oil pan that is mounted to the side plain of a cylinder block. To this gauge, the positions indicating the upper and lower limits of the optimum amount of oil are marked, and the difference between these marks corresponds to about 1 liter.

Oil level gauge

Oil pan

Oil level gauge

3. Oil pump
There are several types in oil pumps. In general, gear type and trochoid type are mostly utilized. 1) Gear-type oil pump (1) External tooth gear pump In external tooth gear pump, 2 gears with the same diameter are combined inside a housing. One of the 2 gears (drive gear) is driven by the driving gear of the camshaft or crankshaft thereby driving a driven gear. Oil is transferred by utilizing the cavity between the teeth and inner surface of pump housing. Lubrication oil is inhaled and carried along the outer circumference of the gear and sent to the oil path. Although the structure of the external tooth gear is simple, it has no sliding parts and has excellent durability; it has a disadvantage that its size is large. (e.g., SD series, ED series, FD series engine)

Pump body

Outlet port

Drive shaft

Driven gear

Drive gear

Relief valve Inlet port Pump cover Oil strainer

External tooth gear pump

(2) Internal tooth gear pump In an internal tooth gear pump, the inner gear and outer gear are assembled eccentrically inside the pump body, and a crescent is inserted into the gap between the 2 gears. When the inner gear is driven, the outer gear moves cooperatively with the inner gear, and oil is transferred from the inlet to outlet while being contained in a gap formed by the crescent, inner gear, and outer gear. Since this type is simple in driving and the inner gear is driven directly by the crankshaft, it is smaller and lighter than the other types of engines and is recently utilized in many vehicles. In other applicationsother than enginesthis type is utilized in oil pump of automatic transmission. Structure of this type of gear is shown in the diagram on the next page.

(e.g., GA series, RB series, and VG series engine)

Crescent Pump body

Relief valve

Outlet port

Inlet port Outer gear Inner gear

Internal tooth gear pump

2) Trochoid type oil pump This pump is also called the rotary type. Inner rotor that has 4 projections and is driven by the driving gear of camshaft or crankshaft, and the outer rotor that has 5 depressions that bites the 4 projections of the inner rotor into each other are installed inside the housing. By rotating the inner rotor, lubrication oil is inhaled into the chamber formed between the inner and outer rotor and transferred to the outlet port. This pump is inferior in performance to the gear pump in high-revolution range. However, since it is simple in structure and compact compared to the gear type pump, it is widely utilized. (e.g., MA series, E series engine)

Pump body Outer rotor

Inner rotor
Drive shaft Relief valve Inner rotor

Inlet port

Outlet port

Outer rotor

Pump cover

Oil strainer

Trochoid type oil pump

4. Oil pressure regulator

Lubrication oil flows with pressure generated by the oil pump. The higher the oil pumps running speed, the higher is the pressure. Each part to be lubricated requires more lubrication oil in highrevolution range of engines. However, increasing oil Pump To engine pressure more than necessary can impose excess load on body the oil pump, which will result in the loss of output power of the engine. Hence, oil pressure is controlled to maintain an appropriate value by using an oil pressure regulator that is Oil installed inside the oil pump. Bypass hole Oil The diagram on the right shows a cross sectional view of Relief valve oil pressure regulator. When oil pressure exceeds a force of spring, the relief valve operates to open a bypass hole Structure of oil pressure regulator and controls oil pressure by returning some lubrication oil to the inlet port of the oil pump.

5. Oil filter
When an engine operates, dust or metallic powder may mix into the lubrication oil. In order to prevent burn out of engine or its early worn out, these extraneous substances must be removed completely. An oil filter achieves this role. There are various types of oil filters for automobile use. At present, the cartridge-type filter is mostly utilized because of its good maintainability. In general, the structure of oil filter comprises case, oil element that filters extraneous substances, and bypass valve that bypasses lubrication oil without passing through the oil element when oil temperature is low or clogging occurs in the oil element. Cartridge type is the one wherein the oil element can be installed or exchanged without requiring disassembling.

Oil filter

Relief valve

Oil pump

Bypass valve

Oil strainer

Flow of oil

Element (filtering material)

From oil pump

Bypass valve

To each part to be lubricated

Structure of oil filter (cartridge type)

2. Carburetor
Carburetor is a device that weighs the fuel corresponding to the air inhaled into an engine, mixes gas in order to have the required air-fuel ratio corresponding to each running status of the engine, and adjusts the amount of mixed-gas to be inhaled into the cylinder in accordance with the drivers operation to control the output power of engine. 1) Principle of a carburetor Although there are various types of carburetors, all of them are based on principle of the mist that generates fine particles of liquid (mist-like) from fuel. In the diagram on the right, when air is blown into the narrow-edged pipe, the speed of air increases at the outlet of the pipe. The faster the speed of air blown out of the outlet A, the lower the pressure at this region becomes (negative pressure lower than atmospheric pressure is generated). As a result, water is soaked up from B by the pressure difference between the atmospheric pressure acting on the water surface C and lowered pressure close to the outlet A, and blown by air-flow generating mist-like water. As shown in the diagram on the right, when liquid or gas flows through the pipe whose inner diameter is partly narrowed, the speed of fluid when it passes the narrow region (Venturi part) becomes faster than the speed of the fluid when it passes the wide region. Since fluids have a property that when the speed is faster, the pressure is lowered; i.e., the pressure at Venturi part becomes lower than the other parts. As shown in the diagram on the right, by placing a nozzle to feed gasoline, gasoline is soaked up and blown out as mist-like mixed-gas according to principle of mister.

Pipe

Principle of mister

Water

Atmospheric pressure

Venturi part

Fast

Slow

to be possible to pass the same amount of fluid during the same time, speed at narrow part must be higher than speed at wide part

Fluid speed within the pipe Air

Nozzle

Venturi

Fuel

Mixedgas

Principle of carburetor

 is mounted eccentrically to the shaft. In order to keep the valve closed, weight is attached to 1 end of the shaft. When the engine revolution becomes high, the amount of air increases and the intake resistance of the primary side becomes large, and negative pressure under the damper valve becomes high; consequently, the dumper valve opens overcoming the its own weight, and fuel is soaked up from the secondary main nozzle.

3. Fuel pump
Fuel pump plays the role of feeding the fuel stored in the fuel tank to the float chamber of carburetor with constant pressure. There are 2 types of fuel pumps, mechanical and electrical. In general, mechanical pump installed in an engine is mostly utilized. In this section, mechanical fuel pump is described. The structure of mechanical fuel pump is shown in the diagram below.
Cover gasket Outlet check valve Air chamber Inlet check valve

From fuel tank

To carburetor

Diaphragm Diaphragm spring Oil seal Locker arm Return spring Camshaft Eccentric cam

Structure of fuel pump

When an engine starts, the locker arm of the fuel pump is driven by force of the eccentric cam of the camshaft, and the diaphragm within the pump moves up and down. When the diaphragm is pulled down, the inlet valve is opened to inhale fuel, and when the diaphragm is pushed up by the force of the spring, the inlet check valve is closed and the outlet check valve is opened in order to send the fuel to the float chamber of carburetor.
Fig.1 When fuel is inhaled

The lowest position to which the diaphragm is pushed by an eccentric cam is constant, while the highest position to which the diaphragm is pushed is determined by the condition of fuel consumption. When the fuel reaches to a specified level, the float of the carburetor closes the needle valve by a buoyant force of the float. Diaphragm stops at the point where buoyant force of the float and springs force of the fuel pump are balanced. Figure-3 shows the state when the diaphragm is at rest at the lowest position and the locker arm is not fluctuated; cam is running idle when the fuel consumption of an engine is less. When fuel is consumed and the float is pushed down, the fuel begins to flow into the float chamber again, and the locker arm starts fluctuating to send out the fuel.

Fuel is discharged by this springs force

Fig. 2 When fuel is discharged

Fig. 3 When fuel is not discharged

4. Fuel strainer
Fuel strainer is also called fuel filter and is generally installed between the fuel tank and fuel pump. To fuel pump Fuel contains dust, gum substance, or water, etc. Since dust and gum substance may generate clogging, and water may generate rust or ice in the narrow fuel path Filtering material inside the carburetor, it is necessary to remove these extraneous materials. Plastic case As shown in the diagram on the right, a fuel strainer is composed of transparent or semi-transparent plastic From fuel tank case and filtering material. First, fuel speed is lowered inside the case to make Fuel strainer relatively heavy substances such as dust, rust, or water to precipitate down to the bottom of the case; then, light impurities are filtered by the filtering material. Paper and cloth are used as the filtering material. It is to enable maintainers to observe the precipitation status of extraneous substances that the case is made transparent or semi-transparent.

Chapter 8 Exhaust gas control system

1. Exhaust gas

1) Generation of hazardous components from exhaust gas The discharged gases from vehicles comprise evaporated fuel gas and blow-by gas as well as exhaust gas discharged from the exhaust pipe. These 3 types of gases are collectively called emission gas.
HC evaporating gas

Blow-by gas

Exhaust gas CO, HC, NOX

Emission gas

(1) Exhaust gas Combustion generates harmless gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor (H2O) by chemical combination of fuel (carbon hydride) and oxygen (O 2) present in the air. If all the carbon hydride ideally reacts like this, hazardous gases such as HC or CO will not be generated. However, various hazardous gases are actually generated by incomplete combustion and high-temperature combustion as shown in this diagram.
Fuel
Harmless
Water vapor Carbon hydride Normal combustion Incomplete combustion Chemical combination Disengagement Carbon dioxide Excess oxygen Nitrogen

Air Oxygen Nitrogen O2 N2

Hazardous
Carbon monoxide Carbon hydride Nitrogen oxide Black lead

Unburned

Major components of emission gas

(i) Carbon monoxide (CO) CO is generated due to the incomplete combustion of fuel resulting from an insufficiency of O2. In complete combustion, C (Carbon) component of gasoline (HC) reacts completely with O2 and generates CO2. C + O2 CO2

When C is incompletely combusted due to an insufficiency of O 2, CO may be generated, instead of CO2. C + O2 CO In the case of an LPG engine, since fuel and air are well mixed, the amount of CO generated is less than that produced by gasoline engines. Diesel engine generates slight amounts of CO because it uses air-rich mixed-gas.

(ii) Carbon hydride (HC) HC is the unburned residual gas of fuel. HC is generated when fuel is not completely combusted and discharged as it is. In the case of an LPG engine, since the fuel is in the form of gas and is well mixed with air, the amount of discharged HC is small. In addition, in the case of diesel engine, since the combustion speed is low and the amount of air is very high, the amount of discharged HC is small. (iii) Nitrogen oxide (NOx) NOx is a collective name of nitrogen oxide. NO (Nitrogen monoxide) is generated by combustion NOx generation NOx changes to NO2 (Nitrogen dioxide) while passing status concenthrough the exhaust pipe or after being discharged to tration the atmosphere. Besides this, various chemical compounds are partly included in the exhaust gas. These are collectively called NOx. In general, N2 Temperature () hardly reacts with other molecules. However, N2 and O2 can easily react at higher temperatures (above Generation status of NOx 2,000C). This means that, in the case of a high combustion temperature, the generation of NOx increases. The generation process of NOx is the same in any type of engine, regardless of gasoline, LPG, or diesel. (iv) Black lead (C) When the vaporization of fuel is insufficient and the fuel is exposed to high temperature combustion flame while remaining in the liquid state, carbon is disengaged from the fuel to generate black lead. In a diesel engine, since fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber, black lead may possibly be generated. In particular, when an engine is running with heavy load requiring a high amount of fuel injection, a lot of black lead may be generated. On the other hand, gasoline and LPG engines generate less black lead than diesel engines. (2) Blow-by gas Blow-by gas is a gas that flows into the crankcase from the gap between the piston and cylinder. This is a mix of unburned fuel and combusted gas and the major component of hazardous material is HC. (3) Evaporated fuel gas This is an evaporated fuel gas generated from the fuel system such as fuel tank or carburetor and discharged to the atmosphere. Hazardous component contained in the evaporated fuel gas is HC.

2) Relationship between engine status and hazardous components in exhaust gas In this section, relationship between the engine status and hazardous components in exhaust gas is described for gasoline engines. (1) Relationship between air-fuel ratio and 3 hazardous components. Relationship between air-fuel ratio and 3 hazardous Output air- Theoretical components that greatly affect the combustion of engine Economical airfuel ratio air-fuel ratio fuel ratio is shown in the diagram on the right. NOx, HC, * In the region where air-fuel ratio is lower than the CO Concenttheoretical air-fuel ratiosince O2 is richfuel is ration almost completely combusted and the generation of CO or HC is less. However, when the air-fuel ratio becomes too low, Thick Air-fuel ratio Thin miss-firing (mixed-gas is not ignited) occurs, and HC increases rapidly. * On the other hand, in the region where air-fuel ratio Air-fuel ratio and exhaust gas component is higher than the theoretical air-fuel ratio, incomplete combustion occurs due to an insufficiency of O2, increasing the generation of CO This was decreased, but that or HC. was increased!? The maximum generation of NOx is in the region where the air-fuel ratio is slightly lower than the theoretical airfuel ratio and the condition of excess oxygen combustion temperature is met. While in the region where air-fuel ratio is lower than the theoretical air-fuel ratio, since amount of excess oxygen decreases, the generation of NOx becomes small. In Air-fuel ratio and reduction of both regions when fuel concentration is either thin or 3 hazardous components thick, since combustion efficiency is gradually decreased, combustion temperature becomes lower and, as a result, the generation of NOx becomes lesser. * Thus, it can be said that there is not any region where it is possible to lessen the generation of the 3 hazardous components, i.e., CO, HC, and NOx, at (High) Comb the same time. However, as described later, ustion cham ber appropriate setting of the air-fuel ratio is a very press ure important factor for having the 3-way catalyst to (Low) work effectively.
In case explosion does not occur

(2) Relationship between ignition timing and generation of HC and NOx Before Top dead After center The optimum ignition timing with regard to gas mileage and output power of an engine is affected by the Ignition timing and combustion chamber pressure combustion speed and effective conversion of combustion pressure to rotational power and certain other factors.

If the ignition timing is very early, the combustion pressure may not be effectively converted to rotational power, while if it is very late, the piston is pushed down to a greater extent and the volume of combustion chamber becomes very large, which results in the decrease of pressure and low combustion temperature.

2. Reduction of hazardous components in exhaust gas

In order to reduce the hazardous components of Combustion temperature is high exhaust gas, catalytic device or Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) apparatus are used. Reduction of hazardous components in exhaust gas is also possible by adjusting the air-fuel ratio and ignition timing. While cleaning the exhaust gas by measures such Combustion temperature lowered as catalyst, air-fuel ratio, and ignition timing, it is required to select an optimum method from a comprehensive viewpoint taking output power, gas mileage, or stability of an engine into consideration. For example, even if we succeeded in reducing Reduction of hazardous components of exhaust gas concentration of hazardous components by applying various measures, the output power will be decreased, and we will have to push the accelerator down to compensate for the decreased power. In this way, since driving a vehicle in a certain condition requires a constant power due to which the amount of exhaust gas would increase and the hazardous components may not decrease as expected. Hence, it is not a good alternative. The same thing can be said about the relationship between the amount of hazardous components and gas mileage, or between the amount of hazardous components and the stability of an engine. 1) Countermeasures: EGR In order to reduce the amount of NOx, the following measures are used. * Lower the air-fuel ratio * Increase the air-fuel ratio * Delay the ignition timing * Use EGR By delaying the ignition timing, NOx will be reduced, but the gas mileage and output power will be lowered. Hence, an effective method for reducing NOx concentration without affecting gas mileage performance and other such parameters, the EGR method, which returns some part of the exhaust gas to the gas intake system, is utilized. By circulating exhaust gas, unburned gas is added into the combustion chamber that increases the heat capacity of gas within the combustion chamber Water (Mixed-gas) and lowers the maximum temperature of combusted gas leading to the reduction of NOx.
Note: For example, the effect of EGR is shown in the diagram on the right. Assume that 2 vessels are filled with the same amount of water and an egg is put in into 1 vessel and nothing was put in into the other vessel, and the vessels were heated. You will find that the water temperature that contains the egg increases more slowly. Currently, this EGR method is Effect of EGR
Heat Egg (EGR gas)

utilized in most gasoline and LPG engines.

10. Blow-by gas returning device

As described in the overview, the gas that leaks through the gap between the piston and cylinder into the crankcase is called blow-by gas, and its main component is HC. The role of the blow-by gas returning device is to combust this blow-by gas by recirculating it into the gas intake system in order to discharge this gas from the crankcase. Currently, a system called closed type is mostly utilized for this purpose.
Blow-by filter Blow-by upper hose

Blow-by control Blow-by control valve valve

Blow-by lower hose Oil separator (within breather case) Air Mixed-gas Blow-by gas (Normal operation) Blow-by gas
(High-revolution, Heavy load operation)

Blow-by gas returning device (Closed type)

Blow-by control valve has a structure such that it operates using the negative pressure of the gas intake system of an engine. Since the amount of blow-by gas generation of an engine is not affected by the number of rotations of an engine and tends to increase as the engine load becomes heavy, the blow-by control valve uses the negative pressure that changes depending on the load used as its driving force. When the engine load is lighter and negative pressure is weak, this valve is pushed to the right by spring force; the area through which the gas is transferred will be large, and the amount of blow-by gas fluid will be high. When an engine load is heavy and the negative pressure is strong, this valve is pulled to the left overcoming the spring force, and the path area becomes smaller and the amount of blow-by gas fluid decreases.

(i) When the load is light or intermediate Blow-by control valve inhales blow-by gas to intake manifold so as to ventilate the blow-by gas by fresh air incoming from the locker cover. (ii) When load is heavy When the generation of blow-by gas increases, the inhaling pressure of the intake manifold decreases and the amount of gas flow becomes insufficient because of which blow-by gas flows also from the locker cover to air-cleaner.

Chapter 9 Electrical apparatus of an engine

The electrical apparatus used in gasoline engines are the ignition system, starter, battery charger, battery, etc. The structures of these devices are shown in this diagram.

Ignition switch High tension cord Battery

Ignition system
Battery Key switch

Battery charging system

Alternator

Ignition coil

Spark plug

Distributor

Starter system
Starter motor Battery

1. Ignition system
In a gasoline engine, gasoline and air are mixed in an appropriate ratio by the fuel-supplying system and inhaled into the combustion chamber and compressed by a piston. By igniting compressed mixedgas with electrical spark, it gets ignited and combusted. The piston is then pushed down to rotate the crankshaft. Ignition system functions to make the electrical spark work at an appropriate time and with an appropriate strength. Ignition systems at Nissan for its vehicles engines are categorized as follows. (i) Contact-type ignition system So far, this type has been mostly utilized. This is a system that switches on/off of the primary current of ignition coil by point contact within the distributor. (ii) Contactless ignition system This is generally called full-transistor type ignition system. In this system, a control circuit receives the signal generators signal from the distributor and controls primary current of an ignition coil.

(iii) Ignition control by Electronic Concentrated Control System (ECCS) ECCS is a kind of contactless ignition system that controls the current of ignition coil by electronic ignition circuit.

2) Structure of ignition system This diagram shows the structure of the contact-type ignition system of a 4-cycle 4-cylinder engine. The function of each part is briefly described in the following paragraphs.
High tension cable Rotor Ignition switch

Resistor
Point

Spark plug
Conden ser

Battery

Earth

Primary coil

Secondary coil Distributor

Ignition coil

Structure of ignition system

(1) Ignition coil This is a kind of a transformer that converts 12 V from a battery to high voltages required for ignition. By switching on/off the current of a primary coil by making the point of distributor open/close, it generates high voltage in the secondary coil. (2) Distributor A distributor switches on/off the primary current of an ignition coil by making the point of distributor corresponding to the engine status so as to generate electrical spark at an appropriate time. It also has a function to distribute high voltage generated in the secondary coil to each spark plug in a fixed order of ignition, as well as an ignition-advancing function that advances ignition timing corresponding to the revolution speed and degree of opening of the throttle valve. (3) Spark plug Spark plug generates electrical spark between 2 electrodes by secondary voltage of the ignition coil distributed by the distributor to ignite mixed-gas. (4) High tension cable The high-tension cable transmits secondary voltage of the ignition coil to the spark plug.

Chapter 11. Other units

1. Turbocharger

The output power of internal-combustion is determined by the amount of mixed-gas combusted in a unit time. That is, the most effective method for increasing the output power is to intake as much mixed-gas as possible into the cylinder and combust it. The degree to which mixed-gas can be inhaled in a cylinder is called charging efficiency. In conventional engines, since mixed gas is inhaled by negative pressure generated by the descent of the piston, it was impossible to pack mixed-gas into cylinders exceeding atmospheric pressure. Hence, packing efficiency has been limited to 85%95%. In order to increase this charging efficiency, it is necessary to push high-pressure and high-density mixed gas into the cylinders by compressing inhaled air using a compressor. Packing of compressed mixed gas into a cylinder is called supercharging, and the device that executes supercharging is called supercharger. Due to supercharging, charging efficiency can be improved up to 120%200%. There are 2 types of superchargers categorized by the driving method of compressor; one is a mechanical supercharger and the other is an exhaust turbine supercharger. Exhaust turbine supercharger is generally called turbocharger. The mechanical supercharger uses a part of the output power for driving the compressor. It has been utilized in airplane engines and in heavy-duty track engines. A turbocharger uses the energy of exhaust gas that is conventionally discharged for driving a turbine and compressor that are assembled on the same axis without sacrificing the engine output. The principle of supercharging by turbocharger is shown in this diagram.

Intake manifold

Air cleaner Air flow meter

Compressed air

Exhaust manifold Exhaust bypass valve controller Exhaust bypass valve

Inhaled air

catalyst converter
Compressor Turbine

Muffler

Turbocharger

Principle of supercharging by turbocharger

Both compressor wheel and turbine wheel have radial multiple vanes and are fixed to the same axis. The compressor and turbine side are connected to the intake manifold and exhaust manifold, respectively. When an exhaust valve is opened, high-pressure combusted gas within the cylinder is discharged into the exhaust manifold leading to the rapid expansion of its volume. Discharged gas is narrowed by the nozzle before hitting the turbine blade and rotates the turbine with an increased fluid speed. The compressor on the same axis is rotated due to this rotational force. Then, compressor compresses the inhaled air and sends the compressed air to the intake manifold. In this way, it is possible to raise the pressure inside the intake manifold to more than atmospheric pressure by supercharging. However, if this supercharging pressure becomes very high (too much mixed-gas), combustion pressure and temperature become very high and the engine may be damaged. Hence, an additional device is required to suppress excessive increase of supercharging pressure and control the supercharging pressure in order to maintain it at a specified value by using exhaust valve and intake leak valve.

1) Structure of a turbocharger The structure of a turbocharger is shown in the diagram on the right. This structure can be divided into 4 main parts: a compressor part that compresses inhaled air, a turbine part whose rotation is driven by exhaust gas energy, the center housing part, and the supercharging pressure control part.

Inhaled air outlet

Lubrication oil path

Lock plate Center housing Seal ring Compressor housing Turbine housing Inhaled air inlet Compressor wheel Thrust spring

Turbine wheel

Thrust bearing

Exhaust gas outlet Radial bearing Exhaust bypass gas

Exhaust gas inlet

Structure of turbocharger

3. Clutch

1) Role of clutch While starting an engine, we may face difficulty in starting it if the engine was loaded. In addition, if the engine power is not smoothly transferred to the drive wheel when we start to run the vehicle, the vehicle will dash out abruptly. This is very dangerous. When we operate the transmission and the engine was directly connected to the drive wheel, it would be difficult to change gear. A clutch resolves these problems. A clutch should have the following abilities: * It should be able to connect/disconnect the engine to the drive wheel securely and rapidly. * Should be able to connect it without producing a shock * Should be able to securely transfer the engine power to the drive wheel when connected Connection/disconnection is generally done by drivers action of pushing down or relieving the clutch pedal. In an Engine Transmission automatic clutch, the clutching action is automatically Drive wheel Clutch executed.
Role of clutch

2) Structure and operation of a clutch There are various types of clutches. However, in this section, we describe the structure and operation of the dry-type, single-disk friction clutch that is utilized mostly in many vehicles at present.

Master cylinder Clutch tube

Clutch disk Clutch cover

Clutch pedal

Operating cylinder Clutch hose Withdrawal lever Release sleeve Release bearing

Clutch body

Operation mechanism of clutch

Diaphragm spring type clutch + oil pressure operation mechanism

4. Automatic clutch

1) Fluid clutch This is a clutch that converts the engine power to motion energy of a fluid and transfers it to the transmission port. There are 2 types of fluid clutches; one is a field coupling that has only a medium function to transfer energy and the other is a torque converter that has a torque-enhancing function. At present, the torque converter is mostly utilized. (1) Field coupling The structure of a field-coupling clutch is shown in the diagram on the right. Two vessels (pump impeller and turbine runner) are placed facing each other and oil is filled in these coupled vessels. A pump impeller is mounted to the drive-axis side (engine side) and rotated by the rotational force of the engine.

Turbine runner

Pump impeller

Fluid drive axis

Drive axis

Field coupling

When the pump impeller is rotated, centrifugal force operates on oil, and, as shown in the diagram, oil flows in from the central part towards the peripheral direction. Oil spouted out from the periphery of a pump impeller flows into the turbine runner that faces the pump impeller from its periphery.

Outlet Inlet

Rotation of turbine runner

Oil flow

Oil flow inside turbine runner

In a turbine runner, the oil flows in from a pump impeller from its periphery to the central part, as shown in the adjacent diagram. Turbine runner is rotated by oils motional energy in the same direction as that of the pump impeller. Since a turbine runner is fixed to the input axis of transmission, the transmission input axis and turbine runner rotate with the same speed and in the same direction.

Inlet

Outlet Rotation of turbine runner

Oil flow

Oil flow inside turbine runner

(2) Torque converter Torque converter has a structure such that a stator Turbine runner Pump impeller is inserted between the pump impeller and turbine runner of field coupling, as shown in the adjacent diagram. Stator The role of this stator is to change the direction of oil flow spouted out from the turbine runner. In the case of field coupling, as shown in this Drive axis Driven axis diagram, oil spouted out from the turbine runner One-way clutch flows into the pump impeller in reverse direction to the rotation of the pump impeller. That is, this oil flow will act so as to prevent the rotation of pump impeller. By inserting a stator, the flow direction of the oil spouted out from the turbine runner can be changed Cross-section of torque converter so as to enhance the rotation of pump impeller. Pump impeller Stator Pump Thus, the torque converter operates so as to Turbine impeller Turbine runner runner increase the torque of a drive axis. Field coupling However, when the rotation speed of a turbine runner reaches close to the rotation speed of a pump impeller, oil begins to hit the back-side of a stator vane, by which the torque-enhance effect is lost and the power-transfer efficiency is decreased. Turbine runner Torque converter Hence, in order to prevent the decrease of power transfer efficiency, a one-way clutch is provided to Flow of oil the stator so that when the oil hits the back-side of a stator, it is rotated. * Pump impeller .directly connected to the engine * Turbine runner ....directly connected to the T/M (transmission) shaft * Stator supported by T/M case via one-way clutch * One-way clutchOuter race of the one-way clutch, as shown in this diagram, rotates in a clock-wise direction only. It never rotates in the counter clock-wise direction.
Rotation direction Rotation direction

Outer race

Outer race

Inner race

Inner race

Splag type one-way clutch

Roller type one-way clutch

Chapter 1 Performance of an engine

1. The processes occurring within a combustion chamber
Before learning about the performance of an engine, it will be better to study the combustion process that has a close relationship with the engines performance. 1) Combustion speed and ignition timing in a gasoline engine It seems that combustion of mixed-gas within a cylinder occurs instantaneously after the mixed-gas is ignited by a spark plug. (In fact, the combustion time is as short as about 50 ms in the idling state, and 5 ms at maximum power state.) However, if we look at this combustion process closely, we can see that when an electrical spark is generated by the spark plug, a flash point is created with some delay time (about 0.5 2 ms), and combustion phenomenon is expanded to the surrounding mixed-gas by flame propagation. The propagation speed of the flame is called combustion speed or flame propagation speed. Combustion speed differs depending on various conditions such as compression pressure of mixedgas, revolution of engine, shape of combustion chamber, and other such conditions. In general, it can be summarized as follows: (i) The stronger the turbulence of mixed-gas (swirling current), the faster is the combustion speed. (ii) Combustion speed becomes high in regions where the air-fuel ratio is close to output air-fuel ratio (somewhat thicker than the theoretical air-fuel ratio). (iv) The higher the negative inhalation pressure (compression pressure is low, and the throttle valve is almost fully opened), the slower is the combustion speed. If the rotation speed is increased, the turbulence of mixed-gas (i) grows stronger and the time required for combustion is shortened, and the engine can possibly run at high revolution. However, since firing delay time is not changed and it becomes long on the crank angle as revolution is increased, it becomes necessary to advance the ignition timing as the engine runs at high revolution. This is the reason why spark advance device is required. When the throttle valve is closed, inhalation negative pressure (ii) increases and the compression pressure decreases. As a result, since the density of mixed-air is decreased, combustion speed is lowered. In order to compensate for the delay in combustion, it is essential to advance the ignition timing when the inhalation negative pressure is high by using a vacuum spark advance system.

Degree of spark advancing (Degree)

Degree of spark advanci ng (Degree

Full close

Degree of push down of accelerator pedal

Full open

Rotation speed of distributer (rpm) Inhalation

Example of characteristics of centrifugal spark advancing system

Example of characteristics of vacuum spark advancing system

Reference [Combustion and flame propagation speed] Strictly speaking, flame propagation speed comprises not only combustion speed but any other factors including the moving speed of mixed-gas. In other words, it represents the speed of flame advancing against combustion chamber wall. Combustion speed is defined as the speed with which combustion progresses into the unburned mixed-gas; that is, a relative speed of combustion against the speed of unburned mixed-gas.

2) Combustible range of mixed-gas It cannot be said that mixed-gas can combust by just mixing gasoline and air in any fuel-air ratio. The range of suitable air-to-gasoline ratios (weight ratio of air to gasoline: air-fuel ratio) is relatively narrow. This range is called combustible range. Combustible range of gasoline: 820 in air-fuel ratio Combustible range changes depending on pressure, and the following points are generally true for combustion range:

Throttle valve full open

Torque

3/4 open 1/2 open

Theoretical air fuel ratio

Fuel consumption rate

Throttle valve 1/2 3/4 open Full open

Economic air-fuel ratio

Output air-fuel ratio

Combustible range of mixed-gas

Combustible range of mixed-gas

(i) Combustible range becomes wide as temperature is increased. (ii) Combustible range becomes narrow as pressure is lowered. Mixed-gas cannot combust any further when pressure is lowered to less than some threshold value. Even if the air-fuel ratio is within the combustible range, there is a complex relationship between airfuel ratio, combustion state, and output characteristics. Hence, carburetor and electronic fuel injection system must be carefully designed so as to obtain optimum air-fuel ratio to match variously changing driving condition. The following are the ways in which driving conditions and air-fuel ratio are associated: * Output air-fuel ratio * Economical air-fuel ratio * Theoretical air-fuel ratio * Air-fuel ratio at idling state 1213 (output power is the highest) 1617 (gas mileage is best) about 14.7 (weight ratio of theoretically minimum air to fuel ratio required for complete combustion) 1214 (combustion is most stableclose to output air-fuel ratio)

In the case of the part load operation that is used in driving (i.e., middle range in which the throttle valve is not fully opened nor fully closed), economical air-fuel ratio is utilized. However, in modern passenger vehicles that use 3-way catalyst, it is necessary to use theoretical air-fuel ratio that provides the highest conversion efficiency of 3way catalyst, and except for the throttle valve full open range, the theoretical air-fuel ratio is mostly utilized.

Reference
[The reason why maximum output can be obtained by increasing the air-fuel ratio more than the theoretical airfuel ratio] Output air-fuel ratio is higher than the theoretical air-fuel ratio that seems to be most combustible (percentage of fuel is high). Reason for this phenomenon can be explained as follows. Theoretically, the combustion temperature should be highest at theoretical air-fuel ratio, but actually, at higher temperatures, CO2 and H2O generated by combustion cause thermal dissociation, which is a kind of endothermal reaction, and absorb heat from the environment. As a result, combustion temperature is decreased, and it cannot reach the highest. 2CO2 2CO + O2 (dissociation heat) 2H2O 2H2 + O2 (dissociation heat) This dissociation heat is generated even at the theoretical air-fuel ratio. Dissociation becomes less at both range of higher and lower air-fuel ratio. However, because of the presence of CO that increases when air-fuel ratio becomes high, dissociation decreases rapidly in the range of high air-fuel ratio. Therefore, combustion temperature becomes maximum, and maximum output power can be obtained at output air-fuel ratio that is higher than the theoretical air-fuel ratio. By increasing the air-fuel ratio, cooling action by vaporization of fuel becomes more depending on the fuel richness. This method is often utilized in high-performance engines. [Reason why economic air-fuel ratio is thinner than the theoretical air-fuel ratio] Theoretical air-fuel ratio is a weight ratio of minimum amount of air to fuel ratio necessary to completely combust the fuel theoretically. Hence, in some cases, fuel is not necessarily combusted completely at theoretical air-fuel ratio. Especially, when there is not enough time to fully evaporate mixed-gas and combustion has to be completed within a very short time, such as inside the cylinder, it is difficult to combust fuel completely. For this reason, in order to combust fuel completely, more air than that specified by the theoretical air-fuel is required (thinner air-fuel ratio). On the other hand, in the case of gasoline engine, combustion expands from the flash point generated by the ignition of a spark plug, and if the combustion chamber has not been filled by mixedgas with uniform air-fuel ratio, combustion may be stopped prematurely. Thus, when controlling output power, it is necessary to control not only the fuel but also the amount of air by using the throttle valve and to keep the air-fuel ratio in some range. (That is, output power is controlled by the amount of mixed-gas.) However, when we drive a vehicle tending to close throttle valve (at low load condition), the throttle valve may act as a barrier in the inhaling process. (For example, a state when we breathe while the nose is pinched.) This phenomenon is called pumping loss. If it is possible to make air-fuel ratio thinner without inhibiting combustion, pumping loss is decreased and the output power will be increased because we can drive a vehicle in such a condition that includes more air with the same amount of fuel; that is, in the direction so as to open the throttle valve more. In other words, less fuel is required to generate objective output power; that is, gas mileage is improved. (A diesel engine was based on this method. In diesel engine, operating condition is equivalent to a state in which the throttle valve is fully opened, which is an effective factor of good gas mileage.) However, if mixed-gas is very thin, and since combustion may be inhibited and inhaled fuel cannot supply its power completely, gas mileage becomes worse. When we close the throttle valve more (low load condition), since the ratio of exhaust gas remaining inside the cylinder (also called residual gas) becomes large and combustion pressure is lowered, the condition of combustion becomes worse. Thus, when we make air-fuel ratio thinner, since combustion condition becomes worse more rapidly than in case of high load condition, the lower the load is, the more economic air-fuel ratio shifts to thicker side of air-fuel ratio (approaches to theoretical air-fuel ratio). [Reason why theoretical air-fuel ratio and catalyst (3-way catalyst) are used] When we increase the amount of EGR to reduce NOx, since combustion is inhibited, we have to shift the air-fuel ratio to the thicker direction (state similar to above described low load condition). Since the generation of NOx becomes highest at the economic air-fuel ratio, it should be thicker than the economic air-fuel ratio. To reduce NOx, it is also required to delay the ignition timing (gas mileage is decreased). If we use 3-way catalyst that can possibly reduce NOx, it becomes possible to reduce the amount of EGR or even in the absence of EGR, and also to set ignition timing at better gas mileage position. Therefore, while considering emission gas restriction of a vehicle as a premise, 3-way catalyst system in which an engine is running at theoretical air-fuel ratio is presently considered as the best method for increasing gas mileage.

4. DOHC engine

1) What is DOHC engine? DOHC is an abbreviation of double overhead camshaft, and its meaning is self-explanatory; i.e., it is an engine that has 2 camshafts accompanied by 1 cylinder. It is also called twin-cam engine. Although DOHC engine is expensive to some extent, it has a simple structure. Due to its light-weight parts to enhance valve motion that moves reciprocally, this engine can possibly run at the highest revolution. While using 4-valves, since the freedom of design relating to the position of ignition plug, shape of combustion chamber or port shape, etc., is great, and the DOHC engine can be designed with near ideal form. It can be said that 4-valve DOHC is one of the ultimate engines.

2) Driving method of cam DOHC engines are not very different from SOHC engines. For driving cam, chain or cog-belt are often utilized. In the case of chain drive, 2-stage chain drive system is mostly utilized. In this case, if speed reduction is processed in the first stage, speed reduction in the second stage can be reduced; therefore, it is possible to make a cam sprocket smaller.

Although gear-driving method can operate with more exact timing and it is possible to run mechanically at the highest revolution, it suffers from disadvantages relating to noise, cost, and maintainability; this gear-driving system is applied to limited engines.

Intake camshaft

Exhaust camshaft

Hydraulic valve lifter Exhaust valve

Intake valve

Driving system of cam

3) Operation of valve There are 3 types of valve operation methods; direct-acting type, direct-acting type (with hydraulic valve lifter), and locker-arm type. In the direct-acting type, relationship of lift of valve and lift of cam is 1:1; however, in the locker-arm type,the lift of valve can be made bigger than the lift of cam depending on the lever ratio. Although it is possible to reduce noise and to make it maintenance-free by using hydraulic valve lifter or hydraulic rash adjuster in the valve lifter or pivot of locker arm so as to automatically adjust valve clearance to 0, such a method is accompanied by decrease in stiffness (which is not a major practical problem). In the locker-arm type, although the weight of reciprocally moving parts (called equivalent mass) is light, stiffness is lower than the direct-acting type. True direct-driving type without using hydraulic valve lifter is possible to run at the highest revolution among these 3 types.

Direct acting type

Direct acting type (with hydraulic valve lifter)

Locker arm type

Valve operation method

Chapter 3 Electronic Concentrated Control System (ECCS)

1. ECCS engine (what is ECCS?)

ECCS is a system that controls the fuel and ignition systems, etc., in a comprehensive way, in order to ideally operate an engine in any driving conditions. In conventional electronic fuel injection system or ECC system, since the fuel and ignition systems have been controlled individually in such a way that the fuel system is controlled electronically, but the ignition system is controlled mechanically using a centrifugal spark advance and vacuum spark advance. Hence, even if each system was optimally controlled, and since the relationship between the systems is weak while looking at it totally from an overall engine viewpoint, it has been impossible to satisfy perfectly the requirements of an ideal engine. (In detail, mechanical spark-advance system cannot possibly control an engine ideally in nature.) In ECCS, all of the engine control systems such as fuel injection control, ignition control, idle revolution control, and fuel pump control, etc., are controlled by single central computer system using single common data that expresses operating status of an engine. An ECCS system can be considered to capture the status of an engine by each sensor and comprehensively controls the fuel feeding and ignition timing, etc., to execute optimal controlling of the whole engine. This integrated controlling system of an engine is called electronic concentrated control system, or ECCS. ECCS controls an engine by deciding the amount of fuel injection and ignition timing from the data of revolution and the amount of inhaled air that express the running status of an engine (roughly speaking, degree of push down of acceleration pedal). Therefore, if either the crank angle sensor that detects revolution or air-flow meter that detects the amount of inhaled air fail, normal controlling, or normal driving become impossible. Idling control, used only when idling the engine, controls the idling engine revolution to the specified number of revolution. From the point of safety, fuel pump is required to stop when an engine is stopped and to operate only while the engine is running. Controlling of the fuel pump can be executed by the combination of relay and switch, but since it is better to do it electronically, which is a more convenient method, it is included in ECCS controlling. To briefly summarize the ECCS process, it can be said that ECCS performs the functions that are executed by a carburetor or distributor in gasoline engines although an ECCS performs them electronically. Therefore, if we push down the acceleration pedal, the amount of fuel injection is increased equivalent to the increase of inhaled air into the cylinder, and if revolution becomes high, ignition timing is advanced in the same way as is the centrifugal spark advanced. The 2 factors that are controlled at any time are fuel injection and ignition timing. Sensors required for controlling these factors are crank angle sensor and air-flow meter. Take a look at anything simply and flexibly and broaden your knowledge on the ECCS.

2. Outline of control

Controls in ECCS are outlined in this Table. Kinds of controlling Content of controlling Fuel-injection Detects the running status of an control engine by determining the revolutions and the amount of inhaled air, decides pulse width of fuel injection corresponding to these data to control the amount of fuel injection.

Ignition control

Like fuel injection control, it decides ignition timing based on engine revolution and the amount of inhaled air that expresses the running status of an engine.

Idle control

revolution

Fuel pump control

In order to stabilize idle revolution, it maintains it at constant if the load of engine (e.g. electrical load when head lamp is turned on, etc.) is changed in the idling state. During the warm-up operation, it increases the revolution of engine according to the temperature of cooling water to execute smooth warming-up (in carburetor, first idling function). While an air conditioner is operating, it increases the engine revolution to maintain the performance of the air conditioner (In carburetor, FICD function). For safety reasons, it operates only when the engine is operating. Integral control of an engine and A/T reduces gear-shift shock of A/T. In addition, there are variable valve timing control and charging pressure control.

Supplementary explanation Injection pulse that is decided by engine revolution and the amount of inhaled air is called basic injection pulse. Actual pulse width is decided by adding a correction value calculated on the basis of driving conditions and temperature conditions to the basic injection pulse. For example, when engine is cold, it broadens the injection pulse width to make air-fuel ratio thicker and to increase the amount of fuel injection. As a value representing the load of an engine (or torque, in short, degree of pushing down of acceleration pedal), basic injection pulse is used. That is, it express operating status of an engine by revolution and basic injection pulse, and by using this data, it decides the ignition timing (inside ECCS control unit). Idle revolution compensation solenoid valve for compensating idle revolution that is used in a carburetor can execute only ON/OFF control to increase or decrease revolution. However, in the case of ECCS, it controls the amount of air that passes through the auxiliary air path with auxiliary air control (AAC) valve and controls revolution while continuously monitoring engine revolution.

Other controls

In some high-class vehicles, revolution of fuel pump is controlled to reduce the operating sound (noise). Many of other controls are not available depending on the vehicle types.

Fuel pump control signal Ignition time control signal Duel injection control signal Idle operation control signal ?? ( )

3. System diagram

Fuel pump
Air regulator Throttle chamber Throttle valve switch Throttle sensor

AAC valve

Key switch signal Battery voltage signal

This figure shows a conceptual diagram of typical ECCS engine

Conceptual view of ECCS system

ECCS control unit
Air conditioner switch signal Power steering switch signal Throttle valve position signal

Ignition power transistor unit

Fuel injector

Water temperature sensor

Knocking signal
l

Cooling water temperature signal Ignition coil

Neutral signal

Knock sensor Spark plug

Inhaled air amount signal 1signal, 120signal

Water temperature signal

Catalyst converter (3way catalyst)

O2 sensor

Neutral switch

Air flow meter

Crank angle sensor Water temperature sensor

The diagram on the right shows what parameters of an engine are collected in addition to engine revolution and the amount of inhaled air by various sensors.

Engine revolution Amount of inhaled air

Throttle valve

Fuel injection control

Cooling water temperature Air-fuel ratio (Thick or thin)

ECCS control unit

Ignition control

Idle revolution control Knocking

Fuel pump control Neutral SW (Inhibitor SW)

Key SW position Battery voltage Air conditioner SW Power steering SW

Other controls

Various parameters of engine status relating to ECCS control

4. Controlling system of ECCS

1) Structure of electronic controlling system ECCS is one of the typical electronic controlling systems. The basic components of this Control electronic controlling system Actuator Sensor unit Input Output are simple devices such as sensor, control unit ECCS control unit Crank angle sensor Fuel injector (microcomputer) and actuator. Air flow meter Ignition power transistor Major components used in ECCS are, crank angle sensor Structure of electronic control and air-flow meter that act as sensors for detecting operating status, ECCS control unit that acts as a control unit for receiving sensor signals and drives actuators, and fuel injector and ignition power transistor that act as actuator. As you can understand from this structure, electronic controlling first becomes possible when all of the 3 basic elements of sensor, control unit, and actuator became available. If any of these 3 elements fail, or any wire harness that transmits signal was damaged, correct control becomes impossible.

(1) System block diagram System-block diagram of actual ECCS is shown in this figure.

[Sensor]

[Control unit]

[Actuator]

[Control]

Crank angle sensor Fuel injector Air-flow meter Ignition power transistor Throttle sensor Throttle valve SW Water temperature sensor O2 sensor Knock sensor Vehicle speed sensor Neutral SW (Inhibitor SW) Key SW Battery voltage Air conditioner SW Power steering SW [Ignition control] [Fuel injection control]

ECCS control unit

[Output]

[Input]

AAC valve

[Idle revolution control]

Fuel pump (Relay)

[Fuel pump control]

System block diagram of ECCS

2) Sensors and actuators used in ECCS Sensors and actuators used in ECCS are shown in the following table. There are various sensors and actuators relating to ECCS, and it seems very complex. However, all the sensors do not necessarily uniformly affect each control. It will be easy to understand if we think about sensors by dividing them into 2 groups; one comprising central players that play a necessary role for controlling, and the other comprising supporting players that send triggering signals to start controlling or give compensation signals. In case of ECCS, since fundamental parameters to express engines status are engine revolution and the amount of inhaled air, we can consider crank angle sensor and air-flow meter as central players and others as supporting players.

[Relationship among control, sensor, and actuator] Kind of control Fuel-injection control Input <Sensor> Crank angle sensor Air-flow meter Throttle sensor Throttle valve SW Water temperature sensor O2 sensor Vehicle speed sensor Key SW (START) Battery voltage Crank angle sensor Air-flow meter Throttle sensor Throttle valve SW Water temperature sensor Knock sensor Neutral sensor (Inhibitor SW) Key SW (START) Battery voltage Crank angle sensor Throttle sensor Throttle valve SW Water temperature sensor Vehicle speed sensor Neutral SW (Inhibitor SW) Key SW (START) Battery voltage Air conditioner SW Power steering SW Crank angle sensor Air-flow meter Key SW (ON) Output (object of control) <Actuator> Fuel injector Remarks If these controls do not work, startup and running become impossible.

Ignition control

Ignition power transistor Ignition coil

Idle-revolution control

AAC valve (Auxiliary air control valve)

Inhaled air passes through the main path (throttle valve) and auxiliary path. However, this controls only the amount of air flow passing through the auxiliary path. Even if this control does not work, normal running is possible. However, there is a possibility of enginestop.

Fuel-pump control

Fuel pump relay Fuel pump

(3) Functions of main parts Functions of the main parts of ECCS engine are shown in this table. Name of part Control unit Description of function Outputs signal to operate actuator according to driving condition that is input from sensor. This is a key of ECCS control. Detects engine revolution and piston position. This is an important sensor that relates to all the controls including fuel injection control and ignition control. Detects the amount of air inhaled into an engine. This is an important sensor for deciding the amount of fuel injection and ignition timing. It outputs voltage corresponding to the amount of inhaled air. Detects cooling water temperature by thermistor resistance, executes compensation for the amount of fuel injection corresponding to cooling water temperature and changes control target value of idle revolution. Detects close/open of the throttle valve for controlling idle revolution and fuel injection. It outputs ON/OFF signal. Detects the degree of opening and opening speed of the throttle valve for controlling additional fuel injection during acceleration. Some throttle sensors are used commonly for detecting full close of throttle valve. It detects the degree of opening of throttle valve by resistor (or change of resistance). Detects O2 concentration in exhaust gas and determines thick/thin of air-fuel ratio. This signal is used as feedback control for theoretical air-fuel ratio. Detects vehicles speed and outputs the direction to start (or stop) of each control. Detects knocking of an engine. When knocking occurs, it corrects the spark advance (to delay) in controlling area. This is an electromagnetic valve that is opened by receiving signal of fuel injection pulse to inject fuel into the combustion chamber. Receives ignition signal and controls on/off of primary current of ignition coil. Receives a control signal based on the difference between objective value and actual value of idle revolution and controls the increase/decrease of auxiliary airflow. Under operating condition of fuel pump, it makes fuel pump relay to turn on to power on fuel pump.

ECCS control unit

Sensor

Crank angle sensor

Air-flow meter

Water sensor

temperature

Throttle valve SW Throttle sensor

O2 sensor

Vehicle sensor Knock sensor Actuator Fuel injector

speed

Ignition power transistor Ignition coil AAC valve

Fuel pump relay Fuel pump

Chapter 4. Diesel engine

1. General description of a diesel engine
Diesel engine was invented by Rudolf Diesel (German) in 1893. In this engine, air is first compressed, and then, injected into the compressed high-temperature air. Next, fuel is self-ignited and combusted. During the inhaling process, only air is inhaled. Compression temperature of air automatically ignites fuel without using the spark plug. Although this engine has some disadvantages such as noise and vibration, it is widely utilized in various vehicles because it uses less expensive fuel than gasoline and its gas mileage is good. Especially, most cargo trucks have diesel engines because of its economical nature and high durability.

1) Operation principle of a diesel engine Diesel engine is a kind of internal combustion engine that combusts fuel within a cylinder, like gasoline engine, and obtains driving power mechanically by moving the piston by combustion pressure. Its main parts are basically the same as gasoline engine. However, since diesel engine uses a different ignition method from that used in gasoline engines, electrical ignition system is not required, instead, fuel injection system is required. Below, we will explain the operation of each process. (1) Inhaling process This process is different from gasoline engine in that only air is inhaled in a diesel engine, while air and fuel are inhaled in gasoline engine. In addition, since there is no carburetor and throttle valve in the inhaling path, it always intakes maximum air in both idling state (no load) and full load state (so called full-accel state corresponding to the state in which the throttle valve was fully opened). Output power is controlled by the amount of fuel injection. (2) Compression process As piston goes up, air within the cylinder is compressed. In general, when air is compressed, the temperature also increases. Since, in a diesel engine, fuel is ignited by compression temperature of air, air must be compressed until the temperature exceeds over the ignition temperature (400500C).

Therefore, much higher compression ratio than that required in gasoline engines is required, and a strong compression force is required. (In general, output power of the starter motor of a diesel engine is greater than the gasoline engine.) Compression ratio of gasoline engine is 712, while that of diesel engine is 1523.

(3) Combustion process When misty fuel is injected from the injection nozzle installed on the cylinder head at the end of compression process, fuel is self-ignited by compression temperature of air. By combustion of fuel, pressure within the cylinder increases rapidly, and this pressure pushes down the piston and rotates the crankshaft. (4) Exhaustion process Exhaustion process is the same as the one in gasoline engines.
Injection nozzle

Inhaling

Compression

Combustion

Exhaustion

Operation of 4-cycle Diesel engine

2) Features of a diesel engine Since a diesel engines combustion mechanism is different from that of gasoline engine, it has various features. (1) Advantage The greatest feature of a diesel engine is that it is very economical. In other words, fuel cost is low. There are 2 reasons why it is economical. One is that its fuel is cheaper than gasoline. Another is that it works at good gas mileage. Good gas mileage is a technological feature of a diesel engine. Its reason can be explained as flows.

[Thermal efficiency is high because of its high compression ratio] By increasing the compression ratio, the ratio of emitted heat is reduced, thereby increasing the ratio of heat to be converted to work and improving the output power and gas mileage. Since knocking occurs, it is recommended not to make compression ratio very high in case of gasoline engine.

High compression ratio

Low compression ratio

[Throttling loss in inhaling process is small (pumping loss is small)] Since diesel engine has no throttle valve that is used in gasoline engine, throttle loss in inhaling process is small even at low load conditions. Therefore, the difference in gas mileage becomes large as the load becomes light. (If you breathe air while lightly pinching your nose, you will experience the feeling of throttle loss.) Additionally, there are advantageous features such as a long life because of the robust construction that allows to tolerate high combustion pressures, no failure by ignition system occurs because ignition system is not required, and it is more advantageous while driving in bad conditions such as flooded roads or when crossing a river. Reference
[Gas mileage of light-oil] Practical gas mileage in diesel engine is said as XXkm per liter. Since the relative density of light-oil is greater than gasoline by about 15%, the amount of heat generated per unit weight is less than gasoline by about 3%; however, travel distance of diesel engine becomes longer than the gasoline engine by about 10% per liter even if the improvement of thermal efficiency is not taken into consideration. [Why thermal efficiency is improved by making compression ratio high?] Strictly speaking, the higher the compression pressure is, the higher the compression temperature becomes and the larger is the temperature difference from exhaust gas temperature. That is, since the ratio of heat emitted out is reduced and the ratio of heat to be converted to work becomes high, the thermal efficiency becomes high.

(1) Disadvantages (i) When engine is cold or is running at low load, diesel knocking sound is high. Noise and vibration are high owing to high combustion pressure. (ii) In cold season, startup is somewhat troublesome. (iii) Because each part is made robustly, weight is heavy. (iv) Since precise injection pump is required, cost is high. (v) Since compression ratio is high, larger sized starter motor and battery are required. (vi) Output power is relatively low due to reasons such as since air utilization ratio is low, higher amount of fuel cannot be combusted, and since each part is made robustly, friction loss is large in high revolution range. (vii) Reducing NOx emission is difficult. (viii) Although it is in reverse relationship with a feature that thermal efficiency is high, since thermal

emission to cooling water is small, water temperature does not rapidly increase while idling and heater may not work effectively in cold season.

2. Combustion in diesel engine

1) Combustion process Since the diesel engine is based on an ignition method in which fuel is injected into compressed hightemperature air and is combusted by self-ignition, the combustion process is complex. The combustion process can be divided into 4 phases. The diagram below shows this combustion process with respect to the crank angle. In this section, each phase will be explained based on this diagram. * Ignition delay period (AB) * Premixed-like burning period (BC) * Diffusive burning period (CD) * After-burning period (DE)
Fuel injection start

Fuel injection end

Expansion

(1) Ignition delay period Compression This is a period A B in the diagram, in which the fuel injected at point-A is heated in high-temperature air and evaporated, mixed with air, and reaches ignition Crank angle temperature. It is better to make this Combustion status in diesel engine period as short as possible (generally 0.7 Combustion status in diesel engine 3 ms) from the viewpoint of combustion Note: No injection indicated by dotted line indicates a state in which fuel is not injected literally, and pressure is decreasing as piston goes down noise such as diesel knock. from the top dead center to bottom dead center. (It is symmetrical to compression process.) This period of ignition delay changes is mainly affected by ignitability of fuel (Cetane value) and temperature and pressure of compressed air. It is also affected by the state of injected fuel (e.g., fuel particle size, state of spreading, etc.) or state of mixing of air and fuel. However, as for ignitable fuel, since the availability of fuel is limited when compared with that of commercial light-oil, users cannot select this value freely. In addition, since it is said that light-oil available in Japanese market has the worlds highest or the second highest cetane value, discussion about ignitability may be practically useless.
Injection Top dead center

(2) Premixed-like burning period This is a period BC in the diagram. When mixed-gas is ignited at one or more places at point-B, the flame expands rapidly. Since injected mixed-gas has been vaporized during ignition delay period and is in an easily combustible state, whole volume of mixed-gas combusts in a moment and pressure increases abruptly. Increase of pressure at this moment is affected mainly by the amount of injected fuel during ignition delay period. At point-C, which is the end point of this period, almost all of the injected fuel is

Ignition delay

No injection

Pressure (kg/cm2)

Combustion

combusted.

Reference [Premixed-like burning] A state that fuel injected during ignition delay is vaporized before it is ignited, and is mixed with air generating easily combustible state is called pre-mixed sate (means that fuel was pre-mixed before being combusted). This term means originally burning of mixed-gas that has been mixed in advance by carburetor-like combustion in gasoline engines. However, also in diesel engine, this term is used since injected fuel during ignition delay period generates mixed-gas before it is combusted.

(3) Diffusive burning period This is a period CD in the diagram, in which fuel is still injected even after passing through point-C, but it is combusted upon being injected without ignition delay by the flame generated during period B C. Therefore, a change in pressure during the period C D can be controlled by appropriately adjusting the amount of fuel injection. A state wherein injected fuel is mixed with air and combustion continues in succession is called diffusive burning. Since vehicles that use diesel engines are driven at the highest revolution, ignition timing decided by taking ignition delay into consideration is significantly advanced on the crank angle, and diffusion burning period may not exist in cases except for heavy load condition in which fuel injection period is long. (4) After-burning period At point-D in the diagram, fuel injection is finished and combusted gas begins to expand, and fuel that has not been combusted completely is combusted during this period. When this period becomes long, and since exhaust temperature is increased and fuel does not become an effective energy (heat is emitted to outside), this period should be shortened. Since the combustions in diesel engines are affected by nozzle opening pressure of fuel injection nozzle, state of fuel injection, injection timing, and compression pressure, etc., these factors must be carefully noticed from the viewpoint of engine performance. 2) Relationship between compression pressure, compression temperature, and ignition temperature (1) In general, in order to obtain good combustion, it is necessary that air temperature within the cylinder is somewhat higher than the ignition temperature of fuel. Compression temperature is required to be 400 500C. (The larger the temperature difference between air and fuel, the faster the injected fuel particles can be heated up.)

Inhaling temperature

Temperature ()

Absolute pressure (gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure)

Relationship between compression pressure and compression temperature

(2) Revolution and compression pressure As shown in the diagram on the right, the more the revolution of engine, the higher is the compression pressure under the same compression ratio. In general, when air is compressed, and since energy for compressing air is stored in the air inside the cylinder, air temperature becomes high. Compression pressure at this time changes depending on the revolution affected by pressure leak or escape of compression heat. At the same time, compression temperature also changes depending on pressure.

Compression pressure (kg/cm2) (Absolute pressure)

=Compression ratio

Engine revolution (rpm)

Relationship between revolution and When starting an engine, since diesel engine has no compression pressure throttle valve and requires high compression ratio, it is necessary to compress inhaled air strongly. Hence, when starting an engine in cold season, since startup resistance of engine is large, large size battery and starter motor are required. In addition, when starting an engine in cold season, since temperature of inhaled air and engine body is low and escape of compression heat is large, compression temperature does not easily increase up to ignition temperature, and hence, an auxiliary device such as glowplug is required.

(3) Compression ratio In general, the higher the compression ratio, the higher is the thermal efficiency. In the case of diesel engine, ignitability is good, and since there is no restriction of knocking as seen in gasoline engine, it is better to set compression ratio at a high value. However, if the compression ratio is set at very high value, both compression pressure and combustion pressure become very high, and if each part is made robustly in order to bear such high pressures, other problems such as high total weight and large friction losses are generated, and it is not desirable to set compression ratio at very high values exceeding what is necessary. Actually, compression ratio is set at possible lowest vale required for self-ignition for practical reasons. Reference
[Reason why gasoline is not used in diesel engine] Since diesel engine uses self-ignition method by compression heat of air, ignition temperature of fuel is a key point. Gasoline and light-oil are both mix of various carbon hydrides, and their composition is different depending on the place of production. In addition, ignition temperature is not constant. In addition, even when comparing using the same fuel, ignition temperature differs depending on air-fuel ratio or compression pressure. For example, when compression pressure becomes high, molecules are activated and ignition temperature tends to become low. Hence, it is difficult to obtain a fixed value for ignition temperature, but it is generally said that it is 400500C in the case of gasoline and is 300400C in the case of light-oil. [Reason why ignition temperature of light-oil is lower than gasoline] Firing point of gasoline is lower than 30C, and it is often said that gasoline is dangerous since it is highly inflammable. On the other hand, the firing point of light-oil is around 50C, which is greatly different from gasoline. While considering only the firing point, it seems that the ignition temperature of gasoline also may be low. However, actually, it is not true.

Firing point relates to the temperature at which fuel is vaporized and generates gas. Gasoline that has a short chain of carbon hydride is light and has a low boiling point, and can be vaporized at low temperatures. In contrast, light oil is heavy and has long chains of carbon hydride and low boiling point, vaporization temperature is high. It is said that long chains of carbon hydride are easily cut (easily decomposed), and it is decomposed by heat and generates a state that reacts with oxygen, resulting in being ignitable at low temperature.

3) Excess air ratio Compared to gasoline engines that inhale mixed-gas of air and fuel in advance, in a diesel engine, fuel injected close to the last timing of compression process is mixed with air in a very short time, generates mixed-gas and combusts by self-ignition. Thus, it is not possible to use all the inhaled air, and it requires excess air even at full load state (so called full-accel state). In other words, it requires excess air more than theoretical amount necessary for combusting injected fuel. This ratio of excess air is called excess air ratio. In a diesel engine, although it differs depending on the shape of combustion chamber or revolution, excess air ratio is set at 1.1 1.3. If too much fuel is injected, black smoke is generated because of insufficiency of air. On the other hand, in gasoline engine, excess air ratio at output air-fuel ratio is about 0.8. One of the reasons why output power of diesel engine is low is that diesel engine can combust only smaller amounts of fuel than gasoline engine (usage efficiency of air is low). Actual amount of excess air Excess air ratio = Theoretical amount of air required for combustion

Reference Theoretical air-fuel ratio of light-oil It is considered that although there is some breadth like the case of gasoline, theoretical air-fuel ratio of light-oil is about 14.2. Reason why it is lower than 14.7 of gasolines value is that light oil has longer chain of carbon hydride than gasoline, and since a ratio of hydrogen becomes low and the required amount of oxygen or air is reduced.

4) Diesel knock (1) Diesel-knock phenomenon In a diesel engine, mixed-gas generated during ignition delay period is combusted at a burst in combustion process, and the pressure within a cylinder increases abruptly. When this abrupt increase of pressure exceeds a certain threshold, combusted gas begins to hit the combustion chamber wall, cylinder, or piston and generates a knocking sound. This is called diesel knock. Hence, there is no clear distinction in knocking between normal combustion and knocking combustion.

When the increase of combustion pressure is very abrupt and each part of an engine is heavily impacted, it is said that knocking occurred.

On the other hand, in gasoline engines, normal combustion differs greatly from knocking combustion. Knocking combustion in gasoline engine generates strong pressure vibration, and transferred heat to piston and combustion chamber is increased abnormally; the piston and other parts may be damaged or burnt out. While in the case of diesel engines, even though it is said that mixed-gas generated during ignition delay period is combusted in a burst, combustion chamber is not completely filled with uniform mixedgas, which is different from gasoline engine (means that .air-fuel ratio is not uniform). Hence, differing from the devastating combustion like knocking of gasoline engine, the rate of increase in pressure in diesel engine is slower than that in gasoline engines when knocking occurs. As a result, diesel engine does not receive thermal damage unlike gasoline engine, while it has a disadvantage such as noise and unstable revolution. However, when the diesel knock is extremely strong, it may cause damage to the piston and other structural parts.

Pressure (kg/cm2)

Rate of pressure increase is faster in this dotted line than solid line. In case this gradient is steep, Diesel knock may occur.

In case when fuel was not injected.

Crank

Angle
(Compression top dead center

Change of pressure inside cylinder

(2) In order to suppress diesel knock Since the strength of diesel knock is in proportion mainly to the amount of injected fuel during ignition delay period, following 2 points are keys for suppressing diesel knock. * To shorten ignition delay * To reduce the amount of fuel injection during ignition delay period For achieving these, following factors are required. [To shorten ignition delay] * To increase compression pressure to raise the temperature within the cylinder [To make compression ratio high and to reduce compression leak] * To increase the cooling water temperature to a proper level to raise the temperature within the cylinder [If we consider ignition delay only, it is better that cooling water temperature is high. However, since there is a limit for this temperature due to durability reason, proper temperature should be maintained] * To make ignition timing to be proper

[If we consider ignition delay only, it is better to delay ignition timing so that the temperature within the cylinder is increased when fuel is injected. However, since it leads to bad gas mileage and power reduction, ignition timing should be maintained properly.]

* To make injection nozzle opening pressure and mist state proper [Mist state relates to the degree of mixing of injected fuel and high-temperature air (temperature of fuel and air-fuel ratio), and it affects not only ignition delay but also combustion state. When the injection nozzle opening pressure decreases, fuel injection is started at low pressure, and large fuel particles like a raindrop, not mist, are injected. If the fuel particle is large, the surface of fuel that contacts with air becomes small (Refer to the Note). As a result, temperature increase slows down and ignition delay becomes large. * To use highly ignitable (high cetane value) fuel [To reduce the amount of fuel injection during ignition delay period] * To reduce the amount of fuel injection at the beginning of injection by using a throttle valve. [In the case of direct injection system, for fuel and air are well mixed, it is necessary that the injected fuel is sprayed in all directions and reaches perfectly to every corner within the cylinder. Therefore, in the case of direct-injection system, throttle nozzle cannot be utilized. This is one of the reasons why diesel knock sound of direct injection type diesel engine is high.] Note: Ice in ice-coffee is fine, and ice in on-the-rock is large. This is because the size is selected so as to match each purpose. That is, when ice is crashed to fine grain, coffee is cooled down more rapidly and easily mixed with water and milk. Ice in on-the-rock prevents ice from melting faster by a keeping large size and also prevents whisky from becoming thin because of the melted water. Ice coffee needs to This idea can be applied to a On-the-rock does not want to make cool down massive whisky to dissolve into melted water coffee as soon as diesel engine by considering from ice possible ice as the fuel particle and coffee as high-temperature air. As fine-grain ice takes off heat from ambient rapidly and cools down coffee, finegrained fuel particles are rapidly heated up and ignited.
Relation between ices surface area and heat transfer.

Reference [Combustion noise and revolution in diesel engine] In gasoline engine, after the fuel is ignited by a spark plug, the flame propagates to ambient in turn; in other words, combustion takes place rather in an orderly fashion. In contrast, in a diesel engine, if the fuel is ignited at more than one place, and since the fuel injected during the ignition delay period is combusted in a burst, complex and abrupt increase of pressure occurs. (From this phenomenon, this pre-mixed combustion period is often called uncontrolled combustion period (means that it is uncontrollable).) In addition, in a diesel engine, since the inhaled air is not throttled by a throttle valve, compression pressure at idling status and at light-load condition is high as same as in heavy load condition. Moreover, the amount of fuel injected during ignition-delay period does not change when the load is changed. As a result, compression pressure becomes very

high, say 40 50 kg/cm2, which is close to a value that corresponds to compression pressure when gasoline engine is running in full-throttle. (Compression pressure of gasoline engine at idling state is less than 10 kg/cm2) For these reasons, a diesel engine generates large combustion noise caused by high compression pressure even when it is running normally. From such reasons due to which increase in pressure is complex and abrupt, and since compression pressure is high because air is not throttled, a strong force is required for the compression process; diesel engine lacks smoothness of revolution especially in low-speed revolution. In order to solve this problem, it is necessary to use a special device in the power transmission system, such as a torsion spring of clutch disk. (3) Summary of diesel knock This table shows a summary of diesel knock compared with gasoline engines knocking. Knocking Diesel knock Gasoline engines knocking Cause of occurring Not easy to occur self-ignition Easy to occur self-ignition Fuel Cylinder temperature Cooling water temperature Low High Inhaled air temperature Compression ratio Compression pressure Injection timing or ignition timing Running condition Time of occurring Low Advance Idling, Low speed, and Light load (Note) Beginning of combustion process High Advance Low speed and Heavy load End of combustion process

As shown above, gasoline engines knocking is generated by self-ignition of end-gas (residual gas) and it is also called knocking. Whereas, there is almost no similarity except for injection timing or ignition timing between gasoline engines knocking and diesel engines knocking, and the counter measure is totally different. Note: The lighter the load is, the smaller the amount of fuel injection is required and temperature of the cylinder or combustion chamber becomes low. When revolution becomes low, the escape of heat or compression leak increases in the compression period, and the increased rate of compression pressure and temperature become slow. For these reasons, diesel knock may be easily generated at idling state, at low revolution speed, and in light load condition. 5) Combustion chamber of diesel engine (1) Overview As previously described, fuel particles injected into high temperature, high-pressure air are heated by ambient air and vaporized to generate mixed-gas, and this initiates combustion when the temperature reaches ignition temperature of fuel. Therefore, fuel particles injected into a cylinder must get mixed with air as rapidly as possible. Hence, how to make good combustion in diesel engine depends on how well the fuel and air are mixed within a short time. To realize ideal combustion chamber, various types have been devised.

Combustion chamber of diesel engine can be divided into 2 types. One is direct-injection type wherein fuel is directly injected into the main combustion chamber, and another is sub-chamber type. Sub-chamber type is further divided to pre-combustion chamber type and swirl-chamber type depending on the shape of sub-chamber. In passenger vehicles, swirl-chamber type is mostly utilized. (It is said that only Daimler Benz is adopting the pre-combustion chamber type for passenger vehicles.) Direct injection type Pre-combustion chamber type Sub-chamber type Swirl-chamber type

Combustion chamber of diesel engine

Nozzle Nozzle
Pre-combustion chamber

Nozzle
Swirl chamber

Direct injection type

Pre-combustion chamber type

Swirl chamber type

Fig.13-6 Types of combustion chamber of Diesel engine

(2) Direct injection type Combustion chamber takes a simple shape that is formed between a cylinder head and the top of a piston. The fuel is injected directly into this combustion chamber. Mixing of fuel and air is done by a rush of injected fuel particles, swirl generated during inhaling process, or flow and disturbance of air by squish generated during the compression process. Since it is required to send fuel particles to reach to every corner of the cylinder and to generate a misty state of fuel, fuel is injected with a high-pressure of 200600 kg/cm2 using a nozzle having multiple holes. Although its gas mileage is good, it is noisy. [Advantage] Since the shape of combustion chamber is simple and the surface area is small, heat loss (leak of heat) is small, and thermal efficiency and gas mileage are good. Mileage is goodthis is the greatest advantage of this type. Since heat loss is small in the compression process, start-up easiness is good and pre-heating is not required when the engine is started in normal temperature environment. However, in cold season, some auxiliary device is required for starting up an engine. Since it has no sub-chamber and it is difficult to pre-heat whole of the big combustion chamber with a glow-plug, structure becomes rather complex. The structure of a cylinder head is simple. There is no problem of thermal distortion. This type is utilized in middle to large size vehicle engines (over 3000 cc). [Disadvantage] Since mixing of fuel and air is mainly done by injection of fuel, such nozzle as throttle valve that reduces the amount of injected fuel during ignition delay period (at the beginning of fuel injection) and there is no such throttle as used in sub-chamber type, combustion will advance in a burst once fuel is

ignited. Therefore, it has the following disadvantages.

(i) (ii)

Ignition delay strongly affects combustion, generating diesel knock. Combustion temperature and pressure are high, and combustion noise is high. At the same time, much NOx is generated. (iii) Injection pressure of the fuel is relatively higher than the other types. (iv) State of injected fuel sensitively affects combustion. (v) Since mixing of fuel and air is done by injection of fuel and swirl during inhaling process, utilization ratio of air is low and the range of revolution in which appropriate combustion is possible is narrow. (vi) When this structure is made compact, it is difficult to obtain optimum characteristics of fuelinjection (to make fine mist of fuel or to make high-precision nozzle). In addition, since in small engines (especially in passenger vehicles), broad range of revolution is required, there is a limit in making compact engines. (At present, it is limited to 7501000 cc.) Reference [Types of direct injection type combustion chamber] Mixing of fuel and air is done by rush of injected fuel particles, swirl generated during inhaling process, or flow and disturbance of air by squish generated during compression process. This is divided into 3 types as shown in this diagram.

Dish-type combustion chamber

M-type combustion chamber

Troidal type combustion chamber

Fig.13-7 Shape of direct injection type combustion chamber

(i)

Dish-type combustion chamber Since this type does not generate swirl and mixing of fuel and air is done mainly by injection of fuel, it is required that injection pressure is high and the nozzle is always in good condition for fuel injection. Since air-flow within the cylinder is weak, heat loss is low and gas mileage is the best. However, since mixing of fuel and air is rather insufficient, it is required that excess-air ratio is high. M-type combustion chamber This type was invented by Man S.G. (German). In this type of chamber, most of the fuel injected into strong swirl attaches to the wall of the combustion chamber like a film, and a small part of fuel is heated and ignited in air, and then, fuel is heated by wall of combustion chamber and combusted gas and vaporized in succession for combustion. Therefore, unlike other direct injection types, since pre-mix combustion period in which fuel injected during the ignition delay period combust at a burst is short, diesel knock and combustion noise are both low. This is the advantage of this type. On the other hand, disadvantages are that the thermal load on piston is heavy and strong swirl is required.

(ii)

(iii) Troidal-type combustion chamber Dent of the piston is deep and small in diameter compared with the dish-type combustion chamber. Mixing of fuel and air is done by injection of fuel, swirl, and squish. It is considered preferable that some part of fuel injected from 46 holes hits the wall of dent on the piston and is bounced back moderately. Since there is no deviation in structure and performance and since it is relatively easy-to-manufacture, this type is widely utilized as a mainstream of vehicle use combustion chamber. There is also a Reentrant type deigned in a similar manner, which was

devised so as to have an advantage of squish effect and reverse-squish effect when the piston goes down from top dead center to bottom dead center.

(3) Pre-combustion chamber type This type has a sub-chamber (pre-combustion chamber) above the main combustion chamber formed by the cylinder head and piston head. Fuel is injected into the precombustion chamber and not into the cylinder directly. By Injection nozzle combustion pressure generated by the combustion of Pre-combustion chamber some part of injected fuel, residual fuel is strongly injected Glow-plug into the main combustion chamber together with the combustion gas. Due to this jet energy, fuel is mixed well. Cylinder head In general, the volume of pre-combustion chamber is designed to be 30% 50% in ratio (ratio of prePiston combustion chamber to total compression volume). Main combustion chamber In the case of this type, since a throttle valve can be utilized to reduce the amount of fuel injection during the Pre-combustion chamber type combustion chamber ignition delay period, quiet driving without diesel knock is possible and since fuel and air are mixed well (air usage efficiency is high), generation of black lead is small. In addition, since mild combustion is possible because the amount of injected fuel is small and the main combustion chamber is connected to sub-combustion chamber with a small hole, the combustion temperature and pressure are both low and generation of NOx is small. On the other hand, since there is a throttling loss between main- and sub-combustion chamber and surface area is large because of the presence of sub-chamber, heat loss is high, and gas mileage is low. We can briefly put it as: this type is quiet but gas mileage is bad. [Advantages] (i) Since combustion is not sensitive to ignition delay, diesel knock is small and engine is quiet. (ii) Since injection pressure of fuel is low (100300 kg/cm2), it is nor sensitive to injection condition. (iii) Since fuel and air are mixed well, generation of black lead in heavy load operation is small (compared to the direct injection type, in a case when the same amount of fuel is injected). [Disadvantages] (i) The structure of the cylinder head is complex. (ii) Since the surface area of pre-combustion chamber is large, heat is lost and the compression temperature of pre-combustion chamber is lowered; it is required to increase compression ratio and to use glow-plug while starting the engine. Throttle loss between main- and sub-combustion chambers is large and there is a heat loss from the sub-chamber, and the gas mileage is low. (4) Swirl-chamber type In this type, a sub-chamber (swirl chamber) is attached above the main combustion chamber, and subchamber and main-combustion chambers are connected by a hole (discharge orifice) having an angle to generate swirl inside the sub-chamber. While compressing inhaled air, strong swirl is generated inside the sub-chamber by compressed air from the main combustion chamber. Then, fuel is injected into this swirl. Inside the sub-combustion chamber, fuel is mixed well with air and is combusted. Then, combusted gas blows out from the hole into the main combustion chamber to be completely combusted. Volume of swirl chamber generally occupies 50%70% of the total volume of the combustion chamber, which is larger than that of precombustion chamber. Since the ratio of fuel combusted within the sub-chamber is large and the discharge orifice is large, throttle loss becomes small. In addition, since swirl generated inside the swirl

chamber is very strong, fuel is mixed sufficiently with air and air usage efficiency is high; thus, it is possible to suppress generation of black lead and increase the amount of fuel injection (to increase output power).

In the case of this type, since it is possible to constantly generate strong swirl inside the swirl chamber and the range of revolution speed possible to Glow-plug obtain appropriate combustion is wide, this is suitable for passenger vehicles and is widely utilized as a mainstream engine. Like the pre-combustion chamber, since it is possible to Injection nozzle use throttle valve and combustion chamber that is Swirl chamber divided to sub-and main-combustion chambers, quiet Discharge driving without diesel knock is possible and generation of orifice Main combustion NOx is less. chamber Although the throttle loss is less, heat loss from the Piston swirl chamber is large like the pre-combustion chamber type. Swirl chamber type combustion chamber Briefly, it can be said that it is possible to drive the engine in the broadest revolution speed range, engine is relatively quiet, and gas mileage is worse than the direct injection type but better than precombustion chamber type. Compression pressure of fuel is 100 300 kg/cm2, which is the same as that of the pre-combustion type. [Advantages] (i) Since strong swirl generated during compression process is utilized, fuel is mixed well with air, and low excess air ratio (1.1 1.2) is allowed. Since it is possible to combust large amounts of fuel, it is also possible to output high power. (ii) Generation of black lead is less when it is running at heavy load. (iii) Since it is possible to constantly generate strong swirl inside the swirl chamber and air usage efficiency is high, good combustion is possible over a wide range from low revolution speed to high revolution speed. Revolution range is wide. At present, it is available up to 5,000 rpm. [Disadvantages] (i) Due to the presence of the swirl chamber, the structure of cylinder head is complex. (ii) In comparison with other types, since the flow speed of combustion gas is very high, thermal load on combustion chamber and its periphery or piston head to which high-temperature flame is blown is heavy. Hence, this type is not utilized in large engines (heavy duty trucks) for reasons of durability. Reference [Swirl-chamber type combustion chamber with sub discharge orifice] This type was devised in order to improve the quietness and output power by adding sub-discharge orifice to the swirl chamber and to improve ignitability and reduce combustion noise. While generating pushing swirl during piston compression process, if there is no sub-discharge orifice, heat of high-temperature air within the swirl chamber is lost and air temperature is lowered, and consequently, ignitability becomes lower. Pushing swirl

Flow through sub discharge orifice

By providing sub-discharge orifice, it becomes possible to push high-temperature air within the swirl Swirl chamber with sub discharge orifice chamber directly into the main combustion chamber, and as a result, it becomes possible to prevent the temperature inside the swirl chamber from being lowered. In addition, by mixing the swirl moderately, ignitability can be improved.

[Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and oil filter] Exhaust gas from a diesel engine contains carbon particles that generate black lead. By executing EGR, carbon particles get mixed with the engine oil. Since carbon particles are fine, it is required to use a special oil filter that includes finer oil elements than conventional oil elements.

Full flow element

Bypass element

Oil inlet To engine To oil pan

Oil filter

4. Injection pump
1) Operation of an injection pump In a diesel engine, in order to inject fuel into the high-temperature and high-pressure air, it is required to send fuel to the injection nozzle with high pressure. In addition, for converting fuel injected from the nozzle to fine particles, high pressure is required. In the fuel and air mixing process, direct injection system in which injection and distribution of fuel play important roles require even high pressure. However, as you can understand from the previous discussions, in a diesel engine, air-fuel ratio can be changed in the range of 15016 depending on the load and there is no strict requirement for airfuel ratio unlike gasoline engine. (It is impossible, anyway!) Injection timing in a diesel engine corresponds to the ignition timing in gasoline engine, and the amount of fuel injection corresponds to the output power (torque) in gasoline engines. A feature that the amount of fuel injection changes according to the revolution of injection pump (change of injection ratio) affects diesel knock, output power, and NOx generation. Therefore, an injection pump should have the following qualities: * Should be able to send fuel to injection nozzle with high pressure and to inject fuel at appropriate timings * Should send exact amounts of fuel to each cylinder without variation * Should be able to change and adjust the amount of fuel injection corresponding to the change of load conditions such as running resistance and depth of push-down of acceleration pedal. A device that changes the injection timing corresponding to the revolution for giving appropriate injection timing is called timer (or injection timing adjusting device), and a device that adjusts the amount of fuel injection corresponding to load is called governor (or regulator).

Above descriptions are summarized as follows: [Role of injection pump] * To send fuel with high pressure Direct injection type: About 200600 kg/cm2 Sub-chamber type: About 100300 kg/cm2 Timer Governor

* To inject fuel at appropriate time * To send exact amount of fuel to each cylinder without variation * To change and adjust the amount of fuel injection corresponding to the change of load conditions 2) Type of injection pump

Injection pump is basically a reciprocal motion-type pump that sends fuel by reciprocal motion of the piston. Injection pump is composed of a plunger that has a pistons role and a barrel that has the role of a cylinder. The plunger is reciprocally moved up and down by using a kind of cam. A type in which the same number of plungers similar to the number of cylinders are arranged in line is called inline type injection pump. In the case of inline type, each plunger works 1 time per rotation of the injection pumps shaft and sends fuel to each cylinder independently. Another type is called distribution type injection pump that has only 1 pair of plunger and barrel. The plunger moves reciprocally by the times equal to the number of cylinders (if 4 cylinders, 4 times) per rotation of the injection pumps shaft. In addition, the plunger rotates in parallel with reciprocal motion, and transfers fuel to all cylinders while distributing to each cylinder whose port matched to the slit that was provided on the plunger and barrel. In this text, we explain the injection pump focusing on the distribution type that is widely utilized at present.

Maximum speed adjust bolt Air breeder Fuel inlet (from fuel filter) Drive shaft
Tension lever (of governor)

Delivery valve holder

Control lever

Idle adjust bolt Full load adjusting screw

Governor Flyweight Fuel outlet (to fuel filter) Feed pump Fuel inlet (from fuel tank)

Fuel cut solenoid valve Plunger

Feed pump Roller holder Cam disk Timer Plunger spring Delivery valve

Automatic timer

Inline-type injection pump

Distribution type injection pump

Chapter 5 LPG engine

1. General description of an LPG engine
LPG is an abbreviation of Liquefied Petroleum Gas. Since LPG is not so expensive, it is utilized mostly in commercial vehicles such as taxi. 1) Difference from gasoline engine When comparing gasoline and LPG engines, the most clear distinction is in the fuel supplying system. Since LPG is gas under normal room temperature and atmospheric pressure conditions, LPG engine dedicated parts are required for all the parts from fuel tank to fuel/air mixing device (mixer). Due to the difference in octane value, compression ratio between gasoline and LPG engine is different. Therefore, the efficiency of an LPG engine is higher than that of gasoline engine. However, since the state of inhaled fuel is gas, the output power per engine displacement is smaller than that of gasoline engine. 2) Features of an LPG engine LPG engine has the following features: (i) Fuel is not expensive. (ii) Since LPG has high octane value, knocking hardly occurs. (iii) Vapor lock and percolation do not occur, and engine has high durability. (iv) Since it uses gaseous fuel, distribution of mixed-gas to each cylinder is uniform, and it is possible to utilize mixed-gas having wide combustible range of air-fuel ratio. (v) Since it utilizes vapor pressure of fuel itself, fuel pump is not required. (vi) Since fuel tank is hermetically sealed, a system for suppressing discharge of evaporation fuel gas is not required.

Gaseous fuel

High octane value

High engine efficiency

Output power per engine displacement is low

Difference from gasoline engine

Fuel pump

Canister

Features of LPG engine

It is a device that vaporizes gaseous fuel by depressurizing the high-pressure gaseous fuel and executes pressure governing so as to meet the requirements for output power and fuel consumption. When LPG becomes a gas from a liquid state, it removes evaporative latent heat from the ambient state and lowers temperature; if it is very high, it may freeze the vaporizers valve and may become unable to supply appropriate amount of fuel to the engine. In order to avoid such a trouble, heat necessary for vaporizing fuel is provided by re-circulating cooling water through vaporizer.

5. Mixer
The mixer is a device similar to a carburetor in gasoline engines, which mixes vaporized fuel and air to make optimum mixed-gas and supplies it to the combustion chamber. In addition, it is also equipped with an exhaust emission control system.

External view of mixer

The adjacent diagram shows the basic structure of a mixer. Mixing of fuel and air is done by generating negative pressure by increasing the speed of inhaled air flow at the Venturi part, like a carburetor, and by soaking out the fuel from the main nozzle by this negative pressure.

Main nozzle

Main adjust screw (MAS)

Air adjust screw (AAS) Air bypass conduit

Secondary throttle valve

Primary throttle valve

Cross-sectional view of mixer

1) Main adjust screw (MAS) Since the composition of LPG changes depending on season and production area, relative density of LPG is not constant. Therefore, in order to keep the air-fuel ratio constant, it is required to change the amount of fuel soaked out from the nozzle. It has a main adjust screw to do this. As shown in the above diagram, this is done by placing the adjusting part in front of the main nozzle and changing the amount of projection of the main adjust screw (fuel path area). Since the relative density of propane is smaller than that of butane, in the case of fuel that contains higher amounts of propane, the weight of fuel becomes less even if the same amount of mixed-gas

was soaked out.

Therefore, the amount of fuel to be soaked out must be increased by increasing the area of fuel path. By using this method, air-fuel ratio can be kept constant. (2) Air adjust screw (AAS) Air adjust screw is similar to the throttle adjust screw of the carburetor. As shown in the adjacent diagram, it is possible to adjust the amount of mixed-gas flow by providing a bypass conduit at the secondary side and by changing the area of the air bypass conduit using an air adjust screw.

Main adjust screw (MAS)

Power valve

Secondary Primary

Idle adjust screw (IAS)

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