Ismor Fischer, 7/21/2010

Appendix / A1. Basic Reviews / Perms & Combos-1

A1. Basic Reviews PERMUTATIONS and COMBINATIONS... or HOW TO COUNT

Solution: There are 5 possible choices for which person stands in the first position (either a, b, c, d, or e). For each of these five possibilities, there are 4 possible choices left for who is in the next position. For each of these four possibilities, there are 3 possible choices left for the next position, and so on. Therefore, there are 5 4 3 2 1 = 120 distinct permutations. See Table 1. This number, 5 4 3 2 1 (or equivalently, 1 2 3 4 5), is denoted by the symbol 5! and read 5 factorial, so we can write the answer succinctly as 5! = 120. In general, FACT 1: The number of distinct PERMUTATIONS of n objects is n factorial, denoted by FACT 1: The number of distinct PERMUTATIONS of n objects is "n factorial", denoted by n! = 1 2 3 ... n! = 1 2 3 ... n, or equivalently, n, or equivalently, = n (n-1) (n-2) ...= n (n 1) (n 2) ... 2 1. 2 1. Examples: 6! = 6 5 4 3 2 1 = 6 = 6 = 720 3! = 3 2 1 = 6 2! = 2 1 = 2 1! = 1 0! = 1, BY CONVENTION (It may not be obvious why, but there are good mathematical reasons for it.) 5! 120 (by previous calculation)

Ismor Fischer, 7/21/2010

Appendix / A1. Basic Reviews / Perms & Combos-2

Question 2: Now suppose we start with the same n = 5 people {a, b, c, d, e}, but we wish to make portraits of only k = 3 of them at a time. How many such distinct portraits are possible? a Example: b c
Again, as above, every different ordering counts as a distinct permutation. For instance, the ordering (a,b,c) is distinct from (c,a,b), etc.

Solution: By using exactly the same reasoning as before, there are 5 4 3 = 60 permutations.

See Table 2 for the explicit list!

Note that this is technically NOT considered a factorial (since we don't go all the way down to 1), but we can express it as a ratio of factorials: 543 = In general, FACT 2: The number of distinct PERMUTATIONS of n objects, taken k at a time, is given by the ratio n! (n k)! = n (n 1) (n 2) ... (n k + 1) . 5 4 3 (2 1) 5! = 2! . (2 1)

Question 3: Finally suppose that instead of portraits (permutations), we wish to form committees (combinations) of k = 3 people from the original n = 5. How many such distinct committees are possible?

Example:

Now, every different ordering does NOT count as a distinct combination. For instance, the committee {a,b,c} is the same as the committee {c,a,b}, etc.

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Appendix / A1. Basic Reviews / Perms & Combos-3

Solution: This time the reasoning is a little subtler. From the previous calculation, we know that 5! # of permutations of k = 3 from n = 5 is equal to 2! = 60. But now, all the ordered permutations of any three people (and there are 3! = 6 of them, by FACT 1), will collapse into one single unordered combination, e.g., {a, b, c}, as illustrated. So... 5! # of combinations of k = 3 from n = 5 is equal to 2! , divided by 3!, i.e., 60 6 = 10.

See Table 3 for the explicit list!

5 5! , is given the compact notation , read 5 choose 3, and corresponds to the 3! 2! 3 5 number of ways of selecting 3 objects from 5 objects, regardless of their order. Hence = 10. 3 This number, In general, FACT 3: The number of distinct COMBINATIONS of n objects, taken k at a time, is given by the ratio n! k! (n k)! = n (n 1) (n 2) ... (n k + 1) . k!

n This quantity is usually written as , and read n choose k. k 5 5! = 10, just done. Note that this is also equal to = 3! 2! 3 5 5! = 10. = 2! 3! 2

Examples:

8 7 6! 8 8 8 7 8! 8! = = = 28. Note that this is equal to = = 28. = 2 2! 6! 6! 2! 2! 6! 2 6 15 14! 15 15 15! = = 15. Note that this is equal to = 15. Why? = 1! 14! 1! 14! 1 14 7 7 7! = 1. (Recall that 0! = 1.) Note that this is equal to = 1. Why? = 7! 0! 7 0 Observe that it is neither necessary nor advisable to compute the factorials of large numbers directly. For instance, 8! = 40320, but by writing it instead as 8 7 6!, we can cancel 6!, leaving only 8 7 above. Likewise, 14! cancels out of 15!, leaving only 15, so we avoid having to compute 15! , etc.

Ismor Fischer, 7/21/2010

Appendix / A1. Basic Reviews / Perms & Combos-4

n is sometimes called a combinatorial symbol or binomial coefficient (in k connection with a fundamental mathematical result called the Binomial Theorem; you may also recall the related Pascals Triangle). The previous examples also show that binomial coefficients n n 5 5! possess a useful symmetry, namely, = , but this is clearly . For example, = 3! 2! k nk 3 5 5! the same as = . In other words, the number of ways of choosing 3-person committees 2! 3! 2 from 5 people is equal to the number of ways of choosing 2-person committees from 5 people. A quick way to see this without any calculating is through the insight that every choice of a 3person committee from a collection of 5 people leaves behind a 2-person committee, so the total number of both types of committee must be equal (10). Remark: Exercise: List all the ways of choosing 2 objects from 5, say {a, b, c, d, e}, and check these claims explicitly. That is, match each pair with its complementary triple in the list of Table 3.

A Simple Combinatorial Application Suppose you toss a coin n = 5 times in a row. How many ways can you end up with k = 3 heads? Solution: The answer can be obtained by calculating the number of ways of rearranging 3 objects among 5; it only remains to determine whether we need to use permutations or combinations. Suppose, for example, that the 3 heads occur in the first three tosses, say a, b, and c, as shown below. Clearly, rearranging these three letters in a different order would not result in a different outcome. Therefore, different orderings of the letters a, b, and c should not count as distinct permutations, and likewise for any other choice of three letters among {a, b, c, d, e}. Hence, there 5 are = 10 ways of obtaining k = 3 heads in n = 5 independent successive tosses. 3 Exercise: Let H denote heads, and T denote tails. Using these symbols, construct the explicit list of 10 combinations. (Suggestion: Arrange this list of H/T sequences in alphabetical order. You should see that in each case, the three H positions match up exactly with each ordered triple in the list of Table 3. Why?)

Ismor Fischer, 7/21/2010

Appendix / A1. Basic Reviews / Perms & Combos-5

Table 1 Permutations of {a, b, c, d, e} These are the 5! = 120 ways of arranging 5 objects, in such a way that all the different orders count as being distinct.

a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a

b b b b b b c c c c c c d d d d d d e e e e e e

c c d d e e b b d d e e b b c c e e b b c c d d

d e c e c d d e b e b d c e b e b c c d b d b c

e d e c d c e d e b d b e c e b c b d c d b c b

b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b

a a a a a a c c c c c c d d d d d d e e e e e e

c c d d e e a a d d e e a a c c e e a a c c d d

d e c e c d d e a e a d c e a e a c c d a d a c

e d e c d c e d e a d a e c e a c a d c d a c a

c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c

a a a a a a b b b b b b d d d d d d e e e e e e

b b d d e e a a d d e e a a b b e e a a b b d d

d e b e b d d e a e a d b e a e a d b d a d a b

e d e b d b e d e a d a e b e a d a d b d a b a

d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d

a a a a a a b b b b b b c c c c c c e e e e e e

b b c c e e a a c c e e a a b b e e a a b b c c

c e b e b c c e a e a c b e a e a b b c a c a b

e c e b c b e c e a c a e b e a b a c b c a b a

e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e

a a a a a a b b b b b b c c c c c c d d d d d d

b b c c d d a a c c d d a a b b d d a a b b c c

c d b d b c c d a d a c b d a d a b b c a c a b

d c d b c b d c d a c a d b d a b a c b c a b a

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Appendix / A1. Basic Reviews / Perms & Combos-6

Table 2 Permutations of {a, b, c, d, e}, taken 3 at a time 5! These are the 2! = 60 ways of arranging 3 objects among 5, in such a way that different orders of any triple count as being distinct, e.g., the 3! = 6 permutations of (a, b, c), shown below .

a a a a a a a a a a a a

b b b c c c d d d e e e

c d e b d e b c e b c d

b b b b b b b b b b b b

a a a c c c d d d e e e

c d e a d e a c e a c d

c c c c c c c c c c c c

a a a b b b d d d e e e

b d e a d e a b e a b d

d d d d d d d d d d d d

a a a b b b c c c e e e

b c e a c e a b e a b c

e e e e e e e e e e e e

a a a b b b c c c d d d

b c d a c d a b d a b c

Table 3 Combinations of {a, b, c, d, e}, taken 3 at a time If different orders of the same triple are not counted as being distinct, then their six permutations are 1 lumped as one, e.g., {a, b, c}. Therefore, the total number of combinations is of the original 60, 6 1 5! 5! 5 or 10. Notationally, we express this as 3! of the original 2! , i.e., 3! 2! , or more neatly, as . 3 5 These = 10 combinations are listed below. 3

a a a a a a b b b c

b b b c c d c c d d

c d e d e e d e e e