Data Communications ACOE412

Lecture 3
Digital Transmission Analog Transmission

Spring 2009
Dr. L. Christofi Spring 2009

0. Overview
In this lecture we will cover the following topics:

4. Digital Transmission
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Digital to digital conversion Analog to digital conversion Transmission modes Summary (part 4)

5. Analog Transmission
5.1 Digital to analog conversion 5.2 Analog and digital 5.3 Summary (part 5)
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4.1 DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

In this section, we see how we can represent digital data by using digital signals. The conversion involves three techniques: line coding and scrambling. Line coding is scrambling. always needed; scrambling may or may not be needed.

Topics discussed in this section: Line Coding Line Coding Schemes Scrambling

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Line coding and decoding

Line coding is the process of converting binary data i.e. a sequence of bits, into a digital signal

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Signal element versus data element

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Pulse Rate vs Bit Rate

The pulse rate defines the number of pulses per second A pulse is the minumum amount of time required to transmit a symbol The bit rate define sthe maximum number of bits per second The relationship between pulse rate and bit rate is BitRate = PulseRate x log2L where, L is the number of data levels of the signal

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Example
A signal has four data levels with a pulse duration of 1ms. Find the Pulse Rate and Bit Rate.

Solution Pulse Rate = 1/1ms=1000 pulses per second Bit Rate = Pulse Rate x log2L =1000 x log24 = 2000bps

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Effect of lack of synchronization

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Example
In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1% faster than the sender clock. How many extra bits per second does the receiver receive if the data rate is 1 kbps? How many if the data rate is 1 Mbps? Solution At 1 kbps, the receiver receives 1000(1+0.001) = 1001 bps instead of 1000 bps.

At 1 Mbps, the receiver receives 1,000,000(1+0.001)= 1,001,000 bps instead of 1,000,000 bps.

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Note A self-synchronising digital signal includes timing information in the data being transmitted. This can be achieved if there are transitions in the signal that alert the receiver to the beginning, middle or end of pulse. If the receivers clock is out of synchronisation, these alerting points can reset the clock.

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Line coding schemes

Line coding

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Unipolar NRZ scheme

Unipolar encoding uses only one voltage level bit 0 = zero bit 1=high

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Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes

Polar encoding uses two voltage levels (+ve and ve) In NRZ-L encoding: bit 0 = high bit 1=low

In NRZ-I encoding the signal is inverted if 1 is encountered

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Note In NRZ-L the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit. In NRZ-I the inversion or the lack of inversion determines the value of the bit.

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Polar RZ scheme
Polar encoding uses three voltage levels (+ve, zero & ve) In RZ encoding the signal changes during each bit, not between bits: bit 1 = high-to-zero bit 0 = low-to-zero Main disadvantage of RZ encoding is that it requires two signal changes to encode 1 bit => occupies more bandwidth

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Polar biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester schemes

In Manchester encoding: bit 1 = low-to-high bit 0 = high-to-low

In Differential Manchester encoding: bit 1 = no transition bit 0 = transition

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Note In Manchester and differential Manchester encoding, the transition at the middle of the bit is used for synchronization.

Note The minimum bandwidth of Manchester and differential Manchester is 2 times that of NRZ.

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Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary

Bipolar encoding uses three voltage levels (+ve, zero & ve) Alternate Mask Inversion (AMI): bit 0 = zero bit 1 = alternating +ve and ve pulses Pseudoternary: bit 0 = alternating +ve and ve pulses bit 1 = zero

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Summary of line coding schemes

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4.2 ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

As we have seen, line coding can be used to convert binary data to a digital signal. Sometimes however, our data is analog, such as audio. If we want to store the audio by recording it in a computer so that we can send it digitally, we need to change it through a process called sampling.

Topics discussed in this section: Pulse Amplitude Modulation Pulse Code Modulation

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Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

PAM is an analog-to-ditigal conversion method. It takes an analog signal, samples it and generates a series of pulses based on the results of sampling. Sampling means measuring the amplitude of the signal at equal intervals However PAM is not useful to data communications because even though it translates the original waveform to a series of pulses, these pulses are still of any amplitude (still an analog, not a digital signal). To make them digital we modify them using Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).

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Components of PCM encoder

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Three different sampling methods for PCM

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Note According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must be at least 2 times the highest frequency contained in the signal.

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Nyquist sampling rate for low-pass and bandpass signals

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Example
For an intuitive example of the Nyquist theorem, let us sample a simple sine wave at three sampling rates: fs = 4f (2 times the Nyquist rate), fs = 2f (Nyquist rate), and fs = f (one-half the Nyquist rate). Figure in the next slide shows the sampling and the subsequent recovery of the signal. It can be seen that sampling at the Nyquist rate can create a good approximation of the original sine wave (part a). Oversampling in part b can also create the same approximation, but it is redundant and unnecessary. Sampling below the Nyquist rate (part c) does not produce a signal that looks like the original sine wave.
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Recovery of a sampled sine wave for different sampling rates

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Example
Telephone companies use PCM to digitize voice by assuming a maximum frequency of 4000 Hz. The sampling rate therefore is 8000 samples per second.

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Example
A complex low-pass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz. What is the minimum sampling rate for this signal?

Solution The bandwidth of a low-pass signal is between 0 and f, where f is the maximum frequency in the signal. Therefore, we can sample this signal at 2 times the highest frequency (200 kHz). The sampling rate is therefore 400,000 samples per second.

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Example
A complex bandpass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz. What is the minimum sampling rate for this signal?

Solution We cannot find the minimum sampling rate in this case because we do not know where the bandwidth starts or ends. We do not know the maximum frequency in the signal.

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Quantization and encoding of a sampled signal

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Example
We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate, assuming 8 bits per sample?

Solution The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0 to 4000 Hz. So the sampling rate and bit rate are calculated as follows:

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Components of a PCM decoder

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Example
We have a low-pass analog signal of 4 kHz. If we send the analog signal, we need a channel with a minimum bandwidth of 4 kHz. If we digitize the signal and send 8 bits per sample, we need a channel with a minimum bandwidth of 8 4 kHz = 32 kHz.

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4.3 TRANSMISSION MODES

The transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished in either parallel or serial mode. In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock tick. In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick. While there is only one way to send parallel data, there are two subclasses of serial transmission: asynchronous and synchronous.

Topics discussed in this section: Parallel Transmission Serial Transmission

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Data transmission modes

Asynchronous

Synchronous

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Parallel transmission

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Serial transmission

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Asynchronous transmission
Note In asynchronous transmission, we send 1 start bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or more stop bits (1s) at the end of each byte. There may be a gap between each byte. Note Asynchronous here means asynchronous at the byte level, but the bits are still synchronized; their durations are the same.
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Asynchronous transmission

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Synchronous transmission

Note In synchronous transmission, we send bits one after another without start or stop bits or gaps. It is the responsibility of the receiver to group the bits.

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Synchronous transmission

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4.4 SUMMARY (part 4)

Line coding is the process of converting binary data to a digital signal. The number of different values allowed in a signal is the signal level. The number of symbols that represent data is the data level. Bit rate is a function of the pulse rate and data level. Line coding methods must eliminate the dc component and provide a means of synchronization between the sender and the receiver. Line coding methods can be classified as unipolar, polar, or bipolar. NRZ, RZ, Manchester, and differential Manchester encoding are the most popular polar encoding methods. AMI is a popular bipolar encoding method. Analog-to-digital conversion relies on PCM (pulse code modulation). PCM involves sampling, quantizing, and line coding. The Nyquist theorem says that the sampling rate must be at least twice the highest-frequency component in the original signal. Digital transmission can be either parallel or serial in mode. In parallel transmission, a group of bits is sent simultaneously, with each bit on a separate line. In serial transmission, there is only one line and the bits are sent sequentially. Serial transmission can be either synchronous or asynchronous. In asynchronous serial transmission, each byte (group of 8 bits) is framed with a start bit and a stop bit. There may be a variable-length gap between each byte. In synchronous serial transmission, bits are sent in a continuous stream without start and stop bits and without gaps between bytes. Regrouping the bits into meaningful bytes is the responsibility of the receiver.

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5.1 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION

Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing Digital- toone of the characteristics of an analog signal based on the information in digital data.

Topics discussed in this section: Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Conversion Amplitude Shift Keying Frequency Shift Keying Phase Shift Keying Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

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Digital-to-analog conversion

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Types of digital-to-analog conversion

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Aspects of digital-to-analog conversion

Note Bit rate is the number of bits per second. Baud rate is the number of signal elements per second. In the analog transmission of digital data, the Baud Rate = Bit Rate / Number of bits per signal unit

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Example
An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal element. If 1000 signal elements are sent per second, find the bit rate.

Solution In this case, r = 4, S = 1000, and N is unknown. We can find the value of N from

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Example
An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud rate of 1000 baud. How many data elements are carried by each signal element? How many signal elements do we need? Solution In this example, S = 1000, N = 8000, and r and L are unknown. We find first the value of r and then the value of L.

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Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

In ASK the amplitude of the carrier is varied to represent binary 1 or 0. Frequency and phase remain constant. ASK is highly susceptible to noise interference Minimum bandwidth required for transmission is equal to the baud rate. BW = (1+d) Sbaud, where d=modulation factor

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Implementation of ASK

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Example
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What are the carrier frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data by using ASK with d = 1? Solution The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz. This means that our carrier frequency can be at fc = 250 kHz. We can use the formula for bandwidth to find the bit rate (with d = 1 and r = 1).

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Example
In data communications, we normally use full-duplex links with communication in both directions. We need to divide the bandwidth into two with two carrier frequencies, as shown in figure below. The figure shows the positions of two carrier frequencies and the bandwidths. The available bandwidth for each direction is now 50 kHz, which leaves us with a data rate of 25 kbps in each direction.

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Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

In FSK the frequency of the carrier is varied to represent binary 1 or 0. Peak amplitude and phase remain constant. FSK avoids most of problems with noise. The bandwidth required for FSK transmission is equal to the baud rate plus the frequency difference between the two carriers: BW = (fc2-fc1) + Sbaud

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Example
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What should be the carrier frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data by using FSK with d = 1? Solution This problem is similar to Example 5.3, but we are modulating by using FSK. The midpoint of the band is at 250 kHz. We choose 2f to be 50 kHz; this means

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Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

In PSK the phase of the carrier is varied to represent binary 1 or 0. Peak amplitude and frequency remain constant. This method is often called 2-PSK or binary PSK The minimum bandwidth required for PSK transmission is the same as that for ASK: BW = (1+d) Sbaud, where d=modulation factor

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Implementation of binary PSK

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QPSK (4-PSK) and its implementation

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Example
Find the bandwidth for a signal transmitting at 12 Mbps for QPSK. The value of d = 0.

Solution For QPSK, 2 bits is carried by one signal element. This means that r = 2. So the signal rate (baud rate) is S = N (1/r) = 6 Mbaud. With a value of d = 0, we have B = S = 6 MHz.

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Concept of a constellation diagram

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Example

Show the constellation diagrams for an ASK, BPSK, and QPSK signals.

Solution

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QAM

Note Quadrature Amplitude Modulation is a combination of ASK and PSK.

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Constellation diagrams for some QAMs

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5.2 ANALOG AND DIGITAL

Analog-to-analog conversion is the representation of Analog- toanalog information by an analog signal. One may ask why we need to modulate an analog signal; it is already analog. Modulation is needed if the medium is bandpass in nature or if only a bandpass channel is available to us. Topics discussed in this section: Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation Phase Modulation

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Types of analog-to-analog modulation

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Amplitude Modulation (AM)

In AM radio, the bandwidth of the modulated signal must be twice the bandwidth of the modulating signal.
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AM band allocation

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Frequency Modulation (FM)

In FM radio, the bandwidth of the modulated signal must be 10 times the bandwidth of the modulating signal.
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FM band allocation

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Phase Modulation (PM)

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5.3 SUMMARY (part 5)

Digital-to-analog modulation can be accomplished using the following: *Amplitude shift keying (ASK)the amplitude of the carrier signal varies. *Frequency shift keying (FSK)the frequency of the carrier signal varies. *Phase shift keying (PSK)the phase of the carrier signal varies. *Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)both the phase and amplitude of the carrier signal vary. QAM enables a higher data transmission rate than other digital-to-analog methods. Baud rate and bit rate are not synonymous. Bit rate is the number of bits transmit-ted per second. Baud rate is the number of signal units transmitted per second. One signal unit can represent one or more bits. The minimum required bandwidth for ASK and PSK is the baud rate. The minimum required bandwidth (BW) for FSK modulation is BW =f c1-f c0 + N baud , where f c1 is the frequency representing a 1 bit, f c0 is the frequency representing a 0 bit, and N baud is the baud rate. ASK modulation is especially susceptible to noise. Because it uses two carrier frequencies, FSK modulation requires more bandwidth than ASK and PSK. PSK and QAM modulation have two advantages over ASK: *They are not as susceptible to noise. *Each signal change can represent more than one bit. Analog-to-analog modulation can be implemented by using the following: * Amplitude modulation (AM) * Frequency modulation (FM) * Phase modulation (PM) In AM radio, the bandwidth of the modulated signal must be twice the bandwidth of the modulating signal. In FM radio, the bandwidth of the modulated signal must be 10 times the bandwidth of the modulating signal.
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References
B.A. Forouzan, Data Communications and Networking, 4th edition, McGraw-Hill, 2007

W. Stalling, Local and Metropolitan Area Networks, 6th edition, Prentice Hall, 2000 W. Stallings, Data and Computer Communications, 7th edition, Prentice Hall, 2004

F. Halsall, Data Communications, Computer Networks and Open Systems, 4th edition, Addison Wesley, 1995

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