PHASE-LOCKED Loop CIRCUIT DESIGN DAN H. WOLAVERPRENTICE HALL Biophysics and Bioengineering Series Abraham Noordergraaf, Series Editor AGNEW AND McCreery, EDS. Neural Prostheses: Fundamental Studies ALPEN Radiation Biophysics Dawson Engineering Design of the Cardiovascular System of Mammals GANDHI, ED. Biological Effects and Medical Applications of Electromagnetic Energy Liesot aNpD Jou Introduction to the Thermodynamics of Biological Processes Ripgkout Mathematical and Computer Modeling of Physiological Systems Wotaver Phase-Locked Loop Circuit Design FORTHCOMING BOOKS IN THIS SERIES (tentative titles) Coteman § Integrative Human Physiology: A Quantitative View of Homeostasis Fox Fundamentals of Medical Imaging Gropzinsky Fields, Forces, and Flows in Biological Tissues and Membranes Huanc Principles of Biomedical Image Processing Mayrovirz Analysis of Microcirculation ScHERER Respiratory Fluid Mechanics VAIDHYANATHAN Regulation and Control in Biological Systems Waac_ Theory and Measurement of Ultrasound Scattering in Biological Media \ ! i PHASE-LOCKED Loop Cirncurr DESIGN Dan H. Wolaver Worchester Polytechnic Institute a Prentice Hall Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632Library of Congress Catalaging-in-Publication Data Wolaver, Dan H. Phase-locked loop circuit design / Dan H. Wolaver. B. cm. ~- (Prentice Hall advanced reference series) Includes bibliographical references and index, ISBN 0-13-662743-9 1. Phase-locked loops. 2. Electronic circuit design. I. Title. ‘TK7872.P38H65 1991 621.381'5--de20 90-23685 Crp Editorial/production supervison and interior design: Rick DeLorenzo Cover design: Wanda Lubelska Design Manufacturing buyers: Kelly Behr and Susan Brunke Acquisitions Editor: Karen Gettman Prentice Hall Advanced Reference Series Prentice Hall Biophysics and Bioengineering Series © 1991 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. A Division of Simon & Schuster Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America 0987654321 ISBN 0-13-662743-9 Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London Prentice-Hall of Australia Pty. Limited, Sydney Prentice-Hall Canada Inc., Toronto Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana, S.A., Mexico Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc., Tokyo Simon & Schuster Asia Pte. Ltd., Singapore Editora Prentice-Hall do Brasil, Ltda., Rio de Janeiro CONTENTS PREFACE INTRODUCTION Ll Carrier Recovery 2 1-2 Clock Recovery 3 1-3 Tracking Filter 3 1-4 Frequency Demodulation 4 1-5 Phase Demodulation 5 1-6 Phase Modulation 5 1-7 Frequency Synthesis 6 1-8 Organization of Text 7 1-9 Other Information on Phase-Locked Loops 7 PHASE-LOCKED LOOP BASICS 2-1 Phase-Locked Loop Characteristics 9 2-2 Phase Detector Characteristics 11vi Contents 2-3 VCO Characteristics 11 2-4 Linear Model of PLL 13 2-5 Static Phase Error 14 2-6 PLL Bandwidth 15 2-7 Loop Filter 20 2-8 Static Phase Error with Loop Filter 22 LOOP FILTERS 25 3-1 Active Loop Filter 26 3-2 Static Phase Error with Active Loop Filter 28 3-3 Alternative Active Loop Filter Designs 29 3-4 Active Loop Filter Offsets 31 3-5 PLL Frequency Response 32 3-6 PLL Step Response 36 3-7 Limited Loop Filter Bandwidth 38 3-8 Phase Error Response 43 PHASE DETECTORS 47 4-1 Four-Quadrant Multipliers 47 42 Gilbert Multiplier 50 43 Phase Detector Figure of Merit 52 4-4 Double Balanced Multiplier 52 4-5 Triangular Phase Detector Characteristic 54 4-6 Exclusive-OR Phase Detector 55 47 Two-State Phase Detector 59 48 Three-State Phase Detector 61 4-9 Z-State Phase Detector 65 4-10 Sample-and-Hold Phase Detector 67 411 Extended Range: Frequency Division 68 4-12 Extended Range: n-State Phase Detector 68 4-13 Modified Phase Detector Characteristic 75 VOLTAGE-CONTROLLED OSCILLATOR Bt 5-1 Properties of VCOs 81 5-2 Voltage-Controlled Multivibrators 83 5-3 Resonant VCOs 86 5-4 Modulation Bandwidth 91 5-5 Q of the Resonant Circuit 92 5-6 Crystal VCOs 94 5-7 Injection in Multivibrator VCOs 97 Contents 5-8 Injection in Resonant VCOs_ 100 5-9 PLL Behavior with Injection 102 . 5-10 Spectral Purity 105 6. NOISE 107 6-1 Power Spectral Density 107 6-2 Noise Bandwidth 109 6-3 Noise-Induced Phase 111 6-4 Output Phase Noise Due to Input Noise 116 6-5 VCO Phase Noise 120 6-6 Output Phase Noise Due to VCO Noise 126 6-7 Output Phase Noise Due to Both Nosie Sources 128 6-8 Cycle Slips 131 7. MAINTAINING LOCK : 135 71 Hold-In Range 135 7-2 Input Frequency Deviation Aw; 136 7-3 Lock-In Frequency w, 138 7-4 Transfer Function from Aw; to @, 142 75 Handling a Frequency Step 143 7-6 Handling a Frequency Ramp = 145 7-7 Handling Sinusoidal FM 148 7-8 Handling Random FM 151 8. LOCK ACQUISITION 155 8-1 Self Acquisition: Active Loop Filter 157 8-1-1 Pull-In Voltage v, 157 8-1-2 Pull-In Time T, 160 8-1-3 Pull-In Range w, 163 8-2 Self Acquisition: Passive Loop Filter 164 8-3 Acquisition with a Pole at w; 168 8-4 Acquisition with a Three-State PD 171 8-5 Aided Acquisition with a Three-State PD 174 8-6 Rotational Frequency Detector 177 9. MODULATION AND DEMODULATION 185 9-1 Phase Modulation 185 9-1-1 Bandwidth, Phase and Frequency Ranges 186viii 10. 9-1-2 Spurious Modulation 187 9-1-3 Spurious Modulation with a Pole at @, 189 9-2 Phase Demodulation 192 9-3 Phase Demodulation with No Carrier 195 9-3-1 Squaring Loop 196 9-3-2 Remodulator and Costas Loop 200 9-4 Frequency Modulation 202 9-5 Frequency Demodulation 205 CLOCK RECOVERY 10-1 Data Formats and Spectra 212 10-2 Conversion from NRZ and RZ Data . 213 10-3 Phase Detectors for RZ Data 216 10-4 Pattern-Dependent Jitter 218 10-5 Phase Detectors for NRZ Data 220 10-6 Offset Jitter 220 10-7 Jitter Accumulation 230 FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZERS 11-1 Single-Loop Synthesizer 239 11-2 Choosing the Bandwidth K 240 11-3 Synthesizer with Mixer 241 11-4 Spurious Modulation 242 11-5 Divided Output 248 11-6 Pull-In Time 248 11-7 Multiplexed Output 250 11-8 Multiple-Loop Synthesizer 250 11-9 Phase Noise 252 11-10 Prescaling 257 LIST OF SYMBOLS INDEX Contents 2n 239 260 261 PREFACE This book provides a practical introduction to phase-locked loops for the practicing electrical engineer. Beginning with basic principles, it covers applications such as clock recovery, FM and PM modulation and demodulation, and frequency synthesis. Each application includes the development of design formulas for the system parameters— bandwidth, noise, acquisition range and speed, dynamic range, stability, and accuracy. While providing the necesssary system theory, the book’s main emphasis is the practical realization of phase-locked loop circuits. For example, it addresses stray coupling, current limitations, offset voltages, and bandwidth limitations. Many alternative circuits are described with extensive use of examples and figures. The experienced specialist in phase-lock loops will find material here that extends his knowledge. Several new digital phase detectors are described. The choice between lock acquisition techniques is clarified. The often confounding problem of injection locking is treated in depth. To simplify the connection between phase-locked loop theory and design, the text abandons the traditional natural frequency , and damping factor { of control theory. The parameter w, is often misleading since it has little relation to system behavior in a highly damped system. The parameters used in this text are the bandwidth K and the zero frequency w,, which give a better description of system behavior. K is the 3-dB bandwith for all dampings except those near instability. The value of w in relation to K essentially* Preface gives the damping through the expression £ = 0.5/K/w>, and it is closely tied to the circuit elements. Both K and «, are clearly evident in Bode plots of frequency responses, providing a visual link between design and petformance. This text has been used for a course on phase-locked loop circuit design at the graduate level, where it has served those with immediate applications for: phase-locked loops and those who wish to consolidate their facility with circuit design in general. The study of phase-locked loops is an excellent vehicle for putting to use various disciplines of electrical engineering: communication theory, control theory, signal analysis, noise characterization, design with transistors and op amps, digital circuit design, and nonlinear circuit analysis. The author is grateful to his students at Worcester Polytechnic Institute for their help in refining the contents of this book. The work assignments at Bell Telephone Laborato- ties and at Tau-tron, Inc. have provided the anvil on which to shape his understanding of phase-locked loops. The author has found the study and design of phase-locked loops to be a rich area for providing challenges to innovation and solutions to practical problems. It is his hope that this text will shorten the path for other design engineers and help them to enjoy the discovery and creativity available in phase-locked loop circuit design. INTRODUCTION Phase-locked loops are used primarily in communication applications. For example, they recover clock from digital data signals, recover the carrier from satellite transmission signals, perform frequency and phase modulation and demodulation, and synthesize exact frequencies for receiver tuning. In this chapter we look at the basic principles of phase- locked loop operation in these applications. The approach here is informal and non- numeric in order to provide a quick overview. The intent is to provide heuristic descrip- tions that will raise questions to be answered in the following chapters. A phase-locked loop (PLL) is basically an oscillator whose frequency is locked onto some frequency component of an input signal v;. This is done with a feedback control loop, as shown in Fig. 1-1. The frequency of this component in v; is «; (in rad/s), and its phase is 6;. The oscillator signal v, has a frequency w, and a phase 6,. The phase detector (PD) compares 0, with 0,, and it develops a voltage vz proportional to the phase difference. This voltage is applied as a control voltage v, to the voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) to adjust the oscillator frequency @,. Through negative feedback, the PLL causes w, = w;, and the phase error is kept to some (preferably small) value. Thus, both the phase and the frequency of the oscillator are ‘‘locked’’ to the phase and the frequency of the input signal.