Prepared by C.Ganesan, M.Sc., M.Phil.

, (Ph:9841168917) Page 1

SUBJECT NAME : Discrete Mathematics
SUBJECT CODE : MA 2265
MATERIAL NAME : Formula Material
MATERIAL CODE : JM08ADM009

Name of the Student: Branch:

Unit I (Logic and Proofs)
1) Truth Table:
Conjunction Disjunction Conditional Biconditional
p

q

p q


p

q

p q


p

q

p q


p

q

p q

T T T T T T T T T T T T
T F F T F T T F F T F F
F T F F T T F T T F T T
F F F F F F F F T F F T

Negation
p p
T F
F T

2) Tautology and Contradiction:
A Compound proposition ( (( ( ) )) )
1 2
, , ...
n
P P P P = == = where
1 2
, , ...
n
P P P variables are called
tautology if it is true for every truth assignment for
1 2
, , ...
n
P P P .
P is called a Contradiction if it is false for every truth assignment for
1 2
, , ...
n
P P P .
If a proposition is neither a tautology nor a Contradiction is called contingency.
3) Laws of algebra of proposition:
Name of Law Primal form Dual form
Idempotent law
p p p p p p
Identity law p F p p T p

Prepared by C.Ganesan, M.Sc., M.Phil., (Ph:9841168917) Page 2

Dominant law p T T p F F
Complement
law
p p T p p F
Commutative
law
p q q p p q q p
Associative law ( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) ) p q r p q r ( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) ) p q r p q r
Distributive law ( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) ) p q r p q p r ( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) ) p q r p q p r
Absorption law ( (( ( ) )) ) p p q p ( (( ( ) )) ) p p q p
Demorgans law ( (( ( ) )) ) p q p q ( (( ( ) )) ) p q q p
Double
Negation law
p p

4) Equivalence involving Conditionals:
Sl.No. Propositions
1.
p q p q
2.
p q q p
3.
p q p q
4. ( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) ) p q p r p q r
5. ( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) ) p r q r p q r

5) Equivalence involving Biconditionals:
Sl.No. Propositions
1. ( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) ) p q p q q p
2.
p q p q
3. ( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) ) p q p q p q

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4. ( (( ( ) )) ) p q p q
6) Tautological Implication:
A B if and only if A B is tautology. (i.e) To prove A B , it enough to prove
A B is tautology.
7) The Theory of Inferences:
The analysis of the validity of the formula from the given set of premises by using
derivation is called theory of inferences
8) Rules for inferences theory:
Rule P:
A given premise may be introduced at any stage in the derivation.
Rule T:
A formula S may be introduced in a derivation if S is tautologically implied by one or
more of the preceding formulae in the derivation.
Rule CP:
If we can drive S from R and a set of given premises, then we can derive R S from
the set of premises alone. In such a case R is taken as an additional premise (assumed
premise). Rule CP is also called the deduction theorem.
9) Indirect Method of Derivation:
Whenever the assumed premise is used in the derivation, then the method of derivation
is called indirect method of derivation.
10) Table of Logical Implications:
Name of Law Primal form
Simplification
p q p
p q q
Addition
p p q
q p q
Disjunctive Syllogism
( (( ( ) )) ) p p q q
( (( ( ) )) ) q p q p
Modus Ponens ( (( ( ) )) ) p p q q
Modus Tollens ( (( ( ) )) ) p q q p
Hypothetical Syllogism ( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) ) p q q r p r

Prepared by C.Ganesan, M.Sc., M.Phil., (Ph:9841168917) Page 4

p q q p

Unit II (Combinatorics)
1) Principle of Mathematical Induction:
Let ( ) P n be a statement or proposition involving for all positive integers n.
Step 1: (1) P is true.
Step2: Assume that ( ) P k is true.
Step3: We have to prove ( 1) P k + ++ + is true.
2) Principle of Strong induction.
Let ( ) P n be a statement or proposition involving for all positive integers n.
Step 1: (1) P is true.
Step2: Assume that ( ) P n is true for all integers 1 n k .
Step3: We have to prove ( 1) P k + ++ + is true.
3) The Pigeonhole Principle:
If n pigeons are assigned to m pigeonholes and m n < << < , than at least one pigeonhole
contains two or more pigeons.
4) The Extended Pigeonhole Principle:
If n pigeons are assigned to m pigeonholes than one pigeonhole must contains at least
( (( ( ) )) ) 1
1
n
m
( ( ( (
+ ++ +
( ( ( (

pigeons.
5) Recurrence relation:
An equation that expresses
n
a , the general term of the sequence{ {{ { } }} }
n
a in terms of one or
more of the previous terms of the sequence, namely
0 1 1
, , ...
n
a a a

, for all integers n is
called a recurrence relation for { {{ { } }} }
n
a or a difference equation.
6) Working rule for solving homogeneous recurrence relation:
Step 1: The given recurrence relation of the form
0 1 1
( ) ( ) ... ( ) 0
n n k n k
C n a C n a C n a

+ + + = + + + = + + + = + + + =
Step 2: Write the characteristic equation of the recurrence relation
( (( ( ) )) )
0 1 1
... 0
n k k n n k
C r C r C r
+ ++ + + + + + + + + +
+ + + = + + + = + + + = + + + =
Step 3: Find all the roots of the characteristic equation namely
1 2
, , ...
k
r r r .
Step 4:
Case (i): If all the roots are distinct then the general solution is
1 1 2 2
...
n n n
n k k
a b r b r b r = + + + = + + + = + + + = + + +
Case (ii): If all the roots are equal then the general solution is
( (( ( ) )) )
2
1 2 3
...
n
n
a b nb n b r = + + + = + + + = + + + = + + +

Prepared by C.Ganesan, M.Sc., M.Phil., (Ph:9841168917) Page 5

Unit III (Graph Theory)
1) Graph:
A graph G=(V,E) consists of two sets { {{ { } }} }
1 2
, , ... V v v v

= == = , called the set of vertices and
{ {{ { } }} }
1 2
, , ... E e e e

= == = , called the set of edges of G.
2) Simple graph:
A graph is said to be simple graph if it has no loops and parallel edges. Otherwise it is
multi graph.
3) Regular graph:
If every vertex of a simple graph has the same degree, then the graph is called a regular
graph. If every vertex in a regular graph has degree n, then the graph is called n-regular.
4) Complete graph:
A simple graph in which each pair of distinct vertices is joined by an edge is called a
complete graph. The complete graph on n vertices is denoted by
n
K .
5) Pendent vertex and Pendent edge:
A vertex with degree one is called a pendent vertex and the only edge which is incident
with a pendent vertex is called the pendent edge.
6) Matrix representation of a graph:
There are two ways of representing a graph by a matrix namely adjacent matrix and
incidence matrix as follows:
Adjacency matrices:
Let G be a graph with n vertices, then the adjacency matrix,
( (( ( ) )) )
G ij
A A = == = defined
by
1, if , are adjacent
0, otherwise
i j
ij
u v
A

= == =


.
Incidence matrix:
Let G be a graph with n vertices, then the incidence matrix of G is an n x e matrix
( (( ( ) )) )
G ij
B B = == = defined by
1, if edge is incident on the vertex
0, otherwise
th th
ij
j i
B

= == =



7) Bipartite graph:
A graph G=(V,E) is called a bipartite graph if its vertex set V can be partitioned into two
subsets
1
V and
2
V such that each edge of G connects and vertex of
1
V to a vertex of
2
V .
In other words, no edge joining two vertices, in
1
V or two vertices in
2
V .
8) Isomorphism of a graph:
The simple graphs ( (( ( ) )) )
1 1 1
, G V E = == = and ( (( ( ) )) )
2 2 2
, G V E = == = are isomorphic if there is a one to
one and onto function f from
1
V to
2
V with the property that a and b are adjacent in
1
G if and only if ( ) f a and ( ) f b are adjacent in
2
G , for all a and b in
1
V .



Prepared by C.Ganesan, M.Sc., M.Phil., (Ph:9841168917) Page 6

9) Complementary and Self complementary graph:
Let G be a graph. The complement G of G is defined by any two vertices are adjacent
in G if and only if they are not adjacent inG .
G is said to be a self complementary graph if G is isomorphic toG .
10) Connected graph:
A graph G is said to be connected if there is at least one path between every pair of
vertices in G. Otherwise G is disconnected. A disconnected graph consists of two or
more connected sub graphs and each of them is called a component. It is denoted
by ( ) G .
11) Cut edge:
A cut edge of a graph G is an edge e such that ( ) ( ) G e G > > > > . (i.e) If G is
connected and e is a cut edge of G, then G e is disconnected.
12) Cut vertex:
A cut vertex of a graph G is a vertex v such ( ) ( ) G v G > > > > . (i.e) If G is connected
and v is a cut vertex of G, then G v is disconnected.
13) Define vertex connectivity.
The connectivity ( ) G of G is the minimum k for which G has a k-vertex cut. If G is
either trivial or disconnected then ( ) 0 G = == = .
14) Define edge connectivity.
The edge connectivity ( ) G of G is the minimum k for which G has a k-edge cut. If G
is either trivial or disconnected then ( ) 0 G = == =
15) Define Eulerian graph.
A path of graph G is called an Eulerian path, if it includes each edge of G exactly once. A
circuit of a graph G is called an Eulerian circuit, if it includes each edge of G exactly one.
A graph containing an Eulerian circuit is called an Eulerian graph.
16) Define Hamiltonian graph.
A simple path in a graph G that passes through every vertex exactly once is called a
Hamilton path. A circuit in a graph G that passes through every vertex exactly once is
called a Hamilton circuit. A graph containing a Hamiltonian circuit.
Unit IV (Algebraic Structures)
1) Semi group:
If G is a non-empty set and * be a binary operation on G, then the algebraic system
( (( ( ) )) ) ,* G is called a semi group, if G is closed under * and * is associative.
Example: If Z is the set of positive even numbers, then ( (( ( ) )) ) , Z + ++ + and ( (( ( ) )) ) , Z are semi
groups.



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2) Monoid:
If a semi group ( (( ( ) )) ) ,* G has an identity element with respect to the operation *, then
( (( ( ) )) ) ,* G is called a monoid. It is denoted by ( (( ( ) )) ) ,*, G e .
Example: If N is the set of natural numbers, then ( (( ( ) )) ) , N + ++ + and ( (( ( ) )) ) , N are monoids with
the identity elements 0 and 1 respectively. ( (( ( ) )) ) , Z + ++ + and ( (( ( ) )) ) , Z are semi groups with
out monoids, where Z is the set of all positive even numbers
3) Sub semi groups:
If ( (( ( ) )) ) ,* G is a semi group and H G is called under the operation *, then ( (( ( ) )) ) ,* H is
called a sub semi group of ( (( ( ) )) ) ,* G .
Example: If the set E of all even non-negative integers, the ( (( ( ) )) ) , E + ++ + is a sub semi group
of the semi group ( (( ( ) )) ) , N + ++ + , where N is the set of natural numbers.
4) Semi group homomorphism:
If ( (( ( ) )) ) ,* G and ( (( ( ) )) ) , G are two semi groups, then a mapping : f G G is called a semi
group homomorphism, if for any , a b G , ( * ) ( ) ( ) f a b f a f b = = = = . A homomorphism f
is called isomorphism if f is 1-1 and onto.
5) Group:
If G is a non-empty set and * is a binary operation of G , then the algebraic system
( (( ( ) )) ) ,* G is called a group if the following conditions are satisfied.
(i) Closure property
(ii) Associative property
(iii) Existence of identity element
(iv) Existence of inverse element
Example: ( (( ( ) )) ) , Z + ++ + is a group and ( (( ( ) )) ) , Z i ii i is not a group.
6) Abelian group:
A group ( (( ( ) )) ) ,* G , in which the binary operation * is commutative, is called a
commutative group or abelian group.
Example: The set of rational numbers excluding zero is an abelian group under the
multiplication.
7) Coset:
If H is a subgroup of a group G under the operation *, then the set aH, where a G ,
define by { {{ { } }} } * / aH a h h H = = = = is called the left coset of H in G generated by the
element a G . Similarly the set Ha is called the right coset of H in G generated by the
element a G .

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Example: { {{ { } }} } 1, 1, , G i i = = = = be a group under multiplication and { {{ { } }} } 1, 1 H = = = = is a
subgroup of G. The right cosets are { {{ { } }} } 1 1, 1 H = = = = , { {{ { } }} } 1 1,1 H = = = = , { {{ { } }} } , iH i i = = = = and
{ {{ { } }} } , iH i i = = = = .
8) Lagranges theorem:
The order of each subgroups of a finite group is a divisor of a order of a group.
9) Cyclic group:
A group ( (( ( ) )) ) ,* G is said to be cyclic, if and element a G such that every element of
G generated by a. (i.e)
{ {{ { } }} }
2
1, , , ...
n
G a a a a e =< >= = =< >= = =< >= = =< >= = .
Example: { {{ { } }} } 1, 1, , G i i = = = = is a cyclic group under the multiplication. The generator is
i , because
4 2 3
1, 1, , i i i i i = = = = = = = = = = = = .
10) Normal subgroup:
A subgroup H of the group G is said to be normal subgroup under the operation *, if for
any a G , aH Ha = == = .
11) Kernel of a homomorphism:
If f is a group homomorphism from ( (( ( ) )) ) ,* G and ( (( ( ) )) ) , G , then the set of element of G ,
which are mapped into e , the identity element of G , is called the kernel of the
homomorphism f and denoted by ( (( ( ) )) ) ker f .
12) Fundamental theorem of homomorphism:
If f is a homomorphism of G on to G with kernel K, then / G K is isomorphic to G .
13) Cayleys theorem:
Every finite group of order n is isomorphic to a permutation group of degree n.
14) Ring:
An algebraic system ( (( ( ) )) ) , , S + ++ + i ii i is called a ring if the binary operations + ++ + and i ii i on S
satisfy the following properties.
(i) ( (( ( ) )) ) , S + ++ + is an abelian group
(ii) ( (( ( ) )) ) , S i ii i is a semi group
(iii) The operation i ii i is distributive over + ++ + .
Example: The set of all integers Z , and the set of all rational numbers R are rings
under the usual addition and usual multiplication.
15) Integral domain:
A commutative ring without zero divisor is called Integral domain.
Example: (i) ( (( ( ) )) ) , , R + ++ + i ii i is an integral domain, since , a b R such that
0, 0 a b then 0 ab . (ii) ( (( ( ) )) )
10 10 10
, , Z + + + + is not an integral domain,
because
10
2, 3 Z and
10
2 5 0 = = = = . Therefore 2 and 5 are zero divisors.


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16) Field:
A commutative reing ( (( ( ) )) ) , , S + ++ + i ii i which has more than one element such that every non-
zero element of S has a multiplicative inverse in S is called a field.
Example: The ring of rational numbers ( (( ( ) )) ) , , Q + ++ + i ii i is a field since it is a commutative ring
and each non-zero element is inversible.
Unit V (Lattices and Boolean algebra)
1) Partially ordered set (Poset):
A relation R on a set A is called a partial order relation, if R is reflexive, antisymmetric
and transitive. The set A together with partial order relation R is called partially ordered
set or poset.
Example: The greater than or equal to ( (( ( ) )) ) relation is a partial ordering on the set of
integers Z .
2) Lattice:
A lattice is a partially ordered set ( (( ( ) )) ) , L in which every pair of elements , a b L has a
glb and lub.
3) General formula:
i) { {{ { } }} } glb , * a b a b a b = = = = = = = =
ii) { {{ { } }} } l b , u a b a b a b = = = = = = = =
iii)
*
& *
a b a
a b b




&
a b a
a b b



iv) If
*

a b a b a
a b b
= == =
= = = =

4) Properties:
Name of Law Primal form Dual form
Idempotent law * a a a = == = a a a = = = =
Commutative
law
* * a b b a = == = a b b a = = = =
Associative law ( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) ) * * * * a b c a b c = == = ( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) ) a b c a b c = = = =
Distributive law ( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) ) * * * p q r p q p r ( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) ) * * p q r p q p r
Absorption law ( (( ( ) )) ) * a a b a = = = = ( (( ( ) )) ) * a a b a = = = =
Complement * 0 a a = == = 1 a a = = = =

Prepared by C.Ganesan, M.Sc., M.Phil., (Ph:9841168917) Page 10

Demorgans law
( (( ( ) )) ) * a b a b

= = = = ( (( ( ) )) ) * a b a b

= = = =
Double
Negation law
p p

5) Complemented Lattices:
A Lattice ( (( ( ) )) ) ,*, L is said to be complemented if for any a L , there exist a L ,
such that * 0 a a = == = and 1 a a = = = = .
6) Demorgans laws:
Let ( (( ( ) )) ) ,*, L be the complemented lattice, then ( (( ( ) )) ) * a b a b

= = = = and
( (( ( ) )) ) * a b a b

= = = = .
7) Complete Lattice:
A lattice ( (( ( ) )) ) ,*, L is complete if for all non-empty subsets of L, there exists a glb and
lub.
8) Lattice Homomorphism:
Let ( (( ( ) )) ) ,*, L and ( (( ( ) )) ) , , S be two lattices. A mapping : g L S is called lattices
homomorphism if ( * ) ( ) ( ) g a b g a g b = = = = and ( ) ( ) ( ) g a b g a g b = = = = .
9) Modular Lattice:
A lattice ( (( ( ) )) ) ,*, L is said to be modular if for any , , a b c L
i) ( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) ) * * a c a b c a b c = = = =
ii) ( (( ( ) )) ) ( (( ( ) )) ) * * a c a b c a b c = = = =
10) Chain in Lattice:
Let ( (( ( ) )) ) , L be a Chain if
i) or a b a c and
ii) and a b a c
11) Condition for the algebraic lattice:
A lattice ( (( ( ) )) ) ,*, L is said to be algebraic if it satisfies Commutative Law, Associative
Law, Absorption Law and Existence of Idempotent element.
12) Isotone property:
Let ( (( ( ) )) ) ,*, L be a lattice. The binary operations * and are said to possess isotone
property if
* *

b c a b a c
a b a c


.



Prepared by C.Ganesan, M.Sc., M.Phil., (Ph:9841168917) Page 11

13) Boolean Algebra:
A Boolean algebra is a lattice which is both complemented and distributive. It is denoted
by ( (( ( ) )) ) ,*, B .


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