C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis To Program Design, Fifth Edition

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fifth Edition
Chapter 4: Control Structures I (Selection)
Objectives
In this chapter, you will: Learn about control structures Examine relational and logical operators Explore how to form and evaluate logical (Boolean) expressions Discover how to use the selection control structures if, if...else, and switch in a program
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Objectives (contd.)
Learn how to avoid bugs by avoiding partially understood concepts Learn to use the assert function to terminate a program
Control Structures
A computer can proceed:
In sequence Selectively (branch): making a choice Repetitively (iteratively): looping
Some statements are executed only if certain conditions are met A condition is met if it evaluates to true
Control Structures (cont'd.)
Relational Operators
A condition is represented by a logical (Boolean) expression that can be true or false Relational operators:
Allow comparisons Require two operands (binary) Evaluate to true or false
Relational Operators (cont'd.)
Relational Operators and Simple Data Types

You can use the relational operators with all three simple data types:
8 < 15 evaluates to true 6 != 6 evaluates to false 2.5 > 5.8 evaluates to false 5.9 <= 7.5 evaluates to true
Comparing Characters
Expression with relational operators
Depends on machines collating sequence ASCII character set
Logical (Boolean) expressions

Expressions such as 4 < 6 and 'R' > 'T Returns an integer value of 1 if the logical expression evaluates to true Returns an integer value of 0 otherwise
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Relational Operators and the string Type

Relational operators can be applied to strings Strings are compared character by character, starting with the first character Comparison continues until either a mismatch is found or all characters are found equal If two strings of different lengths are compared and the comparison is equal to the last character of the shorter string
The shorter string is less than the larger string
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Relational Operators and the string Type (cont'd.)

Suppose we have the following declarations:
string string string string string str1 str2 str3 str4 str4 = = = = = "Hello"; "Hi"; "Air"; "Bill"; "Big";
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Logical (Boolean) Operators and Logical Expressions

Logical (Boolean) operators enable you to combine logical expressions
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Logical (Boolean) Operators and Logical Expressions (cont'd.)
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Order of Precedence
Relational and logical operators are evaluated from left to right The associativity is left to right Parentheses can override precedence
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Order of Precedence (cont'd.)
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int Data Type and Logical (Boolean) Expressions

Earlier versions of C++ did not provide built-in data types that had Boolean values Logical expressions evaluate to either 1 or 0
The value of a logical expression was stored in a variable of the data type int
You can use the int data type to manipulate logical (Boolean) expressions
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The bool Data Type and Logical (Boolean) Expressions

The data type bool has logical (Boolean) values true and false bool, true, and false are reserved words The identifier true has the value 1 The identifier false has the value 0
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Selection: if and if...else

One-Way Selection Two-Way Selection Compound (Block of) Statements Multiple Selections: Nested if Comparing if...else Statements with a Series of if Statements
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One-Way Selection
The syntax of one-way selection is:
The statement is executed if the value of the expression is true The statement is bypassed if the value is false; program goes to the next statement if is a reserved word
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One-Way Selection (cont'd.)
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Two-Way Selection
Two-way selection takes the form:
If expression is true, statement1 is executed; otherwise, statement2 is executed

statement1 and statement2 are any C++ statements
else is a reserved word

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Two-Way Selection (cont'd.)
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Compound (Block of) Statements

Compound statement (block of statements):
A compound statement is a single statement

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Compound (Block of) Statements (cont'd.)

if (age > { cout << cout << } else { cout << cout << } 18) "Eligible to vote." << endl; "No longer a minor." << endl;
"Not eligible to vote." << endl; "Still a minor." << endl;
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Multiple Selections: Nested if

Nesting: one control statement in another An else is associated with the most recent if that has not been paired with an else
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Multiple Selections: Nested if (cont'd.)
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Comparing ifelse Statements with a Series of if Statements
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Short-Circuit Evaluation
Short-circuit evaluation: evaluation of a logical expression stops as soon as the value of the expression is known Example:
(age >= 21) || ( x == 5) (grade == 'A') && (x >= 7) //Line 1 //Line 2
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Comparing Floating-Point Numbers for Equality: A Precaution

Comparison of floating-point numbers for equality may not behave as you would expect
Example:
1.0 == 3.0/7.0 + 2.0/7.0 + 2.0/7.0 evaluates to false Why? 3.0/7.0 + 2.0/7.0 + 2.0/7.0 = 0.99999999999999989
Solution: use a tolerance value

Example: fabs(x y) < 0.000001
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Associativity of Relational Operators: A Precaution
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Associativity of Relational Operators: A Precaution (contd.)

num = 5
num = 20
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Must use concepts and techniques correctly;
Avoiding Bugs by Avoiding Partially Understood Concepts and Techniques

Otherwise solution will be either incorrect or deficient
If you do not understand a concept or technique completely

Dont use it Save yourself an enormous amount of debugging time
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Input Failure and the if Statement

If input stream enters a fail state
All subsequent input statements associated with that stream are ignored Program continues to execute May produce erroneous results
Can use if statements to check status of input stream If stream enters the fail state, include instructions that stop program execution
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Confusion Between the Equality (==) and Assignment (=) Operators

C++ allows you to use any expression that can be evaluated to either true or false as an expression in the if statement:
if (x = 5) cout << "The value is five." << endl;
The appearance of = in place of == resembles a silent killer

It is not a syntax error It is a logical error
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Conditional Operator (?:)

Conditional operator (?:) takes three arguments
Ternary operator
Syntax for using the conditional operator:

expression1 ? expression2 : expression3
If expression1 is true, the result of the conditional expression is expression2

Otherwise, the result is expression3
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Program Style and Form (Revisited): Indentation

If your program is properly indented
Spot and fix errors quickly Show the natural grouping of statements
Insert a blank line between statements that are naturally separate Two commonly used styles for placing braces
On a line by themselves Or left brace is placed after the expression, and the right brace is on a line by itself
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Using Pseudocode to Develop, Test, and Debug a Program

Pseudocode, or just pseudo
Informal mixture of C++ and ordinary language Helps you quickly develop the correct structure of the program and avoid making common errors
Use a wide range of values in a walkthrough to evaluate the program

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switch Structures
switch structure: alternate to if-else switch (integral) expression is evaluated first Value of the expression determines which corresponding action is taken Expression is sometimes called the selector
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switch Structures (cont'd.)
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One or more statements may follow a case label Braces are not needed to turn multiple statements into a single compound statement The break statement may or may not appear after each statement switch, case, break, and default are reserved words
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Avoiding Bugs by Avoiding Partially Understood Concepts and Techniques: Revisited

To output results correctly
The switch structure must include a break statement after each cout statement
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Terminating a Program with the assert Function

Certain types of errors that are very difficult to catch can occur in a program
Example: division by zero can be difficult to catch using any of the programming techniques examined so far
The predefined function, assert, is useful in stopping program execution when certain elusive errors occur
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The assert Function (cont'd.)

Syntax: expression is any logical expression If expression evaluates to true, the next statement executes If expression evaluates to false, the program terminates and indicates where in the program the error occurred To use assert, include cassert header file
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The assert Function (cont'd.)

assert is useful for enforcing programming constraints during program development After developing and testing a program, remove or disable assert statements The preprocessor directive #define NDEBUG must be placed before the directive #include <cassert> to disable the assert statement
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Programming Example: Cable Company Billing

This programming example calculates a customers bill for a local cable company There are two types of customers:
Residential Business
Two rates for calculating a cable bill:

One for residential customers One for business customers
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Programming Example: Rates

For residential customer:
Bill processing fee: $4.50 Basic service fee: $20.50 Premium channel: $7.50 per channel
For business customer:

Bill processing fee: $15.00 Basic service fee: $75.00 for first 10 connections/$5.00 for each additional one Premium channel cost: $50.00 per channel for any number of connections
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Programming Example: Requirements

Ask user for account number and customer code Assume R or r stands for residential customer and B or b stands for business customer
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Programming Example: Input and Output

Input:
Customer account number Customer code Number of premium channels For business customers, number of basic service connections
Output:
Customers account number Billing amount
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Programming Example: Program Analysis

Purpose: calculate and print billing amount Calculating billing amount requires:
Customer for whom the billing amount is calculated (residential or business) Number of premium channels to which the customer subscribes
For a business customer, you need:

Number of basic service connections Number of premium channels
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Programming Example: Program Analysis (cont'd.)

Data needed to calculate the bill, such as bill processing fees and the cost of a premium channel, are known quantities The program should print the billing amount to two decimal places
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Programming Example: Algorithm Design

Set precision to two decimal places Prompt user for account number and customer type If customer type is R or r
Prompt user for number of premium channels Compute and print the bill
If customer type is B or b
Prompt user for number of basic service connections and number of premium channels Compute and print the bill
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Programming Example: Variables and Named Constants
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Programming Example: Formulas

Billing for residential customers:
amountDue = RES_BILL_PROC_FEES + RES_BASIC_SERV_COST + numOfPremChannels * RES_COST_PREM_CHANNEL;
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Programming Example: Formulas (cont'd.)

Billing for business customers:
if (numOfBasicServConn <= 10) amountDue = BUS_BILL_PROC_FEES + BUS_BASIC_SERV_COST + numOfPremChannels * BUS_COST_PREM_CHANNEL; else amountDue = BUS_BILL_PROC_FEES + BUS_BASIC_SERV_COST + (numOfBasicServConn - 10) * BUS_BASIC_CONN_COST + numOfPremChannels * BUS_COST_PREM_CHANNEL;
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Programming Example: Main Algorithm

1. Output floating-point numbers in fixed decimal with decimal point and trailing zeros
Output floating-point numbers with two decimal places and set the precision to two decimal places
2. 3. 4. 5.
Prompt user to enter account number Get customer account number Prompt user to enter customer code Get customer code
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Programming Example: Main Algorithm (cont'd.)

6. If the customer code is r or R,
Prompt user to enter number of premium channels Get the number of premium channels Calculate the billing amount Print account number and billing amount
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7. If customer code is b or B,
Prompt user to enter number of basic service connections Get number of basic service connections Prompt user to enter number of premium channels Get number of premium channels Calculate billing amount Print account number and billing amount
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8. If customer code is other than r, R, b, or B, output an error message
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Summary
Control structures alter normal control flow Most common control structures are selection and repetition Relational operators: ==, <, <=, >, >=, != Logical expressions evaluate to 1 (true) or 0 (false) Logical operators: ! (not), && (and), || (or)
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Summary (cont'd.)
Two selection structures: one-way selection and two-way selection The expression in an if or if...else structure is usually a logical expression No stand-alone else statement in C++
Every else has a related if
A sequence of statements enclosed between braces, { and }, is called a compound statement or block of statements
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Summary (cont'd.)
Using assignment in place of the equality operator creates a semantic error switch structure handles multiway selection break statement ends switch statement Use assert to terminate a program if certain conditions are not met
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Chapter 4: Control Structures I (Selection)