PART I HISTORY OG TRIGONOMETRY

Trigonometry is a field of mathematics first compiled in 2nd century BCE by the Greek mathematician Hipparchus. The history of trigonometry and of trigonometric functions follows the general lines of the history of mathematics.In 1595, the mathematician Bartholemaeus Pitiscus published an influential work on trigonometry in 1595 which may have coined the word "trigonometry". Early study of triangles can be traced to the 2nd millennium BC, in Egyptian mathematics (Rhind Mathematical Papyrus) and Babylonian mathematics. Systematic study of trigonometric functions began in Hellenistic mathematics, reaching India as part of Hellenistic astronomy. In Indian astronomy, the study of trigonometric functions flowered in the Gupta period, especially due to Aryabhata (6th century). During the Middle Ages, the study of trigonometry continued in Islamic mathematics, whence it was adopted as a separate subject in the Latin West beginning in the Renaissance with Regiomontanus. The development of modern trigonometry shifted during the western Age of Enlightenment, beginning with 17th-century mathematics (Isaac Newton and James Stirling) and reaching its modern form with Leonhard Euler (1748). Etymology The term "trigonometry" derives from the Greek "" ("trigonometria"), meaning "triangle measuring", from "" (triangle) + "" (to measure). The word 'trigonometry' is derived from Sanskrit 'tri-kONa' Our modern word "sine", is derived from the Latin word sinus, which means "bay", "bosom" or "fold", translating Arabic jayb. The Arabic term is in origin a corruption of Sanskrit jv "chord". Sanskrit jv in learned usage was a synonym of jy "chord", originally the term for "bow-string". Sanskrit jv was loaned into Arabic as jiba.[clarification needed] This term was then transformed into the genuine Arabic word jayb, meaning "bosom, fold, bay", either by the Arabs or by a mistake of the European translators such as Robert of Chester (perhaps because the words were written without vowels), who translated jayb into Latin as sinus.Particularly Fibonacci's sinus rectus arcus proved influential in establishing the term sinus.The words "minute" and "second" are derived from the Latin phrases partes minutae primae and partes minutae secundae. These roughly translate to "first small parts" and "second small parts". Early trigonometry The ancient Egyptians and Babylonians had known of theorems on the ratios of the sides of similar triangles for many centuries. But pre-Hellenic societies lacked the concept of an angle measure and consequently, the sides of triangles were studied instead, a field that would be better called "trilaterometry".The Babylonian astronomers kept detailed records on the rising and setting of stars, the motion of the planets, and the solar and lunar eclipses, all of which required familiarity with angular distances measured on the celestial sphere.Based on one interpretation of the Plimpton 322 cuneiform tablet (c. 1900 BC), some have even asserted that the ancient Babylonians had a table of secants. There is, however, much debate as to whether it is a table of Pythagorean triples, a solution of quadratic equations, or a trigonometric table. The Egyptians, on the other hand, used a primitive form of trigonometry for building pyramids in the 2nd millennium BC. The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, written by the Egyptian scribe Ahmes (c. 16801620 BC), contains the following problem related to trigonometry:

"If a pyramid is 250 cubits high and the side of its base 360 cubits long, what is its seked?"Ahmes' solution to the problem is the ratio of half the side of the base of the pyramid to its height, or the run-to-rise ratio of its face. In other words, the quantity he found for the seked is the cotangent of the angle to the base of the pyramid and its face Greek mathematics The chord of an angle subtends the arc of the angle.Ancient Greek and Hellenistic mathematicians made use of the chord. Given a circle and an arc on the circle, the chord is the line that subtends the arc. A chord's perpendicular bisector passes through the center of the circle and bisects the angle. One half of the bisected chord is the sine of the bisected angle, that is,and consequently the sine function is also known as the "half-chord". Due to this relationship, a number of trigonometric identities and theorems that are known today were also known to Hellenistic mathematicians, but in their equivalent chord form. Although there is no trigonometry in the works of Euclid and Archimedes, in the strict sense of the word, there are theorems presented in a geometric way (rather than a trigonometric way) that are equivalent to specific trigonometric laws or formulas.For instance, propositions twelve and thirteen of book two of the Elements are the laws of cosines for obtuse and acute angles, respectively. Theorems on the lengths of chords are applications of the law of sines. And Archimedes' theorem on broken chords is equivalent to formulas for sines of sums and differences of angles.To compensate for the lack of a table of chords, mathematicians of Aristarchus' time would sometimes use the statement that, in modern notation, sin /sin < / < tan /tan whenever 0 < < < 90, now known as Aristarchus' inequality.The first trigonometric table was apparently compiled by Hipparchus of Nicaea (180 125 BC), who is now consequently known as "the father of trigonometry." Hipparchus was the first to tabulate the corresponding values of arc and chord for a series of angles. Although it is not known when the systematic use of the 360 circle came into mathematics, it is known that the systematic introduction of the 360 circle came a little after Aristarchus of Samos composed On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and Moon (ca. 260 BC), since he measured an angle in terms of a fraction of a quadrant. It seems that the systematic use of the 360 circle is largely due to Hipparchus and his table of chords. Hipparchus may have taken the idea of this division from Hypsicles who had earlier divided the day into 360 parts, a division of the day that may have been suggested by Babylonian astronomy. In ancient astronomy, the zodiac had been divided into twelve "signs" or thirty-six "decans". A seasonal cycle of roughly 360 days could have corresponded to the signs and decans of the zodiac by dividing each sign into thirty parts and each decan into ten parts. It is due to the Babylonian sexagesimal numeral system that each degree is divided into sixty minutes and each minute is divided into sixty seconds. Menelaus' theorem Menelaus of Alexandria (ca. 100 AD) wrote in three books his Sphaerica. In Book I, he established a basis for spherical triangles analogous to the Euclidean basis for plane triangles. He establishes a theorem that is without Euclidean analogue, that two spherical triangles are congruent if corresponding angles are equal, but he did not distinguish between congruent and symmetric spherical triangles. Another theorem that he establishes is that the sum of the angles of a spherical triangle is greater than 180.Book II of Sphaerica applies spherical geometry to astronomy. And Book III contains the "theorem of Menelaus". He further gave his famous "rule of six quantities". Later, Claudius Ptolemy (ca. 90 ca. 168 AD) expanded upon Hipparchus' Chords in a Circle in his Almagest, or the Mathematical Syntaxis. The Almagest is primarily a work on astronomy, and astronomy relies on trigonometry. Ptolemy's table of chords gives the lengths of chords of a circle of diameter 120 as a function of the number of degrees n in the corresponding arc of the circle, for n ranging from 1/2 to 180 by increments of 1/2. The thirteen books of the Almagest are the most

influential and significant trigonometric work of all antiquity.[14] A theorem that was central to Ptolemy's calculation of chords was what is still known today as Ptolemy's theorem, that the sum of the products of the opposite sides of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the product of the diagonals. A special case of Ptolemy's theorem appeared as proposition 93 in Euclid's Data. Ptolemy's theorem leads to the equivalent of the four sum-and-difference formulas for sine and cosine that are today known as Ptolemy's formulas, although Ptolemy himself used chords instead of sine and cosine. Ptolemy further derived the equivalent of the half-angle formula Ptolemy used these results to create his trigonometric tables, but whether these tables were derived from Hipparchus' work cannot be determined.Neither the tables of Hipparchus nor those of Ptolemy have survived to the present day, although descriptions by other ancient authors leave little doubt that they once existed.

HISTORY OF ALGEBRA
The history of algebra began in ancient Egypt and Babylon, where people learned to solve linear (ax = b) and quadratic (ax2 + bx = c) equations, as well as indeterminate equations such as x2 + y2 = z2, whereby several unknowns are involved. The ancient Babylonians solved arbitrary quadratic equations by essentially the same procedures taught today. They also could solve some indeterminate equations.The Alexandrian mathematicians Hero of Alexandria and Diophantus continued the traditions of Egypt and Babylon, but Diophantus's book Arithmetica is on a much higher level and gives many surprising solutions to difficult indeterminate equations. This ancient knowledge of solutions of equations in turn found a home early in the Islamic world, where it was known as the "science of restoration and balancing." (The Arabic word for restoration, al-jabru, is the root of the word algebra.) In the 9th century, the Arab mathematician al-Khwarizmi wrote one of the first Arabic algebras, a systematic expos of the basic theory of equations, with both examples and proofs. By the end of the 9th century, the Egyptian mathematician Abu Kamil had stated and proved the basic laws and identities of algebra and solved such complicated problems as finding x, y, and z such that x + y + z = 10, x2 + y2 = z2, and xz = y2.Ancient civilizations wrote out algebraic expressions using only occasional abbreviations, but by medieval times Islamic mathematicians were able to talk about arbitrarily high powers of the unknown x, and work out the basic algebra of polynomials (without yet using modern symbolism). This included the ability to multiply, divide, and find square roots of polynomials as well as a knowledge of the binomial theorem. The Persian mathematician, astronomer, and poet Omar Khayyam showed how to express roots of cubic equations by line segments obtained by intersecting conic sections, but he could not find a formula for the roots. Early in the 16th century, the Italian mathematicians Scipione del Ferro, Niccol Tartaglia, and Gerolamo Cardano solved the general cubic equation in terms of the constants appearing in the equation. Cardano's pupil, Ludovico Ferrari, soon found an exact solution to equations of the fourth degree (see quartic equation), and as a result, mathematicians for the next several centuries tried to find a formula for the roots of equations of degree five, or higher. Early in the 19th century, however, the Norwegian mathematician Niels Abel and the French mathematician Evariste Galois proved that no such formula exists.An important development in algebra in the 16th century was the introduction of symbols for the unknown and for algebraic powers and operations. As a result of this development, Book III of La gometrie (1637), written by the French philosopher and mathematician Ren Descartes, looks much like a modern algebra text. Descartes's most significant contribution to mathematics, however, was his discovery of analytic geometry, which reduces the solution of geometric problems to the solution of algebraic ones. His geometry text also contained the essentials of a course on the theory of equations, including his so-called rule of signs for counting the number of what Descartes called the "true" (positive) and "false" (negative) roots of an equation. Work continued through the 18th century on the theory of equations, but not until 1799 was the proof published, by the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss, showing that every polynomial equation has at least one root in the complex plane (see Number: Complex Numbers).

By the time of Gauss, algebra had entered its modern phase. Attention shifted from solving polynomial equations to studying the structure of abstract mathematical systems whose axioms were based on the behavior of mathematical objects, such as complex numbers, that mathematicians encountered when studying polynomial equations. Two examples of such systems are algebraic groups and quaternions, which share some of the properties of number systems but also depart from them in important ways. Groups began as systems of permutations and combinations of roots of polynomials, but they became one of the chief unifying concepts of 19thcentury mathematics. Important contributions to their study were made by the French mathematicians Galois and Augustin Cauchy, the British mathematician Arthur Cayley, and the Norwegian mathematicians Niels Abel and Sophus Lie. Quaternions were discovered by British mathematician and astronomer William Rowan Hamilton, who extended the arithmetic of complex numbers to quaternions while complex numbers are of the form a + bi, quaternions are of the form a + bi + cj + dk.Immediately after Hamilton's discovery, the German mathematician Hermann Grassmann began investigating vectors. Despite its abstract character, American physicist J. W. Gibbs recognized in vector algebra a system of great utility for physicists, just as Hamilton had recognized the usefulness of quaternions. The widespread influence of this abstract approach led George Boole to write The Laws of Thought (1854), an algebraic treatment of basic logic. Since that time, modern algebraalso called abstract algebrahas continued to develop. Important new results have been discovered, and the subject has found applications in all branches of mathematics and in many of the sciences as well.

Part II: Worksheets A. Relations & Functions

Identify the sets of quantities and the relation between them. Using an arrow diagram, tell if the relation is a function or not.
1. -1 2 2 3 -1

2. A 4 B C 0

3. -1 1 0 0

1 2 4

-1

4. 2 2 4 6 8 10

B. Cartesian Plane

A. B.

C.Distance & Midpoint formula

Find the distance and midpoint between the given points.

1. (4,-1) and (2,7)

D=8.25 Mx=3 My=3

2. (-3,-3) and (-1,2) D=5.39 Mx=-2 My=-0.5

3. (3,0) and ( 0,5) D=5.83 Mx=1.5 My=2.5

4. ( , ) and (1,0) D=0.71 Mx=0.75 My=0.25

5. (3,2) and (3,-1) D=3 Mx=3 My=0.5

D. Angle Measurement
A.
1. 6813+1421=
3. (4927+7511)90=

2. 180-16129=
4. 90275810=

B. Convert the following:

2. Degree, minutes, seconds form a. 17 9.

58 3 = b. 27 .1 8 =

C. Coterminal, Reference & Quadrantal Angles

1.) Find the coterminal angles of the ff: a. 593 = (233;95 3) b. -39 = (399;321 ) c. 805 = (1165;4 45) d. -302= (662;58 ) e. 99 = (261;459 )

2.) Sketch the angle in standard position. Draw an arrow to indicate the angle. Give the quadrant &

the reference angle of the given angle.

A. 77

b.

35

c.

-98

E. Trigonometric Functions
1.) Find the

value of the remaining

trigonometri c functions.
a.

tan =

11 2

cot
=
125 sin = 11125 125 cos = 2125 2 11

csc = sec =

125 11 125 2

b.

sin =

3 4

csc
=
4 3 13

cos =

13 4

13 sec = 413

13 tan = 313

cot =

13 3

c.

cos = 8

sec
=
8 5

sin =

39 8 39 5

39 csc = 8 39 39 cot = 5 39

tan =

2.) Sketch the Ff. Using:

18 sin = 318

sin = 5

18 cos = 318

cos =

4 5 3

tan = 3 csc = sec = cot = 3

tan = 4 csc = 3 sec = 4 cot =

sin = 17

15

cos = 17
15

tan = 8 csc = 15 sec = 4 8 cot = 15

SUBMITTED BY: COLEEN ELOISE GERONIMO SUBMITTED TO: T. VANESSA ACUNA