Database Design and Modeling with PostgreSQL and MySQL: Build efficient and scalable databases for modern applications using open source databases

Database Design and Modeling with PostgreSQL and MySQL

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To my mother, Sermin Tezuysal, and the memory of my father, Nilhan Tezuysal, for their sacrifices and for exemplifying the power of determination. To my wife, Aslihan, and my daughters, Lara and Ilayda, for being my loving partners throughout our joint life journey.

– Alkin Tezuysal

To my beloved parents, whose presence I deeply miss – your dedication has left an indelible mark on my life and accomplishments. Equally, I cannot overlook the profound impact of my teachers and mentors throughout my educational and professional journey.

– Ibrar Ahmed

Foreword

Databases underpin almost any application you use on an everyday basis, and without proper database design, you can’t achieve optimal database performance and availability, despite overspending on the database hardware or cloud fees. It is not uncommon to see 100x or more difference in performance and efficiency between outstanding and mediocre database design.

Yet database design and modeling do not only impact database applications; they impact development too. Poor database design will lead to a slow development pace, a higher volume of bugs, and more difficulty in introducing new features, whereas with good database design, you can build applications faster than your competition while maintaining higher quality and better user experience.

In this book, Alkin and Ibrar examine two of the most popular open source databases – PostgreSQL and MySQL. This is a fantastic choice because examining more than one technology allows the authors to show their similarities and contrast the differences between them, helping you to take your understanding to a level impossible to achieve by focusing on just one database.

I had the pleasure of working with both Ibrar and Alkin and can say they are not only fantastic engineers, having helped countless customers design and run databases better, but also passionate educators – having written books, spoken at countless conferences, and authored countless articles. Coming together, they have experience, knowledge, and passion second to none.

In addition to covering MySQL and PostgreSQL as they are now, Alkin and Ibrar take us to the future, covering both emerging developments in MySQL and PostgreSQL ecosystem as well as general market trends, such as cloud databases and columnar databases – being aware of these trends is absolutely essential for any well-rounded developer.

Whenever you are a database-intensive application developer or responsible for database operations, this book can help you take your skills in essential areas of database design and modeling to the next level.

Peter Zaitsev

Founder of Percona and a MySQL Rockstar

Contributors

About the authors

Alkin Tezuysal is EVP of Global Services at ChistaDATA Inc. He has extensive experience in open-source relational databases, working in various sectors and large functions. With over three decades of industry experience, he has led global operations teams for MySQL customers and users. He's a known speaker at worldwide open-source database events.

He was awarded Most Influential in Database Community 2022 by The Redgate 100. He has co-authored MySQL Cookbook, 4th Edition 2022, by O'Reilly Media, Inc. He was awarded MySQL Rockstar 2023 - Oracle (MySQL Community).

Ibrar Ahmed is an accomplished principal engineer at Percona LLC with over 23 years of experience in designing and developing software. He is a renowned expert in the field of the PostgreSQL core database engine, having contributed significantly to open source development. His extensive knowledge and expertise have led to the implementation of major performance feature enhancements and the development of various PostgreSQL modules.

Apart from his specialization in PostgreSQL, Ibrar has a wealth of experience working with other prominent databases, including MySQL, Oracle, and NoSQL databases such as MongoDB and Hadoop. He is also well-versed in tools related to databases, such as Hive, HBase, and Spark.

About the reviewers

Naresh Kumar Miryala is a highly experienced engineering leader with nearly 20 years of industry experience and a strong background in the cloud, platform engineering, and artificial intelligence. He leads high-performing cloud data platform teams in his current role at Meta Platforms, Inc. He has a proven track record of carrying out cloud transformations, infrastructure implementation, database management, ERP solutions, and DevOps deployments. His expertise spans multiple domains, such as database systems, large-scale backend infrastructure, security, multi-cloud deployments, cloud infrastructure, DevOps, and artificial intelligence.

I’d like to thank my dear wife, Aruna, and my kids, Yojith and Yuvan, who understand the time and commitment it takes to research. I am grateful for your unwavering belief in me and for always pushing me to be my best self.

Frédéric Descamps has been working with open source and MySQL technology for more than 25 years. After graduating in management information technology, Frédéric started his career as a developer for a multinational company. He then opted for a different career, joining one of the first Belgian start-ups fully dedicated to open source projects around GNU/Linux. He joined the MySQL Community Team in 2016 as a MySQL community manager and evangelist. Frédéric is also a regular speaker at open source conferences. His blog, mostly dedicated to MySQL, is at http://lefred.be. Frédéric is also the devoted father of three adorable daughters, Wilhelmine, Héloïse, and Barbara.

Table of Contents

Preface

Part 1: Introduction to Databases

1

SQL and NoSQL Databases: Characteristics, Design, and Trade-Offs

Understanding databases and data models

Exploring the relational data model (SQL databases)

Tables, rows, and columns

Normalization

Structured Query Language (SQL)

ACID transactions

Navigating the document data model (NoSQL databases)

Data models in NoSQL

Types of NoSQL databases

Key-value stores

Document stores

Column-family stores

Graph databases

Applying the CAP theorem and NoSQL design choices

Consistency

Availability

Partition tolerance

Consistency models in NoSQL databases

NoSQL design choices and use cases

Managing transaction management and concurrency control in NoSQL

BASE transactions in NoSQL databases

Reasons for the BASE model in NoSQL databases

Implications for data integrity and concurrency control

Analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of NoSQL databases

Advantages of NoSQL databases

Disadvantages of NoSQL databases

Summary

2

Building a Strong Foundation for Database Design

The importance of a solid foundation in database design

Key terms and data models

Understanding the relational model in detail

Identifying entities, attributes, and relationships in database design

Creating an ER diagram

Advanced database design

Normalization – reducing redundancy and improving data integrity

Achieving normal forms – 1NF, 2NF, and 3NF

Ensuring database validity and integrity

Concluding thoughts

Summary

Part 2: Practical Implementation

3

Getting Your Hands Dirty with PostgreSQL and MySQL

Understanding the sample database

EDA and preprocessing

Database schema

MySQL

Concluding thoughts

Summary

Part 3: Core Concepts in Database Design

4

Mastering the Building Blocks of Database Design and Modeling

Understanding database objects

Understanding data types and constraints

Keys and how to use them

Database checks and constraints

Check constraint

Default constraint

Not null constraint

Checking data quality with constraints

No date in the future

Value within a specific range

How to avoid redundancy

Database consistency and beyond

Transactions – ensuring data integrity

Concurrency control – managing multiple users

PostgreSQL

MySQL

Summary

Part 4: Advanced Database Techniques

5

Advanced Techniques for Advanced Databases

Creating custom views of your data

Understanding the purpose of views

The advantages of using views in database management

Indexing – how to find data faster

Understanding indexing

Types of indexes

How indexing works

PostgreSQL indexes

MySQL indexes

Stored procedures – reusable code for your database

UDFs

The essence of UDFs

Efficiency through reusability – the role of UDFs in code optimization

UDFs and performance optimization in database operations

Using UDFs to enrich SQL queries for expressive interactions

Practical insights into UDFs in MySQL and PostgreSQL

Understanding CTEs

The role of CTEs in code modularity

Components and integration of CTEs

Guidelines for efficient CTE usage

Advanced strategies with CTEs

Case studies in action – real-world examples of CTE transformations

Summary

6

Understanding Database Scalability

Introducing database scaling

Challenges in database scaling

Primary methods of database scaling

Vitess – a horizontal scaling solution for MySQL

Citus – a horizontal scaling solution for PostgreSQL

Vertical scaling – enhancing capacity within existing infrastructure

InnoDB Cluster for MySQL

Sharding and resharding

Future trends and emerging challenges in database scaling

Serverless databases

Summary

Part 5: Best Practices and Future Trends

7

Best Practices for Building and Maintaining Your Database

Designing for performance – optimizing database efficiency

Schema design

Query optimization

Advanced query optimization techniques

Using subqueries and JOIN clauses wisely

Utilizing temporary tables

Optimizing aggregates and GROUP BY clauses

Using an index to assist GROUP BY clauses

Iterative process and analysis

Understanding database scaling

Vertical scaling

Horizontal scaling

Replication in PostgreSQL

MySQL replication

Ensuring database security

Access control

Implementing robust authentication mechanisms

Permission models

PostgreSQL permission model

Roles and privileges

Example setup in PostgreSQL

MySQL permission model

Privileges and levels

Example setup in MySQL

Management and flexibility

Exploring data encryption

Protecting data at rest

Protecting data in transit

Monitoring and auditing

Data quality and governance – maintaining high standards

Learning about data cleaning

Data governance frameworks

Compliance

Collaboration and documentation

Effective communication

Documentation practices

Advanced topics in database management

Backup and recovery

Tools for monitoring PostgreSQL

MySQL performance monitoring tools

Strategies for regular performance analysis

Summary

8

The Future of Databases and Their Designs

Understanding vectorized search

MySQL enhancements and innovations

MySQL HeatWave

Prospects of use cases of HeatWave

TiDB as a MySQL drop-in replacement for distributed systems

PostgreSQL – expanding horizons

pgEdge – fully distributed PostgreSQL optimized for the network edge

Multi-master replication in pgEdge

Simplified cluster management

Enhanced backup and recovery

Advanced monitoring and alerting

EnterpriseDB – elevating PostgreSQL for the enterprise

Choosing your EDB deployment method

Introduction to columnar databases with ClickHouse

What is ClickHouse?

Choosing the right alternative

Summary

Index

Other Books You May Enjoy

Preface

The goal of Database Design and Modeling with PostgreSQL and MySQL is to provide you with a comprehensive understanding of database design and modeling principles, techniques, and best practices using the two most popular open source relational databases, MySQL and PostgreSQL. This book covers essential topics such as understanding databases, designing databases, advanced database design, scaling databases, using MySQL and PostgreSQL with web applications, and the future of databases.

By the end of the book, you should have a solid understanding of the fundamental concepts of database design and modeling, as well as some advanced topics.

This book’s ultimate goal is to help you create well-structured, efficient, and reliable databases using the latest technologies and best practices in the field. It aims to equip you with the skills and knowledge you need to become proficient in database design and modeling for MySQL and PostgreSQL by providing practical guidance, real-world examples, and hands-on exercises.

Who this book is for

For a beginner who’s new to database design and modeling, this book is an excellent resource for learning the field’s fundamental principles, techniques, and best practices. This book is aimed at software developers, database administrators, and data analysts who want to improve their knowledge and skills in designing, building, and managing databases; it is suitable for beginners who have no or little experience in the field.

For experienced database developers, this book is a valuable tool for updating their knowledge, learning new techniques, and becoming familiar with the latest technologies and best practices in the field. The advanced topics are suitable for experienced database developers who want to stay up to date with the latest developments in the field.

What this book covers

Chapter 1, SQL and NoSQL Databases: Characteristics, Design, and Trade-Offs, provides an overview of SQL and NoSQL databases, discussing their unique characteristics, design principles, and the trade-offs involved in choosing one over the other.

Chapter 2, Building a Strong Foundation for Database Design, covers the essential principles and best practices for designing robust databases. This chapter covers key concepts such as normalization, data modeling, and the importance of understanding business requirements when creating efficient and scalable database structures.

Chapter 3, Getting Your Hands Dirty with PostgreSQL and MySQL, focuses on the practical aspects of working with two of the most popular open source relational databases: PostgreSQL and MySQL. You will gain hands-on experience with installation, configuration, and basic operations, laying the groundwork for more advanced database tasks.

Chapter 4, Mastering the Building Blocks of Database Design and Modeling, explores the core components of database design and modeling in depth. The topics covered in this chapter include entity-relationship modeling, schema design, indexing strategies, and the use of constraints to ensure data integrity and performance.

Chapter 5, Advanced Techniques for Advanced Databases, goes into advanced database techniques such as query optimization, stored procedures, triggers, and views. You will learn how to use these features to enhance the functionality and efficiency of your databases.

Chapter 6, Understanding Database Scalability, covers scalability, which is a critical aspect of modern database design. This chapter examines different strategies for scaling databases, including vertical and horizontal scaling, sharding, replication, and the use of distributed databases to handle large-scale data processing.

Chapter 7, Best Practices for Building and Maintaining Your Database, provides a comprehensive guide to the best practices for database maintenance, including backup and recovery strategies, security measures, performance monitoring, and routine maintenance tasks to ensure the long-term health and reliability of databases.

Chapter 8, The Future of Databases and Their Designs, looks ahead and explores emerging trends and technologies in the database field. The topics in this chapter include the impact of artificial intelligence and machine learning on database management, the rise of cloud-based databases, and predictions for the future evolution of database design and technology.

To get the most out of this book

Before diving into this book, it is helpful to have a basic understanding of database concepts and some familiarity with SQL. While no prior experience with PostgreSQL or MySQL is necessary, a general knowledge of relational databases will allow you to grasp the more advanced topics. Additionally, having basic proficiency in any programming language will be advantageous as we explore practical examples and database interactions.

If you are using the digital version of this book, we advise you to type the code yourself or access the code from the book’s GitHub repository (a link is available in the next section). Doing so will help you avoid any potential errors related to the copying and pasting of code.

Download the example code files

You can download the example code files for this book from GitHub at https://github.com/PacktPublishing/Database-Design-and-Modeling-with-PostgreSQL-and-MySQL. If there’s an update to the code, it will be updated in the GitHub repository.

We also have other code bundles from our rich catalog of books and videos available at https://github.com/PacktPublishing/. Check them out!

Conventions used

There are a number of text conventions used throughout this book.

Code in text: Indicates code words in text, database table names, folder names, filenames, file extensions, pathnames, dummy URLs, user input, and Twitter handles. Here is an example: We will now introduce a unique identifier (though, in some cases, the combination of StudentID and Course could itself act as a composite primary key).

A block of code is set as follows:

CREATE SCHEMA IF NOT EXISTS `DesignAndModeling`

DEFAULT CHARACTER SET utf8mb4;

CREATE TABLE `StudentCourses` (

    `StudentID` int unsigned NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,

    `StudentNAME` varchar(45) DEFAULT NULL,

    `Courses` varchar(45) DEFAULT NULL,

    PRIMARY KEY (`StudentID`)

) ENGINE=InnoDB

DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4

COLLATE=utf8mb4_0900_ai_ci;

Any command-line input or output is written as follows:

$ mysql –u root –p

mysql> \s

Bold: Indicates a new term, an important word, or words that you see onscreen. For instance, words in menus or dialog boxes appear in bold. Here is an example: Redis is a popular in-memory key-value store known for its exceptional speed and versatility.

Tips or important notes

Appear like this.

Get in touch

Feedback from our readers is always welcome.

General feedback: If you have questions about any aspect of this book, email us at [email protected] and mention the book title in the subject of your message.

Errata: Although we have taken