University Chemistry: Frontiers and Foundations from a Global and Molecular Perspective

U

niversity

C

hemistry

U

niversity

C

hemistry

Frontiers and Foundations from a Global and Molecular Perspective

James G. Anderson

The MIT Press

Cambridge, Massachusetts

London, England

© 2022 Massachusetts Institute of Technology

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the publisher.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Anderson, James G., author.

Title: University chemistry : frontiers and foundations from a global and molecular perspective / James G. Anderson, Harvard University.

Description: Cambridge : The MIT Press, 2022. | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2021030650 | ISBN 9780262542654 (paperback)

Subjects: LCSH: Chemistry.

Classification: LCC QD33 .A498 2022 | DDC 540—dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021030650

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

d_r0

Contents

Cover

Preface

Acknowledgments

About the Author

1: Energy

2: Atomic and Molecular Structure

3: Thermochemistry

4: Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics

5: Equilibria and Free Energy

6: Equilibria in Solution

7: Electrochemistry

8: Quantum Mechanics, Wave-Particle Duality, and the Single Electron Atom

9: Quantum Mechanics of Multielectron Systems and the Link Between Orbital Structure and Chemical Reactivity

10: Theories of Molecular Bonding I

11: Theories of Molecular Bonding II

12: Kinetics

13: Nuclear Chemistry

Appendix A

Appendix B

Appendix C

Appendix D

Appendix E

Appendix F

Index

List of figures

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 An understanding of energy at the global and molecular level require…

Figure 1.2 Becoming familiar with the orders of magnitude that comprise the ran…

Figure 1.3 While energy determines the amount of work that can be done, power d…

Figure 1.4 The combination of rapidly developing innovation and rapidly increas…

Figure 1.5 Summary of the major concepts developed in the chapter core.

Figure 1.6 Isaac Newton (1642–1727) was responsible for establishing the laws g…

Figure 1.7 The trajectory of a baseball, thrown vertically from the ground, exe…

Figure 1.8 We can keep track of the amount of kinetic energy and potential ener…

Figure 1.9 The apparatus consisting of a mass, rod and spring is a system that …

Figure 1.10 As the apple descends toward the ground, it converts potential ener…

Figure 1.11 The potential energy diagram represents an extremely important and …

Figure 1.12 The potential energy diagram for a chemical reaction, in this case …

Figure 1.13 Joule studied the relationship between mechanical energy and heat u…

Figure 1.14 A macroscopic body is simply an ensemble of atoms linked by chemica…

Figure 1.15 The organized release of gravitational potential energy, mgh, is us…

Figure 1.16 The geometry for calculating both the momentum change ΔPx and the c…

Figure 1.17 The structure of electromagnetic radiation is defined by oscillatin…

Figure 1.18 While we are most familiar with the segment of the electromagnetic …

Figure 1.19 The electric field component of electromagnetic radiation is shown …

Figure 1.20 A schematic of the electric field component of electromagnetic radi…

Figure 1.21 The emission of electromagnetic radiation from an oscillating posit…

Figure 1.22 The electromagnetic energy exchange between two surfaces displaying…

Figure 1.23 The emission of electromagnetic radiation from the surface of a met…

Figure 1.24 The emission of a blackbody cavity, which emits electromagnetic rad…

Figure 1.25 The intensity of radiation emitted by a blackbody as function of wa…

Figure 1.26 The emission of radiation from a surface element with area A at tem…

Figure 1.27 To calculate the energy emitted by a sphere of radius r, it is simp…

Figure CS1.1a When we consider a physical system such as a light bulb, we can "…

Figure CS1.1b A gas furnace employs a burner that simply controls the mixing of…

Figure CS1.1c Four cases of students running steps.

Figure CS1.1d Representation of the energy consumption of a bicycle per 100 km …

Figure CS1.1e Representation of the energy consumption of an automobile per 100…

Figure CS1.3a Building the power and energy scales.

Figure CS1.3b The geometry for calculating both the momentum change ΔPx and the…

Figure CS1.4a The evolution in the development of a scientific theory that emer…

Figure CS1.4b The term ultraviolet catastrophe was coined to represent the dr…

Figure CS1.4c It was Max Planck who resolved the discrepancy between the wavele…

Figure CS1.5a The graph of human population as function of time is of key inter…

Figure CS1.5b The UN projection of population in the six major global regions b…

Figure CS1.5c When we calculate the global energy consumption, it is clear that…

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 The image of campers sitting around a campfire contains within it a …

Figure 2.2 We can model the campfire scene captured in Figure 2.1 by replacin…

Figure 2.3 One of the most important molecules used in nature to control the fl…

Figure 2.4 With the elimination of one of the high energy phosphate bonds, ATP …

Figure 2.5 We can obtain a reasonably accurate determination of the energy cont…

Figure 2.6 When we burn gasoline in a container open to the atmosphere, all the…

Figure 2.7 An automobile contains a heat engine capable of converting the ene…

Figure 2.8 Antoine Lavoisier, the father of modern chemistry, in his laboratory…

Figure 2.9 Joseph Proust (1754–1826), who established the Law of Definite Propo…

Figure 2.10 John Dalton (1766–1844), who developed the Atomic Theory of Matter …

Figure 2.11 J. J. Thomson (1856–1940), who discovered the existence of the elec…

Figure 2.12 An early simple cathode ray tube consisting of an evacuated tube, a…

Figure 2.13 A modern cathode ray tube that provides precise control over the el…

Figure 2.14 Robert Millikan (1868–1953), developer of the oil drop experiment t…

Figure 2.15 The Millikan oil drop experiment consists of an upper and a lower c…

Figure 2.16 Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937), shown in the laboratory with his app…

Figure 2.17 Madame Marie Curie (1867–1934), codiscoverer of radio activity, pio…

Figure 2.18 A diagram comparing the plum-pudding model of atom structure with…

Figure 2.19 A schematic of the apparatus used by Rutherford to establish the nu…

Figure 2.20 Diagram contrasting the scale of the size of the atom to that of th…

Figure 2.21 A series of comparisons between atom number, mass number, and the a…

Figure 2.22 Willard F. Libby (1908–1980).

Figure 2.23 Before we can both think about and converse about molecular structu…

Figure 2.24 We can track, at the molecular level, the formation of NaCl from ch…

Figure 2.25 Displayed from left to right for methane are its molecular formula,…

Figure 2.26 The common Bunsen burner mixes natural gas (CH4) with O2 to form CO…

Figure CS2.1a Exponential growth, when plotted graphically, has the characteris…

Figure CS2.1b Exponential decay shares a great deal in common mathematically wi…

Figure CS2.1c Carbon dioxide emission from the combustion of fossil fuel is typ…

Figure CS2.1d It is important to compare the carbon release rate of the US and …

Figure CS2.2a Comparison of the energy used per person per day for four vehicle…

Figure CS2.2b The house viewed as a system provides a direct way to analyze the…

Figure CS2.2c A Boeing 767 is an aircraft used routinely for extended flights, …

Figure CS2.2d The range of personal energy consumption per day from airline fli…

Figure CS2.2e Contribution to personal, daily energy consumption from the purch…

Figure CS2.2f When we account for the energy to produce an automobile, we must …

Figure CS2.2g The cost of constructing a house is, on the face of it, an expens…

Figure CS2.2h Computers, because they are quite energy intensive to manufacture…

Figure CS2.2i The relationship between energy consumption in kWh/t-km and the s…

Figure CS2.2j Freight hauling by train is not only extremely energy efficient, …

Figure CS2.2k While freight shipping by truck is convenient, it is also very en…

Figure CS2.2l A comparison of the range of personal energy consumption per day …

Figure CS2.2m A comparison of the range of personal energy consumption per day …

Figure CS2.2n A comparison of the range of personal energy consumption per day …

Figure CS2.2o A comparison of the range of personal energy consumption for the …

Figure CS2.4a If two atoms in their elemental form are placed a distance apart …

Figure CS2.4b We can relate the change in oxidation state, the energy release a…

Figure CS2.4c The remarkable influence that water molecules have on chemical re…

Figure CS2.4d When an ionic solid is placed in water, the polar nature of water…

Figure CS2.4e When NaCl is placed in water, the ionic bond between Na+ and Cl– …

Figure CS2.4f When a metal is placed in water, the metal typically gives up an …

Figure CS2.4g There are a series of terms applied when an electron is either tr…

Figure CS2.5a The formation of petroleum and natural gas that occurs as a resul…

Figure CS2.5b Photosynthesis is one of the most remarkable processes in nature.…

Figure CS2.5c The carbon budget of the Earth system is critical to the unfoldin…

Figure CS2.5d The molecular structure of hopane is displayed here in 3 dimensio…

Figure CS2.5e The build up of petroleum deposits in the Earth's crust began abo…

Figure CS2.5f The building block of organic material that led to the formation …

Figure CS2.5g The formation of coal results in the molecular structure shown in…

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 The Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory developed a graphical rep…

Figure 3.2 An interesting case of tracking the effective delivery of energy fro…

Figure 3.3 The thermodynamic analysis of a system depends upon a clear delineat…

Figure 3.4 We can create a model of the mechanical system by establishing bound…

Figure 3.5 One of the most useful expressions for the work done by the expansio…

Figure 3.6 The Reaction Coordinate: The reaction coordinate for a chemical reac…

Figure 3.7 The experimental system investigating the addition of sulfuric acid …

Figure 3.8 We can represent the energy of the system both before and after the …

Figure 3.9 We can take the same experiment of adding sulfuric acid to zinc fili…

Figure 3.10 The definition of a system and its surroundings is fundamental to t…

Figure 3.11 The bomb calorimeter serves two important functions in chemical the…

Figure 3.12 The potential energy surface for the reaction of octane (gasoline) …

Figure 3.13 When thermal energy (heat) is transferred across a boundary separat…

Figure 3.14 When two cubes of the same material with the same volume are at dif…

Figure 3.15 Each compound, each molecule, has an enthalpy of formation, ΔH°f , …

Figure 3.16 Consider the potential energy of an object (e.g., water balloon) dr…

Figure 3.17 We recognize from our examples of the combustion of gasoline (octan…

Figure 3.18 Sign Convention in Chemical Thermodynamics: Specification of the sy…

Figure 3.19 A thermodynamic machine capable of dissecting the distinction betwe…

Figure 3.20 The thermodynamic machine applied to the problem of calculating the…

Figure 3.21 The trajectory of a system on a pV diagram for an isochoric process…

Figure 3.22 Energy Bar Chart: The energy bar chart is a very effective way of k…

Figure 3.23 The trajectory of a system on a pressure-volume diagram for an isob…

Figure 3.24 If we add heat to the system under conditions of constant pressure,…

Figure 3.25 As the functional form of the trajectory on the pV diagram becomes …

Figure 3.26 If we add energy to the gas in the cylinder with a laser, q will be…

Figure 3.27 A plot of two trajectories in the pV graph, each of which carries t…

Figure 3.28 The trajectory on a pV diagram for an adiabatic process. During our…

Figure 3.29 Phase Changes for H2O: Summarizes the terminology of the various ph…

Figure 3.30 The addition of heat to a 1 kg mass of ice at –40°C traces quantita…

Figure CS3.1a The gasoline engine commonly found in automobiles is a prime exam…

Figure CS3.1b A cycle for a heat engine that takes place on a pV diagram prov…

Figure CS3.1c The Carnot cycle is comprised of four reversible paths on a pV di…

Figure CS3.1d While the concepts of reversibility, spontaneous change, and equi…

Figure CS3.1e Irreversible and nearly reversible isothermal expansions illustra…

Figure CS3.2a The thermodynamic cycle for a heat pump (or refrigerator) is disp…

Figure CS3.2b A direct comparison is displayed between the thermodynamic cycle …

Figure CS3.2c A schematic tracking 100 units of energy contained in natural gas…

Figure CS3.2d An alternative approach using a heat pump with a coefficient of p…

Figure CS3.2e Three diagrams linking the mechanical configuration of a heat pum…

Figure CS3.3a Geothermal energy is a term that refers to the extraction of ther…

Figure CS3.3b The temperature of the rock formations depends upon depth. Displa…

Figure CS3.3c There are typically three different methods for driving a steam t…

Figure CS3.3d A large hydrothermal system that powers a significant fraction of…

Figure CS3.4a While the Sun is a complicated system that converts the release o…

Figure CS3.4b The climate system consists of all physical, chemical, and biolog…

Figure CS3.4c While the global energy consumption is difficult to calculate on …

Figure CS3.4d Nuclear power plants typically produce between 1 and 1.5 gigawatt…

Figure CS3.4e The energy to melt the Arctic Ice Cap is surprisingly small.

Figure CS3.4f A major contributor to the balance of payments deficit in the US …

Figure CS3.4g It is important to compare the ratio of major items in the scales…

Figure CS3.4h A key to reducing use of fossil fuels is first to analyze the maj…

Figure CS3.4i Tracing the origin of various types of fossil fuels is important …

Figure CS3.4j With the melting of ice systems in the Arctic and Antarctic comes…

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 The ability of water molecules to organize, through hydrogen bonding…

Figure 4.2 The profound impact that just a 0.5% melt rate per year of the CH4 a…

Figure 4.3 The structure of ice is shown with the hydrogen bonding displayed be…

Figure 4.4 The crystal structure of the ice cages that form around methane mole…

Figure 4.5 The chemical bonds in coal provide the heat input, Q1. The power pla…

Figure 4.6 As discussed in Chapter 3 it is important to track the conversion of…

Figure 4.7 Many applications that use electricity for industrial purposes emplo…

Figure 4.8 Plot of the dollars sent overseas to purchase petroleum as a functio…

Figure 4.9 A dominant contributor to low efficiency for automobiles is weight a…

Figure 4.10 As we will see, an important example of the increase in entropy of …

Figure 4.11 If we consider two molecules in an otherwise vacated bulb with two …

Figure 4.12 The initial case of two molecules is straightforward, so we will ke…

Figure 4.13 As we continue to add molecules to the system, counting the states …

Figure 4.14 By the time we have added 100 molecules (which may sound like a fai…

Figure 4.15 When we bring two bodies together, one hot and one cold, we know fr…

Figure 4.16 A representation of the configurations, arrangements, and microstat…

Figure 4.17 An important example of the relationship between the entropy of a m…

Figure 4.18 Nature has a propensity to hide small units (quanta) of energy in…

Figure 4.19 As an element of material transitions from a highly ordered solid t…

Figure 4.20 The expansion of a gas from a restricted segment of a volume to the…

Figure 4.21 A chemical reaction that results in an increase in the number of mo…

Figure 4.22 An example of the change in internal energy between two identical i…

Figure 4.23 The melting of ice represents the interesting case of a system for …

Figure 4.24 What about the temperature dependence of ΔS? We previously argued t…

Figure 4.25 The chemical system will shift to the right or left as it proceeds …

Figure 4.26 Using our equation for ΔG, we can see how the spontaneity of a reac…

Figure 4.27 In the first case, we take ΔS > 0 and ΔH > 0. If ΔH > TΔS, the proc…

Figure CS4.1a Schematic diagram of a fuel cell: The hydrogen fuel cell operates…

Figure CS4.2a While Ludwig Boltzmann emerged as a giant of 19th century science…

Figure CS4.2b

Figure CS4.2c The Boltzmann distribution of molecular velocities is a graph o…

Figure CS4.3a An example of the electric power demand over the course of a typi…

Figure CS4.3b The key quantity in appraising the yield of power from wind turbi…

Figure CS4.3c An example of the time dependence of the capacity factor for loca…

Figure CS4.3d A higher time resolution display of the variation in electricity …

Figure CS4.3e

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 An analysis of energy sources worldwide demonstrates increasingly th…

Figure 5.2 The Fischer–Tropsch process, developed in Germany in the 1920s, prov…

Figure 5.3 A modern reactor for methanol production is displayed wherein syngas…

Figure 5.4a Graph of the concentrations of CO(g), H2(g) and CH3OH(g) as a funct…

Figure 5.4b Graph of the concentrations of CO(g), H2(g), and CH3OH(g) as a func…

Figure 5.4c Graph of the concentrations of CO(g), H2(g), and CH3OH(g) as a func…

Figure 5.4d Examination of the three cases, each with a distinctly different in…

Figure 5.5 The equilibrium constant for reactions that involve heterogeneous pr…

Figure 5.6 Fritz Haber was one of the most famous 20th century chemists, having…

Figure 5.7 The conversion of nitrogen and hydrogen, N2(g) and H2(g), to NH3(g) …

Figure 5.8 If the pressure is increased in a vessel within which a chemical rea…

Figure 5.9 Diagram of the response of the reaction I2 + H2 → 2HI with the injec…

Figure 5.10 The potential energy surface for an exothermic reaction indicating …

Figure 5.11 The dimerization reaction converting NO2 to N2O4 is exothermic. As …

Figure 5.12 A very useful diagram that links the extremes of pure reactants (in…

Figure 5.13 Construction of the Gibbs free energy diagram begins by calculating…

Figure 5.14 The next step in constructing the Gibbs free energy diagram is to r…

Figure 5.15 When the reaction reaches equilibrium ΔG = 0 and Q = Keq. In the ca…

Figure 5.16 We can now assemble our Gibbs free energy diagram with our reaction…

Figure 5.17 Gibbs free energy diagram linking and with the free energy surfac…

Figure 5.18 Gibbs free energy diagram for N2O4 ⇄ 2NO2 for standard conditions: …

Figure 5.19 Gibbs free energy diagram for N2O4 ⇄ 2NO2 for 1 atm pressure but at…

Figure 5.20 A plot of the expression ln Keq = −ΔH°/RT + ΔS°/R where the vertica…

Figure 5.21 Two extremes for the discharge of a battery are displayed. Along th…

Figure CS5.1a Modern biofuel production represents a cycle linking the input of…

Figure CS5.1b Glucose is a ring hydrocarbon that occurs either as β-glucose sho…

Figure CS5.1c Starch is distinguished by the fact that the bridging oxygen lies…

Figure CS5.1d Starch, formed from α-glucose, is distinct from cellulose that is…

Figure CS5.1e Xylose is a C5 sugar monomer that results from the acid breakdown…

Figure CS5.1f As a result of the difference in bonding structure of starch and …

Figure CS5.1g Comparison between ethanol shown in the left-hand panel and an av…

Figure CS5.1h Soybean production contributes significantly to biodiesel output …

Figure CS5.1i

Figure CS5.2a Percent yield of ammonia versus temperature (°C) at five differen…

Figure CS5.2b Key stages in the Haber process for synthesizing ammonia.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Carbon dioxide exerts strong control over the acid-base balance of t…

Figure 6.2 The Gibbs free energy diagram for the equilibrium between CO2(g) on …

Figure 6.3 An artist's depiction of the Arctic Coast during the Eocene epoch, a…

Figure 6.4 40 million years ago during the Eocene the global average temperatur…

Figure 6.5 If we schematically represent the relationship between CO2 mixing ra…

Figure 6.6 The tracking of CO2, N2O, and CH4 from the end of the ice age 20,000…

Figure 6.7 A plot of carbon dioxide mixing ratio in ppm since the last ice age …

Figure 6.8 Gibbs free energy for the reaction of carbonic acid in water forming…

Figure 6.9 The proton H+, acts as an organizing center in liquid water because …

Figure 6.10 Svante Arrhenius was one of the most versatile scientists of the mo…

Figure 6.11 The theory of acid-base reactions evolved in steps. The original co…

Figure 6.12 When an acid is placed into water, the water molecule successfully …

Figure 6.13 The Brønsted–Lowry theory creates a symmetry between acid behavior …

Figure 6.14 When a base (a proton acceptor) is placed in water, it reacts by ex…

Figure 6.15 (a) A strong acid reacts with water, donating virtually every proto…

Figure 6.16 The Gibbs free energy diagram defines the equilibrium point between…

Figure 6.17 Acetic acid is a prototypical weak acid. It has a Ka of 1.76 × 10−5…

Figure 6.18 The autoionization of water establishes an equilibrium H2O + H2O H3…

Figure 6.19 A weak acid added to a strong base results in a sequence of steps. …

Figure 6.20 For the case of a buffered solution we have a reservoir of the weak…

Figure 6.21 When a base is added to a buffer solution, the base reacts with the…

Figure 6.22 The titration curve for a strong base added to a strong acid. The p…

Figure 6.23 If we begin with a strong base and add a strong acid, the titration…

Figure 6.24 The titration curve for a weak acid by a strong base.

Figure 6.25 Titration curve tracing out the progression from a solution of a we…

Figure 6.26 Titration curve for a strong acid added to a weak base. Shown as be…

Figure CS6.1a Each of these pictures has been taken from different parts of the…

Figure CS6.1b The Gibbs free energy diagram for the equilibrium between CO2(g) …

Figure CS6.1c Compared to nitrogen dioxide gas, the equilibration between carbo…

Figure CS6.1d This figure shows the relative abundance of carbonic acid, bicarb…

Figure CS6.1e This tiny creature is a foraminifer. Foraminifera are just a few …

Figure CS6.1f The weathering of silicate minerals results in the net draw-down …

Figure CS6.1g The weathering of carbonate minerals has no net effect on the dra…

Figure CS6.1h The Eocene saw increased temperatures and . Over time the weather…

Figure CS6.2a Air with 420 ppm CO2 is passed through the contact reactor, reduc…

Figure CS6.2b Schematic of DAC using a hydroxide solution to react with the CO2…

Figure CS6.2c The chemical equations governing the CO2 absorption reaction as w…

Figure CS6.2d Schematic of a DAC engineering unit.

Figure CS6.3a There are now an array of techniques for capturing and concentrat…

Figure CS6.3b The parabolic optical collector takes parallel rays from the Sun …

Figure CS6.3c Then high temperature steam is collected from the trough array an…

Figure CS6.3d The solar troughs are combined in large arrays covering many squa…

Figure CS6.3e The Fresnel mirror configuration uses multiple mirrors aligned pa…

Figure CS6.3f The power tower configuration uses multiple heliostats that tra…

Figure CS6.3g The configuration of the heliostats and the collection tower for …

Figure CS6.3h The collector for a Stirling engine dish design uses a parabolic …

Figure CS6.3i The pV cycle executed by the Stirling engine is the familiar comb…

Figure CS6.3j The four primary strokes of the Stirling engine are displayed in …

Figure CS6.3k As with the parabolic trough collection, the Fresnel collector an…

Figure CS6.3l The solar radiation map of the U.S., designated here as a color d…

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 The Tesla Roadster is an example of a new breed of electric cars tha…

Figure 7.2 As we have continued to stress, there is a direct analogy between th…

Figure 7.3 As electrons flow from the anode (where oxidation occurs liberating …

Figure 7.4 The ability of electrochemistry to unify key concepts in chemistry, …

Figure 7.5 The Tesla Model S is a new all-electric automobile built in Californ…

Figure 7.6 The Citroen C-Zero represents a new generation of all electric 4-doo…

Figure 7.7 When comparing the energy consumed by various categories of automobi…

Figure 7.8 A remarkable fact in the United States is that the cost of electrici…

Figure 7.9 A number of very high efficiency smaller all-electric cars are comin…

Figure 7.10 When viewed at the atomic level, the oxidation that occurs at the a…

Figure 7.11 Reduction, when viewed at the atomic level occurs at the interface …

Figure 7.12 When clean copper is placed in a solution of silver nitrate (AgNO3)…

Figure 7.13 Gibbs free energy dictates the direction of spontaneous chemical re…

Figure 7.14 We can diagram the relationship between Gibbs free energy and the e…

Figure 7.15 The Gibbs free energy diagram for copper as the anode and zinc as t…

Figure 7.16 A complete electrothermal cell consists of: (1) an anode material t…

Figure 7.17 The voltaic cell operates because one metal electrode in solution h…

Figure 7.18 Whenever two metals are connected by a pathway that allows electron…

Figure 7.19 When two half-cells (a half-cell consists of a metal electrode in s…

Figure 7.20 Given that what matters in a voltaic cell (a.k.a. galvanic cell) is…

Figure 7.21 While H2(g) does not constitute a physically viable electrode mater…

Figure 7.22 Different elements have varying abilities to draw electrons to them…

Figure 7.23 With the standard reduction potential of the hydrogen electrode set…

Figure 7.24 If we form a voltaic (a.k.a. galvanic) cell with one half-cell cons…

Figure 7.25 Examination of the zinc anode and copper cathode reveals that the a…

Figure 7.26 At the interface between the platinum cathode and the Cu2+(aq) solu…

Figure 7.27 When the reactants and products of an oxidation-reduction reaction …

Figure 7.28 It is very important to become familiar with both (1) the architect…

Figure 7.29 Michael Faraday (c. 1842) was, and is, regarded as one of the great…

Figure 7.30 Faraday succeeded in measuring the amount of work done by a voltaic…

Figure 7.31 The concept of equating the maximum amount of work extracted from a…

Figure 7.32 We have built our understanding of electrochemistry (indeed all che…

Figure 7.33 We can now extend our Master diagram linking ΔG, , and Keq to nonst…

Figure 7.34 The electrolysis of water, whereby the passage of current between t…

Figure 7.35 An electrolytic cell operates because a spontaneous process with a …

Figure 7.36 A form of electrolysis termed electroplating is commonly used to pr…

Figure 7.37 Aluminum was a very expensive metal until the late 19th century whe…

Figure 7.38 Corrosion occurs in an electrochemical cell created by the displa…

Figure CS7.1a Batteries are devices that store electrochemical energy. They are…

Figure CS7.1b One of the oldest but still most widely used batteries is the lea…

Figure CS7.1c The alkaline battery is the most prominent non-rechargeable batte…

Figure CS7.1d Major efforts and financial resources are now being invested in a…

Figure CS7.1e During the 1980s and 1990s the Japanese automakers Toyota and Hon…

Figure CS7.1f The lithium-ion battery is the focus of major efforts to refine t…

Figure CS7.1g The operation of the lithium-ion cell is unique in that Li ions a…

Figure CS7.1h General Motors has made a major investment in plug-in hybrid tech…

Figure CS7.2a The mitochondrion—a subunit of the cell—is displayed at increasin…

Figure CS7.2b The bonding structure of ATP and ADP displaying the conversion of…

Figure CS7.2c The relationship between the enzyme-substrate complex and the glu…

Figure CS7.2d A high-resolution molecular view of the cavity of the enzyme that…

Figure CS7.3a As the consequences of burning fossil fuels are more widely under…

Figure CS7.3b The application of the right-hand rule to determine the direction…

Figure CS7.3c The magnitude of the force imparted to a charge q moving through …

Figure CS7.3d The force on a wire segment immersed in an external magnetic fiel…

Figure CS7.3e A wire of length ℓ carrying a current I at an angle θ through a m…

Figure CS7.3f The torque on a current loop within an externally imposed magneti…

Figure CS7.3g A commutator is a very important device in an electric motor. I…

Figure CS7.3h We can assemble the components of an electric motor into a single…

Figure CS7.3i If the electric motor had a single sector of windings and a com…

Figure CS7.4a There are now designs for SUVs in both all electric and gasoline.…

Figure CS7.4b There is a remarkable difference in the energy expenditure per km…

Figure CS7.4c Development of an understanding of energy scales and power scales…

Figure CS7.4d Coming to terms with the relative length scales is critical to th…

Figure CS7.4e We can compare the mass and the volume of CO2 emitted by a number…

Figure CS7.4f It is important to know the ratios of the energy content per kg o…

Figure CS7.4g There is now extreme pressure in the research and technology sect…

Figure CS7.4h While it is important to determine specifically the average power…

Figure CS7.4i Energy flow. (Source: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Mar…

Figure CS7.4j

Figure CS7.5a

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 The observed position of individual iron atoms on flat copper arrang…

Figure 8.2 The sequential placement of iron atoms in a ring using STM to create…

Figure 8.3 Image of a microscopic array of the top side of a silicon wafer base…

Figure 8.4 Conservation of energy dictates that macroscopic devices, such as a …

Figure 8.5 A computer image of the tungsten tip of an STM approaching within at…

Figure 8.6 The operation of the STM employs not only the sharpened tungsten tip…

Figure 8.7 STM image of atom manipulation with an STM tip. In panel (a) Bi adat…

Figure 8.8 The advent of carbon nanotubes fabricated at selected diameters and …

Figure 8.9 It is now possible to create nanotubes with articulated geometries t…

Figure 8.10 By fabricating nanowires from radially layered tubes that are far m…

Figure 8.11 When a stone is dropped into water, waves emanate radially from the…

Figure 8.12 It was Max Planck who resolved the discrepancy between the waveleng…

Figure 8.13 The apparatus for observing the photoelectric effect consists of an…

Figure 8.14 The photoelectric effect provided key evidence that electromagnetic…

Figure 8.15 It was Einstein, in 1905, who combined evidence from Planck's quant…

Figure 8.16 The electron is held within a potential energy well of depth hν0 by…

Figure 8.17 Compton measured the momentum of the photon by using high energy X-…

Figure 8.18 The remarkable, sharply defined emission lines that emanate from el…

Figure 8.19 The atomic emission lines of hydrogen extend from the ultraviolet t…

Figure 8.20 The Bohr model of atomic hydrogen placed the electron in specific o…

Figure 8.21 The emission of a photon of energy E = hν occurs in the context of …

Figure 8.22 The Bohr model brought together the ideas embodied in (1) the emiss…

Figure 8.23 The circular orbits of the Bohr atom provided the physical model of…

Figure 8.24 The potential energy of a mass, m, within a well of depth h in a gr…

Figure 8.25 The union of the Bohr orbits of the electron and the de Broglie wav…

Figure 8.26 The mathematical sine function represents a wave with an amplitude …

Figure 8.27 The observed behavior of a standing wave can be represented as a si…

Figure 8.28 The wave equation provides the mathematical relationship for which …

Figure 8.29 As the curvature d2ψ(x)/dx2 increases in magnitude, more and more h…

Figure 8.30 The potential well that confines the electron in our particle-in-a-…

Figure 8.31 The solutions to the wave equation are the wavefunctions ψn(x) for …

Figure 8.32 Displayed in the left panel are the wavefunctions from Figure 8.31 …

Figure 8.33 When we expand the dimension of the well width containing an electr…

Figure 8.34 Erwin Schrödinger, by his work on the wave equation for the electro…

Figure 8.35 A three-dimensional surface for the Coulomb potential is displayed …

Figure 8.36 Polar coordinates are shown within the Cartesian coordinates system…

Figure 8.37 A key test of the Bohr model was whether it could quantitatively ca…

Figure 8.38 The quantum numbers, n, ℓ, mℓ form a nested set such that the princ…

Figure 8.39 We can summarize the quantum numbers n, ℓ, and mℓ with respect to n…

Figure 8.40 There are a number of important ways to graphically represent the 1…

Figure 8.41 Graphical representation of the n = 2 orbitals for atomic hydrogen.…

Figure 8.42 The graphical display of the radial wavefunction, R(r), and the ang…

Figure 8.43 The important aspect of the orbitals sequence of increasing size fo…

Figure 8.44 A comparison between the densities of the orbitals and the densitie…

Figure 8.45 The graphical representation of the radial distribution function ob…

Figure 8.46 As we will see in the next chapter, the radial distribution functio…

Figure 8.47 When the radial distribution functions r2 R2(r) are super imposed o…

Figure CS8.1a A vast array of new scientific and technical advances are based o…

Figure CS8.1b A graphical depiction contrasting (1) the classical picture of an…

Figure CS8.1c The solution for the quantized energy levels of an electron confi…

Figure CS8.1d If the condition of an infinitely high potential barrier at x = 0…

Figure CS8.1e The behavior of the electron wavefunction for a finite potential …

Figure CS8.1f Graphical display of the electron wavefunction for the condition …

Figure CS8.1g STM image of carbon atoms on the surface of graphite.

Figure CS8.1h STM image of BSCCO, which is a high temperature superconductor wi…

Figure CS8.1i The configuration of an STM probe tip in proximity with a metal s…

Figure CS8.1j The relationship between the STM tip, the applied voltage V, and …

Figure CS8.2a Radiation (visible light in this case) emitted from the light bul…

Figure CS8.2b As radiation (light) moves outward from the source, the same amou…

Figure CS8.2d The Earth appears from Space as a bright orb of blue, white, gree…

Figure CS8.2e Visible radiation (sunlight) received from the Sun amounts to 1…

Figure CS8.2c Radiation from the Sun falling on the Earth in its orbit about th…

Figure CS8.2f The amount of solar radiation collected by a panel parallel to th…

Figure CS8.2h Concentrated solar thermal operates by focusing solar radiation o…

Figure CS8.2i There are a number of different designs available for concentrate…

Figure CS8.2g Examples of the actual annually averaged power per unit area obta…

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Displayed are images that represent large data sets with the upper m…

Figure 9.2 Shown are the first transistors with the left panel a replica of the…

Figure 9.3 The three inventors of the transistor at the time they announced the…

Figure 9.4 The first microprocessor was constructed by Ted Hoff at Intel. It co…

Figure 9.5 Quantum mechanical properties of the electron constitute a linkage f…

Figure 9.6 Wolfgang Pauli (1900–1958) proposed the now famous "Pauli Exclusion …

Figure 9.7 The experimental apparatus used by Otto Stern and Walther Gerlach th…

Figure 9.8 When electrons are inserted into the eigenstates, the wavefunctions,…

Figure 9.9 With the addition of each electron, and with the Pauli Exclusion Pri…

Figure 9.10 Graphic displaying the energy, in kJ/mol, required to remove an ele…

Figure 9.11 Graphical display of three electrons, two in an inner shell and the…

Figure 9.12 The effect of shielding on the amount of energy required to remove …

Figure 9.13 The probability of finding the electron at a distance r from the nu…

Figure 9.14 Graphical display of the total radial probability as a function of …

Figure 9.15 While the ordering of orbitals does not follow a simple sequence in…

Figure 9.16 The direct effect of nuclear charge on orbital energy can be seen b…

Figure 9.17 Displayed here is the electron configuration of the Period 2 elemen…

Figure 9.18 Diagram of the first two Periods in the periodic table that links t…

Figure 9.19 The energy ordering and electron assignments for the Period 3 eleme…

Figure 9.20 A summary of the electron configuration for the Period 1, 2, and 3 …

Figure 9.21 The energy ordering of the subshells for the first four elements in…

Figure 9.22 The electron assignments for scandium through zinc in Period 4 that…

Figure 9.23 In the analysis of patterns in the periodic table, it is very impor…

Figure 9.24 The blocks in the periodic table provide important insight into r…

Figure 9.25 The terminology of shielding or screening are used interchangeably …

Figure 9.26 Analysis of the interaction of a given electron with the nucleus un…

Figure 9.27 The relationship between screening (a.k.a. shielding) and penetrati…

Figure 9.28 A considerable amount of calculational effort is required to establ…

Figure 9.29 There are various ways of determining the radius of an atom and fou…

Figure 9.30 The main group atomic radii are displayed here to graphically empha…

Figure 9.31 A clear example of the role of atomic size in determining the diffe…

Figure 9.32 We emphasize in the graph of atomic radius (pm) versus atomic numbe…

Figure 9.33 It is important to note explicitly the anticorrelation between the …

Figure 9.34 When the first ionization energy is mapped across the main group, t…

Figure 9.35 Trends in the first (IE1), second (IE2), and third (IE3) ionization…

Figure 9.36 While the explicit values of IE1 are presented in Figure 9.35, the …

Figure 9.37 The electron affinities of the main group elements exhibit a simila…

Figure 9.38 A key point to emphasize when considering patterns in the periodic …

Figure CS9.1a The angular dependence of the wavefunctions for n = 1, 2, and 3 w…

Figure CS9.1b The radial dependence of the wavefunctions for n = 1, 2, 3, and 4…

Figure CS9.1c The upper panel is a graphical depiction of the in-and-out radial…

Figure CS9.1d A charged particle in a circular orbit generates a magnetic field…

Figure CS9.1e The intrinsic spin of the electron generates a magnetic field tha…

Figure CS9.2a With the advent of high technology sectors in jet engine design, …

Figure CS9.2b With the insertion of the f-block lanthanides and actinides, the …

Figure CS9.2c One of the most useful diagrams in chemistry summarizes the order…

Figure CS9.2d The lanthanide Period 6 electron configurations provide a good ex…

Figure CS9.2e The wavefunctions for the seven f orbitals are displayed with the…

Figure CS9.2f Because of the high spin of members of the lanthanide series lead…

Figure CS9.2g The physical structure of the Earth is comprised of the atmospher…

Figure CS9.2h The global production of rare earth elements has passed through a…

Figure CS9.2i The rapidly increasing demand for rare earth elements in the glob…

Figure CS9.3a The fractional contribution of the various gases both for CO2 and…

Figure CS9.3b Carbon footprint as a national average for a series of representa…

Figure CS9.3c Summary graphic of CO2, non-CO2, and CO2 equivalent globally aver…

Figure CS9.3d Summary of the per capita income for a representative selection o…

Figure CS9.3e A plot of the log of GHG emission in t CO2 e/p vs. log of per cap…

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris, France.

Figure 10.2 By the late 1800s chemists were drawing the structure of molecules …

Figure 10.3 Theories of bonding prior to the work of G. N. Lewis and prior to t…

Figure 10.4 As early as 1902, in a course taught with T. W. Richards at Harvard…

Figure 10.5 It was the union of the cubic model for atoms to form mole­cules by…

Figure 10.6 Simplification of the cubic model of molecular bond formation led L…

Figure 10.7 Both the worlds of physics and of chemistry were faced with a serio…

Figure 10.8 The simplest model of the chemical bond involves reduction in energ…

Figure 10.9 As an H atom approaches another H atom, the electron of one atom is…

Figure 10.10 In the simple box model of the chemical bond, it is the relative e…

Figure 10.11 We can summarize trends in electron affinity, ionization energy, a…

Figure 10.12 The Pauling electronegativity scale, derived by consideration of e…

Figure 10.13 A summary of the trends in the Pauling electronegativity scale for…

Figure 10.14 There is a continuum of bond types ranging from pure, nonpolar cov…

Figure 10.15 There are three types of chemical bonds categorized according to t…

Figure 10.16 The sea of loosely bound electrons that reside around the cation…

Figure 10.17 The link between the electronic configuration of elements in the p…

Figure 10.18 The link between the electronic configuration of elements in the p…

Figure 10.19 The electron configuration of potassium and of chlorine and the Le…

Figure 10.20 The potential energy diagram for the ionic compound KCl.

Figure 10.21 The electron transfer shown for the electron configuration of Na a…

Figure 10.22 The crystal structure of NaCl showing the alternating position of …

Figure 10.23 The energy level diagram showing the energy required to execute th…

Figure 10.24 The Lewis structure of Cl shown with the electronic configuration …

Figure 10.25 A flow chart tracking the sequence of steps used to place electron…

Figure 10.26 The electron groups are shown for the H2O molecule using the valen…

Figure 10.27 The geometry of the electron group is set uniquely by the number o…

Figure 10.28 For the case of 3 electron groups, the electron group geometry is …

Figure 10.29 If there are 4 electron groups, the electron group geometry is tet…

Figure 10.30 If the number of electron groups is 5, the electron group geometry…

Figure 10.31 If the number of electron groups is 6, the electron group geometry…

Figure CS10.1a The donation of an electron from sodium results in the rupture o…

Figure CS10.1b In the Lewis formulation of an acid-base reaction, the base dona…

Figure CS10.1c In the reaction between H+ and OH– the base, OH– donates an elec…

Figure CS10.1d Quickline, a base, reacts with sulfur dioxide by donating a lone…

Figure CS10.1e Quickline reacts with water by extracting a lone pair forming Ca…

Figure CS10.1f Water reacts with SO2 by donating a lone pair of electrons to fo…

Figure CS10.1g The structure of water is established by the geometry of the ele…

Figure CS10.1h Sodium reacts rapidly and violently with water when the electron…

Figure CS10.1i Calcium reacts with water with the same mechanism as that for so…

Figure CS10.1j Water and carbon dioxide react to form the adduct carbonic acid.…

Figure CS10.1k All alkali metals react with water as described in Figure CS10.1…

Figure CS10.1l The trends in first ionization energy across the periodic table.

Figure CS10.1m A major fraction of all elements in the periodic table—all the m…

Figure CS10.1n Electron movement within the Lewis formulation for the reaction …

Figure CS10.1o The electron movement in the reaction of a halogen with water.

Figure CS10.1p Electron movement in the reaction of metals with the electron de…

Figure CS10.1q Highlighting Period 3 in the chemistry of binary oxides.

Figure CS10.1r Silicon forms chained networks of –Si–O bonds that create a weal…

Figure CS10.1s Phosphorus forms bonding structures with oxygen that are importa…

Figure CS10.1t Phosphoric acid is ubiquitous both in natural systems and is a k…

Figure CS10.1u Mechanism for the reaction of phosphorus with water.

Figure CS10.1v Summary of the reactivity pattern for Period 3 elements with wat…

Figure CS10.1w Reactivity of Period 2 hydrides.

Figure CS10.1x Electron movement in the reaction of LiH with water.

Figure CS10.1y Lewis acid-base reaction of ammonia in water.

Figure CS10.1z The self-reaction of water.

Figure CS10.2a Tracking the flow of a volume of air crossing the wind turbine b…

Figure CS10.2b The dependence of wind speed on height above the ground and the …

Figure CS10.2c The 2.5 MW series of GE wind turbine, which constitutes the sele…

Figure CS10.2d The power curve for the GE 2.5 MW wind turbine.

Figure CS10.2e The sequence of assembly for a GE 2.5 MW wind turbine.

Figure CS10.2f The state-by-state power generating potential from wind in units…

Figure CS10.2g Wind turbines located in the hills above San Francisco Bay demon…

Figure CS10.3a The structure of ice is established by the hydrogen bonding betw…

Figure CS10.3b The hydrogen bonding in water, shown in the upper panel, is the …

Figure CS10.3c UV radiation supplies photons with sufficient energy to break th…

Figure CS10.3d The architecture of DNA is set by the hydrogen bonding of the nu…

Figure CS10.3e Nucleotides are the building blocks of the DNA structure and are…

Figure CS10.3f The nucleotides are ordered along the spine of DNA and are linke…

Figure CS10.3g The designation of the deoxyribose nucleotides is set by the par…

Figure CS10.3h The numbering system of the carbons in the sugar is used to dist…

Figure CS10.3i James Watson and Francis Crick, in 1953, were the first to deter…

Figure CS10.3j Both the physical dimensions and the detailed bonding structure …

Figure CS10.3k The evaluation of a single tumor cell through a sequence of cell…

Figure CS10.3l The carcinogen benzanthracene can be converted via enzyme activa…

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 In green plants, the manganese-containing oxygen-evolving complex (…

Figure 11.2 When the solar photon is absorbed by the chlorophyll, the energy co…

Figure 11.3 The structure of the chlorophyll molecule. The segment of the molec…

Figure 11.4 The ringed structure of the chlorophyll molecule is organized aroun…

Figure 11.5 The energy contained in the excited electron created by the absorpt…

Figure 11.6 It is in the reaction center where the excited P680 chlorophyll des…

Figure 11.7a One of the most important molecules used in nature to control the …

Figure 11.7b With the elimination of one of the high energy phosphate bonds, AT…

Figure 11.7c We can represent the distinction between ATP and ADP on an energy …

Figure 11.8 One of the most important concepts in thermochemistry is the way th…

Figure 11.9 We can examine the observations of CO2 from Mauna Loa, Hawaii, whic…

Figure 11.10 A key diagram coupling (1) the energy received from the sun to syn…

Figure 11.11 The potential energy for an electron interacting, via the Coulomb …

Figure 11.12 When the protons are brought together, each electron interacts wit…

Figure 11.13 The wavefunction for each of the separated hydrogen atoms with an …

Figure 11.14 Formation of the molecular wavefunction for H2 created from the hy…

Figure 11.15 The potential energy surface for H2 showing the experimentally obs…

Figure 11.16 The upper panel displays the comparison between the experimental p…

Figure 11.17 Calculation of the orbital overlap function S displaying the metho…

Figure 11.18 The valence bond (VB) picture of the molecular bond in HCl where t…

Figure 11.19 The tetrahedral bonding structure of CH4 formed from the hybridiza…

Figure 11.20 The combination of a 2s orbital and three 2p orbitals of carbon co…

Figure 11.21 When one 2s orbital and two 2p orbitals mix, hybridize, three sp2 …

Figure 11.22 The mixing of an s orbital and two p orbitals yield the three sp2 …

Figure 11.23 The hybridized orbitals from each atom can overlap to create a mol…

Figure 11.24 The unhybridized p orbital from two carbon atoms can overlap to fo…

Figure 11.25 The combination of the σ bond formed from the overlap of an sp2 hy…

Figure 11.26 One 2s orbital and one 2p orbital hybridize to form two sp hybrid …

Figure 11.27 The hybridization of the s and p orbitals to form the hybridized s…

Figure 11.28 The geometry of the sp hybridized and unhybridized p orbitals of c…

Figure 11.29 The bonding structure of the carbon backbone of acetylene with one…

Figure 11.30 The complete bonding structure of acetylene showing the σ bond and…

Figure 11.31 The bonding structure of formaldehyde showing the carbon sp2 hybri…

Figure 11.32 Each of the bonds in formaldehyde is designated by the molecular b…

Figure 11.33 Hybridization of atomic orbitals can mix s, p, and d orbitals to f…

Figure 11.34 When a 3s, three 3p, and two 3d orbitals hybridize, six sp3d2 orbi…

Figure 11.35 The radial 1s wavefunction of atomic hydrogen at large internuclea…

Figure 11.36 As the internuclear distance begins to decrease, the overlap betwe…

Figure 11.37 When the internuclear distance of the two hydrogen atoms reaches t…

Figure 11.38 We can track the energy of the forming molecular orbital (MO) as t…

Figure 11.39 The probability of finding the electron in the newly formed molecu…

Figure 11.40 We can summarize the details contained in Figure 11.38 by simplify…

Figure 11.41 The linear combination of atomic orbitals for the destructive addi…

Figure 11.42 The probability of finding an electron at any position along the i…

Figure 11.43 We can combine the constructive addition of atomic orbitals to for…

Figure 11.44 It is common practice to create the molecular orbital (MO) diagram…

Figure 11.45 The relationship between the molecular orbital diagram (panel A), …

Figure 11.46 The linear combination of two px atomic orbitals overlapped "head …

Figure 11.47 The linear combination of two py atomic orbitals overlapped side-t…

Figure 11.48 When the linear combination of two pz atomic orbitals is taken, th…

Figure 11.49 When the orbitals of atomic oxygen, which combine to form the mole…

Figure 11.50 When the orbitals of atomic oxygen, which combine to form the mole…

Figure 11.51 When the distance between the oxygen atoms reaches the equilibrium…

Figure 11.52 The MO diagram for the homonuclear diatomic molecule Li2.

Figure 11.53 The MO diagram for the homonuclear diatomic molecule Be2 which, be…

Figure 11.54 The energy ordering of the MOs of O2, F2, and Ne2. The greater ove…

Figure 11.55 Mixing of the atomic orbitals that form the MOs in B2, C2, and N2 …

Figure 11.56 The effective nuclear charge, Zeff, increases with atomic number f…

Figure 11.57 The atomic orbitals of oxygen lie at somewhat lower energy than th…

Figure 11.58 The atomic orbitals for oxygen lie at somewhat lower energy than t…

Figure 11.59 The atomic orbitals of fluorine lie far below the atomic hydrogen …

Figure 11.60 Electrons in benzene as obtained by modern quantum mechanical comp…

Figure 11.61 The structure of benzene is constructed from a backbone of sp2 hyb…

Figure 11.62 The π bonding structure in benzene is a resonance structure such t…

Figure 11.63 The MOs formed from the atomic orbitals of carbon are delocalized …

Figure 11.64 The π bonding states and π* antibonding states of benzene: each st…

Figure CS11.1a Promotion of a molecule from its ground state to a surface of hi…

Figure CS11.1b The electric field intrinsic to electromagnetic radiation applie…

Figure CS11.1c The normal modes of vibration of the water molecule. All vibra…

Figure CS11.1d Any chemical bond between two atoms has, qualitatively, the same…

Figure CS11.2a The absorption of infrared radiation upwelling from the Earth's …

Figure CS11.2b The pathways available to infrared photons emitted by the Earth'…

Figure CS11.2c Calculation of the average surface temperature of the Earth in t…

Figure CS11.2d The infrared radiation emitted as blackbody radiation from the E…

Figure CS11.2e We can establish a climate model by representing the absorptio…

Figure CS11.3a Tools from (A) the Stone Age, (B) the Bronze Age, (C) the Iron A…

Figure CS11.3b (A) A wafer of pure crystalline silicon on which computer chips …

Figure CS11.3c Diagram of how a photo-electrochemical cell operates: light abso…

Figure CS11.3d Of the two major categories of solids, the amorphous solids are …

Figure CS11.3e The second category of solids is the crystalline structure. Ther…

Figure CS11.3f Molecular orbital (MO) theory or the linear combination of atomi…

Figure CS11.3g The molecular orbital (MO) diagram for the addition of lithium a…

Figure CS11.3h The molecular orbital wavefunctions share the same basic shape a…

Figure CS11.3i The band structure of lithium metal showing the bands developed …

Figure CS11.3j We are concerned with the elements at the interface of the metal…

Figure CS11.3k The structure of diamond, a covalent crystal with tetrahedral bo…

Figure CS11.3l Comparison of the band gap in a selection of Group 4A elements.

Figure CS11.4a When a trace of (Group 3A) gallium is doped into a crystal latti…

Figure CS11.4b With the addition of trace amounts of (Group 5A) arsenic to (Gro…

Figure CS11.4c A p-type semiconductor is created by doping a trace amount of an…

Figure CS11.4d When the p-type semiconductor is brought into physical contact w…

Figure CS11.4e Because, in the union of the p-type and n-type semiconductor, th…

Figure CS11.4f When we examine the charge distribution across the junction of t…

Figure CS11.4g When a forward bias is applied to the p-n junction, the electr…

Figure CS11.4h When the positive pole of the battery is connected to the n-side…

Figure CS11.4i The emission of a photon of energy E = hν occurs in the context …

Figure CS11.4j The electron is held within a potential energy well of depth hν0…

Figure CS11.4k Panel A displays the case where the absorption of a photon liber…

Figure CS11.4l When a voltage is applied to a p-n junction, electrons from the …

Figure CS11.4m The increase in emitted light intensity from LEDs has increased …

Figure CS11.4n The energy level diagram for the photovoltaic formed from a sili…

Figure CS11.4o The physical structure or architecture of a silicon photovoltaic…

Figure CS11.4p When Ve = 0, the current is very small. When a potential Ve is a…

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Chemical reactions require different amounts of time to transform r…

Figure 12.2 Diagram of the energy ordering of the molecular orbitals formed fro…

Figure 12.3 Unpaired electron spins are held by (attracted to) a magnetic field…

Figure 12.4 The promotion of an electron in O2 from the πb (bonding) molecular …

Figure 12.5 With the absorption of the photon and the resulting promotion of th…

Figure 12.6 Just as the square well potential created quantized energy levels o…

Figure 12.7 For each vibrational energy level within the potential energy well …

Figure 12.8 The rapid motion of the electron in orbit about the nuclei (orbital…

Figure 12.9 The representation of the photodissociation step, O2 + hν → O + O, …

Figure 12.10 The potential energy surface defining the formation of O3 from O +…

Figure 12.11 The dissociation of O3 resulting from the localization of energy i…

Figure 12.12 The two-step process forming O3 from the reaction of O + O2 is sho…

Figure 12.13 We can also represent the reaction of atomic oxygen, O, with ozone…

Figure 12.14 The molecularity of a reaction is determined uniquely by the poten…

Figure 12.15 Chemical kinetics is a branch of chemistry that is important for t…

Figure 12.16 If we could ride around on the back of an ozone molecule, it is im…

Figure 12.17 The cross section for a collision between two molecules with diame…

Figure 12.18 While a collision is necessary for a reaction to take place, not a…

Figure 12.19 If the barrier to reaction is too high, or the geometrical alignme…

Figure 12.20 The rates of chemical reactions can be studied by a number of diff…

Figure 12.21 Following the formation of OH by flash photolysis, for example by …

Figure 12.22 With increasingly smaller time increments, Δt, the instantaneous r…

Figure 12.23 The decay of [OH] in the presence of CH4 can be expressed as an av…

Figure 12.24 We can use the same experimental apparatus (Figure 12.20) to study…

Figure 12.25 In the analysis of OH decay in the presence of CH4, we have deduce…

Figure 12.26 Figure of engine and catalytic converter.

Figure 12.27 When an NO molecule strikes the surface of platinum it dissociates…

Figure 12.28 We can compare the concentration of reactant A as a function of ti…

Figure 12.29 When the concentration of A, [A], is plotted against time for a ze…

Figure 12.30 When the natural log of the concentration of A, ln [A], is plotted…

Figure 12.31 When the observed kinetics is second order, a plot of 1/[A] is lin…

Figure 12.32 We can summarize, for observed zero-order, first-order, and second…

Figure 12.33 The formation of nitric acid, HONO2, in a termolecular reaction in…

Figure 12.34 When the second-order reaction rate constant, kIIobs, is plotted a…

Figure 12.35 Arrhenius studied broad classes of chemical reactions and graphed …

Figure 12.36 As a result of studying the rates of chemical reactions as a funct…

Figure 12.37 The Boltzmann distribution of molecular speeds represented as the …

Figure 12.38 The exponential dependence of the Arrhenius expression can be unde…

Figure 12.39 Recognizing that the horizontal axis of the Boltzmann distribution…

Figure CS12.1a Ultraviolet photons have sufficient energy to break the base pai…

Figure CS12.1b The photochemistry of oxygen is a critically important mechanism…

Figure CS12.1c The decrease in the total column density of stratospheric ozone …

Figure CS12.1d A map of the ozone hole—the distribution of ozone concentratio…

Figure CS12.1e The NASA ER-2 aircraft, which is a very high altitude research a…

Figure CS12.1f The loss of ozone as a function of time within the Antarctic vor…

Figure CS12.2a The ability of the atmosphere to absorb electromagnetic radiatio…

Figure CS12.2b Deep sea vents, where hot water rich in mineral nutrients emerge…

Figure CS12.2c The buildup of oxygen in Earth's atmosphere is shown as a functi…

Figure CS12.2d Ferric oxide, Fe2O3, in Banded Iron Formations shown here, in wh…

Figure CS12.2e Red Beds formed from deposits of Fe2O3 extend back some 2 billio…

Figure CS12.2f The earliest and simplest cell architecture belonged to the prok…

Figure CS12.2g The cell structure of the eukaryotes is distinguished by the exi…

Figure CS12.2h Solar photons from the Sun are lethal to human life (and virtual…

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 The United States advanced test reactor at the Idaho National Labor…

Figure 13.2 The binding energy of nucleons that compose the nucleus of elements…

Figure 13.3 The fuel cycle for the light water reactor that tracks the uranium …

Figure 13.4 One of the modern reactor designs that uses the basic physics of nu…

Figure 13.5 A comparison of fatality rates (deaths per gigawatt-year of energy …

Figure 13.6 The interior of the Princeton Tokamak fusion reactor that uses a ma…

Figure 13.7 A cross sectional view of the International Thermonuclear Experimen…

Figure 13.8 Another method to achieve high temperatures in the reaction of deut…

Figure 13.9 The global build-up of nuclear reactor capability in terms of the i…

Figure 13.10 Illustration of the nuclear fusion reaction that produces helium-4…

Figure 13.11 Binding energy per nucleon in MeV for various nuclei from Hydrogen…

Figure 13.12 Illustration of nuclear fission reaction triggered by neutron bomb…

Figure 13.13 Fission reaction: the atom bomb.

Figure 13.14 The nuclear fission chain reaction of uranium-235.

Figure 13.15 Main components of a nuclear power plant. They include the reactor…

Figure 13.16 Illustration of the principle of radioactive dating based on the c…

Figure 13.17 Decay of radioactive isotopes over a period of 10 half-lives: the …

Figure 13.18 Remains of a couple buried in embrace, found in Valdaro, Italy; ra…

List of tables

Chapter 2

Table 2.1

Table 2.2 Benzene, Acetylene, Glucose, and Ammonia

Table 2.3

Table 2.4

Table CS2.3a

Table CS2.3b

Table CS2.4a

Chapter 3

Table 3.1

Table 3.2

Table 3.3 Standard enthalpies of formation for some common compounds

Table 3.4 Molar specific heats of gases (J/mol K)

Chapter 4

Table 4.1

Table 4.2

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Three attempts to find a constant ratio of equilibrium concentrations …