CONTEMPORARY APPLIED ETHICS

CONTEMPORARY

APPLIED

ETHICS

Matthew N. O.  Sadiku, Ph.D., P.E.

Regents Professor Emeritus and IEEE Life Fellow

Prairie View A&M University

Prairie View, TX 77446

Email:  [email protected]

Web:  www.matthew-sadiku.com

COPYRIGHTS

Copyright © 2024

Matthew N. O.  Sadiku, Ph.D., P.E.

All Rights Reserved. Any unauthorized reprint or use of this material is strictly prohibited. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system without express written permission from the author.

All reasonable attempts have been made to verify the accuracy of the information provided in this publication. Nevertheless, the author assumes no responsibility for any errors and/or omissions.

DEDICATION

DEDICATED TO MY WIFE JANET

FOR BEING A WONDERFUL GIFT

PREFACE

Ethics is a branch of philosophy, known as moral philosophy. It is the practice of making a moral choice between right and wrong. Ethics came into existence only when human beings started to reflect on the best way to live. It deals with the justification of moral principles. Humans are ethical and moral regardless of religion and God. Moral action comes from avoiding courses of action that would be irresponsible feckless, lazy, inconsiderate, uncooperative, harsh, intolerant, selfish, mercenary, indiscreet, tactless, arrogant, unsympathetic, cold, incautious, unenterprising, pusillanimous, feeble, presumptuous, rude, hypocritical, self-indulgent, materialistic, grasping, short-sighted, vindictive, calculating, ungrateful, grudging, brutal, profligate, disloyal, etc. Ethics deals with the right choices of conduct in all circumstances. It pertains to the moral guidelines that can help us through difficult situations.

Ethics is important in all aspects of our lives. It refers to standards of right and wrong that prescribe what humans ought to do, usually in terms of rights, obligations, benefits to society, fairness, or specific virtues. It may be regarded as a set of ideals, values, or standards that people use to determine whether their actions are good or bad. Traditionally, ethics places emphasis on moral responsibility. Ethics govern a person's behavior. All professional societies have developed their own codes of ethics that suit their particular aims and goals.

This book explores contemporary applied ethics, which consists of the norms and moral values of human behavior desired by contemporary society. Contemporary ethics include cybersecurity ethics, computer ethics, food ethics, business ethics, big data ethics, and research ethics. It emphasizes respect for the individual, autonomy, human rights, and animal rights. Modern ethical issues, particularly concerning automation, the Internet of Things, cloud computing, artificial intelligence, and robotics, are now major concerns for businesses, organizations, and governments. The book is organized into twelve chapters that summarize contemporary applied ethics and its applications.

Chapter 1: Introduction:   This chapter provides an introduction to contemporary applied ethics. It gives an overview of ethics and discusses both traditional and modern ethics.  Ethics are moral principles that govern a person’s behavior. They are concerned with what is morally good and bad and morally right and wrong. Ethical issues, particularly concerning emerging technologies such as Internet of things, cloud computing, artificial intelligence, and robotics, are now major concerns for businesses, organizations, and governments.

Chapter 2:  Computer Ethics:  This chapter addresses computer ethics. The computer has had an impact like no other recent technology. Computers have become an integral part of all aspects of the society. The use and misuse of computers have increased dramatically. Computer ethics has emerged with the birth of computers. It deals with ethical issues that arise from the use of computer technology.  It refers to a set of philosophical morals that govern an individual or a group of people on what are acceptable behaviors when using a computer.

Chapter 3:  Digital Ethics:   In this chapter, we cover digital ethics.We live in an always-connected, digital age.  The unstoppable growth of technology has transformed our habits and created unprecedented dilemmas. Digital technology is at the heart of our economic and social life, but it is not neutral. Digitalization brought with it some opportunities, risks, and responsibilities. The responsibilities include digital ethics, which deals with trust, information protection, privacy, safety, and sustainability. Digital ethics refers to the moral, ethical, social, and legal consequences and implications arising from the mass use digital technologies such as AI, machine learning, robots, cloud computing, and blockchain.

Chapter 4: Big Data Ethics: This chapter provides a brief coverage of big data ethics.  The amount of data generated by the Internet and mobile technologies is unprecedented. Data comes from a variety of sources such as sensors, social media sites, transaction records, medical records, RFID devices, video sharing, etc. This huge amount of data is collectively called big data.  Big data ethics encompasses the moral obligations of gathering, protecting, and using personally identifiable information and how it affects individuals. It refers to the principles behind how organizations gather, protect, and use data.  It may be regarded as the branch of ethics that addresses the generation, collection, sharing, and use of big data. 

Chapter 5: Food Ethics: This chapter introduces food ethics and food policy. Food is important for human survival. It is a basic biological necessity of life. Today, food is increasingly becoming an issue of major concern for Americans, as many struggle with obesity and  chronic disease. Ethics plays a major role in food policy. Food policy is any policy that addresses or regulates the food system. Food ethics is the ethical thinking in regards to food. It provides ethical analysis for human conduct in the food production, distribution, preparation, and consumption. It serves as a tool for decision making in the food industry, which exists mainly to feed people and must act in a socially responsible manner.

Chapter 6: Agricultural Ethics: This chapter provides an overview on agricultural ethics. Agriculture is a key contributor to human livelihood. The impact of agriculture and agricultural products on human life is universal and vast. Agricultural ethics refers to the values and norms associated with agriculture and the food system—farming, resource management, food processing, distribution, trade, and consumption. Ethical issues in agriculture include the use of chemicals, food regulation, treatment of farm animals, sustainability of resources, social justice, rural living conditions, radical societal changes, etc. Agricultural ethics requires collaboration between society, government agencies, world organizations, and the private sector.

Chapter 7: Business Ethics: This chapter introduces the reader to business ethics. Business activity and business entities have an enormous impact on society.  Businesses impact society is by producing goods, services, and jobs.  Many business decisions are guided by moral considerations. Businesses are supposed to be fair and honest in all their transactions.  They must act in a way which goes beyond purely profit-based motivations, towards a model we term the triple bottom line: people, planet, profit.  Business ethics is the application of ethics in business.  It consists of the principles and standards that establish acceptable conduct in business organizations. It is concerned with the behavior of business people in doing a business.

Chapter 8: Bioethics: This chapter serves as a primer on bioethics. Bioethics is the field that explores ethical issues and analyzes advances in health-related sciences, like biology or chemistry, and medicine. It may be regarded as a branch of applied ethics that studies the ethical, legal, and social issues arising  in medicine and biology. It is concerned with a specific area of human conduct concerning the animate and inanimate natural world.  It focuses on issues such as patient rights, reproductive technology, and medical regulation. It is based on a set of values that consist of the appreciation for autonomy, beneficence, and justice.

Chapter 9: Medical Ethics: This chapter is about the ethical issues that medical practitioners encounter as they care for patients.  Medical ethics is a branch of bioethics.  It encompass a set of moral principles, beliefs, and values that guide choices and decision-making in healthcare. It is a system of moral principles that apply values and judgments to the practice of medicine.  Medical ethics is essential to remove any unfair practices or malpractices existing in the field. It is based on a set of values that medical practitioners can apply in cases of any confusion or conflict. The AMA code of medical ethics states that medical professionals should always respect the rights of others and provide healthcare to all and always remain professional.

Chapter 10: Environmental Ethics:  In this chapter, we introduce readers to environmental ethics. The environment has become an endangered species. The reality of pollution, environmental degradation, and human endangerment in the environment has raised worrisome ethical concerns about what should be the appropriate way the environment is to be used by humans. Environmental ethics is an established field of practical philosophy which deals with protecting natural entities and the sustainable use of natural resources.  It tends to be based on the interests of future generations and of nonhumans, as well as current humans. It is about including the rights of nonhuman animals in our ethical and moral values.  Concern for the environment ethics raises the question of obligations to future generations. 

Chapter 11:  Cybersecurity Ethics:  In this chapter, we consider cybersecurity ethics. Since the inception of the Internet, hackers have labored to exploit it for everything from cyberattacks to theft and espionage. As technology advances, so does the potential for data breaches, security threats, and cyber attacks. Cybersecurity refers to the practice of protecting programs, networks, computer systems, and their components from unauthorized digital access and attacks.  There is a need for cybersecurity professionals to understand and to implement ethical principles and for them to have codes of conduct.

Chapter 12:  Research Ethics:  In this chapter, we discuss research ethics.  Conducting research is the pillar of knowledge, and it constitutes an integral part of progress.  Research has improved the quality and quantity of life.  However, ethical principles must be applied in our daily conduct of research. Research ethics is a set of principles that guide research designs and practices. It consists of moral principles that guide researchers to conduct and report research successfully, without deception or intention to harm the participants of the study. Research misconduct is a serious ethical issue because it can undermine academic integrity and institutional credibility. Researchers must abide by ethical norms or risk producing questionable research results.

This is a comprehensive introductory text on the issues, ideas, theories, and problems on contemporary applied ethics. It provides an overview of each contemporary ethical issue so that beginners can understand it and its increasing importance and relevance. It is a must-read book for anyone who wants to learn about modern ethics, which has become a major concern in recent times.

I am grateful for the support of Dr. Annamalia Annamalai, the department head of the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, and Dr. Pamela Obiomon, the dean of the College of Engineering at Prairie View A&M University, Prairie View, Texas. Special thanks are due to my wife Dr. Janet Sadiku for helping in various ways.  To her this book is dedicated.

- M. N. O. Sadiku

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I am grateful for the support of Dr. Annamalia Annamalai, the department head of the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, and Dr. Pamela Obiomon, the dean of the College of Engineering at Prairie View A&M University, Prairie View, Texas. Special thanks are due to my wife Dr. Janet Sadiku for helping in various ways. To her, this book is dedicated.

~ M. N. O. Sadiku

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Matthew N. O. Sadiku received his B. Sc. degree in 1978 from Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria, and his M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville, TN in 1982 and 1984 respectively. From 1984 to 1988, he was an assistant professor at Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, where he did graduate work in computer science. In total, he received seven college degrees. From 1988 to 2000, he was at Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, where he became a full professor.  From 2000 to 2002, he was with Lucent/Avaya, Holmdel, NJ as a system engineer and with Boeing Satellite Systems, Los Angeles, CA as a senior scientist. He is presently a Regents professor emeritus of electrical and computer engineering at Prairie View A&M University, Prairie View, TX.

He is the author of over 1,200 professional papers and over 120 books including Elements of Electromagnetics (Oxford University Press, 7th ed., 2018), Fundamentals of Electric Circuits (McGraw-Hill, 7th ed., 2020, with C. Alexander), Computational Electromagnetics with MATLAB (CRC Press, 4th ed., 2019), Principles of Modern Communication Systems (Cambridge University Press, 2017, with S. O. Agbo), and Emerging Internet-based Technologies (CRC Press, 2019). In addition to the engineering books, he has written Christian books including Secrets of Successful Marriages, How to Discover God’s Will for Your Life, and commentaries on all the books of the New Testament Bible. Some of his books have been translated into French, Korean, Chinese (and Chinese Long Form in Taiwan), Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, German, Dutch, Polish, and Russian.

He was the recipient of the 2000 McGraw-Hill/Jacob Millman Award for outstanding contributions in the field of electrical engineering. He was also the recipient of the Regents Professor Award for 2012-2013 by the Texas A&M University System. He is a registered professional engineer and a life fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) for contributions to computational electromagnetics and engineering education. He was the IEEE Region 2 Student Activities Committee Chairman. He was an associate editor for IEEE Transactions on Education.

He is also a member of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM). His current research interests are in the areas of computational electromagnetic, computer science/networks, engineering education, and marriage counseling. His works can be found in his autobiography, My Life and Work (Trafford Publishing, 2017), or on his website: www.matthew-sadiku.com. He currently resides with his wife Janet in Westlake Florida. He can be reached via email at [email protected]

CONTENTS

PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

CHAPTER 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION

1.2 OVERVIEW OF ETHICS

1.3 TRADITIONAL AND MODERN ETHICS

1.4 CONTEMPORARY ETHICS

1.5 BENEFITS

1.6 CHALLENGES

1.7 CONCLUSION

CHAPTER 2

2.1 INTRODUCTION

2.2 WHAT IS COMPUTER ETHICS?

2.3 PRINCIPLES OF COMPUTER ETHICS

2.4 CODE OF ETHICS

2.5 TEN COMMANDMENTS OF COMPUTER ETHICS

2.6 COMMON COMPUTER ETHIC ISSUES

2.7 TEACHING COMPUTER ETHICS

2.8 BENEFITS

2.9 CHALLENGES

2.10 CONCLUSION

CHAPTER 3

3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.2 WHAT IS DIGITAL ETHICS?

3.3 ETHICS IN TECHNOLOGY

3.4 APPLICATIONS

3.5 GLOBAL DIGITAL ETHICS

3.6 BENEFITS

3.7 CHALLENGES

3.8 CONCLUSION

CHAPTER 4

4.1 INTRODUCTION

4.2 CONCEPT OF BIG DATA

4.3 TRADITIONAL ETHICS

4.4 CODES OF ETHICS

4.5 ETHICAL PRINCIPLES

4.6 BIG DATA ETHICS

4.7 APPLICATIONS OF BIG DATA ETHICS

4.8 BENEFITS

4.9 CHALLENGES

4.10 CONCLUSION

CHAPTER 5

5.1 INTRODUCTION

5.2 CONCEPT OF ETHICS

5.3 SCOPE OF FOOD ETHICS

5.4 CONCEPT OF FOOD POLICY

5.5 FOOD POLICY COUNCILS

5.6 EXAMPLES OF FOOD POLICIES

5.7 GLOBAL FOOD SYSTEM

5.8 GLOBAL FOOD POLICIES

5.9 BENEFITS

5.10 CHALLENGES

5.11 CONCLUSION

CHAPTER 6

6.1 INTRODUCTION

6.2 WHAT IS AGRICULTURAL ETHICS?

6.3 CODE OF ETHICS

6.4 APPLICATIONS OF AGRICULTURAL ETHICS

6.5 BENEFITS

6.6 CHALLENGES

6.7 CONCLUSION

CHAPTER 7

7.1 INTRODUCTION

7.2 TRADITIONAL ETHICS

7.3 BUSINESS ETHICS

7.4 BUSINESS ETHICS PRINCIPLES

7.5 EXAMPLES OF ETHICAL BUSINESS BEHAVIOR

7.6 APPLICATIONS OF BUSINESS ETHICS

7.7 BENEFITS

7.8 CHALLENGES

7.9 CONCLUSION

CHAPTER 8

8.1 INTRODUCTION

8.2 WHAT IS BIOETHICS?

8.3 COMPONENTS OF BIOETHICS

8.4 BIOETHICS PRINCIPLES

8.5 APPLICATIONS

8.6 BENEFITS

8.7 CHALLENGES

8.8 CONCLUSION

CHAPTER 9

9.1 INTRODUCTION

9.2 WHAT IS MEDICAL ETHICS?

9.3 ETHICAL DILEMMAS

9.4 MEDICAL ETHICS PRINCIPLES

9.5 MEDICAL CODES OF ETHICS

9.6 BENEFITS

9.7 CHALLENGES

9.8 CONCLUSION

CHAPTER 10

10.1 INTRODUCTION

10.2 WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS?

10.3 PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

10.4 SUSTAINABLE ETHIC

10.5 APPLICATIONS

10.6 BENEFITS

10.7 CHALLENGES

10.8 CONCLUSION

CHAPTER 11

11.1 INTRODUCTION

11.2 OVERVIEW OF CYBERSECURITY

11.3 WHAT IS ETHICS?

11.4 CODES OF ETHICS

11.5 CYBERSECURITY ETHICS

11.6 APPLICATION OF CYBERSECURITY ETHICS

11.7 BENEFITS

11.8 CHALLENGES

11.9 CONCLUSION

CHAPTER 12

12.1 INTRODUCTION

12.2 ETHICAL THEORY

12.3 WHAT IS RESEARCH ETHICS?

12.4 ETHICAL PRINCIPLES IN RESEARCH

12.5 CODES OF ETHICS

12.6 INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

12.7 BENEFITS

12.8 CHALLENGES

12.9 CONCLUSION

INDEX

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

"Ethical living is the indispensable condition of all that is most worthwhile in the world." 

- Ernest Caldecott

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Ethics  can look descriptively at moral behavior and judgements and give practical advice. It investigates normative questions about what people ought to do or which behavior is morally right. Ethics is concerned with rights, responsibilities, use of language, what it means to live an ethical life, and how people make moral decisions. Leading a good life is one of the central questions of ethics.

How should we live?  How should an individual act?  Is it right to be dishonest in a good cause? Is going to war justified in any case? Is it wrong to clone a human being?  These and similar questions are dealt with in ethics. Most ethical systems look a lot like the Ten Commandments. They are sets of basic prohibitions that seem universal. We often hear  child cry: That's not fair! This shows that even children seem to have an innate sense of justice and fairness [1].

Ethics came into existence only when human beings started to reflect on the best way to live. Itdeals with the justification of moral principles. Humans are ethical and moral regardless of religion and God. We used to think that people are born with a blank slate, but research has shown that people have an innate sense of morality. Those who are regarded as morally good are said to be virtuous, while those viewed as morally bad are thought of as wicked, sinful, or even criminal. The seven deadly sins were first enumerated in the sixth century by Pope Gregory I.  They are vanity, jealousy, anger, laziness, greed, gluttony, and lust. People who demonstrate these immoral behaviors are often said to be flawed in character [2]. 

Moral action comes from avoiding courses of action that would be irresponsible, feckless, lazy, inconsiderate, uncooperative, harsh, intolerant, selfish, mercenary, indiscreet, tactless, arrogant, unsympathetic, cold, incautious, unenterprising, pusillanimous, feeble, presumptuous, rude, hypocritical, self-indulgent, materialistic, grasping, short-sighted,