Revelation

Table of Contents

Publisher’s Preface

Acknowledgments

General Introduction to the EGGNT Series

Abbreviations

Introduction

I. Prologue (1:1–8)

A. Title and Blessing (1:1–3)

B. Epistolary Prescript (1:4–5c)

C. Doxology (1:5d–6)

D. Prophetic Oracles (1:7–8)

Homiletical Suggestions

II. In the Spirit on Patmos (1:9–3:22)

A. John’s Vision and Commission (1:9–20)

1. John’s Commission (1:9–11)

2. The Vision of Jesus (1:12–16)

3. John’s Commission Repeated (1:17–20)

Homiletical Suggestions

B. Proclamations to Seven Churches (2:1–3:22)

1. Proclamation to Ephesus (2:1–7)

2. Proclamation to Smyrna (2:8–11)

3. Proclamation to Pergamum (2:12–17)

4. Proclamation to Thyatira (2:18–29)

5. Proclamation to Sardis (3:1–6)

6. Proclamation to Philadelphia (3:7–13)

7. Proclamation to Laodicea (3:14–22)

Homiletical Suggestions

III. In the Spirit in Heaven (4:1–16:21)

A. The Divine Throne Room (4:1–5:14)

1. Worship of God (4:1–11)

Homiletical Suggestions

2. Enthronement of the Lamb (5:1–14)

Homiletical Suggestions

B. Opening the Seven Seals (6:1–8:5)

1. The First Four Seals (6:1–8)

2. The Fifth Seal (6:9–11)

3. The Sixth Seal (6:12–17)

4. The Sealing of 144,000 (7:1–8)

5. The Uncountable Multitude (7:9–17)

6. The Seventh Seal (8:1–5)

Homiletical Suggestions

C. Seven Trumpet Judgments (8:6–11:19)

1. Preparation of the Seven Trumpets (8:6)

2. The First Six Trumpet Judgments (8:7–9:21)

Homiletical Suggestions

3. John’s Recommissioning (10:1–11)

4. The Temple (11:1–2)

5. The Two Witnesses (11:3–14)

6. The Seventh Trumpet Judgment (11:15–19)

Homiletical Suggestions

D. An Overview and Interpretation of History (12:1–14:20)

1. The Cause of Conflict: The Woman, the Dragon, and the Seed (12:1–17)

Homiletical Suggestions

2. The Present and Future Conflict: Two Beasts (12:18–13:18)

Homiletical Suggestions

3. Victory in the Conflict: The 144,000 on Mount Zion (14:1–5)

5. The End of Conflict: Two Harvests (14:14–20)

Homiletical Suggestions

E. The Seven Bowl Judgments (15:1–16:21)

1. Introduction of Seven Bowls (15:1)

2. The Song of Moses and the Lamb (15:2–4)

3. The Seven Bowls (15:5–16:21)

Homiletical Suggestions

IV. In the Spirit in the Wilderness (17:1–21:8)

A. Babylon the Great (17:1–18:24)

1. Vision of Babylon and the Beast (17:1–14)

2. Destruction of Babylon (17:15–18)

3. Mourning over Babylon’s Fall (18:1–24)

Homiletical Suggestions

B. Final Victory (19:1–21:8)

1. The Coming of the Lamb (19:1–21)

Homiletical Suggestions

2. The Millennium (20:1–6)

3. Satan’s Final Defeat (20:7–10)

4. The Final Judgment (20:11–15)

Homiletical Suggestions

5. New Creation (21:1–8)

V. In the Spirit on a High Mountain (21:9–22:5)

VI. Epilogue (22:6–21)

A. Transitional Conclusion (22:6–9)

B. Concluding Exhortations (22:10–21)

Homiletical Suggestions

Exegetical Outline

Grammar Index

Scripture Index

Stewart’s volume on Revelation is a worthy contribution to the excellent EGGNT series. It offers a wealth of information in compact form to aid interpretation, providing concise analysis of features of the Greek text, well-informed insights on the imagery and structure of the book, suggestions about how to preach or teach individual portions, and excellent bibliographies of publications worth pursuing for further study. Most valuable are its reflections on how Revelation draws on the Old Testament as well as extra-canonical Jewish and Christian literature. Highly recommended for those with only a little Greek as well as those with more advanced knowledge who want seasoned guidance on the text and message of Revelation.

—Buist M. Fanning, senior professor emeritus of New Testament studies, Dallas Theological Seminary

This is a valuable contribution to study of the book of Revelation for a number of reasons: it is a one-stop compendium of exegetical insights on the text of Revelation. It provides comment on all the significant grammar and reasonable solutions to Revelation’s well-known grammatical ‘irregularities.’ It contains an up-to-date bibliography for further personal study and addresses the Old Testament usage in Revelation in a way that demonstrates its interpretive significance. Stewart’s work will be a trustworthy exegetical guide through what many consider the most daunting book in the New Testament. The serious student of Revelation will want to have this book close at hand.

—David Mathewson, associate professor of New Testament, Denver Seminary

Alex Stewart has produced a helpful guide to the Greek text of Revelation. Not only does this volume discuss the Greek text and its significance, list related topical reading, and provide relevant homiletical outlines; it also gives special attention to the use of the Old Testament in Revelation as separate breakout sections. This work is beneficial on so many levels and therefore will no doubt be a valuable resource.

—Benjamin L. Merkle, research professor of New Testament and Greek, Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary

For those who are investigating the Greek text of Revelation for the first time or for those wishing to probe deeper into the contents and argument of the book, Stewart’s volume on Revelation will be of great benefit. In addition to a clear and concise guide to the syntax and style of the Greek text, readers of this EGGNT volume will also find a very helpful guide to relevant Old Testament texts and wider theological concerns. I hope this volume will encourage many to explore more deeply the contents and language of this important New Testament book.

—Michael Naylor, professor of Bible, Columbia International University

The grammar in the book of Revelation, not to mention its interpretation, is challenging and in some cases quite controversial. We recognize that there will not be universal agreement on how to interpret Revelation before the return of Jesus Christ. Still, Alex Stewart provides a useful and informative guide to the grammar of this famous book. He also provides interpretive help in unlocking the meaning of the apocalypse. Both students and professors will find this to be a helpful tool in unpacking the grammar of Revelation.

—Thomas R. Schreiner, James Buchanan Harrison Professor of New Testament Interpretation and associate dean, The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary

Interpreting Revelation is no easy task, often not because of the ambiguity of Greek but because of the canonical and genre-related concerns. Alex Stewart is a helpful guide and conversation partner to navigate the Greek and selected interpretive issues in this book. Being quite conversant with primary and secondary sources, Stewart helpfully guides readers through text-critical, grammatical, theological issues, and homiletical tips for the apocalypse. Irrespective of one’s theological commitments about Revelation, Stewart’s research will serve and help scholars and teachers of this book.

—Shawn J. Wilhite, associate professor of New Testament, California Baptist University

Alexander Stewart has done readers of Revelation a great service by carefully explicating its Greek text. A detailed and informed discussion of its grammar and vocabulary is presented throughout. Organized into structural units, the volume also examines Revelation’s language as it relates intertextually with the Old Testament. Recommendations for further study direct readers to more detailed discussions of the related verses. Homiletical suggestions highlight significant themes to help with sermon preparation. Scholars, students, and pastors will greatly benefit from this exegeti­cal guide as they study John’s apocalypse.

—Mark Wilson, director, Asia Minor Research Center, Antalya, Turkey, and professor extraordinary of New Testament, Stellenbosch University

The Exegetical Guide to the Greek New Testament

Exegetical Guide to the Greek New Testament: Revelation

Copyright © 2024 by Alexander E. Stewart

Published by B&H Academic

Brentwood, Tennessee

All rights reserved.

ISBN: 978-1-5359-2462-7

Dewey Decimal Classification: 228

Subject Heading: BIBLE. N.T. REVELATION­—STUDY AND TEACHING \ BIBLE. N.T. REVELATION—CRITICISM

Unless otherwise indicated, Scripture quotations are taken from the Christian Standard Bible. Copyright © 2017 by Holman Bible Publishers. Used by permission. Christian Standard Bible®, and CSB® are federally registered trademarks of Holman Bible Publishers, all rights reserved.

Scripture quotations marked ESV are taken from The Holy Bible, English Standard Version. ESV® Text Edition: 2016. Copyright © 2001 by Crossway Bibles, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers.

The Greek text of Revelation is from The Greek New Testament, Fifth Revised Edition, edited by Barbara Aland, Kurt Aland, Johannes Karavidopoulos, Carlo M. Martini, and Bruce M. Metzger in cooperation with the Institute for New Testament Textual Research, Munster/Westphalia, © 2014 Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, Stuttgart. Used by permission.

Cover design by B&H Academic.

To the faithful pastors who have shepherded and mentored me throughout my life: Mark Castro, Jay Leroux, Andre Rogers, Karl McCallister, Chris Bower, Patrick Womack, Tab Whitley, Al James, Dan Beaulieu, Alexis Wadman, and Alex Barrett.

Publisher’s Preface

It is with great excitement that we publish this volume of the Exegetical Guide to the Greek New Testament series. When the founding editor, Dr. Murray J. Harris, came to us seeking a new publishing partner, we gratefully accepted the offer. With the help of the coeditor, Andreas J. Köstenberger, we spent several years working together to acquire all of the authors we needed to complete the series. By God’s grace we succeeded and contracted the last author in 2011. Originally working with another publishing house, Murray’s efforts spanned more than twenty years. As God would have it, shortly after the final author was contracted, Murray decided God wanted him to withdraw as coeditor of the series. God made clear to him that he must devote his full attention to taking care of his wife, who faces the daily challenges caused by multiple sclerosis.

Over the course of many years, God has used Murray to teach his students how to properly exegete the Scriptures. He is an exceptional scholar and professor. But even more important, Murray is a man dedicated to serving Christ. His greatest joy is to respond in faithful obedience when his Master calls. There can be no higher and more ennobling privilege than to have the Lord of the universe as one’s Owner and Master and to be his accredited representative on earth.¹ Murray has once again heeded the call of his Master.

It is our privilege to dedicate the Exegetical Guide to the Greek New Testament series to Dr. Murray J. Harris. We pray that our readers will continue the work he started.

Notes

¹. Murray J. Harris, Slave of Christ: A New Testament Metaphor for Total Devotion to Christ (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1999), 155.

Acknowledgments

No book of this nature is created in a vacuum, and I have many people to thank. I first began exploring Revelation under the guidance of Dr. David Alan Black during my doctoral studies; known by some as a confessionally faithful contrarian, he never ceased to encourage me to pursue the truth with courage regardless of the weight of scholarly consensus or popular pressure. He also significantly deepened my fascination with Greek.

My students at Tyndale Theological Seminary in the Netherlands carefully walked through the text of Revelation with me many times over the years in our morning Greek reading group and Exegesis of Revelation class, and Mark Garavaglia, the ­president of Tyndale at the time, encouraged my research and writing alongside teaching and administrative tasks.

I am thankful for God’s direction to Gateway Seminary, where President Jeff Iorg also encourages and promotes continued academic research. Jesse Harris provided capable research assistance for parsing and definitions along with repeated proofreadings; there are lots of small details in what follows! Thanks are due to Dr. Andreas Köstenberger for guiding me in some early publishing opportunities and inviting me to contribute this volume to the series. Readers of an early draft prevented what would have been several embarrassing errors; thanks here go to Robert Yarbrough, Blake Jurgens, and Mike Naylor.

I am indebted beyond what words could express to my beloved wife, Jenny; twenty-­one years ago we never could have guessed where the road would take us, and I dare not even contemplate what life would have been like without you. God’s faithfulness is the foundation for my life, and I pray that this book brings him honor; may God’s people clearly hear what the Spirit continues to speak to the churches.

Alexander E. Stewart

General Introduction to the EGGNT Series

Studying the New Testament in the original Greek has become easier in recent years. Beginning students will work their way through an introductory grammar or other text, but then what? Grappling with difficult verb forms, rare vocabulary, and grammatical irregularities remains a formidable task for those who would advance beyond the initial stages of learning Greek to master the interpretive process. Intermediate grammars and grammatical analyses can help, but such tools, for all their value, still often operate at a distance from the Greek text itself, and analyses are often too brief to be genuinely helpful.

The Exegetical Guide to the Greek New Testament (EGGNT) aims to close the gap between the Greek text and the available tools. Each EGGNT volume aims to provide all the necessary information for understanding the Greek text and, in addition, includes homiletical helps and suggestions for further study. The EGGNT is not a full-scale commentary. Nevertheless, these guides will make interpreting a given New Testament book easier, in particular for those who are hard-pressed for time and yet want to preach or teach with accuracy and authority.

In terms of layout, each volume begins with a brief introduction to the particular book (including such matters as authorship, date, etc.), a basic outline, and a list of recommended commentaries. At the end of each volume, you will find a comprehensive exegetical outline of the book. The body of each volume is devoted to ­paragraph-by-paragraph exegesis of the text. The treatment of each paragraph includes:

The Greek text of the passage, phrase by phrase, from the fifth edition of the United Bible Societies’ Greek New Testament (UBS⁵).

A structural analysis of the passage. Typically, verbal discussion of the structure of a given unit is followed by a diagram, whereby the verbal discussion serves to explain the diagram and the diagram serves to provide a visual aid illumining the structural discussion. While there is no one correct or standard way to diagram Greek sentences, the following format is typically followed in EGGNT volumes:

The original Greek word order is maintained.

When Greek words are omitted, this is indicated by ellipses (. . .).

The diagramming method, moving from left to right, is predicated on the following. In clauses with a finite verb, the default order is typically verb-subject-object. In verbless clauses or clauses with nonfinite verb forms, the default order is typically subject-(verb)-object. Departures from these default orders are understood to be pragmatically motivated (e.g., contrast, emphasis, etc.).

Indents are used to indicate subordination (e.g., in the case of dependent clauses).

Retaining original word order, modifiers are centered above or below the word they modify (e.g., a prepositional phrase in relation to the verb).

Where a given sentence or clause spans multiple lines of text, drawn lines are used, such as where a relative pronoun introduces a relative clause (often shifting emphasis).

Underline is used to indicate imperatives; dotted underline is used to indicate repetition (the same word or cognate used multiple times in a given unit); the symbol ⁞ may be used where an article is separated from a noun or participle by interjected material (such as a prepositional phrase).

In shorter letters diagrams are normally provided for every unit; in longer letters and Revelation, ellipses may be used to show less detail in diagramming (keeping larger blocks together on the same line) in order to focus primarily on the larger structure of a given unit; in the Gospels and Acts, detailed diagrams will usually not be provided, though less detailed diagrams may be used to illustrate important or more complex structural aspects of a given passage.

A discussion of each phrase of the passage with discussion of relevant vocabulary, significant textual variants, and detailed grammatical analysis, ­including parsing. When more than one solution is given for a particular exegetical issue, the author’s own preference is indicated by an asterisk (*). When no preference is expressed, the options are judged to be evenly balanced, or it is assumed that the text is intentionally ambiguous. When a particular verb form may be parsed in more than one way, only the parsing appropriate in the specific context is supplied; but where there is difference of opinion among grammarians or commentators, both possibilities are given and the matter is discussed.

Various translations of significant words or phrases.

A list of suggested topics for further study with bibliography for each topic. An asterisk (*) in one of the For Further Study bibliographies draws attention to a discussion of the particular topic that is recommended as a useful introduction to the issues involved.

Homiletical suggestions designed to help the preacher or teacher move from the Greek text to a sermon outline that reflects careful exegesis. The first suggestion for a particular paragraph of the text is always more exegetical than homiletical and consists of an outline of the entire paragraph. These detailed outlines of each paragraph build on the general outline proposed for the whole book and, if placed side by side, form a comprehensive exegetical outline of the book. All outlines are intended to serve as a basis for sermon preparation and should be adapted to the needs of a particular audience1¹

The EGGNT volumes will serve a variety of readers. Those reading the Greek text for the first time may be content with the assistance with vocabulary, parsing, and translation. Readers with some experience in Greek may want to skip or skim these sections and focus attention on the discussions of grammar. More advanced students may choose to pursue the topics and references to technical works under For Further Study, while pastors may be more interested in the movement from grammatical ­analysis to sermon outline. Teachers may appreciate having a resource that frees them to focus on exegetical details and theological matters.

The editors are pleased to present you with the individual installments of the EGGNT. We are grateful for each of the contributors who has labored long and hard over each phrase in the Greek New Testament. Together we share the conviction that all Scripture is inspired by God and is profitable for teaching, for rebuking, for correcting, for training in righteousness (2 Tim 3:16 CSB) and echo Paul’s words to Timothy: Be diligent to present yourself to God as one approved, a worker who doesn’t need to be ashamed, correctly teaching the word of truth (2 Tim 2:15).

Andreas J. Köstenberger

Robert W. Yarbrough

Notes

¹. As a Bible publisher, B&H Publishing follows the Colorado Springs Guidelines for Translation of Gender-Related Language in Scripture. As an academic book publisher, B&H Academic asks that authors conform their manuscripts (including EGGNT exegetical outlines in English) to the B&H Academic style guide, which affirms the use of singular he/his/him as generic examples encompassing both genders. However, in their discussion of the Greek text, EGGNT authors have the freedom to analyze the text and reach their own conclusions regarding whether specific Greek words are gender specific or gender inclusive.

Abbreviations

Revelation

Introduction

Exegesis of Revelation differs in several ways from that of the Gospels or NT Epistles. The reader will quickly realize that most of the popular debates and disagreements regarding the interpretation of Revelation do not hinge on a careful analysis of the Greek text but depend instead upon much larger interpretive discussions of the relation of OT prophecy to NT fulfillment. This should not discourage careful engagement with the Greek text of Revelation, but it is important to have proper expectations of what kind of answers the Greek text can and cannot provide. Revelation, perhaps more than other NT books, requires careful attention to both intratextual connections within the text of Revelation itself and intertextual connections to the OT and other Second Temple Jewish texts. Although space constraints preclude structural outlines and require a limited discussion of many important points, this guide gives special attention to the use of the OT in Revelation alongside the more traditional discussions of grammar, syntax, lexicography, and textual criticism. The use of the OT is perhaps the most important contribution a careful study of the Greek text of Revelation can make to the broader interpretive questions that continue to divide Christians. Revelation can make a significant contribution to the spiritual health and sanctification of God’s people, if it is clearly proclaimed by faithful pastors.

Authorship

The author is clearly John (Rev 1:1, 4, 9; 22:8), and based on the external evidence it is possible, if not probable, that he was the same John who wrote the Gospel and Johannine Letters (Justin, Dialogue with Trypho 81.4; Irenaeus, Against Heresies 4.14.1; 4.20.11; 5.26.1; Clement of Alexandria, Salvation of the Rich 42; Miscellanies 6.106; Christ the Educator 2.108, 119; Hippolytus, De antichristo 36–42; Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 3.18.1). Internal evidence is inconclusive, and many interpreters do not make a firm decision on the identity of the author (for detailed discussion, see Aunea xlvii–lvi; Beale 34–36; Koester 65–69; Fanning 24–28).

Date

Most scholars today support a date during the reign of Domitian (AD 81−96), with either Nero’s (AD 54−68) or Galba’s reign (AD 68−69) also a possibility (Wilson, Problem of the Domitianic Date). Craig Koester rightly argues that many of the rele­vant factors could apply anytime during the final decades of the first century (OHR 3). Exegetes should be suspicious of interpretations that place too much weight on a specific date (for detailed discussion, see Aunea lvi–lxx; Beale 4–27; Koester 71–80).

Genre

The definition of an apocalypse proposed by John J. Collins has been widely accepted: ‘Apocalypse’ is a genre of revelatory literature with a narrative framework, in which a revelation is mediated by an otherworldly being to a human recipient, disclosing a transcendent reality which is both temporal, insofar as it envisages eschatological salvation, and spatial insofar as it involves another, supernatural world (J. J. Collins, Morphology of a Genre, 9). This was later helpfully revised to include a statement of function: intended to interpret present, earthly circumstances in light of the supernatural world and of the future, and to influence both the understanding and the behavior of the audience by means of divine authority (A. Y. Collins, Early Christian Apocalypticism, 7). This definition of the apocalyptic genre matches Revelation quite well and would suggest that Revelation is an apocalypse. Revelation, however, played an important role in the scholarly formulation of the definition, and the line between prophecy and apocalypse is notoriously blurry. Revelation is also introduced as a letter. Different scholars place different emphases on each of these three generic identifications, but most interpreters realize that Revelation is a mixed genre with similarities to other apocalypses, prophecies, and letters.

Genre identification greatly impacts interpretation. Comparison with other apocalypses leads a reader to expect Revelation to include a claim to divine authority for a revelation of heavenly realities through heavily symbolic visions in a narrative framework intended to instruct and motivate hearers. Comparison of John’s use of symbols with other Jewish and Christian apocalypses often sheds light on John’s intended meaning.

Seeing Revelation as a prophecy highlights the motivational element of the text in how it calls God’s people to repentance and perseverance through warnings of judgment and promises of salvation. It also alerts readers to the way that John explicitly sought to model his message on the Hebrew writing prophets. Many of his visions become clear when seen as parallel to or as specific interpretations of visions in prior biblical prophecy.

Revelation’s epistolary framework stresses the interpretive importance of John’s original historical and sociological context. Revelation was written by a specific individual to other specific individuals about specific issues at a specific time and specific place. This historical context matters for evaluating proposed interpretations, and greater weight should be given to interpretations that would have been intelligible and meaningful to Christians at the end of the first century.

Structure

Revelation can be outlined in various ways, but the basic transitions are generally easy to identify. The approach taken here is to identify major transitions based on the repetition of the phrase in the Spirit in 1:10; 4:2; 17:3; 21:10 with subdivisions based on transitions from one vision and topic to another. Most outlines identify simi­lar divisions, although different labels are used to describe the contents. Apart from an outline, the interpretation of the meaning of the structure of the Apocalypse is a highly debated point. There has been growing support for a forward-moving spiral with visions both overlapping and progressing (Koester 112–15) or what is more traditionally discussed as a symbolic progressive recapitulation interpretation of the seven seals, trumpets, and bowls (Beale 121–44). However, there is no consensus. Aune argues that the author "intends the visions themselves to constitute a single chronologi­cal narrative of the eschatological events that will soon begin to unfold" (Aunea xciii; italics original) while Fanning argues for chronological progression with a telescoping of the seals, trumpets, and bowls (Fanning 61–63).

Some form of progressive repetition or forward-moving spiraling seems likely based on the following examples of intratextual repetition (cf. Beale 121–41). First, there are repeated similar and apparently parallel scenes of final judgment and salvation throughout the book. Second, the conclusions of the seals (Rev 8:5), trumpets (11:19), and bowls (16:18–21) sections each contain a repetition of the same phrase from Exod 19:16–19 (sounds, lightning flashes, earthquake). Third, the repetition of three and a half years of persecution in Rev 11:2, 3; 12:6, 14; 13:5 suggests that the visions in Revelation 11, 12, and 13 do not follow one another chronologically but rather cover the same period of time. Fourth, the repetition of the phrase gather them together for war in Rev 16:14; 19:19; 20:8 could suggest that Rev 15:1–16:21; 17:1–19:10; 19:11–21:8 refer to the same time and episode and not to multiple final battles. Most interpreters acknowledge overlap in 16:14 and 19:19 with more disagreement on how to connect 20:8. Fifth, the refrain about the fall of Babylon in Rev 14:8; 16:19; 17:16; 18:2, 10, 17, 19–21; 19:2–3 does not point to separate events, but the same visionary event. Sixth, Revelation is heavily influenced by Daniel. Daniel’s five visions all evidence recapitulation—pointing to the same period of time and the same events from different perspectives and with different degrees of detail and specificity (Daniel 2; 7; 8; 9; 10–12). Isaiah and Ezekiel also contain significant instances of recapitulation in their prophecies; visionary and oracular repetition is a normal literary feature of the Hebrew writing prophets. These instances of intratextual repetition will be discussed at the appropriate points below and are explained in various ways by the different interpretive approaches.

The Greek Text

Three hundred ten Greek mss are known to exist for Revelation: seven papyri, twelve majuscules, and 291 minuscules; the second- and third-century mss are fragmentary, with the earliest mss of the entire text being Sinaiticus and Alexandrinus (Hernández, Greek Text of Revelation, 344). The TR is particularly problematic for Revelation with Rev 22:16–21 having been translated from the Latin Vulgate by Erasmus (Metzger 690). There is wide consensus that Alexandrinus and Ephraemi are the most important witnesses in relation to the Urtext although all the surviving mss preserve the Urtext to some extent.

Grammatical and Syntactical Irregularities

A solecism is a grammatical mistake involving a phrase or multiple words (syntax) while a barbarism is a mistake limited to one word (morphological irregularity). Both terms are derived from ancient Greek discussions of mistakes in syntax, grammar, and morphology. Ancient Greek and Latin authors highlight the significance of intentionality; both barbarisms and solecisms were generally allowable for intentional practical, artistic, or rhetorical purposes (Moţ 69–73). Unintentional mistakes were recognized and viewed negatively in antiquity. Possible barbarisms in Revelation include irregular spellings in case and verb endings and reduplications and the use of –ω terminations for –μι verbs. Moţ is correct to conclude that in Revelation there exist morphologically irregular words but none of them deserve the label of barbarism (Moţ 107). The possible examples fall within legitimate first-century Greek usage and reflect gradual changes taking place within the language. Hebraisms and Aramaicisms are irregularities in Greek grammar caused by influence from their respective languages (a Semitism is similar but does not explicitly designate the original language). This influence could come from literal translation, unintentional influence upon second language Greek users, or intentional attempts to mirror the Semitic language for rhetorical effect. It is evident that John was bilingual (Rev 9:11). Septuagintalisms result from following Septuagintal translation styles.

Many argue John’s irregular grammar can be attributed to Hebrew and Aramaic syntax (Ozanne, Language of the Apocalypse; Mussies, Morphology of Koine Greek; Thompson, Apocalypse and Semitic Syntax). This could be attributed to bilingualism or an intentional effort by John to sound biblical and increase the perceived authority of his message (Ozanne, Language of the Apocalypse). Beale argues that instances of irregular Greek normally signal an allusion to the OT (Beale, Solecisms in the Apocalypse). Some explain John’s irregular grammar as an intentional form of protest against Greco-Roman culture and power (Callahan, Language of the Apocalypse). It is also possible to explain most of the irregularities as acceptable examples of first-century Greek with minimal Semitic influence (Porter, Language of the Apocalypse; Moţ). Whiteley argues that as long as John communicated effectively it is not legitimate to distinguish between good and bad Greek (Whiteley, Explanation for the Anacoloutha). Osborne is likely correct when he concludes that the solecisms of Revelation are due more to Septuagintal influence but also betray some Semitic features at times; though they fall within the parameters of vulgar Greek, they more often than not highlight allusions to OT texts and critical truths (Osborne 24–25).

Solecisms or syntactic irregularities can be grouped into five categories: (1) disagreements in case, gender, and number; (2) irregularities of tense, voice, and mood; (3) irregularities with prepositional phrases; (4) omissions; and (5) additions or redundancy (Moţ 107). These will be discussed below as they occur. Some general observations can be made here. Since John elsewhere clearly demonstrates competence in using the proper case, it is likely that the use of the nom. for oblique cases can be explained via John’s idiolect as an intentional choice to place emph. on the word in the nom. (Moţ 133–34). Solecisms involving misuse of the nom. seem to be John’s way of underlining, highlighting, or putting a word in italics for emph. In addition to emph., the use of the nom. for oblique cases often signals a title, quotation, or allusion to the LXX via imitation (Wallace 62).

Verbal Aspect

Mathewson is correct that John’s use of verb tenses can be fully understood as first-­century Greek and is not irregular, confusing, or Semitically governed (Verbal Aspect 174). Fanning notes the importance of distinguishing between the different genre types that are often intermingled (Greek Tenses in John’s Apocalypse): the narrative of the reception of visions (primarily aorist), the narration of the visionary content (primarily aorists, imperfects, historical presents), description of visionary content (primarily presents, nom. cls.), and prophecy of future events (primarily future tenses). In general, this is not incompatible with Mathewson’s observation that the imperfect tense is generally used to indicate supplemental and background information, the present tense generally indicates foreground information, and the perfect tense often signals prominence (Verbal Aspect xxvi–xxvii). Verbal aspect, although a fertile ground for scholarly debate, does not decisively impact many interpretive decisions in Revelation.

Use of the Old Testament

Although Revelation never explicitly quotes the OT, allusions or more distant echoes can be heard in almost every verse. Although some of these allusions were likely unconscious, many seem dependent upon conscious intentionality. John uses allusions to present his message as in continuity with the message of the OT. The rhetorical result is that John appears to be something like a Christian OT prophet with the corresponding level of authority.

Various scholars of the past century argued that Revelation exclusively uses the LXX (Swete) or the Hebrew text (Charles), while more recent scholarship is much more open to its use of both (Allen, Scriptural Allusions). It is almost impossible to pin down the text form behind many allusions because of the multiplicity of LXX and MT textual traditions and John’s free adaptation of the allusions. The LXX is the focus of this guide because most readers can be presumed to have growing competence in Greek and will benefit from considering the allusions in the LXX, although it will be noted where it seems more likely that John is drawing from