The Counterhuman Imaginary: Earthquakes, Lapdogs, and Traveling Coinage in Eighteenth-Century Literature

INTRODUCTION

The Counterhuman Imaginary

How can the human depict the other-than-human?

Works of the human imagination have recently become an explicit proving ground for this disorienting question. In fact, powerful claims to depict, engage, express, affirm, and even save the other-than-human now dominate this realm of human thought. Such claims are especially visible in the theoretical turns reflected in literary animal studies, new materialism, and geohistorical or ecocriticism. In literary animal studies, for example, the human attempt to acknowledge, engage, liberate, or even represent the other-than-human obviously requires human agency and its enduring implication in species hierarchy. One response to the paradox entailed in this assertion of the human power to speak for the other-than-human explicitly prioritizes literature, claiming that storytelling, narrativity, or representation itself is somehow transhuman. Human storytelling is found to provide—by analogy—a subtle scenario for affirming the other-than-human, based on an imputed commonality that replaces human priority with cross-species inclusivity that transcends the human. Marion W. Copeland, in her summary of the state of the field of literary animal studies for 2012, asserts that storytelling—by definition—connects the human and the animal because other-than-human animals have … language and imagination that allow them … to tell stories consciously based on their life experience. In her view, then, it is therefore the responsibility of human readers and authors to use literature as a way to enter the world of the animals whose welfare and survival we profess, by understanding the nonhuman, talking fictional character … [as] a reflection of a reality and hence a form of literary realism.¹

This strategy is central as well to Tobias Menely’s conceptualization of voice in The Animal Claim. Voice functions in Menely’s argument as an analogy that—in equating the represented animal voice with the human voice and then with the political voice and then with the metaphorical voice of the assertion of rights—ultimately continues to signify beyond the species-specificity of the human so as to support an inclusive community of being:

My guiding premise in this study is that human beings are always in communication with other animals, that the sociolinguistic domain … is only a special case in a world in which the vicissitudes of the sign provide a common condition of all living beings.

…

One of the key arguments of this book is that sensibility was concerned precisely with the way in which animal voice is remediated, translated and transformed even as it continues to signify in poetic language or in public and parliamentary debate. Sensibility offers a richly textured account of what it means to represent other animals, of how nonlinguistic injunction and address came to be refracted in the uniquely human labor of speaking for others. As a principle of advocacy, sensibility provides an important precedent for the ongoing work of animal activists and the emergence of institutions dedicated to animal protection.²

In a corollary way, Heather Keenleyside in Animals and Other People copes with the problem of human authority through an argument from literary form, seeking to demonstrate that certain formal and rhetorical structures, themselves, enable human apprehension of and thus engagement with actual animals:

I argue that the patently figurative animals in eighteenth-century literature have much to contribute to cultural and intellectual debates that are still with us—about the specificity of animals and the nature of species, about persons and their relationship to other sorts of creatures, and about what life is, which lives count, and how we might live together. They do this by making a point that eighteenth-century writers understood better than we: rhetorical conventions make real-world claims.³

Comparably, recent reflections on the representation of environmental and geological realms in literature reach into the human representation of nature to discover an environmentalist critique that—ethically and politically—arises from or through human creativity and at the same time seeks to extend itself toward an experience of the other-than-human realm of the environment. In The Usufructuary Ethos: Power, Politics, and Environment in the Long Eighteenth Century, Erin Drew tells the story of the concept of intimacy and mutuality between humans and nature—the usufructory notion of just and legitimate uses of land and power. Drew demonstrates that in the eighteenth century this ethical and political sensibility was an influential and visible counter to Enlightenment notions of the unlimited and even inevitable human authority or dominance over the natural world.⁴ In exploring the literary manifestations of this counternarrative, Drew makes a strong claim for the particular—even unique—role of literature in laying bare the core human experiences of environmental transformation:

Poetry is unique in its capacity to contain the ideological tension of simultaneously held yet incompatible beliefs, and thereby to lay bare in its full complexity the experience of living through profound cultural and material transformations while clinging to continuity. By tracing the usufructuary ethos’s rise and fall through poetry, this book aims to create a better understanding not only of the environmental thought of the eighteenth century itself but of the ways a culture in the midst of environmental transformation attempts imaginatively to reckon with itself.⁵

This exercise of bringing human being into a contact of direct reckoning with its place in the environmental and geological realms characterizes the strong reading of literary culture offered by recent ecocriticism.

But the directness of this reckoning also ultimately returns to the meta-paradox generated by the presence of human agency, in this context played out as biopolitics. Leerom Medovoi offers an account of the determining status of biopolitics for the logic of ecocriticism in his essay The Biopolitical Unconscious. Medovoi describes the founding … idealistic binary of most ecocriticism, namely that between ‘man’ and ‘nature,’ ‘humanity’ and the ‘environment,’ or the ‘anthropocentric’ and the ‘ecocentric’ perspective. This binary then generates the distinguishing claim of ecocriticism, that

if ecocriticism can inculcate an appreciation for the intrinsic value of the environment, its transformation of people’s hearts and minds promises to liberate nature from our degradation of it. The canonization of nature writing by ecocriticism directly reflects this search for intellectual and artistic traditions within which this intrinsic value of nature is recognized and honored.… [But] the history of biopolitics teaches us that ecocriticism’s binary opposition of man and environment (aligned with bad anthropocentric and good biocentric thinking respectively) is utterly ahistorical.… This system of biopolitics remains a human creation.⁶

Access to the experience of the other-than-human through literary critique, for Medovoi, then, must instead involve a study of "the mode of production at the level of its biopolitical self-regulation and of the text as the ideology of literary form itself in its unconscious relationship to transitions between modes of production."⁷ Medovoi’s position acknowledges and incorporates conceptually the fundamental paradox inherent in claims for the direct apprehension, reckoning, or advocacy of the other-than-human through the human imagination. His methodology, as we shall see, is corollary to the theorizations of cosmological criticism or geohistorical contradiction proposed by Edna Duffy in her cosmological account of Fredric Jameson’s Political Unconscious and by Tobias Menely in his Climate and the Making of Worlds—both of which we will engage in a summary concession to the unimaginable just beyond of the counterhuman imaginary, in the coda to this study.⁸

New materialist theory also encounters this pervasive meta-paradox of the asserted contact between the human and the other-than-human—in this context, the terms of the paradox are generated by an assumed connection between the idea of the intrinsic vitality of matter per se and the activity of the human imagination in its representation of that vitality and of the material world. And again, in the new materialist context, the account of this leveling alignment of the human with the material thing is presented as a distinctive or even unique feature of literature—inherent in the activity of the human imagination. This symptomatic and tempting claim—that human creativity through its own vitality offers special access to the vitality of matter—is expressed from a range of perspectives. Jane Bennett in Vibrant Matter uses the approach to literature as the explicit methodological model for the engagement with the vibrant nature of matter, suggesting that literature entails or inculcates a special attentiveness to things:

What method could possibly be appropriate for the task of speaking a word for vibrant matter? How to describe without thereby erasing the independence of things? How to acknowledge the obscure but ubiquitous intensity of impersonal affect? … What is … needed is a cultivated, patient, sensory attentiveness to nonhuman forces operating outside and inside the human body. I have tried to learn how to induce an attentiveness to things … from Thoreau, Franz Kafka, and Whitman.⁹

The same tactic is implied in Richard Grusin’s The Nonhuman Turn; the opening assertion of this volume’s introduction describes the originary value of the canonical works of the American literary tradition in modeling the special attention to the other-than-human that we are now called on to acknowledge. In Grusin’s words, in American literature … we can trace this concern [with nonhumans] back at least to Emerson, Thoreau, Melville, Dickinson, and Whitman.¹⁰

Suggestions as to how this unique literary access to the other-than-human might be defined or exercised are symptomatically complex for new materialist critique. Rick Dolphijn and Iris van der Tuin in their introduction to New Materialism: Interviews and Cartographies describe a kind of entanglement of matter and meaning distinctive to the experience of art:

New materialism allows for the study of the [material and discursive dimensions of art] in their entanglement: the experience of a piece of art is made up of matter and meaning. The material dimension creates and gives form to the discursive, and vice versa. Similar to what happens with the artwork, new materialism sets itself to rewriting events that are usually only of interest to natural scientists. Here it becomes apparent that a new materialist take on nature will be shown to be transposable to the study of culture and vice versa, notwithstanding the fact that these transpositions are not unilinear.¹¹

And for Diana Coole and Samantha Frost, in the introductory overview of the field for their volume New Materialisms: Ontology, Agency, and Politics, the capacity for symbolism—which, they argue, has been too narrowly attributed to the human—transcends species and participates in a spectrum whose scope itself entails generativity and vitality:

The new materialism does prompt a way of reconsidering [capacities for symbolism or reflexivity] as diffuse, chance products of a self-generative nature from which they never entirely emerge. It further invites acknowledgment that these capacities are manifest in varying degrees across different species of being, that they are indelibly material in their provenance, that human intelligence emerges within a spectrum of vital materializations.¹²

Symbolism serves for Coole and Frost the same conceptual purpose that we have seen human/animal storytelling serve for Copeland or voice for Menely: offering an imputed commonality as the basis for the claim for human access to the other-than-human. But Coole and Frost seek to complicate the conceptualization of that access through their use of the notion of spectrum—a direct corollary to Dolphijn and van der Tuin’s entanglement—both of which evoke an ongoing elusive interrelationality and which indicate the challenge of describing coherently, much less defining, the actual product of human creativity as it claims to access the realm of matter.

But, fundamentally, any asserted human access to the other-than-human is confounded by the indisputable intervention of the human in that process. The notion of the counterhuman imaginary proposed in this book respects this paradox by incorporating it conceptually—by situating the problem of the human representation of the other-than-human within the concept of the cultural imaginary as a way of intentionally unsettling human authority or veracity in advance of any explication or any experience of the other-than-human within human discourse. The first step must be an acknowledgment of human-centered assumptions. In thus systematically circumscribing human access to authenticity or authority regarding the realms beyond those of human being, the concept of the counterhuman imaginary in this study calls on the theory of the cultural imaginary as expressed in the historical materialist framework developed by Louis Althusser and Cornelius Castoriadis.

The Althusserian notion of ideology offers an account of the human subject that systematically repudiates straightforward or direct contact between the human and the realms beyond the human—social, political, or natural. Though the human subject might assume for itself a relationship with those realms, that relationship, Althusser argues, is fundamentally shaped by the processes of ideological interpellation by which the human subject is called by and reflects, absorbs, and embraces the ever-present social and political and institutional structures within which they are embedded.¹³ Post-Marxist studies of ideology have variously sought to move from Althusser’s focus on social and political doctrines or systems to an attention to cultural, institutional, psychic, and discursive structures. John B. Thompson in Studies in the Theory of Ideology describes the scope of these contributions that move Althusserian theory toward the cultural and psychic. He begins with an appraisal of the important contribution of Cornelius Castoriadis to the key question of the imaginary, which "is to be conceived … as the creative core of the social-historical and psychic worlds, … the element which creates ex nihilo the figures and forms that render ‘this world’ and ‘what is’ possible."¹⁴ Castoriadis in his Imaginary Institution of Society sees the cultural imaginary as a creation that

overdetermines the choice and the connections of symbolic networks, which is the creation of each historical period, its singular manner of living, of seeing and of conducting its own existence, its world, and its relations with this world.…

[This] originary structuring component, this central signifying-signified, the source of that which presents itself in every instance as an indisputable and undisputed meaning, the basis for articulating what does matter and what does not, the origin of the surplus of being of the objects of practical, affective and intellectual investment, whether individual or collective—is nothing other than the imaginary of the society.¹⁵

That central signifying-signified—the precondition of any human representation—is immediately relevant to the meta-paradox entailed in the human claim to access to the other-than-human. The notion of the cultural imaginary systematically proscribes ultimate or unconditional human authority and frames any human account of ‘this world’ and ‘what is’ possible as "nothing other than the imaginary of the society."¹⁶

The counterhuman imaginary of this study directly acknowledges the imaginary nature of claims of human representation and human authority, in order to discover the counterhuman disruptions that are generated out of or alongside those claims through the self-efficacy of the other-than-human. That self-efficacy is the subject of the following chapters, to the extent that it can be interpolated alongside or in a contrapuntal relation to the human cultural imaginary. In other words, the conceptual scenario of