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    Revelation (Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament)
    Revelation (Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament)
    Revelation (Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament)
    Ebook2,448 pages32 hours

    Revelation (Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament)

    By Thomas R. Schreiner

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    About this ebook

    Find academic sophistication, pastoral sensitivity, and accessibility in the award-winning BECNT series

    2024 Christian Book Award® Winner (Bible Reference Works)

    In this addition to the award-winning BECNT series, leading evangelical biblical scholar Thomas Schreiner offers a substantive commentary on Revelation.

    Schreiner's BECNT volume on Romans has been highly successful, with nearly 40,000 copies sold. In this volume, Schreiner presents well-informed evangelical scholarship on the book of Revelation. He leads readers through the text of Revelation to help them better understand the meaning and relevance of this biblical book.

    As with all BECNT volumes, this informative, balanced commentary features:

    ● Detailed interaction with the Greek text
    ● Extensive research
    ● Chapter-by-chapter exegesis
    ● A blend of scholarly depth and readability
    ● An acclaimed, user-friendly design

    The BECNT series aims for academic sophistication with pastoral sensitivity and accessibility, making it a useful tool for pastors, church leaders, students, and teachers.
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherBaker Publishing Group
    Release dateOct 17, 2023
    ISBN9781493441730
    Revelation (Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament)
    Author

    Thomas R. Schreiner

    Thomas R. Schreiner (PhD, Fuller Theological Seminary) is James Buchanan Harrison Professor of New Testament and associate dean of Scripture and interpretation at The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary in Louisville, Kentucky. The author of numerous books, he is the preaching pastor of Clifton Baptist Church in Louisville, Kentucky.

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      Revelation (Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament) - Thomas R. Schreiner

      Front Cover

      "Tom Schreiner masterfully weds exegesis, history, and theology with robust scholarship and judicious balance. Aside from his exegetical precision and fresh interpretive insights, Schreiner’s near-encyclopedic command of the scholarship on Revelation makes this commentary an invaluable resource for all serious study. Instead of merely rehashing what others have said, he faithfully engages the text of Revelation with expert understanding, sensibility, and creativity. Schreiner’s Revelation now joins the ranks of my go-to commentaries along with Aune, Beale, and Koester."

      —Alan S. Bandy, New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary

      Tom Schreiner has produced an outstanding commentary on Revelation. He treats any number of perplexing issues in a remarkably clear way, firm in his convictions but characteristically charitable to those with whom he disagrees. Scholars will appreciate his thorough analysis of textual and historical issues, while pastors will benefit from his clarity and his thoughtful application of the text. Highly recommended.

      —Sean M. McDonough, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary

      This volume represents the mature work of one of this generation’s finest New Testament scholars. Tom Schreiner provides readers with a rare combination of biblical faithfulness, serious exegesis, accessible style, and pastoral warmth in a first-rate exposition of the book of Revelation. This magnificent commentary will be a treasured resource for preachers, teachers, and students of the Scriptures for years to come. Highly recommended!

      —Brian J. Tabb, Bethlehem College and Seminary

      Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament

      ROBERT W. YARBROUGH and JOSHUA W. JIPP, EDITORS

      Volumes now available:

      Matthew   David L. Turner

      Mark   Robert H. Stein

      Luke   Darrell L. Bock

      Acts   Darrell L. Bock

      Romans, 2nd ed.   Thomas R. Schreiner

      1 Corinthians   David E. Garland

      2 Corinthians   George H. Guthrie

      Galatians   Douglas J. Moo

      Ephesians   Frank Thielman

      Philippians, 2nd ed.   Moisés Silva

      Colossians and Philemon   G. K. Beale

      1–2 Thessalonians   Jeffrey A. D. Weima

      James   Dan G. McCartney

      1 Peter, 2nd ed.   Karen H. Jobes

      1–3 John   Robert W. Yarbrough

      Jude and 2 Peter   Gene L. Green

      Revelation   Thomas R. Schreiner

      Thomas R. Schreiner (PhD, Fuller Theological Seminary) is the James Buchanan Harrison Professor of New Testament Interpretation and professor of biblical theology at The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary in Louisville, Kentucky. He is the author of The Law and Its Fulfillment; Paul, Apostle of God’s Glory in Christ; New Testament Theology; The King in His Beauty; and commentaries on Luke, Romans, 1 Corinthians, Galatians, Hebrews, and 1–2 Peter and Jude.

      Title Page

      © 2023 by Thomas R. Schreiner

      Published by Baker Academic

      a division of Baker Publishing Group

      Grand Rapids, Michigan

      BakerAcademic.com

      Ebook edition created 2023

      Ebook corrections 10.09.2024

      All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—for example, electronic, photocopy, recording—without the prior written permission of the publisher. The only exception is brief quotations in printed reviews.

      Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is on file at the Library of Congress, Washington, DC.

      ISBN 978-1-4934-4173-0

      Unless otherwise indicated, all Scripture quotations are the author’s translation.

      Scripture quotations labeled CSB have been taken from the Christian Standard Bible®, copyright © 2017 by Holman Bible Publishers. Used by permission. Christian Standard Bible® and CSB® are federally registered trademarks of Holman Bible Publishers.

      Scripture quotations labeled ESV are from The Holy Bible, English Standard Version® (ESV®), copyright © 2001 by Crossway, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers. Used by permission. All rights reserved. ESV Text Edition: 2016

      Scripture quotations labeled KJV are from the King James Version of the Bible.

      Scripture quotations labeled NIV are from THE HOLY BIBLE, NEW INTERNATIONAL VERSION®, NIV® Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984, 2011 by Biblica, Inc.® Used by permission. All rights reserved worldwide.

      Scripture quotations labeled NRSV are from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copyright © 1989 National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

      Baker Publishing Group publications use paper produced from sustainable forestry practices and postconsumer waste whenever possible.

      To my grandchildren:

      Sam, Iris, Willa, Lydia, Kesid, Julianna, Canaan, Maria, Thomas, Isabella, and James for all the joy they bring

      Contents

      Cover

      Endorsements

      Series Page

      Title Page

      Copyright Page

      Dedication

      Series Preface

      Author’s Preface

      Abbreviations

      Transliteration

      Map

      Introduction to Revelation

      I. Introduction and Seven Letters (1:1–3:22)

      A. Prologue (1:1–8)

      B. Vision of the Son of Man (1:9–20)

      C. Letters to the Seven Churches (2:1–3:22)

      II. Visions in the Throne Room (4:1–5:14)

      A. God as the Holy Creator (4:1–11)

      B. The Lamb as the Slaughtered and Risen Redeemer (5:1–14)

      III. The Seven Seals (6:1–8:5)

      A. The First Six Seals (6:1–17)

      B. Interlude (7:1–17)

      C. The Seventh Seal and the Seven Trumpets (8:1–5)

      IV. The Seven Trumpets (8:6–11:19)

      A. The First Four Trumpets: Cosmic Destruction (8:6–13)

      B. Fifth Trumpet: Demonic Locust Plague (9:1–12)

      C. Sixth Trumpet: Demonic Cavalry (9:13–21)

      D. Interlude (10:1–11:14)

      E. The Seventh Trumpet: Kingdom Come! (11:15–19)

      V. Signs in Heaven and on Earth (12:1–15:4)

      A. The Woman and the Dragon (12:1–17)

      B. The Beast from the Sea (12:18–13:10)

      Excursus: The Beast and the Antichrist

      C. The Beast from the Land (13:11–18)

      D. The 144,000 on Mount Zion (14:1–5)

      E. Declarations from Three Angels (14:6–13)

      F. Two Harvests (14:14–20)

      G. Praise of the Conquerors (15:1–4)

      VI. The Seven Bowls from the Sanctuary (15:5–16:21)

      A. The Seven Plagues from God’s Temple (15:5–8)

      B. The Seven Bowls (16:1–21)

      VII. The Judgment of Babylon and the Wedding of the Bride (17:1–19:10)

      A. The Harlot Babylon Destroyed (17:1–18)

      Excursus: Babylon in the History of Interpretation

      B. The Declaration of Two Angels (18:1–8)

      C. Lamentation over Babylon’s Fall (18:9–19)

      D. Rejoicing over Babylon’s Fall (18:20–19:5)

      E. Rejoicing over the Marriage of the Lamb (19:6–10)

      VIII. The Triumph of God in Christ (19:11–20:15)

      A. Defeat of the Beast, the False Prophet, and Their Adherents (19:11–21)

      B. Reigning with Jesus a Thousand Years (20:1–6)

      Excursus: The Millennium

      C. The Last Battle (20:7–10)

      D. The Last Judgment (20:11–15)

      IX. The New Heavens and New Earth (21:1–22:5)

      A. Making All Things New (21:1–8)

      B. The Bride and the Holy City (21:9–22:5)

      X. Epilogue (22:6–21)

      Bibliography

      Index of Subjects

      Index of Authors

      Index of Greek Words

      Index of Scripture and Other Ancient Writings

      Back Cover

      Series Preface

      The chief concern of the Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament (BECNT) is to provide, within the framework of informed evangelical thought, commentaries that blend scholarly depth with readability, exegetical detail with sensitivity to the whole, and attention to critical problems with theological awareness. We hope thereby to attract the interest of a fairly wide audience, from the scholar who is looking for a thoughtful and balanced examination of the text to the motivated lay Christian who craves a solid but accessible exposition.

      Nevertheless, a major purpose is to address the needs of pastors and others involved in the preaching and exposition of the Scriptures as the uniquely inspired Word of God. This consideration directly affects the parameters of the series. For example, serious biblical expositors cannot afford to depend on a superficial treatment that avoids the difficult questions, but neither are they interested in encyclopedic commentaries that seek to cover every conceivable issue that could be raised. Our aim, therefore, is to focus on those problems that have the most direct bearing on the meaning of the text (although selected technical details are treated in the Additional Notes) or that pose unavoidable challenges for interpretation.

      Similarly, a special effort is made to avoid treating exegetical questions for their own sake, that is, in relative isolation from the thrust of the argument as a whole. This effort may involve (at the discretion of the individual contributors) abandoning the verse-by-verse approach in favor of an exposition that focuses on the paragraph as the main unit of thought. In all cases, however, the commentaries will stress the development of the argument and explicitly relate each passage to what precedes and follows it so as to identify its function in the flow of discourse as clearly as possible.

      We believe, moreover, that a responsible exegetical commentary must take into account the latest scholarly research, regardless of its source. The contributors to this series, accordingly, attempt to avoid two pitfalls. On the one hand, they do not consider traditional opinions to be sacrosanct, and they are committed to doing justice to the biblical text in the light of compelling evidence regardless of whether it supports such opinions. On the other hand, they will not quickly abandon a long-standing view, if there is persuasive evidence in its favor, for the sake of theories perhaps currently more in vogue. Contributing to this balance is contributors’ affirmation of the trustworthiness and essential unity of Scripture. They also consider that the historic formulations of Christian doctrine, such as the ecumenical creeds and many of the documents originating in the sixteenth-century Reformation and its aftermath, arose from a legitimate reading of Scripture, thus providing a valuable framework for its subsequent interpretation. While respect for formulations of classic consensual Christianity (Thomas Oden) may risk an imposition of tradition on the text, we deny that it must necessarily do so or that rejection of any hermeneutic that comports with Christian tradition automatically results in more valid exegetical insights and exposition.

      In other words, we do not consider exegetically justifiable theological convictions to be a hindrance to biblical interpretation. On the contrary, an exegete who hopes to understand the apostle Paul in a theological vacuum might just as easily try to interpret Aristotle without regard for the philosophical framework of his whole work or without having recourse to those subsequent philosophical categories that make possible a meaningful contextualization of his thought. At the same time, it bears mention that the contributors to the present series come from a variety of theological traditions and that they represent a considerable span of hermeneutical outlooks and ecclesial orientations. In the end, what matters is representing the original text, in light of all of the relevant data and considerations that can and ought to be brought to bear, accurately, clearly, and meaningfully to the contemporary reader.

      Shading has been used to assist the reader in locating salient sections of the treatment of each passage. This occurs particularly in introductory comments and concluding summaries. Textual variants in the Greek text are signaled in the author’s translation by means of half-brackets around the relevant word or phrase (e.g., ⌜Gerasenes⌝), thereby alerting the reader to turn to the Additional Notes at the end of each exegetical unit for a discussion of the textual problem. The documentation uses the author-date method, in which the basic reference consists of author’s surname + year + page number(s): Fitzmyer 1992: 58. The only exceptions to this system are well-known reference works (e.g., BDAG, LSJ, TDNT). Full publication data and a complete set of indexes can be found at the end of the volume.

      Robert W. Yarbrough

      Joshua W. Jipp

      Author’s Preface

      Writing a commentary on Revelation is more daunting than I realized when I blithely volunteered the idea to Jim Kinney of Baker Academic while enjoying lunch with him several years ago. The amount written on the book is staggering and unending. Let me say a word of appreciation for the very fine commentary by Osborne (2002) in the Baker series, which I often draw upon in this work. My commentary replaces his in the series, but I hope Osborne’s work will continue to be read and consulted for years to come. I have not attempted to write the kind of in-depth commentary that we find in Aune (1997, 1998a, 1998b), Beale (1999), and Koester (2014). My hope is that my commentary is substantial enough for serious exegesis but short enough for the busy pastor to read. I have tried to write in an accessible style for readers so that they can grasp what is being said in scholarship. After nearly two millennia, it is difficult to say that one offers anything truly new. Many brilliant commentators and theologians have preceded us, and thus the notion that we have truly said anything novel is probably a pretension, especially for those who are orthodox. It seems to me, however, that the recapitulatory and symbolic nature of Revelation hasn’t always been consistently demonstrated; in this commentary I attempt to show that John doesn’t write a linear account. The recapitulatory character of Revelation plays a role in particular ways in my reading of the sixth seal (6:12–17), the life of those coming out of the great tribulation (7:15–17), the relationship between the seals and trumpets, the 144,000 in 14:1–5, the climactic nature of the seven bowls, the judgment on Babylon in chapters 17–18, and so on. The sixth seal, the seventh trumpet, the seven bowls, the judgment of Babylon, and Jesus’s return on the white horse (19:11–21) are different ways of describing the last judgment. John shakes the kaleidoscope and gives us different pictures of the same reality. In the commentary I also defend a minority position that the apostle John is the author, and at various points I try to show how the cross-fertilization between the Apocalypse and the Gospel of John (and occasionally 1–3 John) proves to be illuminating and suggestive. The connections aren’t clear enough to prove common authorship, but in my judgment they fit with the notion that we have the same author. When it comes to the millennium, I side with a minority opinion that doesn’t fit with postmillennialism, amillennialism, or historic premillennialism. I side with a view that has been called new-creation millennialism. I don’t think for a second that I have resolved this matter or provided a final answer! The debate will continue until the end arrives. I also hope that the pastoral and pragmatic purpose of the book is clear in the reading of the commentary. John encourages the readers to persevere amid persecution by refusing to capitulate to the blandishments of the devil, the beasts, and Babylon. He regularly reminds readers of the final reward that awaits the faithful.

      The sheer amount of material on Revelation has helped to sharpen the nature of the commentary. Trying to cover and to document all that has been written would shift the commentary from an exposition to a survey of research. My goal was to read representatively so that I had a good sense of what was going on in Revelation scholarship, but I don’t claim to cover all the dimensions of scholarship that swirl around this fascinating book. For instance, source-critical theories aren’t described or analyzed here. Such an approach was featured in the great two-volume commentary by R. H. Charles (1920a; 1920b). We still see such in the work of Aune (1997; 1998a; 1998b; cf. Moloney 2020: 3), but the trend is against such endeavors (e.g., Paul 2015). Morton (2014: 9), summarizing the work of source criticism on Revelation, says, This method, however, has not been deemed a success. In any case, my goal is to explain the finished product as it has come down to us.1

      Scholars now recognize the advantage of reading the text itself and tracing the narrative in the text instead of focusing on the world behind the text (cf. Barr 2012; Resseguie 1998; W. Campbell 2012; Ureña 2019).2

      The fundamental focus in this work is on unfolding the meaning of the text. The interpretation proposed takes place in conversation with other scholars and various interpretive stances. I tried to get a feeling of what various people said on Revelation, and thus I consulted the earliest commentaries written on Revelation, historical-critical commentaries, dispensational readings, feminist and nonviolent takes on the book, postmillennial preterists, and more. I have tried to include representative voices from the past (reception history) and from the present (e.g., feminist interpreters). We can learn from them all, but I also don’t hesitate to disagree where I think they aren’t convincing. In any case, I am not claiming that I have included all the views that jangle for attention; instead, I include matters that I found interesting or particularly relevant for interpreting the book.

      The meaning and relevance of Revelation for today’s world surfaces in the commentary, and my own standpoint as an evangelical becomes obvious. We all recognize today that no one writes from a neutral standpoint, yet I have tried to be fair and charitable to those who come from different confessional and ideological standpoints. And I am the first to say that I have often learned the most from those who see things differently from me. The Additional Notes are devoted to grammatical matters and text-critical variants. I don’t discuss all the text-critical variants in the book, and many are treated briefly. One encouraging result of doing text-critical work is that variant readings, even if accepted, rarely change the meaning of the text in substantial ways.

      In my translation my goal isn’t always to render the Greek precisely but to convey the meaning of the text. For instance, I often turn third singulars into plurals when I think the plurals render accurately what the text means. Or I may shift the pronouns to capture the meaning for the present time in which we live. In other words, I don’t invariably render the text in a literal fashion. I should also say at the outset that all citations of the Pseudepigrapha come from Charlesworth (1983; 1985) unless stated otherwise. Similarly, Greco-Roman sources are taken from the Loeb Classical Library. The Greek text of the Old Testament is from the Septuagint (LXX).

      I am thankful to Jim Kinney of Baker Academic for inviting me to contribute this book to the series. My longtime friend of many years, Robert Yarbrough, one of the general editors, read the commentary and gave important feedback that improved the finished product. Similarly, Joshua Jipp read the commentary carefully, and I profited from his notes and suggestions as well. Juan Hernández, Michael Kruger, and John Meade read part of what I wrote and gave me valuable feedback, and I am grateful for their keen observations and wise corrections. I am very grateful to Tim West for his careful editorial work on the manuscript, and his attention to detail was simply outstanding. He helpfully answered a number of my queries along the way. Similarly, Dave Garber, the copyeditor, made countless suggestions and read the entire manuscript with intense care, for which I am very thankful. Along the same lines, Robert Banning read the final draft, catching infelicities and other errors. My colleague Rob Plummer assigned my commentary in a doctoral class on Revelation. I am especially grateful to Elizabeth Mehlman and Aaron Rosenau, who proofed the document with amazing care and insight, catching many minor errors and infelicities. Two of my doctoral students, Dalton Bowser and Richard Blaylock, tracked down scholarly sources for me, checked out scores and scores of books from the library, delivered them to my office, and returned them to the library. They also sent me numerous articles so that I didn’t need to chase them down myself. My thanks to both of them for assisting me in such a practical way. I dedicate this book to my eleven grandchildren: Sam, Iris, Willa, Lydia, Kesid, Julianna, Canaan, Maria, Thomas, Isabella, and James. As they grow older, may the prayer of their hearts be Come, Lord Jesus.

      1

      . For a short history of the attempt to locate sources, see Wainwright 1993: 118–22. None of the reconstructions have proved to be persuasive (C. Koester 2014: 62; Osborne 2002: 27–29). A recent attempt to see redactional layers is in the work of Aune (1997: cv–cxxxiv), who surveys scholarship on the entire question and then gives his own theory about how the work was edited. Such complex explanations have not persuaded others (see esp. A. Collins 1998b) and are too subjective to be given credence (Morton 2014: 38–40; Karrer 2017: 82–85). A. Collins (1984a: 72) says about source criticism, Today that theory has been largely discredited because of the overall consistency of language and style in the book. An alternative view is that the repetition is purposeful, that it is part of the author’s careful literary design.

      2

      . W. Campbell (2012: 43) points out that one of the weaknesses of Resseguie’s (1998) approach is that he fails to see recapitulation. Campbell rightly observes that the account is both linear and recapitulatory. We don’t have to choose one and exclude the other.

      Abbreviations

      Bibliographic and General

      Hebrew Bible

      Greek Testament

      Other Jewish and Christian Writings

      Josephus

      Ant.  Jewish Antiquities

      J.W.  The Jewish War

      Philo

      Deus Quod Deus sit immutabilis (That God Is Unchangeable)

      Dreams On Dreams

      Flight On Flight and Finding

      Legat.  Legatio ad Gaium (Embassy to Gaius)

      Mos.  On the Life of Moses

      Names On the Change of Names

      Sacr.  On the Sacrifices of Cain and Abel

      Rabbinic Tractates

      m. Avod. Zar.  Mishnah tractate Avodah Zarah

      m. Tehar.  Mishnah tractate Teharot

      Qumran/Dead Sea Scrolls

      1QH  Thanksgiving Hymns (Hodayot)

      1QM  War Scroll (Milḥamah)

      1QpHab  Pesher Habakkuk

      1QS  Rule of the Community

      1QSa  Rule of the Congregation (appendix a to 1QS)

      4Q161  Isaiah Peshera

      4Q174  Florilegium

      4Q175  Testimonia

      4Q252  Commentary on Genesis A

      4Q286  Blessingsa

      11Q19  Temple Scroll

      CD  Damascus Document

      Inscription

      I. Philadelphia inscription at Philadelphia, in the Roman province of Asia

      Classical Writers

      Aen.  Vergil (Virgil), Aeneid

      Agr.  Tacitus, Agricola

      Ann.  Tacitus, Annals

      Att.  Cicero, Letters to Atticus

      Carm.  Horace, Carmina (Odes)

      Deipn.  Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae (The Dinner Sophists)

      Descr.  Pausanias, Description of Greece

      Diatr.  Epictetus, Diatribes (Dissertations)

      Dom.  Suetonius, Domitian

      Ecl.  Vergil, Eclogues

      Ep.  Pliny the Younger, Epistles

      Ep.  Seneca (the Younger), Moral Epistles

      Epigr.  Martial, Epigrams

      Eum.  Aeschylus, Eumenides

      Geogr.  Strabo, Geography

      Hist.  Cassius Dio, Roman History

      Hist.  Herodotus, Histories

      Hist.  Polybius, Histories

      Hist.  Tacitus, Histories

      Inst.  Quintilian, Institutes of Oratory

      Jul.  Suetonius, Divus Julius (Divine Julius [Caesar])

      Metam.  Apuleius, Metamorphoses (The Golden Ass)

      Metam.  Ovid, Metamorphoses

      Mor.  Plutarch, Moralia (Table Talk)

      Mur.  Cicero, For Murena

      Nat.  Pliny the Elder, Natural History

      Nat. d.  Cicero, De natura deorum (On the Nature of the Gods)

      Nero Suetonius, Nero

      Oct.  Minucius Felix, Octavius

      Oneir.  Artemidorus Daldianus, Oneirocritica (The Interpretation of Dreams)

      Or.  Aelius Aristides, Oration(s)

      Or.  Dio Chrysostom, Oration(s) (Discourses)

      Pan.  Pliny the Younger, Panegyricus

      Rab.  Perd.  Cicero, Pro Rabirio Perduellionis Reo

      Rhod.  Dio Chrysostom, Rhodiaca (Oration 31) (To the People of Rhodes)

      Sat.  Horace, Satires

      Sat.  Juvenal, Satires

      Theog.  Hesiod, Theogony

      Vesp.  Suetonius, Vespasian

      Vit.  Apoll.  Philostratus, Vita Apollonii (Life of Apollonius)

      Transliteration

      Hebrew

      Notes on the Transliteration of Hebrew

      Accents are not shown in transliteration.

      Silent šǝwāʾ is not indicated in transliteration.

      The spirant forms ב ג ד כ פ ת are usually not specially indicated in transliteration.

      Dāgēš forte is indicated by doubling the consonant. Euphonic dāgēš and dāgēš lene are not indicated in transliteration.

      Maqqēp is represented by a hyphen.

      Greek

      Notes on the Transliteration of Greek

      Accents, lenis (smooth breathing), and iota subscript are not shown in transliteration.

      The transliteration of asper (rough breathing) precedes a vowel or diphthong (e.g., ἁ = ha; αἱ = hai) and follows ρ (i.e., ῥ = rh).

      Gamma is transliterated n only when it precedes γ, κ, ξ, or χ.

      Upsilon is transliterated u only when it is part of a diphthong (i.e., αυ, ευ, ου, υι).

      map of the Roman Empire in the First Century AD

      Introduction to Revelation

      Perspectives on Revelation

      G. K. Chesterton (1909: 29) humorously said about Revelation, And though St. John the Evangelist saw many strange monsters in his vision, he saw no creature so wild as one of his own commentators. I suppose I am adding to the wildness in writing this book. Augustine (1996: 135) identifies the challenge of interpreting the book, while also expressing its message with his usual acumen:

      And in the book entitled the Apocalypse there are, to be sure, many obscure sayings, to exercise the mind of the reader; and there are a few so clear enough to throw light on the meaning of others, even at the cost of effort. This is chiefly because the writer repeats the same things in such different ways as to seem to be dealing with different matters, whereas he is found on investigation to be dealing with these same matters in different ways. But in the words, He shall wipe away all tears from their eyes, and there shall be no more death, neither sorrow nor crying, nor shall there be any pain, he is so clearly speaking of the world to come and of immortality and of the everlasting life of the saints (for only then and only there shall these things be non-existent), that if we think these expressions obscure we ought not to seek clarity or read it anywhere in the sacred Scriptures.

      Augustine (1996: 135) also reflects on why some texts in the Scriptures are difficult to understand:

      Those who read them [the Scriptures] in a light-minded spirit are liable to be misled by innumerable obscurities and ambiguities, and to mistake the meaning entirely, while in some places they cannot even guess at a wrong meaning, so dense and dark is the fog that some passages are wrapped in. This is all due, I have no doubt at all, to divine providence, in order to break in pride with hard labor, and to save the intelligence from boredom since it readily forms a low opinion of things that are too easy to work out.

      G. B. Caird’s (1966: 13) reflection on the book of Revelation fits with my experience when I first read the book of Revelation about fifty years ago. It is some indication of [the author’s] consummate artistry and of the validity of his claim to inspiration that he never fails to make a profound impression, even on those who imperfectly apprehend his meaning. He also says that for a generation whose mental eye has been starved of imagery it is in some ways the most important book in the New Testament (Caird 1966: 13). A. Collins (1984a: 144) remarks that the book creates a virtual experience for the hearer or reader. And thus the book elicits a particular response. John handles skillfully the hearers’ thoughts, attitudes, and feelings by the use of effective symbols and a narrative plot that invites imaginative participation (A. Collins (1984a: 145). Flannery O’Connor (1988: 805–6; cited by Michaels 1997: 201), though she was not talking about Revelation, astutely remarks that a Christian writer

      will find in modern life distortions which are repugnant to him, and his problem will be to make these appear as distortions to an audience which is used to seeing them as natural; and he may well be forced to take ever more violent means to get his vision across to this hostile audience. . . . You have to make your vision apparent by shock—to the hard of hearing you shout, and for the almost-blind you draw large and startling figures.

      O’Connor’s description fits well the startling images of the book of Revelation. K. Huber (2020: 53) says, The imagery of Revelation is multicolored, diverse, and ambivalent: powerful, impressive, fascinating, and captivating on the one hand; opaque, bizarre, offensive, and threatening on the other. The pictures drawn in the narration elude full terminological or conceptual explication, and for the most part they encompass manifold senses. The imagery has a pastoral purpose, and it stirs up the emotions for a reason. K. Huber (2020: 63) also remarks, It is the emotions affected that shape people’s commitments and actions and encourage faithfulness to God, Christ, and the Christian community. The book both comforts and challenges believers with its symbols and imagery.

      The book of Revelation has had a checkered history in the Christian church, and some have detested the book.1

      G. Allen (2020: 45–73) investigates the titles of the book found in the manuscript tradition, noting that such titles reflect interpretive traditions and perspectives about the author, meaning, and genre of the book. The difficulty with the book was present from the beginning. Dionysius of Alexandria notes that some reject the Apocalypse as incomprehensible, complaining that the book is shrouded in obscurity (Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 7.25.1–2). Martin Luther, early in his ministry, lamented that the book didn’t reveal Christ and wasn’t of great value (LW 35:399).2

      He said, It is a concealed and mute prophecy and has not yet come to the profit and fruit which it is to give to Christendom (LW 35:400). He thought a revelation should reveal something clearly, but until this very day they [interpreters] have attained no certainty. Some have even brewed it into many stupid things out of their own heads (LW 35:400). Luther also says, They are supposed to be blessed who keep what is written in this book; and yet no one knows what that is, to say nothing of keeping it (LW 35:398–99).3

      George Bernard Shaw (1933: 93) says it contains the curious record of the visions of a drug addict which was absurdly admitted to the canon under the title of Revelation. Carl Jung (1954: 80) said the God of Revelation represents an unheard-of fury of destruction against the human race. He says (1954: 123) that the Christ of Revelation behaves rather like a bad-tempered, power conscious ‘boss.’ He sees (1954: 125) a veritable orgy of hatred, wrath, vindictiveness, and blind destructive fury. D. H. Lawrence (1980: 61) says it may be the most detestable book in the Bible when read superficially since John had a grandiose scheme for wiping out and annihilating everybody who wasn’t of the elect (1980: 63). Lawrence (1980: 67) goes on to say, If you have to suffer martyrdom, if all the universe has to be destroyed in the process, still, still, still, O Christian, you shall reign as a king and set your foot on the necks of the old bosses! The problem with Revelation (1980: 69) is that it wants to murder the powerful, to seize power itself. Harold Bloom (1988: 4) remarks, Resentment and not love is the teaching of the Revelation of St. John the Divine. It is a book without wisdom, goodness, kindness, or affection of any kind. In due course we will see that objections to Revelation linger today, especially from radical feminists and those who advocate nonviolence. I will attempt to show that the book’s message should be treasured today and that detractors either misunderstand or wrongly criticize it.

      Before looking at some high points in the history of interpretation, I will sketch major interpretive theories (see Osborne 2002: 18–22; Fanning 2020: 37–40). The major views are (1) preterist, (2) historicist, (3) futurist, and (4) idealist. These paradigms are overly simplistic because many interpreters don’t fit neatly into one category, and often there is overlap. Still, an overly simplified map assists us in getting a handle on the book.

      The preterist reading situates the message of the book in the first century, emphasizing that the book was written for the seven churches in the Roman province of Asia (Rev. 1:4), the western part of the province of Asia (now a large part of Turkey). This reading rightly sees that the book was intended for the original recipients of the book. Ureña (2019: 37) is not a preterist, but she rightly observes that we as readers should recognize that John writes to real places; he does not construct an imaginary recipient. Furthermore, preterism grounds the book in its historical context instead of limiting it to some period far off in the future. Some preterists claim that John predicted the coming of Jesus in his own day but was mistaken in that conception. Such a reading lessens the significance of the book for today’s readers since the promises of final triumph are called into question (rightly, Rainbow 2008: 10). Other preterists think everything the book describes was fulfilled in AD 70, including the second coming. It is difficult, however, to see how the promise that there will be no more tears or death has been true since AD 70! Evangelical preterists often emphasize the fulfillment of the visions of the book in the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70 and see the promise of Jesus’s return in the destruction of the temple; yet they also look for a future coming of Jesus and the resurrection of the body. As stated above, the preterist approach rightly looks to the historical context to interpret the book.

      Let me offer a brief evaluation of these views. First, the preterist approach goes astray in claiming that John erred or in the contention that Jesus returned in AD 70 with the destruction of the temple. Most preterists typically understand Dan. 2 and 7 to refer to the judgment of pagan nations and even identify the beast of Rev. 13 as Rome, but then focus on the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70. Such a reading is flawed since the appropriation of Dan. 2 and 7 points to universal judgment instead of the destruction of the temple (Beale 1999: 44–45). It is also difficult to explain why the destruction of Jerusalem would be of interest for Christians in the province of Asia.4

      Their lives in the province of Asia would not change dramatically because of what happened in Jerusalem. Leithart (2018a: 40–43) emphasizes the impact on Jews in the diaspora, but he doesn’t recognize or account for the many gentiles (who were probably the majority) in the churches.5

      It is difficult to see how the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple would resonate with Christians struggling to handle their own issues in the province of Asia, nor is it easy to see how they would feel that their faith was vindicated by such an event. Indeed, John says nothing about the prophecy that Jerusalem would fall, which is hard to square with a preterist reading.

      Second, the historicist view reads Revelation as a prophecy or chart of history. Often the state of the seven churches or the seven seals is taken as a chronological forecast of what would happen in history.6

      The historicist perspective took off in the Middle Ages, and it has waned since then, though it is still popular in some dispensational circles.7

      The strength of the approach is seeing the contemporary significance of the book for modern readers, but very few adopt such an approach today, and rightly so, since the sketch of history proposed is artificial, forced, and arbitrary.8

      Bede (Weinrich 2011: 128–30) maintained that the first four seal judgments encompassed the first four hundred years of church history. We see a similar attempt to correlate the seven letters with church history when, in some dispensational readings, the church of Thyatira represents the Catholic Church during the Middle Ages, supporting the dispensationalists’ view of the deficiencies of Roman Catholicism (deSilva 2021: 70). Thomas Brightman (d. 1607) could view the congregations of Sardis, Philadelphia and Laodicea as different branches of the Church of his own time—connecting Sardis with the Lutheran Church, Philadelphia with the Calvinist Christians (his own leaning) and Laodicea with the Anglican Church (deSilva 2021: 70). This approach is problematic since the book would not make much sense for the original readers if it was mainly intended for later ages (Morris 1969b: 17). We can see, however, why the approach was popular since the book spoke to readers in their times.

      Third, futurist interpreters—especially in the dispensationalist tradition, though it is not restricted to them—see the book as a prophecy of future events. Certainly John looks forward to the fulfillment of God’s promises and to the wrapping up of history with the coming of Jesus Christ. On the other hand, the same objection raised against the historicist view pertains here. The futurist reading doesn’t clearly explain the book’s significance for the original readers. Indeed, in some futurist readings the book doesn’t relate to the life of most Christians throughout history but is limited in its significance to the final generation. Indeed, some futurist interpreters, especially in popular circles, fall prey to newspaper eschatology so that the contemporary events become the prism through which Revelation is interpreted (Lindsey 1970; LaHaye and Jenkins 1995–2004; rightly, Rainbow 2008: 9, 155–57). The approach is arbitrary and capricious, as everyone who has been paying attention over the years knows, since the interpretation shifts as the headlines change (see esp. Rossing 2004; cf. J. Collins 2015: 326–42).9

      Fourth, the idealist view sees general principles and truths in the book but doesn’t anchor the text to history in any definite way. The advantage of this approach is that the message of the book applies to all readers at all times. The weakness is a tendency to sever the text from the historical context in which Revelation was birthed. To put it another way, one can turn the historical meaning of specific texts into general principles instead of perceiving the referent intended. The approach in this commentary borrows from all these perspectives; even the historicist perspective rightly perceives the book as speaking to later generations. Since there is some truth in all four views, we need to consider the historical context, future fulfillment, and ongoing truths as we examine John’s message.

      A Brief Historical Survey

      10

      In the second century, Papias of Hierapolis gleaned from Rev. 20 (Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 3.29.12)11

      that a world was coming in which nature would produce abundant fruit and food, and thus the millennium would begin a golden age of prosperity on earth.12

      Montanist eschatology (2nd cent.) raised suspicions when Montanists claimed that Jesus would return to Pepuza in Phrygia (Epiphanius, Pan. 49.1.2–3). Their eschatological enthusiasm, the focus on an earthly kingdom, and eschatological extremes probably provoked Gaius of Rome to reject Revelation (Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 3.28.1–5), attributing it to Cerinthus instead of the apostle John (Epiphanius, Pan. 51.3.1–6). Hippolytus (d. 235) defended the authenticity of the book but did not envisage an earthly millennium, arguing that believers would be with Christ at death (in the intermediate state) and experience the resurrection on the last day (C. Hill 2001: 160–69). The earliest commentaries on Revelation were also being written. The oldest commentary that we have was authored by Victorinus (d. 304). Victorinus pointed forward to modern commentaries in seeing the beast as Nero and in emphasizing recapitulation, and in doing so he anticipated many commentators who have also emphasized the recursive character of the Apocalypse. Victorinus believed saints would reign for a thousand years on earth and argued that the 144,000 were Jewish believers.

      A group later identified by the orthodox church as heretical, the so-called Alogoi, reportedly followed Gaius in seeing Cerinthus as the author (Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 7.25.2–3; Epiphanius, Pan. 51.3.1–6; cf. 51.32.2–33.3).13

      Concerns about an earthly millennium continued to be voiced; Dionysius of Alexandria (d. 264) rejected an earthly millennium and questioned apostolic authorship, though he continued to embrace the book as orthodox. He argued that the vocabulary and especially the grammatical style were too different from the received writings of the apostle John to be ascribed to the apostle, suggesting that the book was written by another John (Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 7.25.1–27). The observations of Dionysius are most interesting and perceptive, and his words forecast debates that continue to this day over the authorship of the book.

      One of the most influential interpreters of Revelation was Tyconius (d. ca. 400), who maintained that the millennium represents the period between Christ’s first and second coming.14

      Satan is restrained during the thousand years but not entirely absent, and thus the struggle between good and evil continues until Jesus’s return. Tyconius’s reading was preserved in the history of the church because Augustine picked up some elements of his teaching,15

      seeing a conflict between the city of God and the city of man.16

      The millennium, according to Augustine, lasts from the ascension to the second coming, and believers enter the reign of Christ when they are baptized. Revelation was also mined for christological reasons, and some writers in the Eastern church supported Chalcedonian Christology by pointing out that Christ, according to John, is the Alpha and Omega (22:13).

      Jerome (d. 420), a contemporary of Augustine, edited Victorinus’s commentary (so Matter 1992: 39–40; Weinrich 2011: xxi), and he interpreted Revelation christocentrically, following Tyconius and Augustine in applying the book’s message to contemporary circumstances. Jerome departed from Victorinus by removing the latter’s chiliastic interpretation since Jerome understood the millennium along the lines of Tyconius and Augustine—that is, from an amillennial perspective. Apringius of Beja (Weinrich 2011; ca. 550) wrote a commentary containing sections from Victorinus that were edited by Jerome (Weinrich 2011: xxvi). Apringius stands out as an interpreter because he assigned John’s exile on Patmos to the reign of Claudius (AD 41–54) rather than to the reign of Domitian (AD 81–96). Apringius was thoroughly orthodox, emphasizing the divinity of Jesus and the doctrine of the Trinity.

      Oecumenius also wrote a commentary on the Apocalypse (early in the 6th cent.; see Weinrich 2005: 28–33), positing that the six seals spanned the time from Christ’s birth to his resurrection, while the seventh seal predicted his return.17

      Andrew of Caesarea (d. ca. 614), who also wrote a commentary, appropriated Revelation in defense of Chalcedonian Christology and differed from Oecumenius in assigning the seven seals to the troubles of the present age. He interpreted the thousand-year reign in amillennial terms; at various points Andrew corrects the interpretation of Oecumenius (e.g., Weinrich 2005: 144–45). Primasius (d. 565) also wrote a commentary, and his work had a massive influence on subsequent commentators (Matter 1992: 41–44). Beatus composed his commentary in Spain, as did Apringius, but the former was written in the eighth century, featuring the holiness of the church and the divinity of Christ over against adoptionist Christology (Matter 1992: 45–46). Reeves (1984: 44) observes that it is somewhat surprising that Muhammad and his followers were not identified with the antichrist and his followers by Beatus since he lived under Islamic rule, though the notion that Muhammad was the precursor of the antichrist did surface in Spain in the ninth century. Bede (d. 735; Weinrich 2011), who also wrote a commentary on the Apocalypse, took the interpretation of Revelation in a new direction by seeing in the book a history of the church during the present era, from the first to the seventh seal; this interpretation of the seals became quite common in subsequent centuries. Ambrose Aupert wrote a commentary in the eighth century that was quite dependent on Primasius; in the ninth century, Haimo’s work represented an appropriation of Bede, Ambrose, and Aupert (Matter 1992: 48–49).

      The message of Revelation was applied for spiritual and edificatory purposes all through history, and especially in AD 1000–1500 (C. Koester 2014: 42–44). Joachim of Fiore (d. 1202), historically one of the most influential interpreters of the book (cf. Beal 2018: 94–116), read the book mystically (see Wainwright 1993: 49–53; B. Chilton 2013: 47–58); he also read the book in terms of the future, warning that a future pope might be the antichrist.18

      He advocated a historicist interpretation and thought the first five seals were fulfilled by his day and that believers were awaiting the fulfillment of the last two seals. Joachim advocated a premillennial reading and even suggested that the two witnesses stand for two religious orders (Wainwright 1993: 51). Scholars commonly say that Joachim thought the OT was the age of the Father, the NT the age of the Son, and his own time the age of the Spirit (Beckwith 1967: 328). But B. Chilton (2013: 54–57; see also Burr 2019: 55) says it is more accurate to think of status (Latin), or condition, where there is overlap among the various persons of the Trinity. Joachim did see a new effulgence of Spirit in the sixth century with the monastic order of Benedict, and he believed there were further advances with the Cistercian reform of the order (B. Chilton 2013: 57).

      Eschatological enthusiasm increased under the Dominicans and Franciscans; the Franciscan ideal of poverty led some to the conclusion that a false pope with his materialism would be the antichrist (C. Koester 2014: 45–46). It became increasingly popular to read Revelation in chronological terms as a chart of church history (see Wainwright 1993: 53–56), and some naturally tried to determine the place they occupied on the timeline. The Franciscans and Dominicans hoped to imbue the church with a new spirit and fresh devotion to the ways of Jesus. It is not surprising that some saw the Franciscans as playing a vital role in bringing in the new Jerusalem. Those who lived corruptly or who were deemed to be corrupt were charged with being the antichrist. For instance, the emperor Frederick II Hohenstaufen (d. 1250) identified Pope Innocent IV, who commenced as pope in 1243, as the antichrist, drawing such a conclusion from the number 666. Countercharges filled the air, and thus the same charge was leveled against Frederick himself (McGinn 1979: 168–79). Along the same lines, John Wyclif (d. 1384), in England, claimed that the papal office was the antichrist since the papacy took on more political power and was immersed in wealth. Yet Wyclif didn’t innovate in using the term antichrist with reference to the papacy since the question of whether the papacy should be identified as the antichrist had been in the air since Joachim of Fiore. Some Franciscans believed there would a Mystical Antichrist, a coming false pope (McGinn 1979: 205, 210–11). Jan Hus (d. 1415) walked a tightrope in his own reflections on the papacy, distinguishing between the true and false church, claiming not that the papacy itself was the antichrist but that some popes filled that role with their political ambition and worldly lifestyles. His careful expression of the issues didn’t spare him from being burned at the stake for heresy.

      During the time of the Reformation, Erasmus raised questions about apostolic authorship and the book’s canonical status, and we see Erasmus’s influence in Luther’s preface on Revelation. Rather early, Martin Luther struggled with Revelation since he didn’t think it presented Christ clearly (LW 35:398–99). He complained that since the visions obscured the message, the book lacked the clarity about Christ that we see in the writings of Peter and Paul. As time passed, Luther read the book as an outline of church history, which was common in the medieval period, and he grew more enthusiastic about the book while identifying the pope as the antichrist. Some scholars in this period questioned the canonical status of the book, and Ulrich Zwingli even claimed that it wasn’t biblical (Roloff 1993: 2). John Calvin wasn’t entranced with Revelation either; it was the only NT book on which he didn’t write a commentary. Still, he didn’t reject Revelation and agreed with Luther in seeing the papacy as the antichrist.

      The view from the Middle Ages that Revelation was a prophecy of church history continued to be popular, as did the view that the pope was the antichrist. Thomas Müntzer (d. 1525) claimed that he received dreams and revelations, arguing that believers should take up arms against the present social order, and he died for his ill-fated cause (in the Peasants’ War). Other Anabaptists, such as Hans Hut (d. 1527) and Melchior Hoffmann (d. 1540s), read Revelation along similar lines, seeing the fulfillment of all prophecies as imminent, even setting dates for the second coming (1528 and 1533, respectively) and for the start of the millennium (J. Thomas and Macchia 2016: 44–45; Wainwright 1993: 90–91). Other Anabaptists who renounced the use of all violence rejected such readings of Revelation. Jesuits responded to Protestants, who were regularly appealing to Revelation to denounce the pope as the antichrist, by emphasizing that the prophecies in the book were to be fulfilled in the future or that they related to the first century of the church. Thus they advocated either futurist or preterist readings of the book, blunting Protestant voices naming the Roman Catholic Church or the pope as the antichrist.19

      A gradual shift took place beginning in the 1600s, as postmillennial readings of Revelation began to gain ground.20

      Many Puritans read Revelation with optimism and hope for a future golden age (Murray 1971), and Jonathan Edwards followed in their train.21

      The Baptist Benjamin Keach (1640–1704) saw the displacement of James II by William of Orange as the inauguration of the millennium, which would be consummated in 2688 (Morton 2014: 6). Many Protestants thought the Apocalypse foretold the demise of the papacy and the spread of the gospel worldwide. The great textual critic Johann Albrecht Bengel (1687–1752) believed the millennium would begin in 1836 (Morton 2014: 7). Not everyone concurred: the famous jurist and scholar Hugo Grotius (d. 1645) read the book in preterist terms, seeing the church in John’s day in conflict with the rule of Rome. Preterist readings became more popular in Catholic circles, as we see in the work of Luis del Alcázar (1554–1613), and one reason for their ascendancy, as noted above, is that preterist interpretations fended off the notion that the pope was the antichrist.22

      Gradually the scene started to change.23

      On the one hand, historical criticism became more popular and led to new readings of Revelation. At the same time, optimism declined, especially as the twentieth century dawned, and postmillennial readings became less and less popular. Futuristic views of Revelation sprang up, with the expectation that the end would come suddenly. Edward Irving (d. 1836) propagated this way of thinking, and William Miller (d. 1849) set a date for the second coming in 1844 (B. Chilton 2013: 111–12). Dispensationalism, inaugurated by John Nelson Darby (d. 1882), became very popular and came close to dominating the evangelical landscape in the twentieth century. In this teaching the promises made to Israel in the OT will be fulfilled literally, believers will be raptured before the seven years of tribulation, Jesus will return to reign on earth in Jerusalem, and the Jewish people will rule with Christ in the land of Israel. Historically, dispensationalists claimed that Revelation should be interpreted as literally as possible, though recent writers and commentators from this school of interpretation are more nuanced. The movement advanced in Bible schools and churches and was promoted by Dallas Theological Seminary. Popular writers like Hal Lindsey (1970), along with the novels by Tim LaHaye and Jerry Jenkins (1995–2004), advanced the cause.24

      More scholarly commentaries on Revelation by Walvoord (1966), Robert Thomas (1992, 1995), Patterson (2012), and Fanning (2020) also support dispensational readings. Eschatology and belief in Jesus’s coming was in the air, and Jehovah’s Witnesses, under the leadership of Charles Taze Russell (d. 1916), predicted that the end would come in 1914; they also pointed to the arrival of the millennium in 1975.

      At the same time, historical-critical readings of Revelation began to dominate the scholarly scene. In the nineteenth century, commentaries were written by scholars such as Heinrich Ewald, E. W. Hengstenberg, F. W. Farrar, William Milligan, and Moses Stuart. The early part of the twentieth century dawned with outstanding commentaries on Revelation by scholars such as Wilhelm Bousset (1895/1999), Isbon Beckwith (1919/1967), R. H. Charles (1920a, 1920b), and Henry Swete (1922). In the contemporary era, studies, commentaries, monographs, and books have been written from a diversity of perspectives. One interesting recent reading is proposed by Moloney (2020). Inspired by the work of Eugenio Corsini, he argues that Revelation doesn’t communicate the eschatological triumph of Christ but the victory accomplished in his death and resurrection. There is not space in this commentary to interact in full with this reading, but I am not convinced, as my exegesis of texts like 6:12–17; 7:15–17; 11:15–19; 14:1–5, 9–11; 16:17–21; 19:11–21; and chapters 20–22 will demonstrate. Certainly the death and resurrection of Christ are fundamental to John’s message and the key to history, but Revelation also celebrates the eschatological consummation that is coming.25

      Author

      The book of Revelation is given by Jesus Christ to an angel, and the angel in turn conveys to John what was revealed to him (1:1). At the conclusion of the book John claims that he saw the visions and heard the words that accompanied the visions (22:8), which he in turn communicated to his readers. Boxall (2006: 4) rightly emphasizes the visionary character of the book, noting that the author resorts to simile upon simile, as if struggling to articulate a profound visionary experience. Throughout the book, John often emphasizes what he saw and heard, which reinforces the story’s verisimilitude (Ureña 2019: 51); we can add that it underscores its reliability as well. John points us to what he saw forty-five times in the book and to what he heard forty-three times (see Ureña 2019: 53, 55). Also, John presents himself not simply as witness to his visions, but as an active participant within them (5:4; 10:10; 11:1; 17:3) (Boxall 2006: 4). John identifies himself as the author in 1:4 and reports that he was on the island of Patmos (see 1:9) when he received the content of the book. Most apocalypses are pseudonymous, but Revelation stands out (most interpreters agree) as an exception.26

      After all, if the book were pseudonymous, we would expect the author to identify himself as an apostle (cf. A. Collins 1984a:

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