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    Pindar
    Pindar
    Pindar
    Ebook446 pages6 hours

    Pindar

    By Gilbert Norwood

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    This title is part of UC Press's Voices Revived program, which commemorates University of California Press’s mission to seek out and cultivate the brightest minds and give them voice, reach, and impact. Drawing on a backlist dating to 1893, Voices Revived makes high-quality, peer-reviewed scholarship accessible once again using print-on-demand technology. This title was originally published in 1945.
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherUniversity of California Press
    Release dateJul 28, 2023
    ISBN9780520319288
    Pindar
    Author

    Gilbert Norwood

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      Book preview

      Pindar - Gilbert Norwood

      SATHER CLASSICAL LECTURES

      VOLUME NINETEEN

      PINDAR

      PINDAR

      BY

      GILBERT NORWOOD

      Ά-γλαΙην ίφίλησα καί hyXatq μί διώκα,

      UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS

      BERKELEY AND LOS ANGELES

      1956

      UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS

      BERKELEY AND LOS ANGELES

      CALIFORNIA

      CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

      LONDON,ENGLAND

      COPTIGHT, 1945» BY

      TUB MGENTS or THB UNIVIISITY or CALITOINLA

      Second printing, 1956

      MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATE* OF AMERICA

      TO MY WIFE

      PREFACE

      THESE LECTURES, with substantial omissions, were delivered at Berkeley last spring under the terms of my appointment as Sather Professor of Classical Literature in the University of California for the year 1943-4.

      To that University I express my gratitude not only for the signal honour thus conferred, but also for the happiness enjoyed during my sojourn in a State which, already blessed by Nature, has received enrichment from the liberal zeal wherewith her citizens foster education and scholarship. To my colleagues and students there I offer warm thanks for a hundred acts of charming friendliness; above all, to Professor W. H. Alexander and other members of the classical staff, whose unwearied aid and kindness have meant a heartening experience which shall not be forgotten. The learning, precision, and considerateness of the University Press editor, Mr. Harold A. Small, have laid me under a most pleasant obligation.

      For able and varied help I am much indebted to my wife. GILBERT NORWOOD.

      TORONTO, CANADA.

      APRIL 16TH, 1945.

      CONTENTS 10

      CONTENTS 10

      LECTURE I THE APPROACH TO PINDAR

      LECTURE II HIS SUBJECTS; HIS VISION OF THE WORLD

      LECTURE III VIEWS ON THE LIFE OF MAN

      LECTURE IV

      LECTURE V DICTION; SYMBOLISM

      LECTURE VI SYMBOLISM (Continued)

      LECTURE VII SYMBOLISM (Concluded)

      LECTURE VIII PINDAR ON THE ART OF POETRY; CONCLUSION

      APPENDIX A SYMBOLISM IN THE SECOND PYTHIAN

      APPENDIX B THE FIFTH ISTHMIAN

      METRE AND RHYTHM APPENDIX C

      NOTES

      BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MODERN WORKS QUOTED IN THE NOTES

      INDEX

      LECTURE I

      THE APPROACH TO PINDAR

      Two REASONS impelled me to choose Pindar for my theme: reasons simple and, if you will, commonplace; but no weightier can be conceived.

      First, he is a great poet. The aim of art is, finally, to create and satisfy in us a deeper relish for existence: not merely a gusto for life, which is the aim of education; but a relish for mere existence itself. That is why art has no concern with morality; and why the artist, in the profound language of the Book of Job, feels himself in league with the stones of the field. If I were asked to account for my love of Pindar’s work, no doubt I could, and indeed I shall, describe various specific merits; but ultimately the truth is that, by whatever means, he fills me with triumphant illumination. That is what earns a man the title, a great poet: triumphant illumination, which he experiences and which he has power to impart. But, magnificently as Pindar deserves that title, this addition must unflinchingly be made, that he is nothing more. You may read most other wonderful writers, and with profit, for reasons utterly severed from their special excellence: Cicero as an historical authority, Milton for his theology, Villon for his old French, Dickens or Mark Twain to learn the moods and habits of the lowly. But Pindar, more than any other consummate author known to me, is practically valueless save for one superb merit.

      My other reason is that he has been studied less deeply, less sympathetically, less often than his eminence deserves: the really fine books about him number, perhaps, not more than half a dozen. I conceive that much remains to be said, and that concerning the very marrow of his art.

      Such were my reasons, so powerful that I submitted, despite the difficulties that plainly threatened. Most of these will make themselves felt in due course; one, however, should be faced at the outset: language. The value of translations in the study of literature is by no means so novel a question as some believe, and I cannot contribute anything new to the main discussion, especially as the highest possible authorities have spoken on opposing sides. Dante refused to expound his poetry to Germans and Englishmen because (he writes) nothing harmonized by the bonds of music can be transformed from its own diction into another without losing all its sweetness and harmony.¹ Goethe said that in Greek and Latin you get on very far with a good translation.² (Note, however, that he cited Frederick the Great, who read Cicero —not Pindar—in French). Nor need I labour the familiar truth that poetry by its nature defies translation: poetry, not verse, for one can imagine a translation of Horace’s Satires fully as good as the original. In poetry, we all know, many effects depend on the very sounds: Charles Kingsley³ remarked that the Greek phrase Bos μίγάλοιο βοάηρ is not really translated by great ox’s hide. But one point does remain to be stated: the difficulty thus attached to all poetry is more formidable in Pindar than in any other first-rate poet. Let me offer but one instance. Concerning Nem. IX 16 Bury writes a charming comment which depends entirely on this, that in the Greek text &νήρ, man, is the last word of one stanza, and the next stanza opens with άνδροδάμαντα, man-quelling. This juxtaposition, according to Bury, is vital. But in Myers’ translation no less than thirty-three words separate them. That is mere accident: Myers owned a magnificent sense of poetry, as his great essay on Virgil proves. But the point is that one who based himself only on Myers could not appreciate the passage as Bury did. You derive a quite respectable idea of Homer and Hesiod from a translation, if wisely and adroitly written. Of Pindar a good deal more vanishes; and it is significant that here prose versions are actually better, or less bad, than verse. On the whole, Abraham Cowley was not far from the truth when he declared that, if a man translated Pindar literally, readers would think one madman had translated another.⁴

      These lectures have for their sole object the elucidation of Pindar’s poetry: that is, to show its virtues with whatever force and precision may prove attainable; and, negatively, to remove those obstacles to enjoyment and illumination that are inherent in his language, in his topics, and in other differences that separate a modern reader from a Greek of the fifth century before Christ.

      An exacting enterprise, this, no less than delightful; but it permits us to ignore much that some might expect from us. Too often, after determining to appreciate a poem in itself, we drift off upon themes which, though they have nothing to do with poetry, yet give us a piteous illusion like Ixion’s that we embrace the goddess though in truth we lavish caresses upon a phantom of cloud. Our libraries swarm with the unnatural offspring:⁵ those disquisitions upon the poet’s attitude to this or that; those lists of his prepositions and spondees; investigations of the books he may have read and the women he may have loved. The radiance, the potent vitality, of great writings dazzle our weak sight and fatigue our puny strength: we stumble away from the shrine to gossip with the sacristan about dates and measurements. This childish, though not ignoble, desire to create some relation, however trivial, between a poet and ourselves has produced numberless studies and aspects which enlighten us no more, on the only subject about which enlightenment is worth having, than the purchase of Aeschylus’ writing-tablet inspired the prince of Syracuse.⁶ · What have these details to do with his poetry?— that is the test, which, while it condemns much pretentious research, yet approves much humdrum study. Hearing that Ovid’s Metamorphoses contain a narrative parallel to the scene played by Bottom and his mates, the true student of poetry reads it eagerly—not because he wishes to discover what books Shakespeare read, not because he means to write a thesis on The Teaching of Latin under the Tudors, but only in case he may light upon something that increases his relish of the passage in A Midsummer Night’s Dream.⁷ If a man chooses to read Wordsworth’s correspondence, let him; just as he may, if he chooses, play chess or prune his roses after he has read the Ode on Intimations of Immortality. Either he has seen the vision, or he has not. The roses matter nothing, the rook or the bishop nothing—and the man Wordsworth nothing, even after the discovery of Annette. She can, perhaps, enable us to see why he wrote thus or thus; and the reason mattered vastly to him. For us it has no value, our concern being not why he wrote so, but that he wrote so; there stand the noble lines: upon them and them only must we fling our souls.

      Such concentration upon the words themselves in their full power is by no means the simple exercise it might seem. There are poets whom it is hard to follow, as we call it, because the loveliness of their verse casts a spell over our intelligence, just as a man listening to the woman whom he loves may find when she ceases that he does not know what she has said, because he has been hearing her voice, not her words. Such is often the effect of Pindar’s poetry, and a failure to recall the details of some glorious picture or opulent narrative finds a plain excuse. Yet, if a man does address himself to prosaic discussion of Pindar’s statements, he must be on his guard against enchantment, or he will fail in his apparently simple task. Many have shown themselves incapable at times of seeing what lies upon the page. Editor after editor, essayist after essayist, has reported that in the Eighth Pythian Pindar saw Alcmaeon in a dream, though the assertion is plain that Alcmaeon actually met him on the road to Delphi.⁸ Two readers, one a laborious scholar, Hermann Gundert, the other a learned poet, Abraham Cowley, flatly give Pindar the lie about the reason for Achilles’ translation to the Islands of the Blest. Gundert⁹ offers a no doubt admirable cause, that Achilles’ excellence as a man of action secured this honour; Cowley writes: "Cadmus was chosen to be named here for one of the Heroes, by an apparent reason, Theron being descended from him; as for Peleus and Achilles, there is no particular cause.¹⁰ But Pindar himself plainly tells us concerning Achilles’ translation that it was the influence of his mother Thetis upon Zeus.¹¹ Fraccaroli,¹² who has written of poetry and of Pindar with charming wisdom, yet discusses the opening of the First Olympian as if it sang il corso del sole," and this course of the sun is important to his discussion; but Pindar says only the sun. Perrotta,¹³ whose sturdy acumen it would be hard to overpraise, writes, when dealing with the words (Ο/. VI 61) vuxris υπαίθριοί, upon the head of lamus as he prays the stars look down, an idea curiously foreign to Pindar, and not hinted in those words, which mean only under the open sky at night. Even the greatest of all who have combined poetical genius with wide learning, Goethe himself, has misdescribed Pindar’s feeling about the Great Games:¹⁴

      Wenn die Rader rasselten, Rad an Rad rasch ums Ziel weg, Hoch flog

      Siegdurchgluhter Junglinge Peitschenknall, Und sich Staub walzt’, Wie vom Gebirg herab Kieselwetter ins Tai, Gluhte deine Seel’ Gefahren, Pindar, Mut.

      When the wheels were rattling, wheel on wheel away to the goal, high flew the cracking whip of youths all aglow for victory, and dust whirled as down from the mountain pebbles rolled into the valley—then, Pindar, thy soul glowed with courage at the dangers. Undoubtedly we should have expected such vivid descriptions; but Pindar omits these excitements.

      The books, pamphlets, essays, notes that have been published concerning the Pindaric poems number, I imagine, at least one thousand; of very few can it be said that they are, and have always been, nothing but waste paper. Still, we should cultivate the historical sense. Boeckh’s edition, for example, long possessed enormous importance; today it has far less, because what was sound, illuminating, and permanent in it has been absorbed into later books. We must not fail to keep this perspective in mind; otherwise, impressed by the immense learning, the noble industry and patience, shown by our predecessors, we may glide into the wasteful opinion that we in our day should be content to creep about the fields which they harvested, sift over and over the chaff left by their muscular threshing: that is nothing but chercher midi d quatorze heures.

      It cannot (of course) be denied that, just as one who even in this later age explores cellars and apple-lofts for the first edition of Omar Khayyam may, despite the efforts of a thousand predecessors, in the twilight of his dusty days embrace that treasure at the last, so may some belated researcher even now light upon a really satisfying emendation of Pindar’s text, as when Mair’s study of the Etymologicum Magnum resulted in the admirable tlpw for byopbv in Nem. Ill 14. But the law of diminishing returns operates here strongly. In his day Erasmus Schmid¹⁵ could emend right and left with certainty; in ours, all the obviously bad readings have been corrected, and what mostly happens is attempts to foist upon the text forms of that invaluable word M3, which can generally be contrived where some part of ό ά rb stands in the vulgate; or, by altering punctuation, cases, and vocabulary, to mould lines noble and debonair till they conform with a Xeno- phontean frame of mind.

      Classical scholarship, then, so far as concerns the great ancient poets, has finished its task of removing the textual difficulties that prevented us from envisaging them as we envisage the modern. At any rate, we can do no more: we are dissatisfied with our text of Aeschylus, true; but progress has stopped. It is now far more fruitful to study Propertius in the light of Donne or Keats than in the light of Callimachus. In this field a vast amount of attractive study awaits us—attractive, but genuine and strenuous, for this is no affair of dilettantism, of superficial phrase-mongering. A. C. Bradley has said: Research, though toilsome, is easy; imaginative vision, though delightful, is difficult; and we may be tempted to prefer the first.¹⁶ Tempted, because the old highway of research is so richly provided with maps, filling-stations and a highly trained constabulary. The investigator need fear nothing if he never allows his left hand to quit a Jahrbuch before his right clutches the comforting bulk of an Archiv. Such activity was needed so long as corruptions swarmed in our texts. It is still justified in archaeology, and in other departments of classical learning partly or quite scientific. But in the study of Greek and Latin poetry it is utterly out of date and would not be crawling over those now radiant blooms and gleaming marbles but for the belief that even this study must become a squalid imitation of the applied sciences.¹⁷ We now need classical scholars who are at least as well versed in great modern literature as in Beitrage, who will no longer believe that a first-rate edition of Catullus can be produced by a man whose acquaintance with Burns is limited to the chorus of Auld Lang Syne, if only he scans galliambics undismayed and remembers who proposed num for turn in 1862. We should hope, moreover, for a seemly elegance in our editions and resent it as an outrage if we open a copy of Theocritus only to find a horrible apparatus criticus lurking at the bottom of the page like some open sewer at the end of a gracious promenade, with repellent outcast conjectures wallowing in hideous decay under the sunlight. Let an editor make the best text he can, and then present his Sophocles in tranquil stateliness. If his conscience demands an apparatus, let him banish it to the end of the book: our enjoyment of Greek and Roman poets should no longer be marred by such intruders, wailing from below like Old Hamlet’s ghost in the cellarage. Textual criticism exists in order to give us a text; when that has been made, the bye-products should be destroyed or hidden. No one would be more surprised than the old-fashioned scholar if at a college feast he found the high table festooned with kitchen-refuse.

      From some errors in our handling of Pindaric poetry we are already shaking ourselves free. The complaint about mere digressions grows less frequent as students realize that it is far more likely that they, rather than Pindar, do not remember or do not know what he is talking about. But Alexandrian scholars were much perplexed by these so-called digressions, of which I shall have a good deal to say; and many centuries later the stalwart Eustathius¹⁸ called some odes pot-bellied for the same reason. But in our time very few scholars expect poets to be as rational as themselves, and rational in the same way as themselves. The German savant who emended a passage in As You Like It so as to run

      Stones in the running brooks, Sermons in books

      lived (if at all) in days long past, as did Voltaire, who apostrophized Pindar as writing verses that no one understands but everyone must admire.¹⁹

      To sweep aside all such hasty petulant stuff, to insist on patience and suspension of judgment, to wonder not that we understand so little but that we understand so much—this preparation and temper are now fortunately common, though (alas!) not universal. But they cannot free us completely from the prepossessions of more self-complacent readers. Blame Voltaire as we will for expecting Pindar to be Voltairean, we too expect him to be a little like ourselves—a demand entirely justified: for, were he not, he would be no man at all, nor could we appreciate a single line.The most careful and modest student sooner or later has to face passages which he feels compelled to think irrational or irrelevant. In the end he may have to resign himself, not blaming Pindar but murmuring Pliny’s comfortable phrase, omniscience is bad taste: oportet nos aliqua nescire. Yet before this surrender he will take pains to reduce the number of such passages, and the area of darkness. But how? After the traditional kind of study has failed, and purely intellectual effort which would serve equally well for Thucydides, another method of solution remains. Can we find a relevance not logical at all, which will not so much refute the charge that Pindar is careless or scatter-brained as show that such charges are not in point, since he permits fancy, imagination, emotion to override, even to banish, thought? Shall we not, while expecting him (as was said) to be a little like ourselves, consent to believe that he may resemble us not as Masters of Arts, but as grown-up children, while he plays beautifully with emotion or fancy and with the musical delicacies of language?

      That is a mode of criticism more subtle, more penetrating, and (some will say) more dangerously whimsical than discussion cautiously based on allusions to Salamis or the Works and Days, but no less vital to fruitful study of most poets, of Pindar perhaps beyond all. With patience and caution we must tread the maze, hoping to emulate those acute persons of whom Eustathius writes that they make their way unerringly through that labyrinth of [Pindar’s] utterance which baffles most people; and, after passing along the convolutions right to the centre, trace their winding course back again and are restored to their homes with intelligence unimpaired.²⁰ For this quest few precise rules can be formulated. But one thing is vital. We must try always to feel the words themselves and relish the flavour of the idiom, so as to be alert for assonances—chimes foolish (it may be) to the intellect, but distinct enough to catch a poet’s ear—and sensitive to curious turns of phrase whereby we may win a glimpse of some picture that has arisen in the poet’s imagination.

      The next topic in this approach to Pindar must be an account of his life. It shall be a mere outline, helping us to appreciate the odes—nothing more ambitious, partly because (as you have heard) I dislike biography dressed up as literary criticism,²¹ partly because Pindar’s life has been so often set forth. Farnell’s account, though I cannot accept it all, seems to me admirable. Wilamowitz’ Pindaros is, as far as possible, biographical throughout: a grave error which lessens the value of a masterly book.²²

      He was born in 518 or (less probably) in 522 B.C., at the time of a Pythian festival, as he himself reports: The quadrennial feast, where oxen are led forth, when first I was laid in swaddling-clothes, a beloved child.²³ His birthplace was a hamlet called Cynoscephalae near Thebes, the capital of Boeotia, a state in Central Greece. His father was named Diophantus or (according to some) Pagondas: in any case he belonged to a noble family, the Aegeidae, my ancestors.²⁴ A pretty tale relates that when he was a child bees laid honey upon his mouth while he slept. His uncle Scopelinus taught him the flute, an instrument in favour at Thebes, and the boy must have shown high promise: he was sent for a thorough musical training to Athens, even in that early day a centre of Greek culture and art. He studied under Agathocles and Apollodorus, who was a master of dithyrambic choirs; the latter entrusted the training of a chorus to his pupil who, though but a lad, gained repute for his performance of this task. The famous Lasus of Hermione taught him the lyre. Aeschylus, destined to be the greatest of all ancient playwrights, was his slightly elder contemporary: Eustathius²⁵ says that Pindar met him, became his companion and derived some benefit from Aeschylus’ grandiloquence. That is a mere assumption,²⁶ ·natural and attractive, but in its full implications incredible. It is very likely that the two met, but the suggestion of something like a Wordsworth-Coleridge association must be rejected. Aeschylus did not begin to exhibit tragedies till 500 B.C., by which date Pindar had almost certainly quitted Athens.

      Returning to Thebes, he commenced as a professional composer of lyrics. The Boeotian poetess Corinna interested herself in him. His first poem she censured for containing no myth, that is, legendary narrative; accordingly, the youth’s next effort was crammed with myths: we still have its opening lines:²⁷ Shall we sing Ismenus, or Melia of the golden distaff, or Cadmus, or the holy race of the Sown Men, or blue- snooded Theba, or the all-daring might of Heracles, or the hilarious glory of Dionysus, or the white-armed damsel on her marriage-day, even Harmonia? All we who are teachers have known pupils like that! Corinna’s comment on this rigmarole passed into a proverb: You must sow with the hand, not with the whole sack.²⁸ At another time she rebuked him for using an Attic word.²⁹ During this period Pindar defeated Myrtis, another local poetess: of her Corinna said: I blame the clear-voiced Myrtis because, though a woman, she entered into strife with Pindar.³⁰ But she had herself defeated him in other competitions: Gildersleeve remarks on the sweet inconsistency of her sex. Pindar’s comment was less charming: Aelian alleges that in his chagrin he called Corinna a pig.³¹

      At the age of twenty he received his first commission. The ode is what we call the Tenth Pythian (by Pythian is meant connected with the Pythian Games, which were celebrated at Delphi), the traditional numbers having no reference to chronology. (For instance, the First Olympian was written as late as 476 B.C., when Pindar was forty-two: Thomas Magister says that it was placed first in the collection because it contains a panegyric on the Olympian festival and relates the story of Pelops, the first man to compete in Elis.) This Tenth Pythian celebrated a Thessalian boy-athlete, and the commission was given by Thorax, a powerful noble of Larissa in Thessaly. The next three odes also commemorated Pythian victories: it is fairly clear that Pindar’s vogue at first depended in some degree upon his close connexion with Delphi, the greatest centre of Apolline religion: not only is the Tenth Pythian markedly Apolline in its colour, but the Hyperborean myth, its leading theme, was rooted in Delphi as in Thessaly.³² Pindar of course relied on personal effort as well as on Apollo. His first contact with the great Sicilian despots was his own doing. In 490 B.C., Xenocrates, brother of Thero, tyrant of Acragas, won the chariot-race at Delphi, and the official ode was entrusted to Simonides, then at his zenith; but Pindar wrote the Sixth Pythian as a private compliment to Xenocrates’ son Thrasybulus. He found it harder to get a start as poet for Olympian successes: his earliest Olympian ode, the Fourteenth, honours a victor from Orchomenus, close to his home. Probably it belongs to 488 B.C., when he was thirty.

      The years 480 and 479 B.C. were momentous for him as for all Greeks, and indeed for all succeeding Western civilization.

      The overthrow of the Persian invaders, glorious beyond panegyric, complete without any vestige of doubt or disappointment, stands among the most heroic and most permanently valuable achievements of mankind. But not only did certain states hold aloof from the Greek confederacy: some earned deathless infamy by siding with the barbarian—Thessaly and Pindar’s own Thebes. The blame does not fall upon those communities, but only upon the oligarchies which governed them and which looked for an extension of their power in Greece under a Persian suzerain. At Plataea the Theban cavalry performed a brave but disgraceful exploit, routing a Greek contingent with heavyloss.Their leaderwas one Asopo- dorus,³³ who has been plausibly identified³⁴ with the Asopo- dorus complimented by Pindar in the First Isthmian. Thorax of Larissa, who (as I said) gave the poet his first commission, helped Xerxes to escape after Salamis and lent the Persian Mardonius open assistance in his march upon Central Greece.³⁵ Vigorous efforts have been put forth to rebut the view expressed just now in the phrase deathless infamy. Gildersleeve writes: It was no treason to medize before there was a Greece, and the Greece that came out of the Persian war was a very different thing from the cantons that ranged themselves on this side and on that of a quarrel which, we may be sure, bore another aspect to those who stood aloof from it than it wears in the eyes of moderns, who have all learned to be Hellenic patriots.³⁶ To this it seems obvious to reply: first, that Greece continued as a multitude of cantons not only after the Persian menace had been destroyed, but throughout her history until her absorption into the Roman Empire; secondly, that the meaning of the struggle was fully realized at the time—as fully as any modern realizes it today—by innumerable Greeks in the very hour of crisis, by the Athenians who left their city to be ravaged that they might strive to the death on the waters of Salamis, by the Spartans whose heroism at Thermopylae lit for all lovers of freedom a beacon that has never been quenched. As for writers, not to mention Herodotus who wrote somewhat later, Aeschylus, who fought at both Marathon and Salamis,produced his Persae only eight years later—a drama showing the fullest appreciation of all the issues, human and divine, involved in that tremendous quarrel.

      What stand did Pindar himself take? Polybius the historian is often quoted on this:

      Nor do we praise the Thebans in the Persian war, because they stood aloof from the perils that were faced in the cause of Greece and chose the Persian side through fear, nor Pindar who encouraged them to stay inactive, writing these lines: "Let us bring the commonwealth into tranquillity, searching for effulgent Peace that maketh great men, and casting spiteful Faction from our hearts, for the gift of her hands is poverty and the babes that she nurseth die.³⁷

      Despite Polybius’ normal excellence as an historian, we must reject his rebuke of Pindar, whose words he has misapplied. That the poet urged his countrymen to keep out of the Persian war is not proved by the quotation, which says nothing whatever about it, but condemns only internal dissension, the invariable meaning of his word stasis. In the Eighth Isthmian (vv. 5-16), however, we find unmistakable, though not unambiguous, allusion: we cannot be sure whether the deliverance of Greece was uppermost in his mind, or the troubles of Thebes, which after the battle of Plataea had been humiliated by Pausanias’ execution of the leading traitors. Though my heart is heavy, they beg me to summon the golden Muse. Freed from great sorrows let us not fall into bereavement of garlands; nurse not thy griefs; ceasing from desperate ills, let us raise a sweet song for the people, even after pain. For the stone of Tantalus above our heads, a toil intolerable for Hellas, some god hath turned aside from us. As for me, the terror hath passed and freed me from sore anxiety—and it is best to look on whatever business the moment brings to hand. The life that overhangs mankind is full of wiles, marking an intricate course wherein their days shall move. Yet, if mortals have but freedom, even that is not past cure. Man’s duty is to cherish good hope.

      In those lines of the First Pythian where he proclaims the doughty exploit of Gelo and his brothers at Himera against Carthage, Pindar briefly compares it (vv. 75 ff.) with Salamis and Plataea. A fragment³⁸ from a dithyramb declares that sons of Athenians laid the shining foundation-stone of freedom; and we know from Plutarch that he refers to the seafight off Artemisium. The Fifth Isthmian alludes finely to Salamis where the Lord sent forth slaughter like much rain; and, even as the hail there fell blood from men beyond number. But the next line shows that he speaks with some reluctance or embarrassment: Nevertheless, quench vaunting with silence.³⁹ From all this one gains the impression that might have been expected: Pindar is distracted between joy over the deliverance of Greece and loyalty to his own class, the nobles who had favoured the national enemy.

      Some few years later, most likely in 476 B.C., Hiero, the despot of Syracuse, induced Pindar to visit him. This meant much. In the Greek world, so tiny by our scale, Sicily was a name to fire both imagination and ambition—the powerful, wealthy, and exciting land of the west. Such a journey then was like removing from Denmark to New York in modern days. Moreover, Hiero was a puissant and illustrious prince, than whom the whole Hellenic world could show no more impressive figure. Being also notably astute, he enhanced his prestige and the splendour of his reign by two devices, both perfectly designed to catch the imagination of Greeks: he sent his racehorses and charioteers to win prizes in the Great Games at Olympia and Delphi; he attracted to his court the leading poets, some of whom commemorated these victories, while some practised other poetical forms in what shone for a while as the most dazzling focus of Greek culture; just as Italian artists, philosophers, and poets joined the brilliant court of Lorenzo de’ Medici. Thither came Simonides, the greatest of all Ionian poets since the epic period, whose Danae-fragment is among the loveliest remains of Greek art, and whose epitaphs on those who fell in the Persian wars remain unrivalled; Bacchylides, his nephew, so often foolishly decried because outshone by Pindar, but at his best an exquisite writer who in his choral poem for Delos reached the level of Tennyson;⁴⁰ Epicharmus, the sophisticated and vigorous founder of comedy; and the mighty Aeschylus himself, who wrote one of his tragedies in Sicily, honouring Aetna, the city re-founded by Hiero. Thither came Pindar also, for a sojourn lasting nearly two years. He was now in his forties, and at the height of achievement.

      The date of Pindar’s death is variously reported. Some say he died at sixty-five: that would be in 453 B.C.; others give him eighty years: that would fix his death at 438 B.C. Sundry tales were related which attest his repute both as a poet and as a man of God. It was while Thebes and Athens stood at daggers drawn that he wrote his famous dithyramb on Athens, describing her as the bulwark of Hellas; the Thebans fined him a thousand drachmae, and the Athenians paid the fine for him. When Alexander the Great burst

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