The Jews of Africa (1920)

AUTHOR'S INTRODUCTION

IN spite of the fact that even since the final destruction of the Jewish kingdom by the Romans the aims, ideas and, in some instances, even the ideals of the Jews in the various countries in which they have settled have been often divergent and at times bitterly opposed, the many histories of them which have appeared since the time of Josephus have almost invariably represented them as one people as well as of one race and one religion.

The present publication is the first, I believe, that has been attempted on the plan which I have adopted, that is, an endeavour to portray the separate and progressive history of the Jews in the different countries in which they have made their homes, since their expulsion from the land with which they had been identified for something like thirty centuries. In, at all events, the majority of historical works on the Jews the student has to follow the particular Jews he wishes to study through all the mazes of their international wanderings, and finally to dig them out from a lengthy publication, as a schoolboy extracts a German verb from a seemingly interminable sentence. In these pages I have endeavoured to compile a narrative of a great part of what has occurred to the Jews of Africa in the eighteen and a half centuries which have elapsed since Titus did his best to erase the Jews as a political race from the face of the earth. I do not claim to have given accounts of every country or former state in which Jews may have resided to a greater or less extent, within the limits of the period and continent laid down, but I have, I believe, dealt with all centres of importance in which they have been domiciled in any appreciable numbers in the continent in question. Much of the information contained in this volume is probably unknown to the average educated Jew, to say nothing of the average Gentile. Probably not one Jew in fifty thousand ever heard of the Jewish kings of Abyssinia or the Yemen or of many of the other romantic and perhaps somewhat legendary heroes whom Israel has mustered since the beginning of the Christian era. The ghettoes, ancient and modern, know little of the Gideons of Semen, of Dhu Nuwas of the Yemen, or of Bar Cochba of Palestine. Few of them—at all events of late years—have heard of Sabbathai Zevi, of David Ahoy, or of the other great Jews who did their best in the early centuries and in far distant climes to help their brethren.

This work, as I present it, must be regarded as a basis for future augmentation and elaboration by other and abler hands. Scholars possessing deeper knowledge, students trained to keener research, linguists with advantages that I do not possess, and historians with instinctive powers of selection, could produce on these lines a history of the Jews which might have weighty powers of benefit towards the solution of what is known as the Jewish Question . S. M.

Chapter I. Introductory Sketch

THE History of the Jews of Africa, more especially during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, is necessarily limited to the northern portion of the continent. There may possibly have been, from time to time, small colonies or groups of traders on the eastern coast, and stray travellers, merchants, or miners in Monomotapa, and elsewhere before or after the destruction of the Jewish state, but at the period to which this account is mainly confined, no other important settlements existed than those recorded, with the one exception of that of the Marranos in the Canary Islands, which, dating from the first quarter of the seventeenth century, appears to have dwindled and disappeared about the time of the readmission of the Jews to England, by which event its fortunes were closely affected. The countries dealt with in this work are,—in geographical progression from East to West,—Abyssinia (including Ethiopia), Egypt, Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco.

Egypt may be regarded as the cradle of the Jewish race, and in all probability it has never been without a Hebrew or Jewish population since the days when Joseph and his brethren laid the foundations of the nation. In all the other countries of Northern Africa, the Jewish population has resulted from a later immigration, and in some cases, from successive waves of immigration. Much of the history of this colonisation has been lost in the lapse of time, and even in periods more nearly approximating to the Middle Ages, the records must be considered obscure, legendary, or doubtful when examined from the more rigid historical standpoint. In the course of the following narrative it has often been necessary to thread together data supplied by travellers, historians, and writers, whose own works have been merely compilations from the works of others, and the results achieved may be reasonably questioned by critics to whom documentary evidence in matters of history is almost a sine qui non.

The story of the Jews of Samen as related in the Abyssinian section of this book is based on a number of sources, each of which has been regarded as fairly authoritative (although not necessarily exact), taken by itself. Nevertheless, the record in its cumulative character, presenting a narrative which is not generally known, will no doubt be questioned with regard to historical accuracy.

The miraculous account of Ben Smia’s voyage to Algiers is a remarkable example of the intertwining of the legendary with the historical, part of the narrative being founded on documentary evidence believed to be still in existence.

Many of the countries of Northern Africa proved a haven of refuge to the harassed Jews of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The barbarities of Torquemada, the bitter results of the hatred of Luther, together with the savage greed of less distinguished oppressors who had not even the religious excuses of their bigoted coevals, drove the wandering Israelites nearer and nearer to the land of their origin. The Crescent granted them a qualified protection, a shelter denied them by the adherents of the Cross—Catholics and Protestants alike. That this protection was granted them when they most needed it should never be forgotten by their modern co-religionists; Jews had few friends in those days; it would be ill for them to forget those who did them service in the day of their bitter need.

CHAPTER II. ABYSSINIA AND ETHIOPIA. The Advent of the Jews—Maqueda, Queen of Sheba—The First Menelik—The Gideons and Judiths of Samen—The Conquest of Abyssinia by Judith—The Fall of the Kingdom of Samen.

No part of the long and chequered career of the Jewish nation is more shrouded in mystery, and more romantic in legend, than the story of the advent and establishment of the Israelites in the mystic land known in mediaeval times as the territory of Prester John. It is a difficult task to compile from legend, tradition, and such scanty documents as exist the conjectured history of the Falashas, those dark-visaged Hebrews, whose ancestors were distributed throughout the great and distant regions which were nominally or actually under the authority of the rulers of Abyssinia and Ethiopia. As far, however, as can be surmised from such sources as are available, an independent Jewish Kingdom long existed within the confines of what was known as the Ethiopian Empire. Its territory—which varied in extent from time to time—was considerably greater than that embraced by the ancient kingdoms of Judah and Israel, and its existence, in all probability, was of a longer duration. The great mystery, which shrouded the greater part of Africa down to times still but little distant, would account for the fact that so little was known of this Jewish Kingdom, if, indeed, a kingdom actually existed, and, as a matter of fact, very little that is absolutely authentic, is known about it to-day even by those few people who have made a very close study of the history of the ancient Empire of Ethiopia and of the Kingdom of Abyssinia.

A well-known authority states, that there were always Jews in Ethiopia from the beginning, and this statement may be conjecturally justified by the proximity of Abyssinia and Ethiopia and their dependencies to the ancient homes of the Israelites in Egypt and Palestine. There are, however, several theories respecting the origin of the Jews in Abyssinia and Ethiopia, and Falashas and Abyssinians alike have always believed, and still believe, in the Judaic origin of their individual races, while many authorities are of opinion that three separate migrations of Jews into Ethiopia actually took place. The three theories chronologically arranged are as follows:—

(I) That Menelik, son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, who had received his education in Palestine, went back to Abyssinia on the establishment of the Ethiopic Empire by his mother, bringing with him a large number of Jews, at a day somewhat anterior to that on which he ascended the Abyssinian throne (986 B.C.).

(2) That Sargon, or Sennacherib, the successor of Shahnaneser III, King of Assyria, having continued the war commenced by his predecessor, conquered the Kingdom of Israel, and brought the captive Jews and their King Hosea to his country (circa 722 B.C.), and from thence they eventually found their way into Abyssinia and Ethiopia.

(3) That after the destruction of Jerusalem by Vespasian in 70 A.D., large numbers of Jews fled or drifted into Ethiopia, Abyssinia, and the neighbouring territories.

Some writers state that the descendants of the earlier emigrants who were supposed to have accompanied Menelik, treated the later arrivals as strangers, and that the latter practised rites and observed festivals unknown to the earlier colonists, who, for example, had never heard of the minor festivals of Hanucah or Purim, or of the Talmuds. If these statements are accepted they provide some justification for the acceptance of the first theory with reference to their origin. How far the account of the establishment of the Empire of Ethiopia by the Queen of Sheba may be considered as historical, it is probably useless to discuss to-day. The Bible chronicles her visit to King Solomon and all Abyssinian and Falashan traditions agree as to its authenticity and affirm that Menelik, her son (and son of King Solomon), succeeded her on the throne, while a list has been preserved of the Kings of the Race of Solomon, descended from the Queen of Saba.

Indeed, it has been maintained that it is quite possible that the Queen of Sheba and her people professed the Jewish Religion even before the reign of King Solomon, although Abyssinian annals state that the Queen was formerly a pagan, but was converted to Judaism in Jerusalem. She appears to have been a woman of learning, resource, and energy, and after she had established the Empire of Ethiopia, she settled the succession in the family of Solomon, enacting that after her no woman should be capable of wearing the crown or being queen, but that it should descend to the heir male, however distant. In all probability, most of her own people, the Sabeans, as well as a large number of the inhabitants of Abyssinia adopted the tenets of Judaism, probably soon after her visit to King Solomon at Jerusalem, an event which must have taken place somewhere about one thousand years before the beginning of the Christian era.

The Queen of Sheba died, apparently, about the year 986 B.C., and Menelik, her son, succeeded her in due course. According to Abyssinian tradition, the Queen had sent her son to the Jewish King in order that his education should be completed, and Solomon did not neglect his charge. It was believed that Menelik was duly anointed and crowned king of Ethiopia, in the temple of Jerusalem, and at his inauguration took the name of David . He returned to Azab, or Sheba, bringing with him a colony of Jews, among whom were doctors of law or Judges, and priests. All Abyssinia was thereupon converted, and the government of the church and state modelled according to what was then in use at Jerusalem . Menelik, or David I, reigned four years, but although a list of his successors has been compiled, and the dates of their accessions computed, there are so many discrepancies in the Abyssinian annals that it is useless to place any reliance on their historical value. There appears, however, to be no absolute reason to doubt the tradition that the general religion of the country continued to be that of Judaism, till the joint reign of the Kings Abreha and Atzbeha, when a large proportion of the inhabitants were converted to Christianity under the missionary influence and efforts of Frumentius, first Bishop of Abyssinia (circa 330 A.D.). It is alleged,