Tails from the Classroom: Learning and teaching through animal-assisted interventions

For Grace and Sofie, Alice, Thomas, Ava and Ruby, the young people in my life. And to the many furry and feathered companions who over the years have helped to make my house a home – HL

To Tom Webb and Colin, who loved their animals – RG

Acknowledgements

We would like to say thank you to the following people and pets for their contributions to this book:

Ava, Ruby and Sarah Clements

Beverley Gardner, CEO, Trinitas Academy Trust, Kent

Brad and Mel Rundle, founders and directors of Therapy Animals Australia

Caitlin Jones and Nora the dog

Carol Lincoln

Dr Diahann Gallard, Liverpool John Moores University

Donna Carlyle and Ted the dog

Gillian Ball, Sarah Cornish, Natalie Carroll, Kelly Sevenoaks, Otis the dog, and pupils at Christ Church (Erith) Church of England Primary School, Kent

Grace Vobe and Hoola the dog

Hannah Sweetapple and the team at the Egypt Centre, Swansea University

Hayley Anthony, Jonesy the dog, and staff and pupils at Ysgol Bryn Teg, Llanelli

Dr Janet Goodall, associate professor at Swansea University School of Education (and her panda)

Jerri and Joe Kropp and the much-missed Wrigley the dog

Jo Bowers, associate dean at Cardiff Metropolitan University

Joanna Thomas, Georgie the dog, and staff and pupils at Bishop of Llandaff School, Cardiff

John Burns, Abbi Steanson, Natasha Rudge, Katie Gardener and the team, volunteers and dogs at Burns By Your Side, Kidwelly, including Carole and her dog Sally and Emma and her dog Beau

John-Tyler Binfet, associate professor at University of British Columbia, Canada

Jude Penny, University of Gloucestershire

Judith Stephenson, Ollie the dog, and staff and pupils at Barbara Priestman Academy, Sunderland

Julie Carson and the staff, pupils and dogs at Woodlands Academy Trust, Bexley and North Kent

June and Mac Allen and the much-missed Honey the dog

Kim Jameson, Willow, Robyn and the much-missed Toby the dog

Laura Braun and Year 5 and 6 pupils at Bury Church of England Primary, West Sussex

Lindsey Watkins and the staff and pupils at Millbrook Primary School, Newport, Gwent

Michael Kaufman and Miyako Kinosita, Green Chimneys, United States

Mike Gough, Claire Whatley, Huw Waythe, Peter Pudding the rabbit, and pupils at Deighton Primary School, Tredegar

Nick Oswald, executive head teacher at Great Ouseburn Community Primary School and Nun Monkton Foundation Primary School, and the late Hedgie hedgehog

Odette Nicholas, Jade the dog, Daisy and Chip the geese, and staff and pupils at Burry Port Community Primary School, Llanelli

Sarah Ellis

Thereza Rees, the much-missed Takoda the dog, and staff and pupils at Glyncollen Primary School, Swansea

Wendy Davies and staff and pupils at Ffrindiau Bach Tegryn nursery, Aberporth

Professor Yamni Nigam and the ‘Love a Maggot’ team at Swansea University

Thanks also to the team at Crown House Publishing – David Bowman, Beverley Randell, Rosalie Williams, Tom Fitton and particularly Emma Tuck for her meticulous eye for detail.

Contents

Title Page

Dedication

Acknowledgements

List of figures, tables and boxes

Introduction

Chapter 1:Tales from the past: human–animal relationships in history

Chapter 2:Tales of friendship: animals and their impact on children’s social development and behaviour

Chapter 3:Tales with feelings: animals and their impact on children’s emotional development

Chapter 4:Literary tales: animals and their impact on children’s language, literacy and communication skills

Chapter 5:Tales of adventure: animals and their impact on children’s physical well-being and development

Chapter 6:Tales of all creatures great and small: animals and the curriculum

Chapter 7:Tales of snails, wolves and teddies: animals as starting points for cross-curricular approaches

Chapter 8:Cautionary tales: considering the practicalities and ethics of animal-assisted education

Chapter 9:Tales of ‘the dog in the playground’: making the most of dogs in schools

Conclusion

Appendix 1:Example of a weekly planning sheet to enhance provision for young children’s learning about the life cycle of birds

Appendix 2:Example risk assessment form

References and further reading

Index

Copyright

List of figures, tables and boxes

Figures

Figure 1.1. Frontispiece of The Criminal Prosecution and Capital Punishment of Animals

Figure 1.2. A court scene showing the trial of a sow in 1457

Figure 1.3. The cover of the 1888 edition of Goody Two-Shoes

Figure 1.4. A scene from Black Beauty, 1st edn (Sewell, 1877: 121)

Figure 1.5. Hogarth’s Second Stage of Cruelty, 1751. Nero beats his horse while four lawyers look on unperturbed

Figure 1.6. An object lesson on ‘the dog’, 1908

Figure 1.7. A pet club competition, 1906

Figure 1.8. A ‘young farmer’s club’, 1930s

Figure 1.9. Freud and his dog, Jofi, 1937

Figure 2.1. Factors impacting on behaviour

Figure 2.2. Otis, resident at Christ Church (Erith) Church of England Primary School in Kent

Figure 3.1. The development of emotions in children and dogs

Figure 3.2. Rabbits can provide appealing companionship

Figure 4.1. Five components of reading

Figure 4.2. Flynn and his book

Figure 4.3. Dogs make for a patient and relaxing audience

Figure 4.4. An extract from an ethnographer and children’s comics

Figure 5.1. Subtle interaction between Hoola and a child

Figure 5.2. Enjoying a calm interaction

Figure 6.1. A maggot racing game

Figure 6.2. Example of an owl pellet dissection sheet

Figure 6.3. Animals in ancient Egypt activities for Key Stage 2

Figure 7.1. Decorated prayer shells

Figure 7.2. Clay wolves

Figure 7.3. Small world bear hunt

Figure 7.4. Mildred’s and Janet’s pandas

Figure 7.5. An example of a describing frame to describe a toy panda

Figure 7.6. Example of a comparing contrasting frame

Figure 7.7. Circle of viewpoints example

Figure 8.1. Dog breed life expectancy

Figure 8.2. The five freedoms

Figure 8.3. Why do rabbits eat their own poo?

Figure 9.1. The process of preparing for a dog in school

Figure 9.2. Burns identification card

Figure 9.3. Burns volunteers and dogs in uniform

Figure 9.4. Letter to parents

Figure 9.5. Sashi’s Paw Plan

Figure 9.6. Signs of progressive stress and anxiety in dogs

Figure 9.7. Trigger stacking in dogs

Figure 9.8. Reading the body language of a dog

Figure 9.9. Subtle and respectful interaction

Figure C.1. The balance scale

Tables

Table I.1. Different types of animal-assisted interventions

Table 2.1. Three areas in which children with an autistic spectrum disorder may have difficulties

Table 2.2. Honey the dog’s potential for developing social skills in young children

Table 4.1. Dimensions of motivation to read

Table 6.1. Animals in UK national science curricula

Table 6.2. Skills relating to the foundation phase in Wales (children aged 3–7 years)

Table 6.3. Examples of artwork focusing on animals

Table 8.1. Average life expectancy of common pets

Table 8.2. Average set-up costs of housing three guinea pigs

Table 8.3. Some key information about school pets

Boxes

Box 3.1. The mirror test

Box 3.2. The experience of one psychologist, Joe Kropp, and his therapy dog, Wrigley

Box 4.1. Grace Vobe’s observation of students reading to her therapy dog, Hoola

Box 5.1. Grace Vobe and her therapy dog, Hoola

Box 6.1. An 8-year-old’s interest in insects

Box 6.2. Jo Bowers’ reflection on the educational value of her favourite animal stories

Box 8.1. Ten reasons why it ‘sucks’ to be a class pet

Box 8.2. An animal’s job description

Box 9.1. Dogs and allergies

Introduction

Clearly, animals know more than we think, and think a great deal more than we know. (Pepperberg, 2013: 214)

One of the Internet sensations of recent years is the remarkable story of Tyler and Beaker in Texas. The story began when 9-month-old Tyler spotted a little duckling called Beaker in the local pet store. Tyler’s father bought Beaker there and then. And over the last four or so years the remarkable intimacy between Tyler and Beaker has been recorded in photographs and videos.¹ When Tyler cries, Beaker quacks and runs over to him. Tyler’s first reported word was ‘duck’.

One of the things that most children around the world have in common is their love of animals. Studies show that even when presented with attractive toys to play with, given the choice, young children opt to interact with live animals. Remarkably, Lobue et al. (2013) found that toddlers aged 18–36 months even prefer to interact with potentially harmful animals, such as a black tarantula and a California mountain kingsnake, rather than their favourite toys. For research purposes, these particular creatures were placed in a cage; the outcomes may have been very different if the children had encountered them in the backyard. Psychologists suggest that most children love animals for a combination of reasons. They are attracted by their appearance, noise, movement, visibility and unpredictability, but they also see animals as ‘good listeners’ and comforters. More fundamentally, humans are biologically disposed to care for others, especially those in a vulnerable state. Children naturally stretch out to touch, fondle, cuddle or play with kittens and puppies that are only a few weeks old.

Animals certainly play a prominent part in children’s lives. Around one in two homes in the UK has a pet.² In another survey covering 4,300 children in the UK, 42% were reported to have more fun playing with their pets than their siblings or friends (Pets at Home, 2015). As soon as children open their eyes, they see animal mobiles, toys, pictures, motifs and objects, and they soon hear animal-related fables, stories, songs and rhymes. On average, around a third of a baby’s earliest vocabulary is animal words or sounds. Interestingly, one study of 900 English- and Chinese-speaking children found that even though babies in the United States were unlikely to have ducks living in their immediate families, as compared with children in Beijing, ‘ducks’ still featured in their top twenty words (Tardif et al., 2008).

Of course, there are animals who instil fear and anxiety among humans. More than one in three children (and adults) are reported to strongly dislike spiders and snakes (Muris et al., 1997). Some researchers suggest that over time humans have inherited a hardwired fear of such animals (New and German, 2014). In one recent study, children aged 4 were shown images of spiders and snakes on white backgrounds for five seconds. The children sat on their parents’ laps, but to prevent parents from seeing the images and inadvertently influencing their children’s reactions they were given opaque sunglasses. When the children saw pictures of the snakes and spiders, their pupils consistently dilated more than when they were shown control images of flowers and fish. The dilation of pupils is widely accepted as a sign of stress. It is difficult to overcome the irrational fear of certain creatures. In the children’s book I’m Trying to Love Spiders (Barton, 2015), an arachnophobe tries to overcome her fear. In so doing, she learns about spiders’ impressive web-spinning talents and their habit of consuming insects that are harmful to humans. Education clearly has a key role in helping children to manage their animal phobias.

The western attitude towards animals largely stems from the notion that, as ‘inferior creatures’, they are subservient to humans. After all, humans could tame animals and therefore were superior to them. Historically, legal and religious systems have permitted humans to use animals to meet their needs, even when this might result in the animal’s pain and suffering. Sadly, there is a very long, dark history of the way humans have treated animals, even among those professing to be a nation of animal lovers. For example, it is not widely known that 750,000 pets were destroyed in Britain within one week in the summer of 1939. Pet owners took this decision on the advice of the newly formed National Air Raid Precautions Animals Committee, which urged householders to take their pets to the country for safety or, if they could not do so, ‘it really is kindest to have them destroyed’ (Campbell, 2013: xi).

Unfortunately, as Horowitz (2019) observes, in the last fifty or so years, despite scientific advances which show that animals feel pain, are capable of rational thinking and (in some cases) demonstrate self-awareness, such knowledge is not universally reflected in the laws of the land.³ Neither is it reflected in practice. For every animal which enjoys human affection, there are myriads more victims of brutality at the hands of humans or machines. Each year, organisations who try to care for and protect animals around the world report unspeakable cases of neglect and cruelty. On average, the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) reports that someone rings their 24-hour cruelty line every thirty seconds. In 2019, it received more than 1.2 million telephone calls and each year typically investigates more than 185,000 cases of neglect and cruelty.⁴ We hope that education can support the development of young people’s understanding and compassion, the need for which features highly in this book.

Throughout this book we use animal-assisted interventions (AAI) as an umbrella term to cover various schemes and initiatives which feature animals for the broad purpose of improving human behaviour in an ethical way. Within the field there are different types of intervention. The American Veterinary Medical Association distinguishes between animal-assisted therapy (AAT), animal-assisted education (AAE), animal-assisted activities (AAA) and AAI resident animals. The differences mainly relate to who provides the intervention and the intended goals (Table I.1). In AAA sessions focusing on reading, children read to a dog mainly on a one-to-one basis, with the dog handler present to ensure safety for all parties while also occasionally offering supportive prompts. In AAE sessions, where there is always an educational goal, the teacher or education expert provides small groups of students with explicit reading strategies and discusses what they have read with them, while the role of the animal is to make the setting more informal and relaxed, thereby motivating the students. Animals can also be actively involved in the sessions, even distributing resources. The use of service animals, such as those which support people with disabilities or those handled by the police, are not considered to represent an AAI.

Table I.1. Different types of animal-assisted interventions

Source: Adapted from https://www.avma.org/KB/Policies/Pages/Animal-Assisted-Interventions-Definitions.aspx

Anthrozoology describes the study of human–animal interactions. As an academic field, it has experienced significant growth over the last twenty-five years. Scholarship has consistently revealed the strong emotional bonds that exist in human–animal relationships, as well as highlighting the broader health benefits humans derive from companion animals for therapeutic purposes.

One of the premises behind AAI is that stress is a significant variable in learning and that it can be mediated through interactions with animals (Sroufe, 2017). The emphasis is very much on fostering students’ self-management skills through AAIs, such as learning to handle stress and self-motivation, as well as building self-confidence and positive attitudes. These social and emotional aspects of learning are discussed further in Chapters 2 and 3. Despite the growing body of literature on AAIs, the theoretical basis is often overlooked. Geist (2011) suggests there is a lack of a coherent, unified conceptual framework, which presents problems for professionals seeking a scientific evaluation of the effectiveness of AAIs and possible funding.

A less studied but equally valid line of enquiry is the impact such interactions have on animal welfare (Hosey and Melfi, 2018). Becky Bishop owned a dog therapy business in Washington state and took her dogs to visit hospices. She noticed that while people felt better after the visits, her dogs seemed depressed. After hearing about the Reading Education Assistance Dogs (READ) programme, in 2000 Bishop started her own Reading with Rover programme in her local library. She found not only that parents reported gains in their children’s reading, but also that the dogs appeared much happier. On the basis of such stories, there is a need to conduct more systematic and rigorous research on the impact of AAIs on all participants, including the animal.

From an educationalist’s perspective, it is possible to discern the application of various learning and developmental theories to AAIs. Biophilia (literally ‘love of the living world’) suggests that humans have an innate tendency to connect with nature and other forms of life (Wilson, 1990; Kruger and Serpell, 2006). In Chapter 3, we discuss the theory of attachment (Bowlby, 1953, 1969), which posits that learning requires a sense of emotional and physical security gained through ‘attachment’ to another person or, in the context of this book, an animal. Behaviourism emphasises learning through repetition and responding to external stimuli. Ivan Pavlov’s famous experiments on dogs in the 1920s revealed how their behaviour could be conditioned by ringing bells to signal the arrival of food (see McSweeney and Bierley, 1984). The American psychologist John Watson (1930) argued that humans differed from other animals only in the behaviour they demonstrated, and such behaviour could be modified, whereas B. F. Skinner (1965) argued that animal and human behaviour was shaped through positive and negative reinforcement, such as giving rats food pellets or mild electric shocks. Constructivism sees learning as an active process of constructing meaning through interacting with others and their environment. When children interact with animals, they ‘read’ cues and begin to make sense of their surroundings. Jean Piaget’s theory of cognition suggests that children see animals as peers (Piaget, 1929), while, in line with Jerome Bruner’s theory, there are suggestions that ‘play with pets might well have the horizontal and symbolic properties shown to be developmentally beneficial’ (Melson, 2001: 11). It is possible to see the influence of these theories when observing AAIs.

‘Learning by doing’ is not so much a theory but a philosophy advocated by John Dewey (1938), who valued first-hand, real-life experience as a basis for learning. Similarly, David Kolb (1984) advocated experiential learning in which students engaged in ‘concrete’ experiences, observing and reflecting on these and then abstracting conceptual understanding from them. Through the direct acts of feeding and caring for animals, students acquire knowledge, skills and values that would not be possible through reading about animals or hearing what others have to say.

Motivation has attracted several theories which seek to describe why people behave the way they do. Abraham Maslow (1954) suggested that there is a hierarchy of needs, from basic ones (e.g. food, shelter, love) which must be met before an individual can fulfil his or her talents or potential (a state of self-actualisation). David McClelland (1988) theorised that each of us are motivated by the need for achievement (and the recognition this brings), affiliation (to be with others) and power (to control others). Carol Dweck’s (1986) work on mindsets suggests that some students attribute success to innate talent (fixed) rather than effort and repeated practice (growth). These theorists are relevant to AAIs because motivation is often reported to be a key factor in their success, and is a recurrent theme in this book. Students are intrinsically motivated by their love of animals to interact with them, and learning is optimised when students enjoy the companionship of animals.

The book follows a straightforward structure. Chapter 1 provides a historical overview of human–animal interactions. It highlights how animals have played a central part in humans’ social, spiritual and cultural development, featuring in rituals, ceremonies and customs. While human attitudes towards animals and their treatment of them has always attracted the interest of historians, a growing number of scholars are challenging the notion that only humans make history (e.g. Kean and Howell, 2018). For example, a recent exhibition at the Museum of London called ‘Beasts of London’ explored how animals such as elephants, horses, rats and pigeons have shaped the city and its beastly history. The curators were inspired by the museum’s collection of animal artefacts. Chaline (2011) lists fifty animals – including horses, dogs, rats, beavers, fleas and falcons – that have dramatically changed the course of history.

Chapters 2, 3, 4 and 5 focus on particular dimensions of well-being. This is a complex, overarching concept relating to the quality of people’s lives. The Children’s Society definition of well-being is a useful starting point: ‘It is about how well we are, and how our lives are going.’⁵ And so one way of reading this book is to see it as a commentary on how children’s love of animals can contribute to their all-round development or well-being: social (Chapter 2), emotional (Chapter 3), intellectual (Chapter 4) and physical (Chapter 5). These are naturally interrelated dimensions and should be viewed holistically. For example, when a child physically stretches out and smooths an animal, this action releases endorphins in the nervous system, which can reduce anxiety and form the basis of social attachment to animals (Levinson, 1962). It is only out of structural convenience that we examine the physical, social and emotional aspects in isolation.

Chapters 6 and 7 discuss how AAIs can contribute towards learning in different subject areas and across the curriculum. We have not explored the potential of AAIs in every subject; rather, examples are chosen to illustrate possible starting points for teachers in a range of subject and thematic contexts. In some cases, such as science, it should be fairly obvious that learning about animals can develop children’s subject-specific knowledge (e.g. of habitats and life cycles) and skills (e.g. observation, questioning). But animals also feature strongly in less obvious areas, such as the arts, literature, and religious and moral codes.

Chapter 8 addresses the general ethical and practical challenges of managing animals in school. As with any learning experience, careful planning and organisation increase the likelihood of anticipated gains being realised. Finally, given that dogs are the most popular of pets and the growing body of literature surrounding their presence in educational settings, Chapter 9 focuses on maximising the learning potential associated with school dogs. Any intervention that involves animals raises questions about ethical and welfare considerations. As Serpell et al. (2010: 497) point out: ‘the use of animals for animal-assisted activities and therapy imposes a unique set of stresses and strains on them that the industry has only recently begun to acknowledge’. The ethical standards underpinning AAIs have not been subjected to any systematic review. Moreover, there are concerns over a lack of standardised training for handlers and practitioners, the absence of regulations regarding working conditions, such as breaks and age restrictions, and the impact such interventions have on the animal’s psychological and physiological condition.

However, researchers should always adhere to established ethical protocols, with university-based staff expected to follow the respective university’s ethical procedures. Writers themselves also have to make ethical decisions over what to include in their publications based on their own personal convictions. For example, we have not referred to any of the research involving children and dolphins because we believe that the latter should not be kept in aquariums, notwithstanding questions over whether these animals were captured from the wild. Similarly, we have not referred to specific examples of school farms where animals enter the food chain.

Despite the growing interest in AAIs, a running theme throughout the book is the shortage of longitudinal studies to confirm whether the short-term gains which are widely reported are sustainable. However, while longitudinal research provides a stronger evidence base for the benefits or otherwise of AAIs, conducting such research is time-consuming and expensive. An over-reliance on small-scale case studies makes generalisations in a range of educational contexts more difficult. Many such studies rely on personal experiences