Camouflage: Modern International Military Patterns

Introduction

What is Camouflage?

A typical definition of the term camouflage might render ‘a way of hiding soldiers and military equipment, using paint, leaves, or nets, so that they look like part of their surroundings.’ In terms that apply specifically to military personnel, we typically think of camouflage as articles of clothing printed in designs that, under the correct conditions, will render the wearer invisible to a casual observer.

Historically, this would have been a perfectly acceptable way to think of military camouflage, given the fact that its purpose from inception was to disguise or conceal the wearer. It may seem perplexing to the reader, then, to discover that we must really arrive at a much broader definition of the word, if we are to delve more deeply into the variety of designs and color combinations that comprise military camouflage in the second half of the twentieth century and to the present day.

Up to the late 1970s, it would be accurate to say that camouflage designs were almost exclusively of a pragmatic nature. That is, the developers intended for the wearer to be disguised or hidden when wearing or employing it. However, at some point in the 1980s, national laboratories, private companies, and individual camoufleurs began playing around with the color schemes of typical camouflage patterns, so that the wearer ended up standing out rather than becoming more obscure. The earliest of these non-functional patterns were the so-called ‘urban’ camouflage designs (usually employing shades of grey and blue in combination with black). While it might be argued that these initially had a functional purpose in mind, in practice the brighter blues and lighter greys tended to distinguish rather than disguise the wearer, becoming more a mark of pride instead of a functioning operational garment. In the latter part of the twentieth century, blue and grey camouflage became a mark of distinction for many law enforcement agencies throughout the world.

Straying even further from the practical aspects of camouflage design, by the late 1990s we see numerous distinctive patterns emerging whose sole purpose is to immediately identify the wearer either as coming from a particular unit or entity, or at least stand out and be easily identified – whether in a crowd of people, or in extreme situations such as search and rescue missions or firefighting. Purists will insist that true camouflage must be functional and, as a linguist, I am prone to agree with them, up to a point. Yet, we cannot deny the fact that colorful (or even garish) designs that utilize traditional shapes, drawings, and geometrical patterns have some relationship with the more functional, traditional camouflage designed for the typical infantry soldier. There is a relationship, and if you were to query the average collector of camouflage uniforms from any part of the world, I am sure they would admit they have included at least some examples of non-functional camouflage patterns in their collections.

As the world emerged from the Second World War, the concept of military camouflage was still in its infancy. It is possible to count on one’s hands the number of countries that actually employed unique camouflage designs during the war, and from there we would need to subtract quite a handful that continued to use it once hostilities had ended. Camouflage, at least in the eyes of most Europeans, was equated with the war and not with peacetime service, and in many cases was associated with wartime combat units that had a sinister reputation, such as the Waffen SS. Olive drab remained the color of most Army service uniforms, with camouflage being retained most often only for elite units such as paratroopers, commandos, reconnaissance personnel, and snipers. Many camouflage designs that emerged in the post-war years were in fact based on those developed during the war, and it was really not until the world began to experience a new type of warfare – on a smaller scale, waged by ragtag forces (freedom fighters, or terrorist insurgents, depending on one’s perspective) – that the need arose for better disguising the ground personnel operating in places across Africa, Asia and Latin America.

In Europe, camouflage designs arose from three main traditions – Britain, Germany and Italy. Although Italian camouflage had been around for the longest period of time, it probably had the narrowest influence on camouflage designs in the twentieth century. Britain, whose ‘brushstroke’ design was essentially a quick-fix solution to the need for disguising commandos and paratroopers, would go on to influence the series of French ‘lizard’ patterns, the Southeast Asian ‘tiger stripe’ designs, the UK’s own Disruptive Pattern Material (which would spread across the globe), as well as a host of other brushstroke-derivative patterns that would populate at least five continents. At the same time, Germany’s wartime patterns, although stigmatized by their association with the Nazi Schutzstaffel, would nevertheless influence not only future patterns in Germany, but those in neighboring Central, Eastern and Northern European nations as well.

Meanwhile, in the Americas, the use of camouflage was relegated to the back burner, particularly by the United States. Although American military developers would continue to experiment with designs, it would be nearly twenty years after the end of the Second World War before the usefulness of infantry camouflage was embraced, and then it would still be largely relegated to troops with specific duties, such as intelligence gathering and reconnaissance. Likewise, Canada would retain the use of olive-green combat fatigues for the majority of its armed forces until long after the rest of the world had adopted some sort of camouflage design for its ground personnel.

The remainder of the world’s armed forces were largely influenced by a select few camouflage traditions, then – those of Britain, wartime Germany, pre-war Italy, Russia and the United States. Pattern concepts then branched out to influence the traditions of other nations, beginning initially with what remained of European colonial possessions in Asia, Africa and the Americas, and later to the armed forces of nations that fell under the heavy political influence of superpowers like the Soviet Union and the United States. Although there are camouflage designs that may not fit easily into the ‘camouflage family tree’, for the most part the concept holds true until the development of so-called ‘digital camouflage designs’.

The idea of multi-scale camouflage is to combine patterns or shapes utilizing two or more scales in order to create a camouflage design that is effective at disrupting the wearer’s shape over a range of distances. Although the concept took root in the mid-twentieth century and had been touched on by the Germans, Russians, and independent designers such as Timothy O’Neill, it did not really take off until the first truly pixilated camouflage design was developed for the Canadian Armed Forces and issued in 2002. From that initial CADPAT design evolved an entire range of functional pixilated and fractal camouflage designs, often developed with the aid of computer technology, as well as a host of knock-offs which are essentially just recolored versions of CADPAT or other popular designs. Although ‘digital’ patterns have replaced more conventional designs in many armed forces around the world, it can be argued that the vast majority of them function no more effectively than old-fashioned hand- drawn designs, or even solid colored uniforms and have become fashion statements in their own right.

What does this book cover?

My intention has been to create a single-volume reference work that covers the majority of camouflage designs issued by the world’s military and paramilitary forces since the end of the Second World War. Additionally, when evidence has documented substantial use of patterns or designs by unconventional forces (insurgents, freedom fighters, terrorists, or whatever you wish to call them), I have attempted to document these as well, or at least mention their usage. The reader should be able to find the majority of camouflage designs with which they are familiar within these pages, as well as a host of additional designs or usages which may be new to them. What you will not find here, at least not with any degree of focus or attempt at encyclopedic coverage, are experimental or test camouflage patterns. Although the subject of experimental camouflage is both fascinating and far-reaching, its scope is far too great to attempt in this volume. Indeed, I would hypothesize that it would be nearly impossible to address the subject of experimental camouflage designs (except, perhaps, by individual nations that have kept prolific and accurate records) simply due to a lack of resources and accessible documentation. In a few cases where an experimental design was issued to a large number of military personnel deployed in combat, there may be some mention in this volume, but even in situations where a well-known design saw very limited use by special operations personnel I am leaving the subject for another time, and probably another author.

Chapter 1

Africa

ALGERIA

Algeria is today officially known as the People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria ( ), though historically it has been a part of many subject territories, including the Carthaginian, Roman, Byzantine, Spanish and Ottoman empires. The French seized control of Algiers in 1830 and lead a military campaign that ended in complete control by 1848. Once under French control, Algeria was considered an integral part of France, with tens of thousands of Europeans emigrating there.

The Algerian War was launched by the Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) in 1954 with the aim of liberating Algeria from French control. French forces were pitted against the Armée de Libération Nationale (ALN), the armed wing of the FLN. The war was primarily a guerilla campaign, but it evolved into a civil war as well, with loyalist Algerians supporting the nation remaining French and the insurrectionists favoring independence. Combat even spilled over into France, in the form of the so-called ‘Cafe Wars’, bombings and assassinations that centered around cafes, perpetrated both by the FLN and the rival Mouvement National Algérien (MNA). France ultimately capitulated after nine years of war and Algeria achieved its independence in 1963.

During the period of French administration, the only use of camouflage by native Algerian military personnel was by specialized units such as the commandos, although captured stocks of French uniforms were also worn by the ALN during the war. Algeria has continued to utilize French-inspired camouflage into the present era; however, a greater number of non-French inspired designs have been adopted as well, particularly during the latter part of the twentieth century and into the present era.

French Camouflage

Algeria was considered France’s tenth Military District and was populated by a number of native Algerian units such as Tirailleur infantry, Spahi mechanized cavalry regiments, and an assortment of commando units. The French-designed tenue du leopard or ‘lizard’ camouflage design was worn by some of these specialist units, such as the Commandos de Chasse, who, in addition to issue military garments, adopted special, locally-produced caps and berets. For the length of the Algerian War, and for a period of time following independence, an assortment of native French ‘lizard’ designs could be found in use with Algerian units. These included the full array of designs up to and including the standardized ‘F1’ found on the Mle 1948 Tenue Toutes Armes (TTA) and the Mle 1947/56 Troupes Aéro Portée (TAP) uniforms.

For full details of French lizard camouflage produced during this era, see the section on France.

Algerian Camouflage

Several camouflage patterns arose during the 1960s, although photographic documentation of their use with Algerian forces is limited. Of these, the most notable are a copy of the Spanish rocoso (rocks) pattern – possibly made from imported fabric – as well as a curious blotch or spot pattern of undetermined origins.

During the late 1980s or early 1990s a number of additional camouflage patterns came into use with Algerian forces, including additional designs inspired by French, British, Belgian and American patterns. The earliest of these is a ‘lizard’ pattern with very dark coloration incorporating purple and very dark olive stripes on an medium olive green background. At this point, uniform styles followed closely the original French TAP design.

Spanish-manufactured camouflage fabric in rocoso (rocks) pattern was exported to Algeria for production into combat clothing, circa 1960s

This purple-dominant ‘lizard’ variant pattern camouflage is of 1980s vintage.

Algerian Marines wearing a DPM variant pattern in use since at least 2007. (Private collection)

Algerian Army officers wearing a green-dominant, woodland derivative camouflage design. (Private collection)

Algerian Special Forces soldier circa 2013 wearing ‘brushstroke’ pattern uniform; the design appears to be influenced by Belgian patterns. (Private collection)

Introduced circa 2012, this mottled or spotted camouflage design has an arid colorway. (Private collection)

Algerian paratroops wearing a grey dominant lizard pattern. The lizard was reintroduced circa 2010–12. (Private collection)

Members of the elite Garde Republicaine wear a splinter-inspired camouflage design with a woodland color palette. This pattern was adopted relatively recently. (Private collection)

ANGOLA

The Republic of Angola (República de Angola) has a long history of association with Portugal through its status as a colonial possession. A post-war wave of African nationalism took root here in the 1950s, leading to civil war in 1961 involving the Portuguese Armed Forces as well as the MPLA (Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola), the FNLA (National Front for the Liberation of Angola), and UNITA (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola). Although complete independence was granted in 1975 (following a change in government from military dictatorship to liberal democracy within Portugal), internal fighting in Angola continued into the 1990s as the three factions, each supported by foreign governments, vied for control.

During the 1970s, FNLA and UNITA forged a shaky alliance against the MPLA, in response to which the Soviet Union and Cuba channeled increasing military assistance to the Forças Armadas Populares de Libertação de Angola or FAPLA (the armed wing of the MPLA), aid that would continue well into the 1990s. The United States initially countered by supporting Daniel Chipenda’s FNLA, with South Africa offering its support to both the FNLA and Jonas Savimbi’s UNITA. This overt military support, however, was short-lived, with US aid ending in December 1975 and the South African Defense Force leaving the country in February 1976. Meanwhile, as many as 11,000 Cuban advisors remained in Angola, along with a number of Soviet military personnel, and a large assortment of war materiel. The MPLA subsequently became the de facto government of the nation, with UNITA and the FNLA continuing an insurgency campaign against the FAPLA. Although they would still receive covert support from several nations, including the United States, South Africa, and Zaire, the FNLA eventually capitulated, leaving UNITA to continue waging its war against FAPLA. Many FNLA personnel would later be transformed into 32 Battalion of the SADF, a Portuguese-speaking special operations unit with a fierce reputation and more cross- border combat experience than any other unit of the SADF. As for UNITA, when its leader, Jonas Savimbi, was killed during combat operations in February 2002, the group negotiated a ceasefire shortly thereafter and by August of that year had given up the armed struggle, declaring its intent to focus on political means of change. Approximately 4.28 million people were displaced over the course of the twenty-seven-year Angolan Civil War, with as many as 500,000 people killed.

Camouflage from the Angolan Civil War

Originally issued to units serving in Africa, the m63 ‘vertical lizard’ camouflage pattern was worn by Portuguese and Colonial personnel throughout the Angolan War for Independence. Remaining stocks ended up in the hands of FAPLA, UNITA and the FNLA, when they were liberated from supply houses after Portuguese military personnel abandoned the country. Limited stocks would remain in usage with FAPLA into the late twentieth century.

Several types of Portuguese lizard camouflage were worn by both Portuguese military forces and by insurgent forces of FAPLA, the FNLA and UNITA.

MPLA/FAPLA insurgents wearing Portuguese Army issued lizard camouflage during the war. (Private collection)

Cuban military personnel initially brought great numbers of ‘grey lizard’ pattern camouflage uniforms with them when deployed to Angola. The pattern was so popular with Angolan forces that it remained in service long after the Cubans left, with subsequent contracts being fulfilled by manufacturers in South Korea. The pattern fell into disuse in the 1990s. (Private collection)

FAPLA personnel also wore export uniforms in East German strichtarnmuster (rain pattern) camouflage. These uniforms were mostly seen in the early part of the war.

UNITA personnel for a brief period wore ex-Rhodesian pattern camouflage uniforms. Use was extremely limited, as UNITA personnel were typically outfitted in various shades of olive green.

Limited use of French lizard pattern camouflage was seen by UNITA commanders when making public appearances, but does not appear to have been worn on combat operations with any degree of frequency.

Angolan Camouflage

The Angolan Armed Forces (FAA, or Forças Armadas Angolanas) have procured nearly all of their military uniforms from foreign sources in Asia. This practice continues into the present era.

Angolan soldier wearing a lime-green based woodland pattern uniform circa 2002. (Private collection)

Two Angolan Commandos wear the current Multicam pattern, adopted as the standard camouflage pattern beginning in 2014. (Private collection)

Several variations of US woodland pattern camouflage have been worn by Angolan military personnel since the 1990s. It has probably seen the most use of any camouflage design within the FAA. (Private collection)

Of Chinese origin, this unique pattern of swirling amoeba shapes saw service with the FAA in the 1990s.

Also supplied by EO in less substantial numbers were French-inspired camouflage uniforms in DPM pattern camouflage.

When the South African-based company Executive Outcomes (EO) became involved in training and equipping the FAA in the 1990s, they introduced a number of camouflage uniforms that would be dispersed among several Angolan units. The Chinese-made copy of French lizard camouflage was particularly popular with the EO trainers.

BENIN

Formerly known as Dahomey, the République du Bénin has had a long association with France, both before and after being granted complete independence in 1960.

Between 1960 and 1972, several coups d’etat and regime changes dominated the political scene in Dahomey. In October 1972, Lieutenant Colonel Mathieu Kérékou overthrew a presidential council created by previous political rivals and declared himself president of a Marxist state under control of the Military Council of the Revolution (CNR). On 30 November 1975, the country was renamed the People’s Republic of Benin. Riots broke out in 1989 over the Kérékou regime’s failure to pay its army. Shortly thereafter, the nation renounced Marxism, ratified a new constitution, and renamed the country the Republic of Benin in March of 1990. Kérékou lost the presidential election in 1991, but regained it by popular vote in 1996, and again in 2001.

Copies of the French leópard (or ‘lizard’) pattern camouflage have been in use by the Armed Forces since the 1980s, and quite probably earlier. The majority of its military personnel continue to wear this pattern.

Armored personnel NCO wearing typical lizard pattern uniform of Benin Armed Forces. (Private collection)

A unique camouflage design incorporating animal heads and footprints is worn by personnel of the paramilitary park rangers of the Special Brigade, charged primarily with anti-poaching operations.

At least some Benin personnel have worn a copy of the US m81 woodland pattern.

The Customs Service of Benin (Douanes Béninoises) also has its own camouflage pattern, loosely based on the US-designed six-color ‘chocolate chip’ desert pattern. (Private collection)

BIAFRA

During the early 1960s, ethnic violence had claimed thousands of lives as several coups d’etat vied for control of Nigeria, and military leaders from one tribe vented their anger on civilians from rival tribes. During the July 1966 coup, as many as 30,000 Igbos had been killed in northern Nigeria. Unable to reconcile their regional differences and share power, the south-eastern and ethnically Igbo region seceded and declared itself the Republic of Biafra on 26 May 1967. Large oil reserves that had recently been discovered in the east, however, necessitated in the minds of the Federal government that the region be restored to Nigerian control, and a military invasion (termed a ‘police action’) was launched to that end.

At the beginning of the civil war, military resources in Biafra were minimal and only around 3,000 personnel served with the Biafran Army. Many arms and munitions were fabricated locally from scrounged resources, as no support would be openly forthcoming from any other nations. A number of Europeans and Southern Africans ultimately served with the Biafran Army, and by the war’s end as many as 30,000 troops would have swelled its ranks. Frequently termed ‘mercenaries’, a number of the more prominent figures were in fact émigrés with considerable military experience who believed in the Biafran cause and were granted Biafran citizenship. Nevertheless, a fair number of foreigners were simply warriors for hire. Supported financially and militarily by the United Kingdom, USSR, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and the USA, the Nigerian Federal Army eventually defeated the Biafran forces, who surrendered on January 13, 1970.

The standard combat uniform of Biafran forces was olive green, but a number of troops did acquire the Nigerian-issue ‘vertical lizard’ pattern camouflage uniform during the war. (Private collection)

Seen here on senior commander General Odumegwu Ojukwu, a locally produced duck hunter or ‘spot’ camouflage pattern was also commonly found among some Biafran personnel. (Private collection)

BOTSWANA

The Republic of Botswana (Lefatshe la Botswana) was previously the British protectorate of Bechuanaland. Between 1885 and 1964, the land was administered by Britain, but when proposals were made for democratic self- government they were granted, with general elections and ratification of a constitution leading to full independence in September 1966. Botswana is one of very few nations in Africa to have never suffered a coup d’etat, dictatorship, civil war, or armed conflict with any of its neighbors. It has maintained strong ties with the United Kingdom and the Botswana Defense Force (BDF) follows the British model.

Members of Special Support Group (SSG) currently wear a mottled grey camouflage pattern seen here. (Private collection)

British DPM has been the standard camouflage pattern of the BDF since the mid-1980s and continues to be worn today. (Private collection)

BURKINA FASO

Formerly a colonial territory of France, this region became the self-governing Republic of Upper Volta in December 1958. The first president of Upper Volta was Maurice Yaméogo who, shortly after coming to power, banned all political parties other than his own Voltaic Democratic Union. His government lasted until 1966, when he was deposed in a military coup d’etat which suspended the constitution, dissolved the National Assembly, and placed Lieutenant Colonel Sangoulé Lamizana at the head of a government of senior army officers. A new constitution was ratified in 1970, but Lamizana remained in power as president until November 1980, when he was overthrown in a bloodless coup headed by Colonel Saye Zerbo. Two years later, Zerbo was himself overthrown by Major Dr Jean-Baptiste Ouédraogo, who only managed to retain power until August 1983, when yet another coup installed former Prime Minister Captain Thomas Sankara as president. The nation changed its name to Burkina Faso (Land of Honest People) under Sankara.

In use since the 1980s, variations of the French leópard or ’lizard’ camouflage pattern continue to be worn into the present period. Seen here is a very early French-style M1964 pattern uniform. (Private collection)

A more recent variation of the French lizard pattern features bolder colors and varied shapes from the historical French designs. (Ministère de la Défense Nationale)

The Gendarmerie Nationale have worn a leaf pattern camouflage design with a blue-purple colorway, and having the ‘Gendarmerie Burkina’ logo embedded within the pattern. (Gendarmerie Burkina Faso)

In use by regular army personnel since 2012, this horizontal stripe pattern consists of green and rust-colored shapes on an orange earth-colored background. (Private collection)

The Mobile Brigade of the Customs Service (Douanes de Burkina Faso) wear a ‘grey lizard’ pattern camouflage design, very similar to that produced in Cuba and later in Angola and Yugoslavia. (Private collection)

A variation of the horizontal stripe pattern worn in desert/arid conditions is also in use with Burkinabe personnel, since around 2015. (Private collection)

Seen here worn by the commander of the Garde Présidentielle, a kind of ‘duck hunter’ pattern with brown and green spots on a yellow-tan background is worn by members of this unit. (Ministère de la Défense Nationale)

The Garde de Sécurité Pénitentiaire have worn a light blue-grey digital camouflage design since at least 2016. (Private collection)

In October 1987, Sankara and twelve other political officials were assassinated in another coup d’état organized by his former colleague, Blaise Compaoré, who has remained in power as president ever since.

Although this nation maintains loose connections to France, its use of camouflage is quite varied and shows influence from a number of sources, as well as designs unique to the country itself.

BURUNDI

Although once part of German East Africa, Burundi became part of the Belgian mandate following the First World War and has maintained ties to that country since obtaining independence in 1962. Like its neighbor Rwanda, the République du Burundi is home to two primary ethnic groups, the Tutsi and the Hutu, which has given rise to periodic episodes of inter- tribal violence and government-sponsored oppression. Following the assassination of the first Hutu head of state, Melchior Ndadaye, in October 1993, a civil war erupted in which more than 300,000 people were killed over a period of three years. Only after a military coup d’etat seized power in 1996 was peace restored, although it took an additional four years of negotiations before a transitional government was created.

Belgian ‘jigsaw’ pattern camouflage was worn both by certain local units during the colonial era, and for a period of time thereafter.

A jigsaw variant pattern, unique to Burundi, was in service with this country since at least the early part of the twenty-first century. Note the colors are much darker than those of the Belgian versions.

A variation of the army jigsaw with a blue colorway was worn by the National Gendarmerie for a period of time but has since been replaced. (Private collection)

Units serving with the OAU, as well as commando personnel adopted a copy of the US m81 woodland pattern until recent years.

The Police de Sécurité Intérieure (a unit of the National Police) also adopted a variation of the ‘leaf ’ design with a blue colorway, in service until approximately 2017. (Private collection)

The Police de Sécurité Intérieure began wearing a digital pattern with a grey colorway in 2017, although many units continue to wear the old blue pattern. (Private collection)

The Armed Forces adopted a new ‘pixelated’ camouflage design incorporating black, brown and foliage green shapes on a khaki background since approximately 2016. (Private collection)

Seen here worn by an Army officer in 2013, this ‘leaf ’ type camouflage design saw extensive service with the Burundi Armed Forces until quite recently. (Private collection)

Although retaining strong ties to Belgian military traditions, Burundi has slowly broken out on its own with regards to the use of military camouflage designs. Since 2016 the armed forces and gendarmerie have both embraced the so-called ‘pixel age’ of camouflage which has taken hold in so many parts of the world.

CAMEROON

The present day République du Cameroun has an interesting colonial history involving Germany,France and the United Kingdom. Following a period of colonial war, independence was granted by France in 1956, and in 1961 the British Cameroons joined the new territory to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon. However, an ongoing conflict with the Union of the Peoples of Cameroon (UPC) party continued into the 1970s. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, Cameroon suffered a severe economic crisis, in part due to years of corruption and mismanagement within the government. With the reintroduction of multi- party politics in December 1990, the former British Cameroons pressure groups called for greater autonomy, with some advocating complete secession as the Republic of Ambazonia. In February 2008, Cameroon experienced its worst violence in fifteen years when a transportation union strike in Douala escalated into violent protests in thirty-one municipal areas.

Use of the French leópard or ‘lizard’ pattern uniform within the Cameroon armed forces has been documented since at least the 1980s, and probably much earlier. Several variations are documented, although it appears most of these were phased out by the 1990s. (Private collection)

Variations of ‘woodland’ type camouflage are worn by certain units within the armed forces, particularly the Naval Infantry and the Anti-Terrorist Unit of the Army. (Private collection)

This member of the Marine Nationale wears a copy of the US tricolor desert pattern in typical M1964 uniform design. (Private collection)

Cameroon has also made significant use of a Chinese-made copy of the ‘lizard’ pattern, having less well-defined stripes but more consistent coloration. These members of the Rapid Intervention Battalion (Battalion d’intervention rapide) wear a uniform modeled after the French Army’s design for airborne personnel. (Private collection)

A different woodland pattern is currently worn by the Bataillon d’Intervention Rapide (BIR), having dark brown, dark green and black shapes on a pale green background. (Private collection)

CAPE VERDE

The islands comprising the Republic of Cape Verde (República de Cabo Verde) were reputedly uninhabited prior to being colonized by Portugal in the fifteenth century. During that period, the islands became an important part of the slave trade, and were a target for infrequent raids from pirates and other European nations. After the decline of the slave trade, Cape Verde became an important commercial center and re-supply stopover. During the 1950s, growing nationalism and a desire for independence spawned the creation of the Partido Africano da Independência da Guiné e Cabo Verdeor or PAIGC (African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde), which waged a guerilla campaign against the Portuguese in the mainland colony of Portuguese Guinea. Yet the insurgency did not disrupt life on Cape Verde. The nation eased into its independent status, which was officially granted in July of 1975.

The Partido Africano da Independência de Cabo Verde (PAICV), or African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde, was created in 1980 as a response to a coup in Guinea-Bissau, and ruled the nation as a one-party state until 1990. Growing political pressure, however, brought about multi-party elections in September 1990, which the nation has retained ever since.

Brazilian Army vertical lizard pattern camouflage has been documented in service with units of the FARP, particularly those having a public function, such as military police and presidential honor guards.

Like many Francophone countries in Africa, a Chinese-made copy of the French ‘lizard’ pattern has been in use with the FARP for many years. Although replaced by other designs in some parts of the armed forces, this pattern continues to be worn by some units, including the Fuzilieros Navais (Marine Corps). (Private collection)

The armed forces were originally known as the Forças Armadas Revolucionarias do Povo (FARP) or People’s Revolutionary Armed Forces, but in the early 1990s this changed to Forças Armadas Cabo Verdeanas (FACV). The Force consists of only about 1,200 personnel, divided into the Army and Coast Guard. The FACV was restructured around 2016, with the Army being replaced by a National Guard consisting of three branches: Military Police, Naval Infantry, and an Infantry Battalion. Camouflage has primarily been copied from Portuguese- speaking countries until very recently.

These two Fuzileiros Navais (Naval Infantry) personnel wear the Brazilian Navy vertical lizard pattern. (Private collection)

These Coast Guard personnel are wearing Portuguese DPM pattern, which appears to have replaced the earlier lizard designs. (Private collection)

These French-style uniforms in CE Woodland pattern have been fielded by the Guarda National since at least 2016 (SAPO).

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

The present day République Centrafricaine was incorporated into the area known as French Congo during the latter part of the nineteenth century. On 1 December 1958 the region of Ubangi-Shari became an autonomous territory within the French Community and took the name Central African Republic; it was granted full independence on 30 August 1960.

The country has seen a number of regime changes since independence, the first merely two years after it was originally achieved. A one-party state was established in 1962 by David Dacko, who was subsequently overthrown in 1965 by a military coup led by Colonel Jean-Bédel Bokassa. Bokassa declared himself President for Life in 1972, and later Emperor Bokassa I of the newly renamed Central African Empire, on 4 December 1976. Accusations of cannibalism and feeding his political opponents to animals kept in a personal zoo prompted France to intervene militarily in 1979, re-establishing Dacko as president. Two years later, he was again overthrown by General André Kolingba, who suspended the constitution and ruled until 1990. Under intense international and local pressure, Kolingba resisted the holding of free elections until 1993. Under newly elected president Ange-Félix Patassé, a new constitution was approved in December 1994. Nevertheless, protests, ethnic tension and vandalism marked the next few years until January 1997, when the Bangui Peace Accords were signed, providing for the deployment of an inter-African military mission. It would later be replaced by a UN peacekeeping force, the Mission des Nations Unies en RCA (MINURCA).

Ethnic and political violence again erupted in May 2001, sparked by a failed coup attempt in Bangui, and leading to two years of violence in the capital that resulted in the destruction of many homes and thousands killed. A new president was again elected in 2005. On 12 June 2008, the Central African Republic became the fourth country to be placed on the agenda of the UN Peacebuilding Commission, which was set up to help countries emerging from conflict avoid sliding back into war or chaos.

As with many former French colonies, the CAR employed copies of the leópard or lizard pattern for a period of time, which has seen limited use even into the present day.

Several variations of ‘woodland’ camouflage have been worn by the Forces Armées Centrafricaines (FACA), obtained through a variety of sources. (Private collection)

In the current era, copies of both French Daguet desert and CE Woodland pattern can be found among FACA. (Private collection)

These FACA soldiers are wearing a DPM pattern of undetermined origins. (Private collection)

This ‘leaf ’ variant pattern saw at least limited use with the Republican Guard, and possibly by units of FACA as well.

Within the ranks of the Republican Guard a copy of the US-developed tricolor desert pattern has been documented.

CHAD

Although France had claimed much of North Africa as its territory and established the Territoire Militaire des Pays et Protectorats du Tchad in 1900, the region was administered rather loosely and considered primarily a source of raw cotton. Chad was granted independence on 11 August 1960, following the French process of releasing most of its former colonial possessions that had begun in the early 1950s. The country has unfortunately been plagued with