Giuseppe Verdi His Life and Works

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1

DEDICATION 6

ILLUSTRATIONS 7

PREFACE 8

PART I—GIUSEPPE VERDI 15

CHAPTER I 15

CHAPTER II 22

CHAPTER III 29

CHAPTER IV 37

CHAPTER V 45

CHAPTER VI 51

CHAPTER VII 59

CHAPTER VIII 66

CHAPTER IX 72

CHAPTER X 79

CHAPTER XI 86

CHAPTER XII 93

CHAPTER XIII 100

CHAPTER XIV 110

CHAPTER XV 117

CHAPTER XVI 126

CHAPTER XVII 133

CHAPTER XVIII 144

CHAPTER XIX 150

CHAPTER XX 156

CHAPTER XXI 161

CHAPTER XXII 169

CHAPTER XXIII 175

CHAPTER XXIV 184

PART II—OPERAS 192

OBERTO, CONTE DI BONIFACIO 192

IL FINTO STANISLAO 194

NABUCODONOSOR 196

I LOMBARDI ALLA PRIMA CROCIATA 201

ERNANI 206

I DUE FOSCARI 211

GIOVANNA D’ARCO 214

ALZIRA 218

ATTILA 220

MACBETH 224

I MASNADIERI 235

IL CORSARO 239

LA BATTAGLIA DI LEGNANO 241

LUISA MILLER 245

RIGOLETTO 252

IL TROVATORE 260

LA TRAVIATA 267

I VESPRI SICILIAN! 274

SIMON BOCCANEGRA 279

AROLDO 288

UN BALLO IN MASCHERA 291

LA FORZA DEL DESTINO 301

DON CARLO 310

AÏDA 321

OTELLO 332

FALSTAFF 345

ECCLESIASTICAL WORKS 357

A REQUIEM MASS 357

AYE MARIA—PATER NOSTER 361

QUATTRO PEZZI SACRI 362

MISCELLANEOUS WORKS 365

SONGS 366

INNO DELLE NAZIONI 368

STRING QUARTET IN E MINOR 369

VERDI THE MUSICIAN 370

GIUSEPPE VERDI

HIS LIFE AND WORKS

BY

FRANCIS TOYE

DEDICATION

TO

MARY NEWCOMB

In admiration of her integrity as a woman and an artist

ILLUSTRATIONS

THE BUST OF VERDI

VERDI’S BIRTHPLACE AT LE RONCOLE

VERDI IN EARLY LIFE

AN EARLY LETTER TO THE PUBLISHER, LUCCA

VERDI AND GIUSEPPINA STREPPONI

THE REHEARSALS OF SIMON BOCCANEGRA,

CARICATURES BY DELFICO—

VERDI ARRIVING AT NAPLES

VERDI READING A SCORE

VERDI AND THE APPLE OF PARIS

VERDI IN THE GARDEN OF SANT’ AGATA

A LETTER TO PIAVE

A LETTER TO LUCCARDI

VERDI AND HIS DOGS OUTSIDE THE VILLA SANT’ AGATA

VERDI AND BOITO DURING THE PREPARATION OF FALSTAFF

VERDI IN THE GARDEN OF SANT’ AGATA

A LAST LETTER OF VERDI TO GIULIO RICORDI

VERDI’S DEATH-MASK

MANUSCRIPT SCORE REPRODUCTIONS—

NABUCCO: ACT I, INTRODUCTION

UN BALLO IN MASCHERA: ACT II

FALSTAFF I ACT I, SCENE 2

PORTRAIT OF VERDI, BY BOLDINI

PREFACE

THE origin and above all the length of this book demand a few words of explanation. The origin is simple enough. Some five years ago I was lucky enough to hear several performances of Verdi operas at La Scala under Toscanini, and these performances brought with them a conviction that the importance attached to Verdi by conventional musical opinion in England was miserably inadequate. I was not unprepared for this. Nobody who had the good fortune at Cambridge to come under the influence of Professor Dent, most large-minded and stimulating of teachers, was likely to consider the composer of Il Trovatore a mere purveyor of tunes. Performances, usually indifferent, of the operas in England and Germany had already given me great pleasure; a few, in Italy, greater pleasure still. But in Milan I was carried away by a new enthusiasm, a sudden realisation that this music contained vital and poetical elements distinct from those of any other music even when presented by the same conductor in the same conditions. Elements, it should be explained, not necessarily better but different and capable, moreover, of awakening a particularly responsive echo in me.

Needless to say, with the exception of one or two individuals who had already arrived at much the same conclusions, nobody believed that my enthusiasm was justified in regard to the superlative excellence either of the operas themselves or of their interpretation. Lip service might be paid to the merits of Otello and Falstaff; otherwise there was the same dreary repetition of the nonsense—for it is nonsense—about the guitar-like orchestra in La Traviata or Rigoletto; Aïda was flashy or empty; Il Trovatore just absurd. Operas like La Forza del Destino or Don Carlo remained mere names, remembered, if at all, by some isolated numbers associated with famous singers. The essential unity of Verdi’s output, its unfailing dramatic significance even when expressed in simple melodies, above all the unswerving artistic integrity of it all were not so much denied as ignored.

Nor was the case helped by the fact that a musician of Toscanini’s genius lavished so much care and enthusiasm on the performance of Verdi’s music. In those days, it must be remembered, the name of Toscanini meant little or nothing to the English musical world. The average musician, professional or amateur, if he had heard of him at all, thought that here was a question merely of some exceptional virtuoso with a gift for making the worse appear the better music. There was no worldwide realisation then, as there is now, that the greatness of Toscanini lay precisely in his presentation of music in exact accordance with the intentions of the composer, not in the manufacture of brilliant glosses of his own. I do not think that the great maestro will regard it as any belittlement of his genius if I suggest that this incomparable quality may be traced in some measure to the influence of that Verdian probity which excited his admiration and held his allegiance in early days.

Such, then, were the reasons that first prompted me to embark on a book which might assist some of my fellow countrymen to capture a portion of my own delight in the music of a man about whom they knew less, perhaps, than about any other composer of equal standing; for at that time, to the best of my belief, there was not a single adequate biography of Verdi in the English language. Then (as now) it was not so much the professional musicians, especially the composers, or the leading critics who stood in need of conversion. They might, with perfect justice, appreciate Verdi less or more but they rarely dismissed him as negligible. The mass of the public, too, was faithful to the more popular operas after its fashion. Only the amateurs of superior musical culture appeared to think a liking for Verdi slightly incompatible with their reputation for good taste. There was no merit to be gained by professing admiration for a composer whose music could be enjoyed by anybody gifted with any musical receptivity whatever. Moreover, quite apart from snobbishness, conscious or unconscious, Verdi’s shortcomings as a musician were calculated to antagonise such people, just as his virtues were not of a kind to attract them. About Verdi as a man they knew nothing and cared less. The last two years have witnessed a considerable change in this respect among certain circles of the intelligentsia; but the attitude is still common, and one of the objects of this book is to persuade those who adopt it to examine their position again in the light of facts that may be new to them.

I have given this perhaps excessively personal explanation because I am most anxious that it should not be thought that this book was prompted by a mere desire to take advantage of the Verdi Renaissance in Germany which has been so remarkable a feature of musical history during the last few years. I did not even know of this Renaissance at the time I first determined to write a book. What it did eventually cause me to do was to write a long book instead of a comparatively short one.

The extent of the revival of interest in Verdi in Germany is still imperfectly realised in this country. The figures published last year in the organ of the Imperial League of Opera provide the best illustration of it. They were based on operatic performances in 135 opera houses during the 1927-28 season. Two composers easily headed the list, Wagner and Verdi; and the actual number of performances of works by these two masters was as follows: Wagner 1,576, Verdi 1,513, both figures being nearly 600 more than that achieved by any other composer. An analysis of the performances at the Vienna Opera, received just as this book was going to press, proves that there has been no alteration in this state of things. There were 339 performances at that Opera during the year 1930, of which Wagner was responsible for 49, Verdi for 46, while no other composer reached the figure of 30. Ten years ago any such correlation between Wagner and Verdi in Germany would have seemed frankly incredible. Nor must it be imagined that the figure of Verdi performances was swollen only by more numerous presentations of popular operas already in the repertory, such as Rigoletto, Il Trovatore, La Traviata, Un Ballo in Maschera, though these have acquired, of course, enhanced reputations. It was not merely a question of operas such as Otello and Falstaff, formerly regarded, more or less, as preserves of the cognoscenti, becoming popular successes. Operas wholly or practically unknown were introduced into the repertory, sometimes, as in the case of La Forza del Destino and Don Carlo, with triumphant success; sometimes, as in the case of Simon Boccanegra, with genuine if less pronounced success. Not only Nabucco, and Macbeth, and Luisa Miller, all exceedingly interesting works, have been revived but works admittedly of the second order, such as I Masnadieri and I Due Foscari, have received attention. Nor, in fact, has this revival of interest in Verdi’s work been confined to Germany though found there in its most striking form. For instance, to take but the most recent examples, Luisa Miller was remarkably well received at the Metropolitan, New York, during the past year; La Traviata was, I am informed, the outstanding success of the Paris Opera last winter, while a new production of I Lombardi has been announced as the first performance of the present season at La Scala.

In such circumstances an exhaustive study of the man and his work seemed imperative. How far the Verdi Renaissance may be proved to be transitory no one can tell. It is of course based on reaction, reaction against Wagner, reaction against mere complexity. As the convention of Wagnerian Music-Drama becomes in its turn old-fashioned, music expressed in other conventions is enabled once more to compete on equal terms. This has worked in favour of Verdi’s early and middle operas, that is to say the majority of his output. One thing, however, is certain: If an operatic composer of genius equal to that of Verdi or Wagner makes his appearance among us, both masters will retire to Valhalla there to await comparative destruction, a fate of which Verdi himself would have been the first to proclaim the justice. Only no such genius has appeared, and the interest in Verdi’s work of every period and style seems to be on the increase rather than the decrease. Wherefore any excuse that may have existed for skimping the treatment of any portion of the subject is gone; the time has clearly come for all the material to be reviewed afresh, and I have tried to do this as regards Verdi’s life and music alike.

This book makes no pretence to contain any great quantity of new, unchronicled facts; it is rather an attempt at correlation of the enormous mass of facts and opinions already in existence. This has been a considerable task. Several biographies are not wholly accurate, especially in the matter of dates, and it has not always been possible to check them by the Copialettere wherein, incidentally, the dates are too often misprinted. Then, in addition to a study of the music itself, there was the reading, where possible, of the plays from which the librettos had been taken. There were also the stories of these librettos to be related in a manner that should render the psychology as well as the action of the plots intelligible. This, as a matter of fact, was one of the most arduous tasks of all, as anyone who attempts it will soon find out for himself; I can only hope that the expenditure of labour and space will be justified by the enhanced interest of the opera-goer or the student. Lastly, there was the collection of contemporary press criticisms. On these I have laid unusual stress because they help to illustrate the point of view of the time, without which it is impossible to envisage justly a work of art. Thus, in the total result, despite every effort to the contrary, this volume has swollen to proportions such as Verdi, who once twitted the Germans with their passion for writing a hundred pages about the leg of a flea, would have approached with a bias at least as unfavourable as that of his biographer.

The structure of the book explains itself. The first part, intended for the general reader, describes Verdi’s life and activities, gives a summary of some of the most important criticisms of his operas and deals only with the most general characteristics of the music. This is treated in detail in the second part under the headings of the various works. Every effort has been made to avoid unnecessary overlapping but a certain amount was inevitable. Here, too, will be found an account of the librettos and their origin. In short, the second part is designed to meet the requirements of specialists and students, and, above all, of those persons who wish to learn something about the libretto or the music of an opera before going to hear it. Should they desire to link up the historical facts about any particular work with the details of the libretto and the music, reference to the first part of the book by means of the index will, I hope, enable them to do so quite easily.

One or two explanations seem called for. For instance, I have used the word scene, not in its technical operatic meaning but as denoting a change of set. After some deliberation I decided, in telling the stories of the librettos, to preserve the Italian names throughout. Having once adopted the principle, I had to be logical about it, but I must confess that Bardolfo and Pistola still cause me pain. Fortunately Piave saved me from the ignominy of calling Macduff or Macbeth by anything but their proper names. In the librettos based on Shakespearean subjects the use of Shakespeare’s own language is intended to indicate roughly where the libretto and the play correspond. I realise only too well that I have failed to solve the thorny problem of musical illustrations of which there are always too few for the specialist and too many for the ordinary reader. I have endeavoured to effect a compromise by selecting musical illustrations which, in the main, bear only on one or two points such as Verdi’s development and typical procedure. I have given no musical illustrations at all in the case of the last three operas or of the Requiem Mass, preferring to presume that the scores are in the possession of everyone sufficiently musical to be interested. If they are not, they ought to be.

It is never easy to determine the exact extent to which acknowledgment should be made to other authors. I have gone on the principle of indicating the reference in a footnote only when the fact in question seemed exceptionally remarkable or disputable. I have tried to be wholly honest in the matter but I cannot delude myself with the belief that there will not be certain passages for which some readers may think that a reference should have been given and others where they may think that it might have been dispensed with. Generally speaking, the book is based on letters, mainly, of course, the Copialettere, before the publication of which, in 1913, no adequate biography of Verdi was in fact possible, supplemented by other biographies in the case of lacunae or special information. Thus, the anecdotes are mainly derived from Pougin; the facts about the last days of Giuseppina from Martinelli; the information in regard to Verdi’s librettists (with the exception of Boito) from Mantovani in Musica D’Oggi, and so on.

My thanks are due to many persons who have helped me in the preparation of this book. First and foremost comes Professor Dent to whom I owe a special debt of gratitude, for not only was he responsible for putting some valuable material in my way but he was the first person to awaken in me an interest in Verdi. Indeed, in a sense I regard him as the godfather of this book; which by no means implies any expectation that he will necessarily approve of his godchild. I am also deeply grateful to my wife and to Dr. Malcolm Sargent, who respectively revised the first and second portions of the book. Dr. Sargent, moreover, extended his kindness by making many valuable suggestions and criticisms, in addition to copying out some musical illustrations. I must thank, too, Sir Thomas Beecham who was responsible for several illuminating ideas about Don Carlo, and Miss Mary Newcomb whose theatrical insight has suggested many interesting lines of thought, especially in the case of La Dame aux Camélias.

I am indebted to Mr. Prime-Stevenson for sending me a copy of his excellent book, Long-Haired Iopas; to Mr. Ernest Newman for giving me his edition of Chorley’s Musical Recollections and the benefit of invaluable advice on one or two points; to Miss Eva Greves for furnishing me with a detailed synopsis of those scenes of popular life in Don Alvaro which made excessive demands on my faltering Spanish, as well as with information about the noble author of the play. I owe two of the autographed letters to the thoughtful generosity of Mr. Eugene Goossens and Mr. Philip Mond, while Signora Toscanini most kindly allowed me to copy the envoi found at the end of the score of Falstaff and Major Longden considerately arranged for the photographing of Gemito’s magnificent bust of Verdi while on loan at the Italian Exhibition at Burlington House. Signor Bellezza performed the invaluable service of introducing me to Busseto and Sant’ Agata, a service for which, like the experience itself, I can never sufficiently thank him.

Nor can the helpfulness of everybody connected with Messrs. Ricordi be exaggerated. Commendatore Valcarenghi, now the head of the firm, in addition to providing me with every facility to work in his jealously guarded library, gave me many photographs and letters for the purpose of reproduction; Dr. Tasselli, their London representative, both gave and lent me music; while to Maestro Zanon, head of their musical department in Milan, go my special thanks not only for the ungrudging bestowal of much of his valuable time but for first pointing out to me the alterations in the score of Falstaff. Needless to say, I further owe to the courtesy of Messrs. Ricordi authorisation to reproduce the various musical illustrations, for which I have also to thank the four French publishers who own certain copyrights in France and Belgium.

Last and, in one sense, greatest of all my debts is that owed to the devotion and enthusiasm of my secretary, Miss Pamela Buchanan who has shown a supreme contempt for trade union principles in her invariable readiness to work at any hour and for any length of time, could she thereby contribute to the better making of our book.

F. T.

London, December, 1930.

The following are the principal works and periodicals which have been consulted in the preparation of this book:—

Italian.

I Copialettere di Giuseppe Verdi. Gaetano Cesari e Alessandro Luzio.

Verdi, Lettere Inedite. G. Morazzoni.

Rivista Musicale Italiana: Lettere Inedite di Verdi a Escudier.

Giuseppe Verdi: Vita e Opere. Anton Giulio Barrili.

Studio sulle Opere di Giuseppe Verdi. A. Basevi.

La Vita di Giuseppe Verdi. G. Bragagnolo—E. Bettazzi.

Verdi. Eugenio Checchi.

Giuseppe Verdi. Elviro Ciccarese.

Giuseppe Verdi. Franco Temistocle Garibaldi.

Raggi e Penombre. Aldo Martinelli.

Giuseppe Verdi: 1839—1898. Gino Monaldi.

Le Opere di Giuseppe Verdi al Teatro alla Scala. Gino Monaldi.

Re Lear e Ballo in Maschera. Alessandro Pascolato.

Cenni Biografici su Giuseppe Verdi. G. Perosio.

Ricordi Verdiani Inediti. Italo Pizzi.

Giuseppe Verdi. Gino Roncaglia.

Le Opere di Verdi. A. Soffredini.

Viaggio Musicale in Italia. Adriano Lualdi.

Musica D’Oggi: Librettist! Verdiani. T. Mantovani.

Arrigo Boito. Corrado Ricci.

Gioacchino Rossini. Giuseppe Radidotti.

L’Italia Moderna. Pietro Orsi.

Memorie di un Ottuagenario (an historical novel). I. Nievo.

French.

Verdi. Camille Bellaigue.

Verdi. A. Bonaventura.

Verdi. Arthur Pougin.

Verdi et son Œuvre. Le Prince de Valori.

Vie de Rossini. Stendhal.

Cavour: un Grand Réaliste. Maurice Paléologue.

German.

Verdi—Briefe. Franz Werfel.

Giuseppe Verdi. Max Chop

Giuseppe Verdi. Arthur Neisser.

Giuseppe Verdi. C. Perinello.

Verdi. Adolf Weissmann.

Verdi: Roman der Oper. Franz Werfel.

Gesammelte Schriften. Richard Wagner.

English.

Verdi. F. Bonavia.

Verdi; Man and Musician. F. J. Crowest.

Thirty Years Musical Recollections. Henry F. Chorley.

Long-Haired Iopas. Edward Prime-Stevenson.

PART I—GIUSEPPE VERDI

CHAPTER I

IN common with most of the inhabitants of the Italian peninsula the villagers of Le Roncole, a hamlet near Busseto in the old Duchy of Parma, enjoyed during the opening decades of the nineteenth century ample opportunities to reflect on the three major fallacies of Abstract Democracy. In the cause of Liberty they had for many years alternately been cajoled and bullied by an irascible Corsican general with a name, Napoléone Buonaparte, so ludicrous that it was widely considered a vote-catching invention of the French Directory.{1}

As to the nature of Equality they had even more intimate knowledge; for were they not equal in subordination to any foreign power strong enough to make use of them? Sometimes that power was Austria, sometimes France. Only the subordination remained constant.

They had to wait a little longer to appreciate the full implication of the principle of Fraternity. In due course, however, the general with the odd name became the Emperor Napoleon; Beethoven destroyed the original inscription of his Eroïca Symphony, and the shades of that rather musty Roman trio, Curtius, Cato and Scaevola, so pompously invoked at the foundation of the Cisalpine Republic by Serbelloni a few years before, returned (presumably for ever) to the Limbo of the Unwanted and the Forgotten. Wherefore in 1812, as a belated tribute to the Fraternal Ideal, the inhabitants of Busseto, if not of Le Roncole itself, doubtless had the opportunity to contribute their quota to the forty thousand Italian corpses that lined the roads from Moscow to the German frontier.

On the 12th of October, 1813, however, France still remained the dominant power, so that when a certain Carlo Verdi, the keeper of the local osteria, went into Busseto to take out a birth certificate for his son, Joseph Fortunin François, born two days previously, the document was, inappropriately enough, drawn up in French. Had the event been postponed a few months, it might never have been drawn up at all, for, in 1814, the Département Au Dela Des Alpes ceased to be a French department and became an Austrian province, the process of transfer being marked by the kind of violent incidents to which the people of Le Roncole, experienced in a succession of warlike operations intended to make the world alternately safe for or against Democracy, must have been well accustomed. One general, Prince Eugene, had retired, pursued by the advancing soldiers of another general. Among these soldiers there was a particularly bloodthirsty troupe of cavalry who penetrated as far as Le Roncole, pillaged the houses and killed a number of the inhabitants. Some of the women, panic-stricken, took refuge in the little church but even here could find no certain sanctuary. One of them with uncommon presence of mind ran a few yards across the road and hid herself and her baby in the obscurity of the belfry. She was Luigia Uttini, wife of Carlo Verdi, the innkeeper, and the baby was Giuseppe (no longer Joseph) Verdi. A tablet on the church commemorates the story—a prelude to the life of the greatest dramatic composer of nineteenth-century Italy which might otherwise seem too appropriate to be credible.

Le Roncole is nothing but a hamlet and the tiny inn wherein Verdi was born and passed his infancy is little more than a hovel on the side of the road. A modern millionaire might think it not quite good enough for his prize cows. We know that, to make both ends meet, Carlo Verdi sold coffee and sugar and tobacco as well as wine, the circumstances of the family differing in no wise from those of the peasants by whom they were surrounded. In fact they were peasants, and to the day of his death, Verdi retained some characteristics, bad as well as good, of his class and upbringing.

The little Giuseppe was a serious child, the idol of his mother whom he adored. He seems to have been a queer mixture of shyness and fierceness, and we are told that nothing brought him out of himself except music. Thus, when quite a little boy, he used to stand in ecstasy at the exploits of an old wandering violinist who came from time to time to play for the delectation of Carlo Verdi’s patrons. Indeed, it is said that it was this strolling minstrel, struck by the boy’s musical sensitiveness, who first advised the father to give his son a musical education.

When he was only seven years old, little Giuseppe Verdi gave a further striking proof of his musical sensibility. Like many Italian peasant boys to this day, he was employed on Sundays and feast days to sing in the choir of the church and to serve the priest as acolyte during Mass. On one of these occasions he heard the organ played for the first time and the novel sound seems almost to have paralysed him. So absorbed was he in the delicious sensation that, when the priest asked him three times running for water, he paid no attention. Whereupon the exasperated ecclesiastic, to rouse the boy from his trance, gave him such a push that he fell down the three steps leading to the altar and fainted away. It is characteristic of his determination even in these early years that, on his recovery, he did not cry or rage like most children would have done, but merely asked his father once again if he could study music.

The story of the music-enchanted acolyte must have made some stir in the community, for, a short time afterwards, when his father, yielding at last to the boy’s desire for instruction in music, bought for him an old spinet, a neighbouring workman volunteered to repair it for nothing; the pedals had gone (if they ever existed) and the hammers were without leather. Its condition, probably dilapidated enough anyhow, was further aggravated by an assault with a hammer made by the hot-tempered little boy who had by chance lighted on the wholly satisfying chord of C major and vented on the instrument his fury at not being able to find it again.

With a true Latin sense of craftsmanship the repairer left a record inside the instrument of the extent of his labours. As an example of simple pride and as a record of a generous action the inscription is worth recording in all its original inexactitude.

Da me Stefano Cavaletti fu fato di nuovo questi saltarelli, e impenati a corame, e vi adatai la pedagliera che io ci ho regalato; come anche gratuitamente ci ho fato di nuovo li detti saltarelli, vedendo la buona disposizione che ha il giovinetto Giuseppe Verdi d’imparare a suonare questo instrumento, che questo mi basta par esserne del tutto sodisfatto.—Anno domini 1821.{2}

It is possible to attach too much importance to the stories of Giuseppe’s musical precocity; the history of music is littered with such anecdotes both among professionals and amateurs who have, nevertheless, failed to achieve fame. It is easy, when a man has become great, to be wise after the event. As a matter of fact, Verdi’s early compositions prove conclusively that he possessed none of the miraculous facility of a Mozart or a Mendelssohn. Like Wagner he attained to musical power by the sweat of his brow. There can, however, be no doubt that this spinet played the leading part in the first scenes of his life’s drama. It was the great friend of his childhood. Seated at the miserable instrument, when tired of working in the fields or the inn, when bored with playing the inevitable game of bowls with the village children, he dreamed those dreams which, one biographer tells us, seemed inexplicable even to himself.

There is nothing Arcadian about the plain of Parma, in the winter cold, foggy or windswept, in the summer sunbaked and unshaded. The roads during the hot weather are so dusty that today, when a motor-car passes over them, there is a dense cloud as of steam escaping from the pistons of a loco-motive. The trees (such as they are), the vines, the fields of maize within fifty yards of the road are grey with a layer of dust. Emphatically Verdi’s boyhood was no Theocritean idyll; it was essentially practical and poverty-stricken. Many years afterwards the composer summed it up, with typical conciseness, to a friend: My youth was hard. From Verdi, who hated talking about himself, the avowal indicates much. The best proof of what the spinet meant to him is that he kept it all his life. Can it not still be seen in the museum at Milan?

When Verdi’s father bought the spinet, he arranged at the same time with the local organist, an old man called Baistrocchi, to give the boy some musical instruction, perhaps in the elements of music, certainly in organ and spinet playing. Here, for the first time, we catch a glimpse of superior musical gifts, for after three years’ study little Giuseppe replaced his old master as organist of Le Roncole. The instrument{3} at his disposal was primitive and the duties cannot have been exacting but few boys of twelve would have been able to undertake them at all. The salary was proportionately modest—rather less than two pounds a year, increased by special fees for funerals, weddings and the like to about four pounds! Apparently, also, the youthful organist was allowed to make a collection for himself once a year at the harvest festival. This represented little enough but the inhabitants of Le Roncole probably did their best for the lad. We know that they were both proud and fond of him; for when, a little later, there was talk of his being replaced by a protégé of the bishop, there was almost an insurrection among the villagers who clamoured loudly and successfully for the retention of their maestrino.

To his credit, Verdi’s father, almost immediately after the appointment of the boy as organist at Le Roncole, saw that an education beyond that available in the tiny village was indispensable to his son. So, at some sacrifice to himself he arranged for Giuseppe to go to Busseto to live with a shoemaker, a friend of the family. The humbleness of their circumstances, to say nothing of the standard of living in the Italy of that time, is shown by the fact that this board and lodging cost four-pence a day. At Busseto the boy attended the local school (where he seems to have worked hard) and very soon mastered the mysteries of reading, writing and arithmetic. On Sundays and feast days he trudged the three miles into Le Roncole to play the organ, and on one of these occasions, when he had to start before dawn to play at early Mass on Christmas Day, he fell into a ditch full of water. To understand the accident the reader must imagine a flat winding road with at least one hair-pin bend and lined on the side by a ditch as formidable as those in the fen-country. Unable to extricate himself, the boy would almost certainly have been drowned but for the help of a passing peasant woman who went to the rescue of the innkeeper’s son and, incidentally, of the future composer of Falstaff. Still, ditch or no ditch, a hundred francs a year was well worth a six-mile walk once or twice a week, and young Verdi did not abandon his functions of organist of Le Roncole till he went to Milan six years later.

It was Verdi’s transplantation to Busseto that determined his career. The ambition of his parents, if not his own, would have been fully satisfied with a post as village organist. Perhaps, as a scarcely credible achievement, he might eventually have written a march for the military band of Busseto and some music for his own or even his colleagues’ church services. That was all. The boy’s entrance into the larger environment of Busseto, thanks partly to sheer good fortune, partly to his own talent and determination, opened up possibilities undreamt of at the time.

The part of good fortune was played by Antonio Barezzi who may be described as the fairy-godfather of Verdi’s adolescence, Barezzi was a prosperous grocer at Busseto, who must have known young Verdi from infancy; for Verdi’s father used to buy from his establishment sugar, coffee, wine and liqueurs in which Barezzi seems to have made something of a speciality. The boy certainly accompanied his father on these expeditions to Busseto and, most probably, often undertook them on his own account, because little boys in Italy are accustomed to shoulder responsibility at a very early age. Now Barezzi, apart from his commercial pursuits, was passionately fond of music; he not only played the flute well but had a working acquaintance with the clarinet, the horn and the ophicleide. What is more, he was president of the local Philharmonic Society of which both rehearsals and performances were given in a large room in his house.

Barezzi belonged to a class of society very different from that of the Verdis, and it was not till young Giuseppe had been living with the cobbler at Busseto for two years that his attention was seriously drawn to the industrious and talented lad. He offered him employment in the business, wherein music during the evening played at least as important a part as groceries during the day. From that moment the foundations of Verdi’s musical career were irrevocably laid.

Thanks to a well-timed murder in the neighbourhood, which seems to have scared Signora Barezzi, the boy was presently removed from the cobbler and lodged in the Barezzi house for his or her greater protection. With increased intimacy the liking of Barezzi and his family for their gifted employee developed into warm affection. Young Verdi continued to handle groceries but he was set to learn Latin with a priest by the name of Pietro Seletti and to continue his musical studies with Ferdinando Provesi, the organist of Busseto cathedral and director of the Philharmonic Society. Young Verdi must have found some difficulty in fitting his various activities into the twenty-four hours of each day. He worked so hard and so successfully at Latin that Seletti complained of the time he was wasting on music. He worked so hard and so successfully at music that Provesi complained of the time he was wasting on Latin. He attended all the rehearsals of the Philharmonic and helped to copy out the parts. He frequented the public library, reading with avidity everything that came to his hand, especially the Bible. He played on the Viennese piano which Barezzi, doubtless considering the overworked spinet inadequate, had placed at his disposal. Sometimes he played alone, sometimes (and with increasing frequency) he played duets with his employer’s attractive daughter, Margherita. One rather wonders where the groceries came in.

Verdi was fortunate in his music teacher, for old Provesi seems to have been not only a skilled contrapuntist and an agreeable composer but a man of parts. He had written both the words and the music of several comic operas which had been produced at the local theatre. He recognised with admiration the aptitude of his industrious pupil and gradually began to delegate to him some of his own duties. In this manner young Verdi deputised not only at the cathedral organ but at the conductor’s desk at the Philharmonic and, like many other great composers, acquired much of his knowledge of music by the satisfactory method of practical experience. He began to compose in earnest, writing music in the various forms practical at Busseto. Thus in 1828 he wrote an overture and marches for the military band which then, as now, played so important a part in local Italian life; he wrote a motet and a Te Deum for the cathedral and an odd piano piece or two for himself or Margherita. More ambitious still, he composed various orchestral pieces for the Philharmonic Society, himself rehearsing them and copying out the parts. Some may be seen to this day in the archives of Busseto.

Doubtless none of this music possessed any value. Doubtless, despite the high-sounding tide, the performances of the enthusiastic amateurs of the Philharmonic left much to be desired. But as an initiation to a musical career the conditions might have been worse. The Philharmonic probably played a good deal of Porpora and Haydn whose music was popular in Italy at that time. They certainly played the brilliant new overtures to The Barber of Seville and Cinderella, with which Rossini had first delighted the world some ten years previously. Verdi thus acquired a familiarity with the works of the great masters and, most important of all, developed that instinct for conscientious and practical craftsmanship so characteristic of his whole career as a composer. Like all Italian composers, like all composers in every country indeed, up to the dawn of the Romantic Movement, Verdi was a practical musician, a craftsman writing music to meet the current requirements of the day. In his youth those current requirements were represented by the cathedral, the military band and Philharmonic Society of Busseto; in later days by the Opera Houses of Milan, Paris, Cairo, London and St. Petersburg. The principle, however, remained the same.

Young Verdi had by now acquired a certain local fame. We are told that people used to come in from the country round about to hear his music. Provesi declared he could teach him nothing further. Even Seletti, hearing him one day improvise on the organ, admitted that the claims of music must be preferred to those of Latin. In October, 1829, backed by a warm recommendation from Provesi, he applied for the post of organist to the parish church of Soragna but failed to obtain it; perhaps because he was too young, more probably because another candidate, eventually successful, had the advantage of powerful local backing. Verdi continued studying and writing music for a while but both Barezzi and Provesi felt that Busseto did not offer sufficient scope for the young man’s talents. So, after a couple of years it was decided to send him to Milan.

Fortunately for him Busseto possessed a tradition of culture which it would be difficult to match in an English provincial town of the same kind. More fortunately still, it possessed an institution called the Monte di Pietà e d’Abbondanza, founded in the seventeenth century during an epidemic of cholera. At that dreadful time some of the inhabitants of Busseto, who had lost their children, decided to bequeath their property to the foundation of an institution destined to relieve poverty in general and to provide four grants for poor children desirous of adopting a liberal career. One of these grants was made to young Verdi.

Normally they were worth three hundred francs a year and were tenable for four years, but the administrators of the trust, with rare intelligence, managed to meet young Verdi’s requirements by allotting him six hundred francs for two years. Even this was not sufficient to meet the cost of music-lessons and living in Milan, so Barezzi came to the rescue with a contribution from his own pocket. The description of Verdi on his passport, unearthed by the enterprising Garibaldi, gives us the kind of bald summary of his appearance only too familiar to the modern traveller. Age: eighteen. Height: tall. Colour of hair: chestnut-brown. Colour of eyes: grey. Forehead: high. Eyebrows: black. Nose: aquiline. Mouth: small. Beard: dark. Chin: oval. Face: thin. Complexion: pale. Special peculiarities: pock-marked.

Thus, Giuseppe Verdi came to Milan, armed with an introduction from Seletti to his nephew, a professor, who received the lad into his own house in the Via Santa Marta and insisted on his lodging there.

CHAPTER II

ONCE settled in Milan, young Verdi’s first act was to apply for admission to the Conservatoire. It was refused him. This celebrated refusal is one of the classical stories of academic ineptitude and has certainly attracted more attention than it deserves. On the other hand, some modern writers have dismissed the Incident a trifle airily. There was no question (as stated for instance in the article on Verdi in Grove’s Dictionary) of Verdi being refused what we understand by a scholarship; he was prepared to pay like any ordinary pupil. And the fact that the Milan Conservatoire was still in theory a Convitto{4} makes little difference. A letter written to his friend, Caponi, in 1880 gives the facts:

It was on the 32nd of June, 1832 (I was not yet nineteen), that I made a written demand to the Milan Conservatoire to be admitted as a paying pupil. Moreover, I underwent a kind of examination at the Conservatoire, showing them some of my compositions and playing a piano piece in the presence of Basily, Piantanida, Angeleri and others, including old Rolla to whom I had a letter of introduction from my Busseto teacher, Ferdinando Provesi. About a week afterwards I went to see Rolla who said: ‘Dismiss all ideas of the Conservatoire from your mind and choose a private teacher; I suggest to you Lavigna or Negri.’

I heard no more from the Conservatoire. Nobody answered my letter and nobody, either before or after the examination, made any mention of Rules.

The rules mentioned by Verdi in his letter refer to the age of admission, which was, it seems, between nine and fourteen, the pupils being expected to leave at twenty. As a matter of fact, Verdi’s memory played him false to some extent. Either from a subconscious certainty of his eventual triumph or from sheer disappointment he kept the letter, or a copy of the letter, originally written to the Conservatoire. In this he categorically asks to be admitted despite the fact that he is eighteen years old, and that the rules may be waived in his favour in accordance with the provision in Section 10 of the conditions that govern admission. Apparently, then, the authorities would have had to stretch a point to admit the student, and they decided not to do so; that is all. Some say that young Verdi did not play the piano well enough. Fétis, the famous theorist, asserts that Basily, who attached great importance to personal impressions, was not encouraged by the student’s appearance. The long and the short of the matter is that these worthy gentlemen made a mistake, a bad mistake but not inexcusable. Verdi’s Busseto compositions were probably more remarkable for their mere existence than their actual merits, and a friend of Verdi told a friend of the author that Verdi himself once admitted that the exercise which he submitted was very poor. Moreover, Basily, if Fétis is correct, was not perhaps such a fool as might appear at first sight; one of the most successful branches of our public services was for a time recruited on very much the same principle. The appearance and manners of young Verdi at that time, his almost pathological reserve, his awkwardness, his thin, compressed lips must have suggested anything rather than the promise of a great composer. He probably looked the peasant that he was and, in a sense, always remained. The British Navy of today and the Egyptian Civil Service of yesterday may have lost one or two promising candidates by following a method not unlike that of Basily; they certainly gained a number of highly efficient officers. One cannot legislate for exceptions. Unfortunately the history of great music consists of little else.

Verdi, though profoundly discouraged by such a rebuff, was not of a nature to be overwhelmed by it. Of the two teachers indicated by Rolla, Seletti advised Lavigna, and to Lavigna he went. It was a fortunate choice, for Lavigna must be reckoned a first-class musician, one of those highly skilled craftsmen who seem to have been remarkably plentiful in Italy. A master of theory, he had also proved himself a successful composer in practice, several of his operas having won considerable success. He had received his musical training at Naples but was now employed as maestro al cembalo{5} at the opera. In addition to harmony, counterpoint and fugue, Lavigna set his pupil to study the works of the Masters, and it may have been at this time that Verdi conceived that admiration for Palestrina and Marcello which later became the dominant musical passion of his life. There was also a dose, perhaps an overdose, of Mozart, for Verdi tells us somewhere that he could hardly bear to hear his music again in later years. The thoroughness and austerity of the instruction will come as a surprise to many people who always seem to imagine the technical knowledge of Italian composers to be inferior to that of the Germans. Yet Verdi’s musical studies were typical, not exceptional, though Monaldi would seem to exaggerate when he writes that men like Rossini, Donizetti, and Bellini were almost as well equipped and, if they avoided as a rule a display of learning in their operas, did so from choice rather than necessity.

Lavigna appears to have been kind to his rather strange pupil, and to have divined that under the mask of boorishness lay something remarkable. When not engaged at the theatre he had him very frequently at his house in the evening, a piece of thoughtfulness or good fortune that must have meant much to young Verdi, who seems to have had scarcely any friends but this old man of fifty-five and, of course, no money wherewith to amuse himself. The world owes a considerable debt of gratitude to Maestro Lavigna.

Verdi certainly repaid his teacher with the most unflagging industry and, incidentally, after some two years, was enabled thereby to pour coals of fire on the head of the most important of the professors who had refused him admission to the Conservatoire, Basily was a friend of Lavigna and often came to see him. One evening the two old maestri were shaking their heads over the deplorable result of an examination recently held to fill the post of organist at the church of San Giovanni di Monza. There had been twenty-eight competitors of whom not one had been able to construct a correct fugue on the subject set by Basily. Lavigna, perhaps a little maliciously, suggested that his doubtless silent pupil should attempt the task. Basily wrote out the subject which was handed to young Verdi, and the two friends went on with their conversation. A little later, to Basily’s unconcealed astonishment, Verdi handed back the subject, not only correctly developed but enriched with a double canon, because, as he said slyly, the subject was rather thin.

A fortunate accident about this time was the means of Verdi attracting some attention to himself. There existed in Milan a body of rich amateurs and social notabilities who met every Friday during the winter in the Filodrammatici Theatre under the nominal direction of one Masini, a musician less remarkable for learning than for patience and tenacity—the qualities especially necessary for dealing with amateurs, as Verdi himself succinctly observed later. In 1833 or 1834 these distinguished ladies and gentlemen were rehearsing Haydn’s The Creation, and Lavigna thought it might be profitable for his pupil to attend. Masini was either too grand or too incompetent to take the rehearsals himself, this duty being shared between three maestri in turn. One evening none of them put in an appearance, so Masini, diffident of his own powers of accompanying on the piano from score, turned to the retiring young man seated at the back of the hall and asked him whether he would act as accompanist, adding with revelatory candour: So long as you play the bass, that will do.

An orchestral score had no terrors for young Verdi who immediately seated himself at the piano. The accompanist’s youth, his homely appearance and dress, did not inspire much confidence in the ladies and gentlemen of the chorus, but, as the rehearsal proceeded and Verdi warmed to his work, their scepticism turned to delight and surprise, for, in addition to accompanying with his left hand, he conducted with his right. At the end everybody congratulated him. The trinity of maestri found it inconvenient or unwise to make a further appearance; Verdi was entrusted with the direction of the concert. It was a brilliant success, so brilliant that it had to be repeated not only a second time in the Casino de’ Nobili in the presence of all the aristocracy of Milan but a third time, at his own express wish, in the house of the Austrian Viceroy.

The results for Verdi were of the highest importance. It was doubtless gratifying to be asked, as he was, by the president of the Society, Count Renato Borromeo, to write a wedding cantata on the occasion of the marriage of a member of his family, but that did not matter much, especially as he was not paid for it. What did matter was that Masini suggested his writing an opera for the Filodrammatici Théâtre, at that time under his direction, actually handing him a libretto by one Piazza,{6} which, after considerable retouching by Solera, was destined to become, three years later, the libretto of Verdi’s first opera, Oberto, Conte di Bonifacio. Solera, the Filodrammatici, all seem very small beer to us, but they must have represented unheard-of glory to the still very callow youth from Busseto. One can imagine the young man’s delight. He had already, in addition to a couple of orchestral pieces, written some buffo numbers for Lavigna, and, in view of his master’s theatrical connections and his own natural inclinations, it is safe to postulate in him that enthusiasm for the theatre which comes, in any case, so readily to the young. Then the death of his old master Provesi called him suddenly back to Busseto.

Apparently the intention of the administrators of the Monte di Pietà had all along been that Verdi should succeed Provesi in his functions. Hence the recall from Milan. The ecclesiastical authorities, however, had other views. They did not much like Verdi, whom they called the maestrino in vogue, and they detested Barezzi and his friends of the Philharmonic Society. It was, in short, a case of one of those tugs-of-war between the clerical and anti-clerical elements familiar to every dweller in Latin countries. So, the ecclesiastics chose as organist a certain Giovanni Ferrari; his musical talents might be suspect, but he enjoyed the advantage of the support of no less than two bishops. Thus Verdi, for the second time in his life, saw his ambitions frustrated by clerical influence; and it seems extremely likely that his lifelong dislike for priests and priestcraft originated in these early impressions. The Philharmonic Society, however, did not take the rebuff lying down. Verdi, not Ferrari, was appointed their director; the Municipality of Busseto was persuaded to pay him for three years the yearly salary of three hundred lire usually regarded as the perquisite of the cathedral organist. This, augmented by the Monte di Pietà allowance and a few private subscriptions, brought his income up to the same level as that of the unfortunate Ferrari.

Feeling naturally became bitter on both sides. The clergy tried to get the Philharmonic Society declared illegal; the Philharmonic Society retaliated by invading the cathedral and taking away their music. There were insults, satires, even brawls and imprisonments. The famous quarrels between Gluck and Piccini, Handel and Bonondni pale in comparison with the excesses of the Verdians and the Ferrarians. Apart from this new excitement Verdi found the country little changed except for the death of his old master and of his only sister. He wrote more and doubtless rather better music for the signori dilettanti of the Philharmonic Society—in 1838, for instance, a Capriccio for Horn, a Duetto Buffo, a Set of Variations with Introduction and Coda for Bassoon figured in the programmes—and himself played the piano at their concerts. Pougin tells us that he specially favoured the works of Hummel and Kalkbrenner but that his greatest success was an arrangement by himself of the overture to William Tell. He wrote more and certainly better marches for the municipal band, of which one, a funeral march, was used subsequently in the opera Nabucco.{7} He wrote a Stabat Mater{8} and other church music for the edification of the Monte di Pietà. Here arose a complication, for the cathedral was naturally barred to the performance of these works which had to be given in the chapel or the church of the Franciscans that lay