The Lıfe-changıng Impact of Vıktor Frankl's Logotherapy

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

T. ShantallThe Lıfe-changıng Impact of Vıktor Frankl's Logotherapyhttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30770-7_1

1. What Is Logotherapy?

Teria Shantall¹  

(1)

Modi’in, Israel

Teria Shantall

Abstract

In answering the question set as the heading of this chapter, the reader is first of all provided with the basic tenets of logotherapy, namely, that as human beings we have freedom of will, an inherent will to find meaning in our lives and that the meaning we are searching for is there to be found. How are these fundamental human yearnings challenged by suffering and disaster; how free do we feel in the face of the pain and tragedies that we experience in our own lives; what do we make of the meaning of life in the face of so much evil and violence, sufferings and disasters that we witness in the world around us? What about Frankl’s own life? How did he manage to survive his internment in Nazi concentration and death camps and come out of it with the belief that life still holds meaning?

Keywords

LogotherapyFreedom of willThe will to meaningMeaning in lifeThe meaning of sufferingFrankl’s Holocaust experiences

Healing Through Meaning

Logos is the Greek word for meaning. Logotherapy is therefore healing (or therapy) through meaning. Logotherapy is the term coined by Viktor Frankl to describe his particular approach to life and human suffering and who we are called to be and what we are to do in the face of it.

Logotherapy is based on the following three tenets, principles or concepts: (1) the freedom of will; (2) the will to meaning; and (3) the meaning of life. Taken together, it says the following:

We have the freedom to search for, find and realize the meaning of our lives.

1.

Freedom of will

As human beings we have freedom of choice . This is the first tenet. We are not haplessly driven, compelled to act in a certain way, pushed and pulled this way and that. Or, at least, we need not be! We are not determined by inherent inclinations, good or bad, which we have no power to direct or control. We are not automatically good without effort and dedication on our part. Nor are we helplessly fallen creatures, unable to say No to what proves to be bad or destructive behavior.

We have a self-determining part to play in the shaping of our own lives.

2.

The will to meaning

We all want to make sense of our lives. This is the second tenet. What makes sense is when one thing connects meaningfully to another. Things hold together, they do not fall apart. There is harmony, things are related to one another; parts fit together in a greater whole. Cohesion is the basis of understanding and grasp: this makes sense, it has meaning, I can see how it works; I understand it! Disconnected, conflicting, contradictory parts hostile to and set against each other (things that tear apart and destroy), do not make sense to us. They are disordered and create confusion and unrest.

Meaning is something that is inherently lawful, something we fundamentally need and want. It brings order and harmony into our lives. We feel at peace. It appeals and speaks to us, draws us to it in a good way. We experience a sense of connectedness, of being related to and included as an inherent part of a greater whole. What is meaningless disturbs our feelings of connectedness. We feel threatened by what feels alien to our nature; by something that severs, breaks up our connection to one another; makes us feel at a loss, uncertain and confused. Such a situation is not what we want; not what we are striving after and seek to attain. We will something other than and different to this. We want to experience meaning in our lives.

Our deepest desire, need or want, therefore, is to reach out to and connect with what is meaningful to us in the most fundamental sense of the word. We seek connection with something or someone outside of ourselves. We want to be linked to, harmoniously part of some greater whole where everything is held together in a good, non-disruptive and life-enhancing way. We want to be called out of ourselves and into some kind of enlivening interaction with others and with our world.

We feel good, happy about and at peace with ourselves when we have something or someone to live for, something of worth to contribute to the common good. We are doing our share for the good of the world around us. This forms the basis of a feeling of self-worth, of being a person in our own right. We are needed: we belong somewhere, have a unique space to fill or role to play.

We fit into the greater picture!

3.

The meaning of life

It would make little sense if we had the freedom to search for, and a fundamental will to find meaning in our lives, if such meaning in life did not exist in any real way; if it was just a case of fantasy, a mere projection of what we desire life to be. This is the third tenet: life must be meaningful in and of itself. It must hold meaning outside and beyond us. Its meaning must be incontestable. Only if life is objectively meaningful is it there for us to become part of, embrace, appreciate and enjoy.

Life must have enduring worth beyond human caprice, beyond being something of our own making or something that we can shape to our own liking; this one in this way, and that one in that way. If my answer is as good as yours and anybody else’s, whose answer will hold? Life will remain a question with no definite answer, nothing to find in any ultimate sense. So why strive for anything beyond what I may make of life, no matter if it is diametrically opposed to what you or others choose to make of it? Why even try? Life will be a conflict without resolution. What a depressing thought!

Only if the meaning of life is something beyond human speculation and manipulation is its meaning indestructible. Only then can nothing and no-one arbitrarily change or nullify life’s meaning. Life’s meaning will remain, be unassailable, beyond spoiling, always there to be found by anyone, at anytime, anywhere, no matter what anyone does or tries to do to darken its horizons.

Consider this: what meaning is there in life if everything is arbitrary or happenstance, if we are in this world through some freak accident, soon to slip into oblivion as if we never lived and if, in the end, it makes little difference whether we were here or not?

Furthermore: for life to be real to us, something we can trust and really believe in, ourselves as meaningfully part of, it must be ev erlasting. It must have been in existence before us and go on after us. Our present lives must be a vital link in the chain of time. If there is a roster, a timing of what is to happen and when, there is progress. Without a beginning of intent towards an envisaged goal, no progress is possible. History will be haphazard, without meaning, a mindless repetition of the same old story, a going around in circles. We will simply be swallowed up in this whirlpool of unrelated happenings, floating about as one piece amongst myriads of other broken pieces on the surface of meaningless events.

Meaning is meaning because if it has purpose and direction!

Missing and Finding the Mark

Lives that are lived meaninglessly are arbitrary, given over to chance. Such lives fall away from, fail to find and miss out on what is meaningful in life. They disconnect, lose anchor and continuity. But once directed towards finding and fulfilling meaning, these lives take on significance, fall into line. Then the truth starts to operate, also retroactively and even to former generations that may have missed the mark!

The truth is this: we are meant to have a history, an origin and a genealogical line. We have a prophetic destiny, one we are meant to embrace. How else can we lay hold of life to live it in the way we are called to do if there was no such coherence of a beginning towards an end; if there was not an original plan and an ultimate purpose to the life given to us all?

Our individual lives must feature in the greater scheme of things, be recorded as significant for posterity and as part on an ongoing story. We must be players, the characters, in life’s unfolding story.

The most optimal place to be, one earmarked by mental and spiritual well-being, is to have unconditional faith in the unconditional meaningfulness of life. Coupled to this, Frankl contested, is the awed awareness of our own unconditional worth: our capability to achieve and live a most meaningful life, a life that contributes to the quality of life of others and to the betterment of the world.

We have the dignity of personal responsibility!

True Happiness

Life is beautiful. But why do we not always see it, realize it, embrace and enjoy it with the awe, the wonder, the joy, the gratitude it should evoke? Self-absorption and fear are our greatest drawbacks. Optimal being is optimal well-being. The stressors are removed, the veil lifted. We are completely open to the beauty that surrounds us: we see the flowers, the trees, the fields, skies and mountains, the seas and rivers, the magnificence of creation, its creatures; every wondrous aspect of nature.

We live in an awesomely beautiful world.

Nature is a statement of fact: the world is here for us. It is our domain. How important that makes us! It affirms our worth, our having to be here. It is the backdrop to the scene of which we are the front figures. The world is at our feet, not to trample it under foot, but for us to take center stage, find our rightful place in it.

The more we learn about the wonders of nature, the awesome harmony and order of our universe, the more we begin to grasp the potential of human greatness in a world designed for togetherness and peace.

We experience, in ever greater measure, that it is good to be alive!

But Why Then Do We Suffer?

What about suffering? The world can look so ugly, so frightening, its face of beauty hidden from us. We can be so full of insecurities, uncertainties; doubts about ourselves. Life can be so painful, others so insensitive and cruel. We may be plagued with anxiety; frightened by what we experience, what we see out there in the world. Life can seem like a tragic affair.

So much of its tragedy is precisely because it is spurned, not appreciated for what it can give. Things are in disarray and unnatural. We fail to understand and appreciate each other. We do not believe in ourselves or in one another. We nurture our hurts, are self-defensive, full of resentment, feel at a distance from and at odds with one another. Brother fights brother. Communities are torn apart by factionalism. One opinion is hostile and opposed to the next. The world is a place of uprisings, wars and violent conflicts. There is blood-shed and misery, lewd ways of living, lawlessness and corruption almost everywhere. Tyrannical regimes oppress their peoples and seek to dominate the entire world and subject it to its will; terrorist groups even compete for power among themselves.

How do we make sense of the world, of life in the face of so much anguish, turmoil and strife?

There Is Evil in the World

Are we inherently evil creatures, inclined towards falling into unspeakable depths of depravity and cruelty, and is there very little, if anything at all that can be done about it?

How can anyone believe in life as just and fair if evil holds such sway, has such a free hand, is so rampant and common place that there is no stopping of it, no force strong enough in the world to effectively resist and eradicate it?

We can still see the sense of having to put something right if we did something wrong, if we are faced with the miserable consequences of our own foolish actions. But how does life retain its meaning if we are subjected to injustice, to suffering we have not brought upon ourselves, when we are faced with that which, at the moment of happening, is beyond our power to prevent or change? There is an inherent injustice to falling ill, to becoming a prey of some or other mortal physical affliction. Such tragedies happen to us beyond our ability to safeguard ourselves against it. And can we stop ourselves from growing older; can we prevent our eventual and inevitable deaths?

Victims of Injustice

It is the answer to all the above questions that has made Man’s Search for Meaning, Frankl’s book that captured his own experiences of suffering as a Jew in the Nazi concentration and death camps, a best-seller to this day.

Frankl was a survivor of what became known as the Holocaust, the systematic slaughter of over six million Jews, including one and a half million Jewish children, by a power seeking National Socialist Regime in Germany during the Second World War. Millions of other victims also died in the camps or were killed during the course of the war.

Frankl wrote over 30 books in his lifetime, all expounding the truths he captured in the first two books he wrote soon after his release from the camps. The first was the rewriting of the lost manuscript of his book entitled: The Doctor and the Soul, a book he hastily wrote just before he was captured and sent to the concentration camps. The second, Man’s Search for Meaning, written shortly after the rewriting of his first book, not only contains the story of his Holocaust experiences, but also captures the essence of all he expounded in his unique school of psychotherapy, namely, logotherapy.

Since its first publication, Man’s Search for Meaning has been read and continues to be read by millions of people all over the world. The book impacts on the reader in a life-changing way. Why? Frankl posed this question himself. Is it that people are in fact trying to make sense of their lives and of life itself? There is so much hurt and tragedy and disaster in the world and it also finds its way into our personal lives. This is where we suffer the most. For indeed, Frankl observed, none of us can really claim that we have remained untouched, unhurt and unshaken by the tragic facts of life.

Existential Frustration

Frankl spoke about the tragic triad of human existence: pain, guilt and death. Who of us can say that we will never suffer, always get things right and never fail or make mistakes? We are all going to die! He also spoke about suffering boredom. There is a particular anguish about feeling what he described as an inner state of emptiness. A logotherapist, Genrich Krasko (2004), entitled his book: The Unbearable Boredom of Being. If nothing much matters, if there seems to be little to really be excited about, not much reason for anything, we suffer. There is, as Frankl called it, an existential vacuum , a feeling that nothing much matters in life.

The Call to Come Out of Hiding

But it is in the very face of life’s tragedies and disappointments, pain and hardships, its losses, anguish and grief, in the experience of an intolerable feeling of meaninglessness that we are most keenly provoked to search for answers. Not only do we yearn for a different kind of world but we also seek to live life in a different and more fulfilling way. From within the very depths of our being, we experience a longing, even a loneliness; something that tells us that we want to be lovingly restored to what we feel we were originally given, something we had or could have had; something that was given to us as a potential or a promise of what life could have been or was meant to be like.

It was something meant to be ours, but that somehow got lost.

When Meaning Becomes a Mission: The Story of Viktor Frankl

A study of the life of Viktor Frankl, someone who had found what we sense we are all looking for, holds great meaning for us.

There is a golden thread of meaning in his life; a destined path that can be traced throughout it. All of his life’s experiences, from the most meaningful to the most painful, had a shaping influence upon his thinking. It was as if there was a preparation taking place towards a point of readiness which launched his life into a very much more vividly clarified direction.

Viktor Emil Frankl was born in Vienna in 1905 to a devout and morally enlightened Jewish family and died in that same city in September 1997. Between those two dates there is a space of life that contains all the struggles, challenges and triumphs of what it means to be human.

It is a story that addresses all of us.

An Innocent Childhood

In his autobiography, Viktor Frankl: Recollections (1997), published a few months before his death, Frankl recalled a few major experiences and events in his life. Two of his earliest recollections vividly illustrate what later became the cornerstones of his thinking.

He described the first event, when only a 4 year old, as follows: One evening, just before falling asleep, I was startled by the unexpected thought that one day I too would have to die. What troubled me then – as it has done throughout my life – was not the fear of dying, but the question of whether the transitory nature of life might destroy its meaning (1997: 27). What was the meaning of life if it comes to an end, if death, a total end to it, is what inevitably awaits us all?

Little did he know that soon afterwards he would be given an answer to this painful question in the following and second significant event: One sunny morning, I was awakened. With my eyes still closed, I was flooded by the utterly rapturous sense of being guarded, sheltered. When I opened my eyes my father was standing there, bending over me and smiling (1997: 31).

A Lasting Impression

The impression left with him was that there is meaning in life waiting for us to awaken and reach out to and that this meaning is hidden in the very fact of life’s transitory nature.

Time does not stretch out endlessly. It passes and it ends. Birth and death enclose us within a limited space of time. Time is therefore extremely precious. Every moment is a space waiting for us to step into and fill with meaningful content. Time asks something from us. We seem called to do something with and about it. Indeed, each day, every moment of time, presents us with something to do or someone to respond to - something is expected us of us in each and every situation.

The Meaning of the Moment

Every situation offers us something unique, comes to us but once and never again. The encounter with every such a moment changes us. We do not meet the next moment in exactly the same way. We change with time, become more of who we will prove to be. Every situation is a chance to show ourselves, to give expression to ourselves in ways that all the more define us. This is so and so. This is what he or she is like.

We make ourselves known in the world.

Do we want to stay in hiding, tucked away in some kind of enclosure of our own making, not facing life at all? To be unknown in this way, to have never really lived and made our impression on the world or, even worse, to have made a false impression on the world, leaves us with feelings of sadness and regret. Not to have lived our lives, is to not have really existed. We can easily be replaced by another. We will not really be missed and will be quickly forgotten. But even more tragic than this type of non-existence is to have lived a wasted, even a bad life, to have damaged what could have been precious in our lives, to have thrown our lives away. How will we be remembered then? Do we want to leave a bad impression, have the way we have lived our lives speak against our person? Do we want to be riddled with guilt and shame, in a state of humiliation and defeat, with no hope of being saved out of it? No one in their right mind would want to leave the kind of legacy that people would like to erase from memory!

The truth of the matter is that we want to be missed. We want to be remembered with love, admiration and respect.

We want to live a life that matters.

Time is meant for progress. It is not to be wasted or thrown away, but it is meant to achieve something of worth. Time indeed waits for no man. We will all come to the end of the time allotted to us. Time will go on without us. When our time is up, we would want to feel satisfied with the way we have lived our lives. We would want to see that we needed to be here and to have done and experienced what we did. Our lives had impact. It meant something. It formed a meaningful part of the whole, of some bigger picture or story, a story that started long before we were born and that will continue its narrative after we have gone, but a story we were part of! We had a say in its plot. We were part of history; a history that started with magnificent intent and works towards an ordained end: a good and meaningful, a benevolent, and yes, a glorious conclusion. It was all very worthwhile!

Death , therefore, gives life its meaning as a once given precious gift of opportunity.

Life is for living it in the way it is meant to be lived!

The Teenage Years

When Frankl was 14 and a science teacher asserted that life, in the final analysis, was nothing but a process of combustion, the young Viktor jumped up and exclaimed: If that is so, then what meaning does life have? If life was just a matter of mere and mechanical existence, or of blind evolution; if it was a matter of the survival of only the fittest, the most fortunate, the most successful, the most famous and the most powerful, we could lapse into a state of futility and despair. Where am I in this scheme of things? Is my life but a pointer towards a better end for the future of mankind or towards an outcome I will have no part in? I would be just a forgotten step along the way. Am I just a detail of a plot that swallows me up? When I look at so many wasted and empty lives around me with only a few reaching the top and that, among these few lucky ones, only a few that I can really admire and respect, what is it all for? Everything seems so senseless and cruel, terribly unjust. I am pushed to a point of giving up on life.

The sense of senselessness in life can also be filled with anger and violent protest - an anger that in its extremity wreaks vengeance on a meaningless world and that becomes ruthless and uncaring about the plight of others. A philosophy of: let us take out of life what we can get out of it is behind drug-addiction, alcoholism, a crazed seeking after pleasure and power. It is also at the basis of a lawless, violent and crime-ridden way of life.

The Shaping of a Life Task

Frankl felt it was his life’s task to oppose nihilism, the belief in non-meaning (that there is no ultimate meaning to life) that, he believed, was the root cause of human misery. Frankl set out on a career in psychiatry in which he introduced the concepts of meanings and values to psychiatric thought. People were not just their miserable illnesses, mental afflictions and emotional problems or messed up lives. People want to find meaning in their lives, make some sense of their sufferings, know how to deal with it and somehow overcome it, get the better of it and, in the process, become better human beings with a future of hope ahead of them. Frankl therefore sought to rehumanize psychiatry.

But what a challenge he was about to face at the very outset of what he saw as his mission in life! Could he have known what was ahead of him in being taken captive and sent to four different Nazi concentration and death camps? His life was to be brought to a sudden halt. Frankl’s fundamental belief that life has meaning, expounded in his teachings and writings, was to be severely tested in the years of suffering that followed.

He had already gained stature as an exceptional human being. As a young medical student, he developed programs to help to reduce the number of suicides in the pre-war Austria. He interacted with and participated in the associations of both Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler, world famous therapists whose views on human nature he dared to question! He received his medical degree in 1930. From 1933–1937 he was head of the Vienna Psychiatric Hospital’s female suicide prevention section and worked with thousands of women who were in danger of committing suicide. In 1937 he opened his own private and flourishing practice.

When the Germans invaded Austria in 1938 he, as a Jew, was not allowed to treat Aryan patients. He consequently took a post as head of the neurological department of the Rothchild Hospital in Vienna, the only place where Jewish patients could still be treated. Adolf Hitler, the infamous leader of the Nazi regime, had ordered the euthanasia of the mentally retarded and mentally ill of his own people in an effort to purify the blood of the German or Aryan race. Frankl risked his life and saved the lives of such patients under his care by giving them false diagnoses.

But even greater choices were ahead of him.

Crucial Choices

Frankl sought to relocate to the United States to escape what became an increasingly dangerous situation, especially for Jews. Shortly before the United States entered World War II, he was at last invited to come to the American Consulate to pick up his visa. He hesitated. The visa applied to him alone.

Could he leave his elderly parents behind?

Undecided, he took a walk and had this thought: Isn’t this the kind of situation that requires some hint from heaven? When he returned home, his eyes fell on a little piece of marble lying on the table. When he asked his father about it, his father explained that he had found it among the rubble of a synagogue that the National Socialists had burnt down. He had taken it home because it was a part of the tablets which contained the Ten Commandments. This particular piece had one letter engraved upon it, the fifth letter of the alphabet with the numerical value of five. It stood for the fifth of the Ten Commandments, namely, to honor your father and your mother. Frankl had his hint from heaven! He stayed, letting his American visa lapse (Frankl 1967: 34).

As the situation in Vienna grew even more ominous, Frankl sat down and wrote the draft of his first book, entitled: Arztliche Seelsorge (Doctor and the Soul). His work, that he termed: logotherapy, had already become known as the Third Viennese School of Psychotherapy, the first and second being the schools of Freud and Adler. Frankl had some protection, one he could also extend to his parents, due to his position at the Rothchild hospital. Jews were being rounded up and sent to the Nazi concentration camps that had sprung up over the occupied countries of Europe. But how long was that protection to last? It seemed imperative to capture his views on paper. If he was to perish, the essentials of logotherapy might at least survive him.

Frankl met and married Tilly Grossen In 1941. Together with one other couple they were the last of the Viennese Jews to obtain permission from the National Socialist authorities to wed. By then, Jews were forbidden to have children. A decree was issued that pregnant Jewish women would be immediately deported to a concentration camp. They would face a certain death. Frankl and Tilly decided to abort the fetus she was carrying. Frankl’s book, The Unheard Cry for Meaning , was dedicated to their unborn child.

Nine months after their wedding day the couple, along with their families, were deported to Theresienstadt where Frankl did what he could to help others. He ran a clinic and helped new prisoners deal with the drastic shock of entry into the camp. He also established a suicide watch. Six months after their arrival in Therensienstadt his father died of starvation and pneumonia, despite Frankl’s devoted care. Frankl was ordered to be transferred to Auschwitz. Although Tilly had been granted a 2-year exemption from the transfer because she was working in a munitions factory deemed important to the war effort, she joined him, despite Frankl’s efforts to dissuade her.

In the last minutes they were together at Auschwitz and just before the men and women were separated from each other, Frankl (1997: 90) urged her: Tilly, stay alive at any price. Do you hear? At any price! He was trying to tell her that if she found herself in a situation where she was selected to be a partner for sex of some or other Nazi or else be killed, she should not refuse out of a sense of loyalty to him. The choice to stay alive in the hope of being with him again would in no way contradict their marriage vows of staying faithful to each other.

However, Frankl was to never see Tilly again. She died in Bergen-Belsen. Frankl’s mother was sent to Auschwitz and, being elderly, was sent to the gas chambers. Frankl’s brother, Walter, also died there.

On one of his first days back in Vienna after his liberation, Frankl looked up a trusted friend and told him about the news of the deaths of Tilly, his parents and his brother. Only his sister survived, having made her way to Australia before the outbreak of the war. After sharing all of these tragic events with his friend, Frankl burst into tears and said:

I must tell you that when all this happens to someone, to be tested in such a way, that it must have some meaning. I have a feeling – and I don’t know how else to say it – that something waits for me; that something is expected of me, that I am destined for something (1997: 104).

To Be a Jew: The Bigger Picture

As a Jew in Nazi occupied Austria, Frankl was a victim of the Nazi movement’s leader, Adolf Hitler, in his unequalled hatred of the Jew. Hatred seeks to obliterate the very existence of the object of hatred, especially if that hatred is driven by vicious envy. Thus Hitler’s appeasement of his own violent hatred of the Jew got formulated as the final solution of the Jewish problem – namely, the dehumanization and eventual annihilation of the entire Jewish race.

How are we to understand Hitler’s obsession with the Jew?

A study of history will show that the Jew holds an uncanny and special position in this world, a position that provoked envy and hatred by tyrant leaders, nations and groups throughout history and still does and all the more so in our own day. No matter what the religious persuasions, philosophies or political views of people are, the Jews find themselves the focus of critical attention. No other nation or group is singled out in quite the same way. Robert Wistrich, renowned historian and expert on antisemitism, called two of his works on Jew-hatred: A Lethal Obsession (2010) and Antisemitism, The Longest Hatred (1991).

Why? What is the reason for this?

The Bible, for those who are familiar with it, describes the Jews as set apart or chosen. They were designated as chosen, the Bible tells us, not because of their superiority over other nations but because they were entrusted with a task, a mission to fulfill: to live by and instruct the world in the Law of God.

In the mind of people like Hitler and all the unrighteous men before him, such laws place discomforting limits on the unbridled and barbaric ambition of man to do his own thing and to be uncurbed in his bid to be elevated to positions of absolute power and boundless pleasure according to concepts of a deity that is pleasing to him. Such distorted concepts of God, the Bible called: idolatry. Yes, we are barbarians, Hitler raged. We want to be barbarians! It is an honorable title. Providence has ordained that I should be the greatest liberator of humanity. I am freeing man from the dirty and degrading self-mortification of a false vision (a Jewish invention) called ‘conscience’ and ‘morality’ (quoted in Spiro 2002: 346).

According to Hitler, the Jews gave the world two curses: circumcision and conscience. Who, argued Hitler, is to lay claim to our lives, set us apart (by the symbolic act of circumcision) to be accountable (through a conscientious obedience to the injunctions of the Law) for all we think, say and do? Man will be answerable to no-one but himself! He will be his own god, set up his own system of beliefs according to his understanding and liking. He will set up his own ideas of God; create his own religion or godless philosophy of life. Hitler, like the tyrants and dictators before and after him, sought to cast off the yoke of accountability that the Jewish presence in the world represents. The place the nation of Israel occupies in the world is to be usurped and replaced by another.

There can be no two chosen people, only one! Hitler raged.

In fact, in the brutish and twisted mind of dictators and fanatical leaders such as Hitler, Jewish presence in the world must be obliterated. The sense of accountability, so discomfortingly there in the bosom of man, must be eradicated. Genocide, the annihilation of the entire Jewish race, is the objective. The Jews must be placed in a position, not of being chosen, but of being despised. They are to bear their shame as a sinful, failing and unworthy people. Other people, especially their usurpers, are to be elevated above and be declared to be much more worthy than they. To obtain this objective, the Jews must be humiliated and shamed, robbed of respect and stature. Through propaganda and slander, the indoctrination of the mind of the masses, the Jews are to be seen as evil and as rejected by God. Jews are to be cursed as vermin, pigs, descendants of apes, a cancer that must be excised, removed from the body of mankind.

At the other extreme, the Jews are to be seen as a threat to the existence of other nations. The Jews must be suspected of plotting to take over the world; to be steering the course of history their way. They are to be judged as a people who abuse, dominate, are cruelly insensitive to human rights; a people who exert evil power over the innocent and hapless lives of those they victimize. The world must be made to see Jews as a danger to them and learn to fear and hate them.

"Die Juden sind unser Ungluck" (the Jews are our misfortune"), read a propaganda poster during the Nazi regime.

If the Jews can be made to bend the knee in acknowledgement of the superior power of their adversaries and of their beliefs and way of life; if they, through torture and terror, can be cut down to size, be brought to a position where they would be begging for their lives and, like starved animals, would be fighting over a morsel of food, then they would no longer pose such a threat. They would then prove to be no better than other men, no, inferior to other men!

If the Jew can be accused and held responsible for all that is wrong in the world, their accusers could be freed of guilt, from their own sense of shame and humiliation!

What a convenient scapegoat for the ills of the world Jews are, Hitler, with evil genius, realized! If there was no Jew, he said, it would be necessary to invent him (in Dimsdale 1980: 67).

Like Sheep to the Slaughter?

At Hitler’s orders, Jews were rounded up, crammed into cattle cars of German trains and transported like sheep to the slaughter. Joined by others similarly inspired by Jew-hatred throughout Nazi occupied Europe, the possessions of Jews were confiscated, their communities and institutions devastated. If not rounded up on the spot, shot and thrown into mass graves, they were herded into ghettos and from there transported to concentration and extermination camps. Upon arrival at the death camps, equipped with gas chambers and crematoria, pregnant women, children and the elderly were immediately sent to the gas chambers; beautiful women were set aside to be raped. Children who were twins and other children, also adults, were selected for barbaric medical experimentation. Men and women who were fit enough for the slave labor ahead of them, were separated from each other. Before assigned to their barracks, they were stripped naked, shaved, pushed into showers and deloused, given prison uniforms or rags for clothing, and then crowded into their barracks. Life consisted of a near starvation diet, being exposed to the elements and to the outbreak of disease among the camp inmates. They were beaten, tortured, terrorized, starved and worked to death. There was a daily quota of those to be shot and gassed, their bodies thrown in mass graves or just piled up or shoved into ovens to be burnt. Hundreds of thousands of dissidents, Jehovah’s witnesses, Communists, Christians who sought to save Jews, along with gypsies, homosexuals and those not deemed fit for life, faced the same doom; millions of others, especially Poles and the Slavic peoples, were killed as targets of war. Two thirds of European Jewry, the object of intentional murder, were eradicated before this greatest crime in human history was brought to a shaky halt.

Chosen in the Fire of Affliction

How utterly amazing, therefore, that it was there, in the white heat of the most unimaginable suffering, that Frankl found the most powerful clarification of his mission in life - namely, to teach through personal witness and experience of the truth of it, that life holds unconditional meaning! Everything that gave life a sense of meaning may well have been stripped from him. But one thing remained. Frankl called this the last of the human freedoms, a freedom we are never deprived of – namely, the freedom to choose how we will behave, the stand we will take for what is right and decent, humane and just, in the face of that which tries to destroy it. Not only are we able to retain our decency and worth as human beings in the most vile conditions imaginable, but we can also grow into most exemplary human beings not only despite it, but because of it. Good has the power to overcome evil! How graphically this was voiced by another triumphant survivor, one of the research participants of my doctorate research, after release from a 3 year imprisonment in Auschwitz:

They wanted to prove to themselves that they could break the Jewish nation, that they could break our spirit, our values, to break anything which is human. To convert us to the level of nothingness, that is what their aim was. Shall I tell you something? They did not succeed! Morally, spiritually, no matter how much we were skeletons, still we had the human touch in us. We were heaps of skin and bone, heaps of dead bodies, but they could not somehow get at us. We remain! (In Shantall 2002: 267).

Suffering as a Task

Frankl entered Auschwitz with only his hastily written manuscript hidden in the inner pocket of his coat. When ordered to strip and despite his plea to retain his manuscript, his coat plus the manuscript were taken from him.

Thus I had to undergo and to overcome the loss of my spiritual child. And now it seemed as if nothing and no one would survive me; neither a physical nor a spiritual child of my own. I found myself confronted with the question whether under such circumstances my life was ultimately void of meaning.

Not yet did I notice that an answer to this question with which I was wrestling so passionately was already in store for me and that soon thereafter this answer would be given to me. This was the case when I had to surrender my clothes and in turn inherited the worn-out rags of an inmate who had already been sent to the gas chamber. Instead of the many pages of my manuscript, I found in a pocket of the newly acquired coat one single page torn out of a Hebrew prayer book, containing the main Jewish prayer, Shema Yisrael (Hear, O Israel), i.e. the command: ‘Love thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might’, or, as one might interpret it as well, the command to say ‘Yes’ to life despite whatever one has to face, be it suffering or even dying.

How should I have interpreted such a ‘coincidence’ other than as a challenge to live my thoughts instead of putting them on paper? (Frankl 1967: 25–26).

Frankl made a decision right there and then to not run into the wire (commit suicide by running into the electric fences around the camp).

The Sustaining Power of Right Choices

Life was no longer showering its blessings of which he had in the past been such a fortunate recipient. A much more active orientation was being called for.

Everything that ordinarily made life worth the living was being taken from Frankl and from those who shared his tragic fate. Now - more than ever, he had to practice what he preached; give expression to what he had already formulated as a truth before his deportation to the camps, namely that it was not what we expected from life but what life expected from us.

Woe to him who saw no more sense in his life, no aim, no purpose, and therefore no point in carrying on. He was soon lost. The typical reply with which such a man rejected all encouraging arguments was, ‘I have nothing to expect from life anymore’. What sort of answer can one give to that? What was really needed was a fundamental change in our attitude toward life. We had to