Microplastic Pollution

Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry

Series Editor

Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu

Head of Sustainability, SgT and API, Kowloon, Hong Kong

More information about this series at http://​www.​springer.​com/​series/​16490 This series aims to address all issues related to sustainability through the lifecycles of textiles from manufacturing to consumer behavior through sustainable disposal. Potential topics include but are not limited to:Environmental Footprints of Textile manufacturing; Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Textile production; Environmental impact models of Textiles and Clothing Supply Chain; Clothing Supply Chain Sustainability; Carbon, energy and water footprints of textile products and in the clothing manufacturing chain; Functional life and reusability of textile products; Biodegradable textile products and the assessment of biodegradability; Waste management in textile industry; Pollution abatement in textile sector; Recycled textile materials and the evaluation of recycling; Consumer behavior in Sustainable Textiles; Eco-design in Clothing & Apparels; Sustainable polymers & fibers in Textiles; Sustainable waste water treatments in Textile manufacturing; Sustainable Textile Chemicals in Textile manufacturing.Innovative fibres, processes, methods and technologies for Sustainable textiles; Development of sustainable, eco-friendly textile products and processes; Environmental standards for textile industry; Modelling of environmental impacts of textile products; Green Chemistry, clean technology and their applications to textiles and clothing sector; Eco-production of Apparels, Energy and Water Efficient textiles.Sustainable Smart textiles & polymers, Sustainable Nano fibers and Textiles; Sustainable Innovations in Textile Chemistry & Manufacturing; Circular Economy, Advances in Sustainable Textiles Manufacturing; Sustainable Luxury & Craftsmanship; Zero Waste Textiles.

Editor

Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu

Microplastic Pollution

1st ed. 2021

Logo of the publisher

Editor

Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu

Sustainability, SgT Group and API, Kowloon, Hong Kong

ISSN 2662-7108e-ISSN 2662-7116

Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry

ISBN 978-981-16-0296-2e-ISBN 978-981-16-0297-9

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-0297-9

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021

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This book is dedicated to:

The lotus feet of my beloved Lord Pazhaniandavar

My beloved late Father

My beloved Mother

My beloved Wife Karpagam and Daughters—Anu and Karthika

My beloved Brother—Raghavan

Everyone working with Micro Plastics Pollution to make our planet Earth SUSTAINABLE

Contents

Effect of Textile Parameters on Microfiber Shedding Properties of Textiles 1

S. Raja Balasaraswathi and R. Rathinamoorthy

Current State of Microplastics Research in SAARC Countries—A Review 27

K. Amrutha, Vishnu Unnikrishnan, Sachin Shajikumar and Anish Kumar Warrier

Distribution and Impact of Microplastics in the Aquatic Systems:​ A Review of Ecotoxicological​ Effects on Biota 65

Tadele Assefa Aragaw and Bassazin Ayalew Mekonnen

Microplastic Pollution in Marine Environment:​ Occurrence, Fate, and Effects (With a Specific Focus on Biogeochemical Carbon and Nitrogen Cycles) 105

Bozhi Yan, Qing Liu, Jingjing Li, Chunsheng Wang, Yanhong Li and Chunfang Zhang

Domestic Laundry and Microfiber Shedding of Synthetic Textiles 127

R. Rathinamoorthy and S. Raja Balasaraswathi

Microplastics in Dentistry—A Review 157

T. Chandran, Unnikrishnan Vishnu and A. K. Warrier

About the Editor

Dr. Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu

currently works for SgT Group as Head of Sustainability, and is based out of Hong Kong. He earned his Ph.D. from The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, and is a renowned expert in the areas of Environmental Sustainability in Textiles & Clothing Supply Chain, Product Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), Ecological Footprint and Product Carbon Footprint Assessment (PCF) in various industrial sectors. He has five years of industrial experience in textile manufacturing, research and development and textile testing and over a decade's of experience in life cycle assessment (LCA), carbon and ecological footprints assessment of various consumer products. He has published more than 100 research publications, written numerous book chapters and authored/edited over 95 books in the areas of Carbon Footprint, Recycling, Environmental Assessment and Environmental Sustainability.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021

S. S. Muthu (ed.)Microplastic PollutionSustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistryhttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-0297-9_1

Effect of Textile Parameters on Microfiber Shedding Properties of Textiles

S. Raja Balasaraswathi¹ and R. Rathinamoorthy¹  

(1)

Department of Fashion Technology, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, India

R. Rathinamoorthy

Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Fast fashion is one of the recent changes in the apparel and fashion industry. The fast-fashion process enables mass customers to adapt to the current trend in a short period. To reach the customers at the earliest time at an affordable price, the manufacturing industries use cheaper raw materials in various processes of manufacturing. Synthetic textiles like polyester, polypropylene, and acrylic are the common fibers used in the fast-fashion items. These fibers are identified as a major source of microfiber pollution. The synthetic fabric sheds microfibers during wearing, laundry, and disposal. A recent study estimated that the synthetic clothing sale would reach 160 million tons in 2050 and subsequently 22 million tons of microfiber added into the ocean between 2015 and 2050. The microfiber shedding of textiles is mainly influenced by the different production and fiber parameters. The chapter aims to elaborate on the role of different synthetic fibers and their shedding properties. Similarly, the influence of fabric manufacturing methods like weaving and knitting also detailed for a better understanding of shedding. Further, this chapter details the fabric parameters like fabric thickness, fabric density, structure type, and their influence on microfiber shedding. The last part of the chapter deals with the influence of different finishing methods to control or reduce the microfiber shedding from synthetic fabric.

Keywords

Microfiber sheddingFiber typeYarn typeTwist and hairinessFabric typesAbrasion resistancePillingTensile strengthFinishing process

1 Introduction

In the past few decades, plastics have become an essential, unavoidable need in all aspects of day-to-day life. Plastics hold a Global Market size of 568.9 billion USD in the year 2019 and the estimated compound annual growth is at a rate of 3.2% during 2020–2027 [1]. Plastics that are less than 5 mm in length fall under the microplastic categories which are very difficult to be traced [2]. These can be in the form of fragments, granules, or fibers [3]. Based on these sources, microplastics are classified as primary microplastics and secondary microplastics [4]. The first one is the manufacturing and usage of plastics of smaller sizes (Primary microplastics) and another is due to the fragmentation or degradation of larger plastics into smaller ones (Secondary microplastics) [2]. These microplastics should also be addressed and it seeks even more attention than macroplastics since traceability, prevention, and removal of microplastics are extremely challenging. The microplastics are generated from various sources including erosion of tyres, synthetic textiles, marine coating, road markings, personal care products like cosmetics and plastic pellets [4].

Among various sources, synthetic textiles play a dominant role in microplastic emission. Textile materials can be a potential source of microplastics in the form of short fibers. Synthetic fibers hold an irreplaceable place in the apparel and textile industries. The ultimate properties and performance of synthetic fibers get such a position in the textile field. The dominance of synthetic textiles in the industry keeps on increasing and it accounts for around 63% of total fiber production [5]. The recent accelerator of the global fashion market ‘fast fashion’ is one of the major reasons for the higher consumption of synthetic textiles. Fast fashion focuses on faster production at affordable prices. And synthetic textiles will be a good choice in achieving the low cost and quick production concept of fast fashion. Microplastic fibers which shed from synthetic textiles are considered as the main source of microplastic pollution. About 20–35% of microplastics found in the marine environment resemble the fibers which are similar to those used in the apparels [6]. In the study by Boucher and Friot to estimate the sources of microplastics in the marine environment, it has been reported that the synthetic textiles contribute more among various sources and it accounts for 35% of total sources identified [4]. Figure 1 represents various sources of microplastics from the literature. This confirms the important role played by synthetic textiles in microplastic pollution. It is estimated that annually around 0.19 million tons of microfibers are entering the marine environment [7]. The increasing trend of synthetic textile production and consumption will proportionately increase the microfiber emission and it is estimated that the microfiber release into the marine environment will reach up to 22 million tons by the year 2050 [8].

Fig. 1

Sources of microplastics in the marine environment [Authors own representation]

Various researches have been made to understand the presence of microplastics in the environment and to analyze their characteristics to get a clear idea of their source. Microfibers are found to be present in different levels of the environment due to their varied densities [9]. Microfibers are found to be present in various samples that are taken from surface waters [10], sea ice [11], and even in the atmosphere [12]. Browne et al. collected 18 samples of sediments in the coastal region of six continents and they found microplastics in all the samples. The collected microplastics showed a close resemblance to the synthetic microfibers that are collected from the sewage treatment plant which confirms that the coastal regions are contaminated with microplastic fibers which are originated from the synthetic textiles [13]. The presence of microplastics in the sea ice in the arctic region has also been studied and the characterization of collected microplastics has shown that rayon accounts for a maximum of 54% which is then followed by polyester and nylon contributing 21% and 16%, respectively [11]. The other researcher has found microfibers in the river water samples. It has been estimated that around 300 million individual microfibers are being discharged along the surface of the river (Hudson River, USA) [10]. The research made in Saigon River also confirms the presence of microfibers in the river water. They noticed a huge proportion of synthetic fibers which contributes around 92% of total microfibers, where polyester being the dominant one with a 70% contribution [14]. The sewage effluents could be the potential source of microplastics in the freshwater systems and marine environment. A study on the effectiveness of wastewater treatment plants has concluded that sewage effluents have a variety of microplastics from various sources. The characterization of microplastics has shown that flakes hold a huge proportion of 67.3% which is followed by fibrous particles which account for 18.5%. They have also reported polyester as the most prominent polymer followed by polyamide with each contributing 28% and 20%, respectively, in the collected microplastics [15]. In addition to this, microfibers are also found in the air as the size was so smaller, and unfortunately, we are inhaling microfibers too [16]. A study on the analysis of microfibers in the air sampled in indoor and outdoor sites has confirmed the presence of microfibers in the atmosphere and a considerable number of microfibers ranging from 1.0–60.0 fibers per cubic meter are found. Another interesting fact to be noted here is the nature of fibers. Out of total microplastics found, around 33% of fibers found were synthetic fibers and they can add on to the microplastics [17].

Through various studies on microplastics’ prevalence in the environment, it is confirmed that the synthetic textiles that are shedding microfibers are one of the major contributors to microplastic pollution. This arises the need for a detailed analysis of textiles throughout their lifetime to understand their potentiality of releasing short fibers which can add on to the microplastic load in the environment. This chapter tries to address the existing gap in the research area by providing the role of textile characteristics on synthetic textile microfiber shedding or releasing ability in different situations. Especially, the major focus is provided on the laundry process as most of the release occurs during consumer washing. This becomes essential as most of the recent researchers are alarmed about the microfiber contamination of the aquatic system.

2 Microfiber Shedding Mechanism

The disengagement of loose or damaged or broken fibers from the surface of textile materials is often referred to as the microfiber shedding of textile materials. Generally, when the textile materials are subjected to mechanical stress, the abrasion on the surface of the materials leads to fiber damage or breakage [18].

Even the handling of materials while using can also lead to fiber breakage as the fibers can be broken down by the application of repeated small or moderate loading rather than a single excessive force. Tensile fatigue and flex fatigue can lead to fiber failure. Not only breakage, but fiber failure can also be in the form of splitting and peeling. The reason for fiber breakage or damage is not limited to mechanical actions but the fibers can also get degraded due to chemical actions [19]. This can often happen during wet processing where fabrics are subjected to a wide variety of chemicals [20] and also during domestic laundering where detergents [21] and other laundry additives are used. This fiber damage or breakage leads to fiber shedding as these short fibers can get disengaged from the surface of the textile materials. Moreover, during the yarn production process, the fibers will be subjected to various mechanical stresses. As a result of this, fibers can be cut or broken down and the small fragments of fibers will get embedded in the yarn structure without any strong binding. These fibers can be released from the structure in the later stage while wearing or washing the garments [22]. The microfiber shedding can also be compared with the pilling nature of the fabric. The fiber shedding can be considered as the next stage of pill formation which is pill wear-off [23]. The process of pill formation can be simplified into 3 steps [24]:

i.

Formation of fuzz

ii.

Entanglement of fuzz to form pills

iii.

Pill wear-off

In the fuzz formation step, the fibers get protruded from the yarn structure and it mostly happens in the dry state when the material is subjected to wear and use [25]. Figure 2 represents fiber protrusion on the fabric surface. These protruded fibers can get entangled to form pills on the surface of the fabrics which is held due to the tenacity of the fibers and then they wear-off from the surface [26]. Those pills which are very small in size can be added on to the category of microfibers. Figure 3 represents the predicted shedding mechanism of microfibers from synthetic textiles.

Fig. 2

Microscopic images of fiber protrusion on the fabric surface [Authors own representation]

Fig. 3

Microfiber shedding mechanism as predicted by the previous literature [Authors own representation]

However, the formation of pills is not necessarily important as a preceding step for the microfiber shedding to happen. Moreover, the shedding property depends mostly on the fuzz formation step where the short, loose, or damaged fibers protrude from the surface. These protruded fibers can directly disentangle from the surface even before the formation of pills. Hence, the fuzz forming nature of fibers determines the level of shedding. The more fuzz formation causes increased shedding [23]. In general, all the types of materials including natural and synthetic textiles shed fibers [23] during all the stages of their life cycle [28]. But the amount or rate of shedding can vary with various factors. It can vary with the characteristics of the textile material like fiber type [23, 27], yarn type [23], fabric construction [29] as well as the external factors like mechanical and chemical actions during washing [23, 27] and wearing [12]. Figure 4 represents the microscopic image of the microfiber released from synthetic apparel.

Fig. 4

Microscopic images of microfibers shed from synthetic apparels during laundry [Authors own representation]

3 Microfiber Generations in Different Phases of Life Cycle

Since the textile materials are subjected to considerable mechanical and chemical actions that are responsible for the shedding throughout their life cycle, the microfiber shedding can occur during all the stages including production, consumption, and disposal stages [30].

3.1 Production Stage

In the production stage of textile materials, wet processing plays a vital role in the microfiber emission. The wet processing of textiles is one of the important processes that cannot be neglected as it is responsible for the improved value of the materials. The aesthetics, comfort, and other functional properties of the textiles are potentially improved in wet processing. Throughout the process, a huge variety of chemicals are used in the form of dyes, finishing agents, and other auxiliaries [31]. The fabrics are subjected to more forces, both mechanical and chemical actions, during the dyeing and printing process than during the domestic laundry and this can cause microfiber shedding. The release of an enormous amount of effluents from the wet processing industries can easily carry away the microfibers and eases the release into water systems. Hongjie Zhou et al. have investigated the presence of microfibers in the textile printing and dyeing effluents that are properly treated with the wastewater treatment system. They have discovered that almost 85–99% of microfibers are eliminated in the wastewater treatment. Yet the number of microfibers found in textile wastewater is significantly high. With this higher level of microfibers in dyeing and printing effluents, they have concluded that wastewater from the textile production plant contributes majorly to the presence of microfibers in the natural water bodies [20]. The other researchers have analyzed the Waste Water Treatment Plant (WWTP) of the textile industry with 30,000 tons of treatment capacity in which printing and dyeing effluent accounts for 95% of wastewater. Their study aims to understand the effectiveness of different stages of WWTP in the removal of microfibers in the effluent. They have collected samples from each stage of the treatment and characterized the microparticles found. It has been noted that microfibers were dominant and they account for 80-100% of the microparticles found in the sample sites. They have also concluded that both natural and synthetic fibers are found in the samples out of which microplastic fibers (synthetic fibers) account for 60% of total fibers [32]. The presence of a huge number of microfibers in the effluents of textile production plants confirms that the shedding occurs in the production stage of textile materials and microfibers are being emitted into the environment particularly into water systems. The higher number of microfibers in the effluents of dyeing and printing industries than those found in the municipal sewage plants [20] shows the dominant role of the production process of textiles in the microfiber shedding.

3.2 Consumption Stage

In the consumption stage of textile materials, wearing and maintenance of garments and apparels are common. As a consequence of wearing apparel, the microfibers are directly released into the atmosphere. While wearing the garments, they are subjected to considerable stress and abrasion that can cause damage to the textile materials. Researchers have studied the release of microfibers into the air as the result of wearing the garments. They have reported that the emission of microfibers due to wearing varies concerning various textile parameters [12]. Another study has been made to analyze the microfibers in the atmosphere by sampling outdoors at different time frames. They have reported that the quantity of microfibers in the atmosphere varies with various factors including consumption habits, socioeconomic status, traffic, and urbanization. They have also noticed a significant variation in the fibers including cotton, wool, acrylic, polyester, and polyamides at different time frames. With that, they have concluded that the variation in the clothing requirements in different seasons can attribute to the varied fibers in