The Secret Texts of Hellenic Polytheism: A Practical Guide to the Restored Pagan Religion of George Gemistos Plethon

About the Author

John Opsopaus, PhD, (Tennessee) has practiced magic and divination since the 1960s and his fiction and nonfiction have been published in various magical and Neopagan magazines (over thirty publications). He designed the Pythagorean Tarot and wrote the comprehensive Guide to the Pythagorean Tarot (Llewellyn, 2001) and The Oracles of Apollo (Llewellyn, 2017). He frequently presents workshops on Hellenic magic and Neopaganism, Pythagorean theurgy and spiritual practices, divination, and related topics. Opsopaus was a Third Circle member of the Church of All Worlds, past coordinator of the Scholars Guild for CAW, and past Arkhon of the Hellenic Kin of ADF (A Druid Fellowship). He is also a university professor with more than twenty-five years of experience reading ancient Greek and Latin.

Llewellyn Publications

Woodbury, Minnesota

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The Secret Texts of Hellenic Polytheism: A Practical Guide to the Restored Pagan Religion of George Gemistos Plethon © 2022 by John Opsopaus, PhD.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Opsopaus, John, author.

Title: The secret texts of Hellenic polytheism : a practical guide to the

restored pagan religion of George Gemistos Plethon / John Opsopaus.

Description: First edition. | Woodbury, Minnesota : Llewellyn Publications,

2022. | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary:

"Translations and commentary on Plethon’s complete system of Neopagan

theology and religious practice focused on the Hellenic pantheon and

deeply rooted in ancient Greek paganism. Includes rituals, prayers,

invocations, and hymns for holiday and daily use along with Plethon’s

complete sacred calendar"— Provided by publisher.

Identifiers: LCCN 2022001913 (print) | LCCN 2022001914 (ebook) | ISBN

9780738770932 (paperback) | ISBN 9780738771069 (ebook)

Subjects: LCSH: Gemistus Plethon, George, active 15th century. |

Paganism—Byzantine Empire—Early works to 1800. | Philosophy—Byzantine

Empire—Early works to 1800.

Classification: LCC B785.P564 O67 2022 (print) | LCC B785.P564 (ebook) |

DDC 186/.4—dc23/eng/20220216

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022001913

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Contents

Acknowledgments

Introduction

Chapter I: The Ancient Wisdom

Chapter II: Plethon and His Book of Laws

Chapter III:The Gods

Chapter IV: The Sacred Calendar

Chapter V: Rites and Rituals

Chapter VI: Invocations

Chapter VII: Abbreviated Invocations

Chapter VIII: Hymns

Chapter IX: How to Be Excellent

Chapter X: Reconstructed Doctrines

Chapter XI: Theurgy

Conclusions

Appendix A

Appendix B

Table of Contents

Book I

Book II

Book III

Appendix C

Further Reading

Bibliography

Acknowledgments

A published book is a team effort, and it is my pleasure to thank the team of Llewellyn professionals who have manifested this book. First, I am delighted to thank Elysia Gallo, Senior Acquisitions Editor, who supported this project and made many valuable suggestions on an early draft. I am also grateful to the production editor, Lauryn Heineman, for her many suggestions and meticulous editing, which have improved this book in numerous ways. Thanks are due also to Christine Ha for interior design and to Kevin Brown for the attractive cover. I’m also indebted to Aundrea Foster, marketing copywriter, and to Kat Neff, publicist extraordinaire, for telling the world about this book. I thank them and the rest of the Llewellyn team who have helped me bring you the words and ideas of George Gemistos Plethon.

Introduction

The Christian church had been divided against itself for four hundred years when in 1439 theologians from the two sides gathered in Italy to see if they could heal the doctrinal schism. Among them was a layperson, a philosopher, who was not so much interested in the Christian schism as in defending the superiority of Platonism, favored in the East, over Aristotelianism, favored in the West. And he succeeded, revitalizing interest in Platonism in Western Europe. Among his listeners was Cosimo de’ Medici, who was so inspired that he vowed to create a Platonic Academy and did so in Florence twenty years later. It became the fountainhead for an infusion into European philosophy, art, literature, and spirituality of Platonic ideas and, more generally, of the philosophy, values, and literature of the Pagan classical world.

This philosopher was George Gemistos—later called Plethon—and he came from Mistra, near the site of ancient Sparta. What was not known then, and was only suspected until after his death, was that he was a practicing Neopagan and had developed a Neopagan religion based on ancient Platonism. This was confirmed when his Book of Laws was discovered after his death, and his enemies used it to condemn his Paganism.

Plethon’s book was a complete theology but also provided rituals and practices, even a sacred calendar. It also taught ethics and outlined a system of laws, for, like ancient philosophers, he was a lawgiver and social organizer. (Indeed, his work has similarities to Plato’s Republic and Laws.)

Plethon’s book came into the hands of his longtime enemy, a churchman named Scholarios, who by then was Patriarch of the Eastern Orthodox Church. It confirmed his long-standing suspicion of Plethon’s heretical beliefs. Therefore, he burned the manuscript, an act of intellectual and spiritual vandalism that took four hours, as he himself reported. He preserved only enough of the book, he bragged, to prove Plethon’s crime.

The only silver lining to this tragedy is that the parts Scholarios preserved are the ones that are most useful for those of us who want to practice Plethon’s worship of the Greek gods, for they are the parts that best proved his Neopaganism. Scholarios also preserved the table of contents, and so we know the titles of the chapters he destroyed. Surely it would be better if we had them, but they are less relevant for Neopagan practice in our time, and some of them can be reconstructed from Plethon’s other writings and those of other Platonists. After Scholarios’s act of wanton destruction, Plethon’s admirers and students gathered the remnants of his book (about two-fifths of the original) and copied it, which is why we still have it today. My translation of the surviving parts is in Appendix B.

Why, you might ask, should we care about this fragmented work, except as a historical relic and evidence of religious intolerance? Because it is a complete system of Neopagan theology and religious practice focused on the Hellenic pantheon, with roots deep in ancient Paganism but in many ways adapted to modern times (although written more than five hundred years ago). We may not agree with all Plethon’s conclusions, but I think we should consider them, since his is the most modern well-developed Pagan theology to come down to us.

Those of us who worship the gods of ancient Greece have had an advantage over many other Neopagan traditions due to the abundance of archaeological and literary evidence from the ancient Greek world and more than five hundred years of scholarship in the classics. Thus, we know a great deal about the religious and spiritual beliefs and practices of our Pagan ancestors, and we can use this as a basis for our Neopagan worship. On the other hand, although we know a little about household worship, which can inform our practice today, much of what we know concerns the civic cult of the gods, which was conducted at the temples and sanctuaries during major festivals. Unfortunately, we do not have the large temples, the multitudes of worshippers, or access to the sacred sites in order to celebrate the ancient rites, at least to that scale. Therefore, we have to adapt ancient practices for individual or small group practice.

When I began practicing Hellenic Neopaganism in the 1980s, there was little information. Most groups who had a Hellenic focus were doing Wicca with Greek god names; others had practices with roots in the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. I eagerly read Woodhouse’s George Gemistos Plethon: The Last of the Hellenes when it was published in 1986, but I was disappointed that he did not translate the invocations or hymns. Therefore, I decided to go back to my ancient Pagan predecessors—all the way back to the Homeric gods and the religious practices of ancient Greece. Thus, I hit the books and learned as much as I could of what is known about ancient Hellenic religious practice. I adapted what I learned to our world today (for religion evolves, like everything else) and worked with others to develop practices and rituals grounded in our Pagan heritage.

In 1995 I founded the Omphalos, a networking organization for Neopagans following Graeco-Roman traditions. We were a minority among Neopagans, and the Omphalos was a means for contacting others who worshipped the same gods and for organizing group activities. Initially, the Omphalos operated through postal mail, but in the late 1990s it moved onto the (then new) internet and established a web presence called The Stele. (It is still there as a sort of historical artifact!) Along with other Omphalos members, I developed rituals and theological explorations, which we put on the web to help others establish a Hellenic practice.

Over time I learned that the most sophisticated and well-developed Pagan theology was that formulated by the Neoplatonists, including Plotinus, Porphyry, Iamblichus, Damascius, and Proclus. These included some of the last teachers of Pagan theology in the Platonic Academy before the Christian emperor Justinian I ordered the Pagan schools to be closed in 529 CE. This is the theology on which Plethon founded his Neopagan Hellenistic religion, essentially picking up where those brilliant philosophers left off.

Not only did Plethon present a Neopagan theology, but he gave detailed instructions for practicing it, which you will learn in this book (along with the theology). This includes a complete sacred calendar, with rituals and prayers for the holy days, as well as invocations, prayers, hymns, and rituals to be performed on a daily basis.

So far as I know, there is no complete English translation of Plethon’s Book of Laws (although at least one is in progress). Therefore, I have prepared my own working translation, included as Appendix B, which I have checked against the partial English translations, summaries, and paraphrases in Woodhouse’s George Gemistos Plethon, Hladký’s Philosophy of Gemistos Plethon, and Anastos’s Plethon’s Calendar and Liturgy, and against the French translation by Pellissier in Alexandre’s Pléthon: Traité des Lois. Translations from Plethon in this book are my own, unless otherwise stated. Appendix A contains my translation of Plethon’s Summary of the Doctrines of Zoroaster and Plato, and Appendix C is his Commentary on the Magical Oracles, both of which are useful for understanding his philosophy.

This book will be useful to anyone who feels drawn to worship the Greek gods but might be having trouble establishing a practice that is both in the ancient Greek tradition and suited to modern Neopaganism. Even if you have an established Hellenistic practice, this book will teach you more about your gods from the Platonic perspective and may suggest ways your rituals and ceremonies can be improved. Plethon’s religious ceremonies are straightforward but effective in connecting us with our gods.

Although Plethon wrote his Book of Laws in the fifteenth century, he traced his ideas back through Greek religious thinkers to the most ancient sages of the Western world.¹ Indeed, he traced it back to Plato, but before Plato to Pythagoras, to the Seven Sages of ancient Greece, and even to Cheiron the centaur and Teiresias the blind seer, to King Minos and the Brahmans of India, and to the Persian Magi and their leader Zoroaster, who, by his reckoning, lived five thousand years before the Trojan War! Moreover, this ancient theology, as it came to be called, predates even Zoroaster, according to Plethon, for the gods gave it to sages in the early dawn of humankind.²

You will find that Plethon’s philosophy is quite modern, in spite of being written more than five hundred years ago. Therefore, you will have little trouble integrating it with the modern scientific understanding of the world. This is because contemporary science is essentially Platonic—even Pythagorean—and so its worldview is very similar to Plethon’s (although of course there have been many specific discoveries over the intervening centuries).

Indeed, if one were to sit down now to design a Neopagan religion devoted to the Greek gods and based in ancient Platonic philosophy, it would not be much different from what Plethon gave us over a half millennium ago. Plethon had an advantage over most of us, however, because he was deeply immersed in the Greek philosophical and cultural traditions.

During his lifetime, George Gemistos was known as the second Plato due to his deep understanding of Platonic philosophy. Late in his life (but perhaps earlier in private), he began calling himself Plethon ( , pronounced PLEE-thone); this was in effect his Neopagan name. It puts him in the lineage of great Platonic philosophers, which one of his admirers expressed: Plato—Plotinus—Plethon. Since this was his Neopagan name and we are concerned here with his Neopagan religion, I refer to him usually as Plethon.

Information about Spelling and Citations

Explaining a centuries-old Pagan religion for modern worshippers requires balancing readability and familiarity against historical and linguistic accuracy. Here I explain my strategy, but feel free to skip it, since it is not essential to understanding what follows.

For the most part I have used the familiar anglicized names of the Greek gods and philosophers; thus I write Apollo, Plato, and Aristotle rather than Apollôn, Platôn, and Aristotelês. However, I spell Plethon’s name with the n retained, since that is the common scholarly convention, although the spelling Pletho is also used. However, I have preferred the Greek ending -os over the Latinized -us (thus, Dionysos, Hephaistos, and Kronos), but this shouldn’t cause any confusion. I make some ad hoc exceptions for the sake of familiarity, thus Plotinus and Proclus in preference to Plotinos and Proklos.

In particular, I have used the spelling Pluto for Plethon’s (Ploutôn) because this god is connected with Persephone and the souls of mortals, like Hades, equivalent to Roman Pluto, but less like Ploutôn, the ancient Greek god of wealth ( , ploutos). Suit yourself.

Plethon’s religion can be practiced in English or any other language, and no knowledge of Greek is necessary. Nevertheless, many Neopagans prefer to recite certain phrases in the old language; moreover, it is often informative to know the Greek word that I have translated into English. Therefore, when I mention a Greek word I show it both in the Greek alphabet and also in Roman transcription.³

Many of us who practice Hellenismos (Hellenic Paganism) prefer to use the age-old pronunciation of our Pagan predecessors, but Plethon was a Byzantine Greek and pronounced the language in the modern way. I happen to use the reconstructed ancient pronunciation in my own practice, because that has been my habit for decades, but there is certainly nothing wrong with pronouncing Greek in the modern way, as Plethon would have done. Or do everything in English. Plethon’s invocations and hymns are not magic spells; the exact words and sounds are not critical.

As is conventional when writing about Platonic philosophy, I will capitalize the names of Platonic Forms or Ideas: for example, Being, Identity, Fire. In many cases they are in fact names of deities. I capitalize the words Form and Idea when they are technical terms for the transcendental Platonic Forms or Ideas, as opposed to ordinary uses of the words form and idea. I use both Form and Idea to translate the Greek (eidos), sometimes choosing one or the other to reinforce an association, sometimes using them both together, as in the preceding sentences.

A few words about citations. References to Plethon’s Book of Laws are to the book, chapter, and paragraph number in my translation of the surviving parts in Appendix B. For example, "Laws III.34.3" means Book III, chapter 34, paragraph 3. References to my translation of his Summary of the Doctrines of Zoroaster and Plato in Appendix A are by paragraph number (e.g., Summary 3). Plethon’s Commentary on the Magical Oracles of the Magi of Zoroaster, translated in Appendix C, is cited by Plethon’s oracle number (e.g. "Magical Oracles 3 for the oracle itself, Commentary 3" for his commentary on it). My translations from Plethon’s On Virtue are from Tambrun-Krasker’s edition of the Greek text and cite her section and page number (e.g., "Virtues A.1.1 for section A.1, page 1). Classical works are cited in the standard way. For example, Plato’s dialogues are cited by Stephanus page numbers (e.g., Plato, Republic 2.377e–378d"), which have been used for five hundred years and allow the passage to be found in the Greek text or in any translation of the dialogue (so long has the publisher has included them!). Modern works, which can be found in the bibliography, are cited by author or editor, shortened title, and page.

[contents]

1. George Gemistos Plethon, Book of Laws, translated by John Opsopaus, I.2.2–5. See Appendix B of this book.

2. Plethon, Laws III.43.7.

3. For the most part I have used the transliteration system of the American Library Association and the Library of Congress. In brief: ῾ = h, = ê, = u or y, = ph, = ch, = ps, and = ô; other letters are transcribed by their cognate Roman letters (e.g., = b, = g).

I

The Ancient Wisdom

In his Book of Laws Plethon writes that his philosophy and theology have been handed down through a long lineage of the wise and that he is not inventing anything new, for the gods have given this knowledge to all people in common. It is what will be called in the Renaissance the ancient theology (Lat., prisca theologia) and the perennial philosophy (Lat., philosophia perennis). However, it is not merely traditional or inspired (revealed), according to Plethon, but has been preserved because it is based on notions common to humankind and supported by reason.⁴

Therefore, Plethon outlines a lineage comprising six lawgivers, seven legendary sages, seven sages of ancient Greece, and eight Platonic philosophers.⁵ This is the Golden Chain of Pagan sages, philosophers, and spiritual teachers whom Plethon credits with his philosophy and religion. This lineage is mostly legendary up to the Seven Sages of ancient Greece, but many ancient Platonists accepted some version of the Golden Chain as their philosophical heritage. I will say a little about each link in Plethon’s chain, for I think it is interesting and worthwhile to know the lineage of your spiritual path, but if you are anxious to get to the core of the teachings, feel free to skim the following or to skip it entirely; once you are practicing the religion, you will probably want to come back and learn about its roots. The legends are curious and fun, but don’t take them too seriously!

The Six Lawgivers

You may be surprised to see that the Golden Chain begins with six lawgivers (Grk., , nomothetai), but in the ancient world it was common for religious leaders and philosophers to found and to reform social institutions based on divine law, which is also Plethon’s intention with his Book of Laws.⁶ What better authority on how to live and organize society than those who are inspired by the gods?

The first of the six lawgivers, and the most ancient sage in Plethon’s lineage whose name is known, is Zoroaster. Plethon observes, however, that because this ancient theology is timeless, it predates even Zoroaster, arising in the depths of the past, and has been known in other times and places.⁷

Zoroaster was the ancient religious reformer of the Medes and Persians, who, according to Plethon, lived five thousand years before either the Trojan War or the Return of the Heracleidae (descendants of Heracles).⁸ According to his chronology, the Return was in 1103 BCE, and the end of the Trojan War was traditionally dated to 1184 BCE, which puts Zoroaster in the seventh millennium BCE.⁹ Based on linguistic and other evidence, many modern scholars date him to the second millennium BCE, but others as late as the seventh or sixth centuries BCE.¹⁰ Even in the ancient world there were widely divergent opinions on when he lived. Indeed, long ago Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) thought there might be two Zoroasters!¹¹ Plethon, however, thought he was the most ancient sage whose name is known.¹²

Zoroaster ( , Zôroastrês) is the Greek name for the ancient Iranian religious reformer Zarathustra, who founded the Zoroastrian religion, which is still practiced in India, Iran, and other places. He is also an important figure in several other religions, including Manichaeism and the Bahá’î faith. He developed an ethical system called Mazdayana, which is Avestan (early Iranian) for "love of wisdom (mazda)." According to Pliny, the Greeks studied Zoroastrian philosophy, and when Pythagoras later coined the word philosophia ( ) from philo-, love, and sophia, wisdom, he was imitating the Zoroastrian term.¹³ Plethon saw Zoroaster as the founder of the line of Magi ( , Magoi), the Persian priest-philosophers to whom the Platonists traced their philosophy.¹⁴

The second lawgiver listed by Plethon is Eumolpos, whom he credits with founding the Eleusinian Mysteries, and who thereby convinced people of the immortality of the soul.¹⁵ His name means good singer, and he is a legendary bard and priest of Demeter and Dionysos.¹⁶ The families of priests who oversaw and managed the Mysteries, the Eumolpides and Kêrykes, were descended from Eumolpos and his youngest son Kêryx (whose name means herald).

The third lawgiver is Minos, the first king of Crete and the son of Zeus and Europa.¹⁷ (You might recall the myth that tells how Zeus, in the form of a beautiful white bull, spirited Europa away to Crete.) He is supposed to have lived three generations before the Trojan War (traditionally 1194–1184 BCE). Every ninth year he retired to a cave, where he communed with his father Zeus, receiving divine inspiration in legislation.¹⁸ He was so respected for his governance by the Olympian gods that after his death he was made one of the three underworld judges of the dead (with his brother Rhadamanthys and half-brother Aeacus).¹⁹ He was known as a wise and generous ruler, and the constitution he wrote for Crete was the basis of Lycurgus’s constitution for Sparta.

In fact Lycurgus is the fourth lawgiver listed by Plethon.²⁰ His dates are also uncertain, but he might have lived around 820 BCE. He traveled to Crete, where he studied the laws of King Minos. Returning to Greece, he consulted the Delphic Oracle, and on the basis of what he had learned and the Oracle, he reformed the government of Sparta. To ensure his reforms would endure, he told the Spartans he was going to Delphi to offer thanks to Apollo, and he made them swear not to change anything until he returned. But he never returned from Delphi, and so the Spartans never abandoned his laws.

The fifth lawgiver was Iphitos, King of Elis, who restored the Olympic Games after the Dorian invasion, namely the return of the Heracleidae (the descendants of Heracles).²¹ He did this on the advice of the Delphic Oracle. He had asked how the Greeks could avoid civil war and pestilence, and the Oracle ordered that he celebrate the Olympic Games in honor of Zeus and that there be a truce during the time of the games. This Olympic Truce was established by Iphitos, Lycurgus, and Cleosthenes of Pisa in the ninth century BCE.

Numa Pompilius (753–673 BCE), the second king of Rome, is the sixth lawgiver in Plethon’s list.²² He is supposed to have studied with Pythagoras, the first to claim the title philosopher, but their dates make this unlikely; more realistically, he might have studied with the Pythagoreans in Italy.

Numa was credited with various magical acts to protect Rome, to obtain prophecies, and for other purposes.²³ He is supposed to have had nightly discussions with the gods, especially a nymph named Egeria and Jupiter Elicius, an aspect of the god associated with religious knowledge. From these conversations, he learned how to legislate for the Romans, and he established the fundamental religious rites and institutions of Rome. In this way he encouraged the Romans to be less warlike and to live in peace. Numa also reformed the calendar, fixing the beginning of the year by the winter solstice, as did Plethon (see chapter 4).²⁴

Numa recorded his divine conversations in two bundles of sacred books: seven in Latin on religious law and seven in Greek on ancient philosophy.²⁵ He ordered them to be buried with him when he died, for he thought it better that the Romans follow the living religious traditions rather than be bound by static books. When his tomb was accidentally opened some five centuries later (181 BCE), the books were found, but the Roman Senate ordered them to be burned, for they considered them too dangerous to read or even to possess. Some scholars think they contained Pythagorean doctrines, which the Senate considered subversive.²⁶

The Seven Legendary Sages

Next Plethon lists seven legendary sages, either groups or individuals, who contributed to the ancient theology.²⁷ Among the barbarians (non-Greek speakers), Plethon mentions the ancient Brahmans of India, whom he writes are almost as early as Zoroaster.²⁸ Their lawgiver was Dionysos or Bacchus, who came to the Indians from some other land. He writes that this is the same soul who, many centuries later, was reborn as the Dionysos of the Greeks, the son of Semele.²⁹ The Brahmans, of course, were the priestly caste of ancient India, and several Greek sages were said to have studied with them, including Pythagoras, Lycurgus, and Apollonius of Tyana. Plethon also mentions incidentally the ancient sages of the Western Iberians, by which he might mean the Celts of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal), but he writes that none of their laws nor the names of their lawgivers have come down to us.³⁰

Perhaps surprisingly, Plethon does not include the Egyptians among the non-Greek contributors to the ancient theology. He does mention their ancient lawgiver Mênês (the Greek form of Egyptian Min), the first king of Egypt and founder of the first dynasty. He established a religion … with useless and bad rites, according to Plethon, although the foundation of the religion was sound.³¹ Unfortunately he also set down laws that prevented later reformers from eliminating these defects, and so he is not in the Golden Chain.

Second among the ancient barbarian sages, Plethon names the Magi ( , Magoi) of Media (a region of ancient Iran).³² According to Herodotus, the Medes take their name from the witch Medea, who fled to that country after she escaped King Aegeus of Athens.³³ (Modern Kurds consider themselves descendants of the Medes, but scholars differ on the matter.)

The ancient Greeks and Romans believed that the Magi were followers of Zoroaster and that they were the priestly caste serving the Medes and Persians. Plethon believed that the Chaldean Oracles, which were treated almost like sacred scripture among Neoplatonists, were handed down from Zoroaster and the Magi, and so he called them the Magical Oracles (Grk., , Magika Logia; Lat., Oracula Magica), and that is what I will call them in this book.³⁴ (See Appendix C for Plethon’s Commentary on the Magical Oracles.)

Next Plethon turns to colleges of ancient sages among the Greeks, the first of whom are the Kouretes of Crete, whom he credits with defeating the false religious doctrines of the Giants ( , Gigantes), whom he calls godless beings who fought against the gods.³⁵ He writes that these impious men claimed that everything in the universe is mortal except for one creator god; in other words, they taught monotheism.³⁶ The Giants were described as earth-born, and in fact Plato writes that materialist philosophers are like the Giants who tried to toss the gods out of heaven and drag them down to earth.³⁷ With the force of irrefutable logic, Plethon writes, the Kouretes proved the existence of the supercelestial and celestial gods (described in chapter 3) and the eternity of the works of Zeus, of his children the gods, and of the whole cosmos.³⁸ Thus, they defeated the false theology of the monotheist Giants.

Under this interpretation, the myths about the attack of the Giants on the gods (the Gigantomachy) are metaphors for the Giants’ false teachings about the gods. The ancient Greeks generally understood the defeat of the Giants to represent the triumph of Olympian religion—with its principles of cosmic harmony and rational intelligibility—over an earlier religion focused on violence and disorder. The materialist Roman philosopher Lucretius (c. 99– c. 44 BCE) thought it represented the victory of reason over superstition.³⁹ According to ancient sources, the Kouretes were religious, scientific, and magical specialists, and also lawgivers in ancient Crete, which is why Minos called them down from their mountain to purify his palace after the birth of the monstrous Minotaur.⁴⁰ Numa Pompilius was supposed to have learned magic from the Kouretes or a similar fraternity.

Next among the ancient sages of Greece come the priests of Zeus at Dodona, who interpreted the oracles of the god.⁴¹ Dodona was the oldest Greek oracle—predating even Delphi—founded in the second millennium BCE, according to Herodotus.⁴² The sanctuary was shared by Dione, who also delivered oracles there. An oak sacred to Zeus grew in the sanctuary of the temple, and the priests and the priestesses (called , peleiades, doves) listened to the oracular rustling of the wind in its leaves. It stood there until cut down by the Christian emperor Theodosius, who forbade all Pagan worship in 391–92 CE.

Next among Plethon’s ancient sages is Polyidus, whose name means seeing many things. ⁴³ He was known for his prophetic abilities, his skill in divination, and his knowledge of life and death. Minos consulted him for his wisdom. For example, after Minos’s son Glaucus disappeared, the king visited the Kouretes, who told him to consult the person who could solve a certain riddle.⁴⁴ Polyidus succeeded and therefore Minos ordered him to find Glaucus, and Polyidus discovered that he had fallen into a cask of honey in a wine cellar and drowned. Minos ordered Polyidus to bring the child back to life and he succeeded through his observation and herbal magic.

The sixth of the ancient sages is Teiresias, whom Plethon credits with much wisdom, including the knowledge of the soul’s ascent to heaven and its recurring return to earth: the doctrine of reincarnation.⁴⁵ In mythology, Teiresias is a blind seer who practiced several forms of divination, such as interpreting the songs and flight of birds, seeing visions in the smoke and flames of altar fires, and reading the entrails of sacrificed animals. He lived as a woman for seven years (the result of a magical transformation). As a consequence, he was able to testify that women enjoy sex more than men, and according to some stories, Hera struck him blind for revealing this secret. In recompense, Zeus gave him the gift of prophecy, thus replacing his outer vision with inner vision.

The last of these ancient sages was Cheiron the centaur, tutor to many heroes of his time, to whom we owe much knowledge and important discoveries, according to Plethon.⁴⁶ In the Iliad he is called the wisest and most just of the centaurs. ⁴⁷ He was a foster son of Apollo, who taught him music, healing, prophecy, and many other arts, including astrology and other forms of divination. These he passed on to his protégés, who included Achilles, Aeneas, Jason, Theseus, and many others. Among them was Medus, the son of Medea by Jason, who fled with her to the land later known as Media, homeland of the Magi. The Precepts of Cheiron is an ancient poem, possibly by Hesiod, that is supposed to contain Cheiron’s teachings to Achilles; only a few fragments of it survive. One of the precepts is First, whenever you come to your house, offer good sacrifices to the eternal gods. ⁴⁸

The Seven Sages of Ancient Greece

Next in Plethon’s Golden Chain are the Seven Sages of ancient Greece, whose names and dates are summarized in this table:⁴⁹

The story is that when Helen was being brought back to Greece from Troy, she threw her golden tripod overboard, because she thought (correctly) that people would fight over it.⁵⁰ Many centuries later it was found, and indeed disagreements broke out over who should keep it. Therefore they sent it to the wisest person they knew, the philosopher Thales of Miletus, to decide. He didn’t consider himself to be the wisest, so he sent it to Bias of Priene, who felt the same way, and sent it on again. And so it continued until it passed through the hands of seven sages when it came back to Thales. Therefore these seven sages decided together that the tripod should be offered to Apollo at Delphi, for he is the source of all wisdom. They also erected three tablets containing 147 wise sayings, known as the Precepts of the Seven Sages or the Delphic Maxims. (You can read more about the Precepts of the Seven Sages and learn how to cast the Oracle of the Seven Sages in my book The Oracles of Apollo.)

The Eight Philosophers

The final part of Plethon’s Golden Chain comprises eight important philosophers of the Pythagorean-Platonic tradition, who established the foundations of Plethon’s religion.⁵¹ The first of these is Pythagoras himself, who lived from approximately 570 to 495 BCE.⁵² He was born to an amulet maker and his wife on Samos, a large island off the coast of Asia Minor, and lived there until he was about forty. Many people remember Pythagoras only for the Pythagorean theorem (about the sides of a right triangle), which they learned in school, but he was much more influential as the founder of a spiritual tradition that pervades science as well as Western religion and esotericism.

Pythagoras is supposed to have learned the wisdom of many lands around the Mediterranean, including the Egyptians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Persians (i.e., the Magi), and, according to some, the Hindu sages.⁵³ Some authors list Thales of Miletus and Bias of Priene (two of the Seven Sages) among his teachers. Eventually (c. 530 BCE), Pythagoras came to Croton in Italy, where he founded an initiatory secret society in which his wisdom was taught and preserved.

Pythagoras was not only a philosopher and mage; he was also a lawgiver. He provided moral instruction to the Greek colonists in Italy and helped them organize their states more effectively. In later years suspicion and political opposition to the Pythagoreans grew, and they were ultimately driven out (c. 510 BCE). It is unclear whether Pythagoras was killed in this uprising or escaped.

Second among the philosophers after Pythagoras is Plato (c. 428–348/347 BCE).⁵⁴ He is supposed to have learned much of his wisdom from the Pythagoreans but also from Socrates (c. 470–399 BCE). He is the first sage in the Golden Chain whose writings have survived to our time reasonably intact and the first about whom we have reasonably factual biographical information.

He lived most of his life in Athens. His name Platôn ( ) is probably a nickname referring to his broad shoulders (he was a wrestler) or perhaps to the breadth of his learning ( , platos, means breadth); his legal name was Aristocles.